American Indians

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Part 3 : American Indians: From Conquest to Tribal Survival in Postindustrial Society

Chapter 6

Tribal Survival?

The contact period for American Indians lasted nearly 300 years, ending with the Indian Wars of the late 1800s.

At the dawn of the 20th century, American Indians were a conquered and colonized minority group living on paternalistic government controlled reservations on the fringes of development and change, marginalized, relatively powerless, and isolated.

At the dawn of the 21st century, American Indians remain among the most disadvantaged, poorest, and most isolated of minority groups, however, the group is not without resources and strategies for improving their situation.

Size of the Group

There were 5 million people who claimed at least some American Indian or Alaska Native ancestry but only about 2.5 million if we confine the group to people who select one race only.

By either count, the group is a tiny minority (about 1%) of the total population of the United States.

American Indian and Alaska Native Population 1900-2010

American Indian Cultures

The dynamics of American Indian and Anglo-American relationships have been shaped by the vast differences in culture, values, and norms between the two groups.

There were (and are) hundreds of different tribes each with its own language and heritage.

However, some patterns and cultural characteristics are widely shared across the tribes, and we will concentrate on these similarities.

American Indian Cultures

The goal of many American Indian tribes was to live in harmony with the natural world, not “improve” it or use it for their own selfish purposes.

The concept of private property, or the ownership of things, was not prominent in American Indian cultures.

American Indian cultures and societies also tended to be more oriented toward groups than toward individuals.

Many American Indian tribes were organized around egalitarian values that stressed the dignity and worth of every man, woman, and child.

These differences in values, compounded by the power differentials that emerged, often placed American Indians at a disadvantage when dealing with the dominant group.

Relations with the Federal Government after the 1890s

Reservations were paternalistically controlled and corrupted by the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) of the U.S. Department of the Interior.

American Indians on the reservations were subjected to coercive acculturation or forced Americanization.
Dawes Allotment Act of 1887
Boarding Schools

American Indians were virtually powerless to change the reservation system or avoid the campaign of acculturation, nonetheless, they resented and resisted and many languages and cultural elements survived the early reservation period.

Relations with the Federal Government after the 1890s

By the 1930s, the failure of the reservation system and the policy of forced assimilation had become obvious to all who cared to observe.

The Indian Reorganization Act (IRA) of 1934 broke sharply with the federal policies of the past:
rescinded the Dawes Act (1887)
mechanisms of coercive Americanization were dismantled
financial aid were made available for the economic development of the reservations
allowed for an increase in American Indian self-governance.

Relations with the Federal Government after the 1890s

Although sympathetic to American Indians, many of its intentions were never realized, and the empowerment of the tribes was not unqualified.
Self-governance generally took place on the dominant group’s terms.

The IRA had variable effects on American Indian women.

Not all tribes were capable of taking advantage of the opportunities provided by the legislation, and some ended up being further victimized.

Relations with the Federal Government after the 1890s

In 1953, assimilationist forces won a victory when Congress passed a resolution, called termination, that called for an end to the reservation system.

Under this policy, all special relationships—including treaty obligations—between the federal government and the tribes would end.

Tribes would no longer exist as legally recognized entities, and tribal lands and other resources would be placed in private hands (Josephy, 1968, pp. 353–355).

Relations with the Federal Government after the 1890s

The termination process was administered hastily, and fraud, misuse of funds, and other injustices were common.

At about the same time that the termination policy came into being, employment and relocation assistance programs were established to encourage American Indians to move to urban areas.

Because of their relatively low average levels of educational attainment and their racial and cultural differences, American Indians in the city tended to encounter the same problems experienced by African Americans and other minority groups of color.

Instructors Note:

The Menominee of Wisconsin and the Klamath on the West Coast were the two largest tribes to be terminated.

Both suffered devastating economic losses and precipitous declines in quality of life.

Neither tribe had the business nor tax base needed to finance the services (e.g., health care and schooling) formerly provided by the federal government, and both were forced to sell land, timber, and other scarce resources to maintain minimal standards of living.

Many poor Native American families were forced to turn to local and state agencies, which placed severe strain on welfare budgets.

The experience of the Menominee was so disastrous that at the concerted request of the tribe, reservation status was restored in 1973 (Deloria, 1969, pp. 60–82; McNickle, 1973, pp. 103–110; Raymer, 1974).

The Klamath reservation was restored in 1986 (Snipp, 1996, p. 394).

Relations with the Federal Government after the 1890s

American Indian women also migrated to the city in considerable numbers, and often carried the burden of supporting the family as urban discrimination, unemployment, and poverty made it difficult for the men to fulfill the role of breadwinner.

American Indian women in the city continue to practice their traditional cultures and maintain the tribal identity of their children despite difficulties inherent in combining child rearing and a job outside the home (Joe & Miller, 1994, p. 186).

Relations with the Federal Government after the 1890s

Although many individual Indians prosper in the urban environment, moving to the city often trades rural poverty for the urban variety with little net improvement in life chances.

On the reservation, there may be opportunities for political participation and leadership roles that are not available in the cities.

Reservations also offer kinfolk, friends, religious services, and tribal celebrations (Snipp, 1989, p. 84).

Even so, it was much easier to establish networks of friendship and affiliation across tribal lines in the cities, and virtually all American Indian organizational vehicles of protest have had urban roots.

Urbanization of American Indians

Relations with the Federal Government after the 1890s

The termination policy was such an obvious disaster that the pressure to push tribes to termination faded in the late 1950s.

Since the 1960s, federal Indian policy has generally returned to the tradition set by the IRA.

The Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act was passed in 1975, and increased aid to reservation schools and American Indian students and increased tribal control over the administration of the reservations, from police forces to the schools and road maintenance.

Relations with the Federal Government after the 1890s

The Self-Determination Act (1975) primarily benefited the larger tribes with well-established administrative and governing structures.

Nonetheless, this new phase of federal policy has allowed American Indian tribes to plot their own courses free of paternalistic regulation, and just as important, it gave them the tools and resources to address their problems and improve their situations.

Protest and Resistance

The modern protest movement has focused on several complementary goals:
protecting American Indian resources and treaty rights,

striking a balance between assimilation and pluralism,

and finding a relationship with the dominant group that would permit a broader array of life chances without sacrificing tribal identity and heritage.

Protest and Resistance

The modern phase of the protest movement began during World War II as many American Indians served in the military or moved to the city to take jobs in aid of the war effort.

Also, political activism on the reservation stimulated by the IRA, continued through the war years and recognized that many problems were shared across tribal lines.

The Pan-Tribal National Congress of American Indians (NCAI) was established in 1944 and consisted of American Indians educated and experienced in the white world, yet stressed the importance of preserving the old ways and tribal institutions as well as protecting Indian welfare.

Instructors Note:

An early victory for the NCAI and its allies came in 1946 when an Indian Claims Commission was created by the federal government.

This body was authorized to hear claims brought by the tribes with regard to treaty violations.

The commission has settled hundreds of claims resulting in awards of millions of dollars to the tribes and continues its work today (Weeks, 1988, pp. 261–262).

Protest and Resistance

Termination and urbanization in the 1950s and 1960s increased protest.

By the 1960s and 1970s, a Red Power movement developed that stressed self-determination and pride in race and cultural heritage.
Washington “fish-in” 1965
American Indian Movement 1968
Alcatraz Island Occupation 1969
Trail of Broken Treaties 1972
Wounded Knee Occupation 1973

Since the early 1970s, lawsuits and court cases have predominated over dramatic direct confrontations.

Protest and Resistance

As the pan-tribal protest movement forged ties between members of diverse tribes, the successes of the movement and changing federal policy and public opinion encouraged a rebirth of commitment to tribalism and “Indian-ness.”

American Indians were simultaneously stimulated to assimilate (by stressing their common characteristics and creating organizational forms that united the tribes) and to retain a pluralistic relationship with the larger society (by working for self-determination and enhanced tribal power and authority).

Thus, part of the significance of the Red Power movement was that it encouraged both pan-tribal unity and a continuation of tribal diversity (Olson & Wilson, 1984, p. 206).

Ironically, land allotted to American Indian tribes sometimes turned out to be rich in resources that became valuable in the 20th century.
coal, oil, uranium, and natural gas reserves
title to water rights, fishing rights,
woodlands that could sustain a lumbering industry,
and wilderness areas that could be developed for camping, hunting, and other forms of recreation.

The challenge faced by the Council of Energy Resource Tribes (CERT) is to retain control of these resources and to develop them for the benefit of the tribes.

Many efforts to develop the reservations have focused on creating jobs by attracting industry through such incentives as low taxes, low rents, and a low-wage pool of labor

The jobs that have materialized are typically low wage and have few benefits; usually, non-Indians fill the more lucrative managerial positions.

These new jobs may transform “the welfare poor into the working poor” (Snipp, 1996, p. 398), but their potential for raising economic vitality is low.

For many tribes, the treaties signed with the federal government in the 19th century offer another potential resource as they were often violated by white elements and agencies of the dominant group.

Many tribes are pursuing this trail of broken treaties and seeking compensation for the wrongs of the past.

Virtually every tribe has similar grievances, and if pursued successfully, the long-dead treaty relationship between the Indian nations and the government could be a significant fount of economic and political resources.

Another potential resource for American Indians is the gambling industry, which was made possible by 1988 federal legislation.

Various tribes have sought other ways to capitalize on their freedom from state regulation and taxes—selling cigarettes tax-free and exploring the possibility of housing nuclear waste and other refuse of industrialization.

Without denying the success stories, the lives of most American Indians continue to be limited by poverty and powerlessness, prejudice, and discrimination.

Median Household Income

Prejudice and Discrimination

Anti-Indian prejudice has been a part of American society from the beginning.

One stereotype, especially strong during periods of conflict, depicts Indians as bloodthirsty, ferocious, and inhumanly cruel savages capable of any atrocity.

The other image of American Indians is that of “the noble redman” who lives in complete harmony with nature and symbolizes goodwill and pristine simplicity (Bordewich, 1996, p. 34).

Prejudice and Discrimination

A variety of studies have documented continued stereotyping of Native Indians in the popular press, textbooks, the media, cartoons, and various other places (for example, see Bird, 1999; Rouse & Hanson, 1991).

The persistence of stereotypes is illustrated by continuing controversies surrounding nicknames for athletic teams and the use of American Indian mascots, tomahawk “chops,” and other practices offensive to many American Indians.

Prejudice and Discrimination

The very limited evidence available from social distance scales suggests that overt anti-Indian prejudice has declined.

The situation of American Indian women is also under-researched, but like their counterparts in other minority groups and the dominant group, they “are systematically paid less than their male counterparts in similar circumstances” (Snipp, 1992; p. 363).

Research is unclear about the severity or extent of discrimination against American Indians, but institutional discrimination is a major barrier for American Indians.

Acculturation

Many tribes have preserved at least a portion of their traditional cultures. Approximately 20% of American Indians and Alaska Natives speak a language other than English at home, about the same percentage as the total population

Few, if any, people left who speak only a tribal language. One authority (A. Treuer, 2012, p. 80) reports that only 20 tribal languages in the United States and Canada are spoken by children in significant numbers. If this pattern persists, American Indian languages will disappear as the generations change.

Contemporary American Indian-White Relations

Religions and value systems, political and economic structures, cuisine, and recreational patterns have all survived; each pattern has been altered, however, by contact with the dominant group.
The American Dream
American Indian Church

Contemporary American Indian-White Relations

American Indians have been considerably more successful than African Americans in preserving their traditional cultures, due to the differences in their relationships to the dominant group.

However, a number of social forces are working against pluralism and the survival of tribal cultures.
Pan-tribalism may threaten the integrity of individual tribal cultures.
Opportunities for jobs, education, and higher incomes draw American Indians to more developed urban areas and will continue to do so as long as the reservations are underdeveloped.

Contemporary American Indian-White Relations

Recent increases in the American Indian population are partly due to higher birth rates, changing definitions of race in the larger society, and a much greater willingness of people to claim Indian ancestry (Thornton, 2001, p. 137).

School Integration and Educational Attainment

One positive development for the education of American Indians is the rapid increase in tribally controlled colleges, there are now 37.

These institutions are mostly 2-year community colleges located on or near reservations, and some have been constructed with funds generated in the gaming industry.

They are designed to be more sensitive to the educational and cultural needs of the group, and tribal college graduates who transfer to 4-year colleges are more likely to graduate than other American Indian students (Pego, 1998).

Political Power and Jobs

The ability of American Indians to exert power as a voting bloc very limited by group size, lower average levels of education, language differences, lack of economic resources, and factional differences within and between tribes and reservations.
As is the case for African Americans, American Indians who hold white-collar jobs are more likely than whites to work in lower-income occupations.

In 1992, Ben Nighthorse Campbell of Colorado became the first American Indian to be elected to the U.S. Senate. He served in Congress until 2005.

Jobs and Income

As in the case of African Americans, the overall unemployment rate for all American Indians is about double the rate for whites.

For Indians living on or near reservations, however, the rate is much higher
Unemployment is as high as 70% to 80% on some reservations.

Median Household Income 2012

Distribution of Household Income

Poverty

Median household income for American Indians and Alaska Natives is about 66% of that of non-Hispanic whites.
The poverty rate for American Indian families is almost triple for non-Hispanic whites
6 of the 10 largest tribes have an even higher percentage of families living in poverty.
Poverty rates for children show a similar pattern, with very high rates for the Lumbee, Navajo, and Sioux.

Primary Structural Assimilation

Rates of intermarriage for American Indians are quite high compared with other groups.

The higher rate of marriage outside the group for American Indians is partly the result of the small size of the group.

Marriages with non-Indians are much more common in metropolitan areas, away from the reservations.

They are also associated with higher levels of education, greater participation in the labor force, higher income levels, and lower rates of poverty (Snipp, 1989, pp. 160–164).

Comparing Minority Groups

American Indians with Australian Aborigines were both colonised by Great Britain
Early relations between the English and the Aborigines centered on competition for land. The invaders pushed the Aborigines aside or killed them if they resisted.
The contemporary situation of Australian Aborigines has many parallels to that of American Indians. The group is largely rural and continues to live on land that is less desirable.
Life expectancy for Aborigines is as much as 12 years lower than that of the general population. They have less access to health care, and Aboriginal communities are much more afflicted with alcoholism, suicide, and malnutrition than the general population.

Progress and Challenges

American Indians are growing rapidly in numbers and are increasingly diversified by residence, education, and degree of assimilation.

Some tribes have made dramatic progress over the past several decades, but enormous problems remain, both on and off the reservations.

The challenge for the future, as it was in the past, is to find a course between pluralism and assimilation and pan-tribalism and traditional lifestyles that will balance the issues of quality of life against the importance of retaining an Indian identity.