Discussion Paper

Gillianrich

Hart16e_ppt_ch092.ppt

Home >Psychology homework help >Discussion Paper

Chapter 9

Alcohol

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

9-*

Fermentation

Production of alcohol from sugars through the action of yeasts

Forms the basis of all alcoholic beverages

Raw materials

Fruit contains sugar and will ferment with the addition of yeast

Cereal grains require malt to convert starch into sugar

Yeast has a limited tolerance for alcohol

When the concentration reaches 12-15% the yeast dies and fermentation ceases

Fermentation Products

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

9-*

Distillation

Evaporation and condensing of alcohol vapors to produce beverages with higher alcohol content

Process perhaps discovered in Arabia around AD 800

Introduced into Europe in about the 10th century

Proof

A measure of a beverage’s alcohol content

Twice the percentage of alcohol by weight

90-proof whiskey is 45 percent alcohol

Distilled Products

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

9-*

Production process:

Made by adding barley malt to other cereal grains

Hops are added with yeast to give beer its distinctive flavor

Most beer sold in the United States is mass-produced by the two largest brewers

Imported beers and microbreweries are growing in popularity

Beer

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

9-*

Ale

Uses a top-fermentation yeast

Warm temperature and shorter fermentation

Lager (Most common type in U.S.)

Uses a type of yeast that settles to the bottom of the mash to ferment

Cool temperature and slower fermentation

Light beer

Fermented longer at a cooler temperature

More sugar is converted to alcohol

Then water is added

Types of Beer

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

9-*

Production:

Made from fermented grapes

Produced by both small and large wineries

Most wines contain about 12% alcohol

Factors in quality include

Selection and cultivation of grapevines

Good weather

Timing of harvest

Careful monitoring of fermentation and aging

Wine

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

9-*

Generics vs. varietals

Determined by type of grapes and flavor

Red vs. white

Sweet vs. dry

Sparkling wines

Fortified wines

Alcohol content near 20 percent

Varieties of Wine

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

Image source: © Andersen Ross/Getty Images (Image Ch09_08WineShopping)

9-*

Grain neutral spirits

Clear, tasteless, nearly pure alcohol (190 proof) produced by distillation

Sold as Everclear to consumers and used in research

Used to make various beverages

Gin: distillate filtered through juniper berries and then diluted with water

Vodka: mixture of grain neutral spirits and water

Contains relatively few congeners

Other alcohols and oils contained in alcoholic beverages

Distilled Spirits

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

9-*

Whiskey

Distillate of fermented grain

Distilled at a lower proof (160) and so contains more congeners and some flavor from the grain

Usually aged for at least two years

Types of whiskey include:

Rye whiskey

Corn whiskey (bourbon)

Blended whiskey

Distilled Spirits

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

Image source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division [LC-USZC4-6495]

9-*

Before American Revolution

Most people drank more alcohol compared with water

Drunkenness was viewed as misuse of positive product

After American Revolution

Alcohol itself viewed as the cause of serious problems

Alcohol was first psychoactive substance to become demonized in American culture

Early U.S. Views on Alcohol Use

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

9-*

Benjamin Rush

Wrote pamphlet

“An Inquiry into the Effects of Ardent Spirits on the Mind and Body”

Heavy drinking = health problems

Alcohol use damages morality

Alcohol addiction = a disease

Temperance societies

Initially promoted abstinence from distilled spirits only

Later promoted total abstinence

Became fashionable to “take the pledge”

Temperance Movement

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

9-*

States began passing prohibition laws in 1851

By 1917, 64% of Americans lived in “dry” territory

Laws reflected issues of class, ethnicity, religion, immigration

Federal prohibition

18th Amendment (1919): banned the sale of alcohol

People still drank illegally in speakeasies and private clubs and legally through purchase of patent medicines

Enforcement was challenging and expensive

Outcomes of Prohibition included:

Organized crime became more organized and profitable

Alcohol dependence and alcohol-related deaths declined

Prohibition

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

9-*

Repealed by the 21st Amendment (1933)

Reasons for the repeal:

Alcohol taxes had been a major source of revenue

Concerns that widespread disrespect for Prohibition laws encouraged a general sense of lawlessness

Outcomes of repeal included:

Alcohol per capita sales and consumption increased

Returned to pre-prohibition levels after World War II

Prohibition

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

9-*

Regulation after 1933

Some states remained dry initially

but most allowed beer sales

Mississippi was the last dry state

allowed alcohol purchase and consumption in 1966

In 1970s, drinking ages were lowered to 18–19 in 30 states

but raised again to 21 following safety concerns

Taxation

Federal and state taxes and licensing fees = about half the price of an alcoholic beverage

When taxes go up, consumption goes down

but not dramatically

Regulation and Taxation

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

9-*

Consumption patterns are influenced by cultural factors

Trends in U.S. alcohol consumption

Similar to other drugs, alcohol use peaked in 1981 and then declined

American consumption per person per year:

Beer (27 gallons or over 1 gallon of alcohol)

Spirits (0.75 gallon of alcohol)

Wine (0.33 gallon of alcohol)

Alcohol Consumption Patterns

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

9-*

U.S. Alcohol Consumption

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

Figure 9.1 from text

9-*

Regional differences in the U.S.

One third of U.S. population abstain

Half the alcohol is consumed by 10% of the drinkers

Differences in urbanization:

Alcohol sales higher in population centers (for example, D.C. and cities in Nevada)

U.S. Alcohol Consumption

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

9-*

U.S. Alcohol Consumption by State

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

Figure 9.2 from text

9-*

Gender differences

Males more likely to drink than females

Males more likely to drink more

Drinking among college students

College students drink more than their nonstudent peers

Many campuses have banned sale and advertising of alcohol

Many fraternities have banned keg parties

There is some evidence that this is helping:

Fewer students binge drinking

Fewer students driving after drinking

U.S. Alcohol Consumption

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

9-*

Standard drink has about 0.5 ounces of pure alcohol

12 ounces of beer

4 ounces of wine

1 ounce of 100-proof spirits

What is One Drink?

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

9-*

Absorption

Most absorbtion in the small intestine

Some absorbed in the stomach

Slower if there is food or water in the stomach

Faster in the presence of carbonated beverages

Distribution

Blood alcohol concentration (BAC)

measure of the concentration of alcohol in blood, expressed as a percentage in terms of grams per 100 ml

Alcohol is distributed throughout body fluids but not fatty tissues

Thus, a lean person will have a lower BAC than a fatter person of the same weight

Pharmacology

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

9-*

Pharmacology

Metabolism

Liver metabolizes about 0.25 ounces of alcohol per hour

If rate of intake = rate of metabolism, BAC is stable

If rate of intake exceeds rate of metabolism, BAC increases

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

Figure 9.3 from text

9-*

About 90 percent is metabolized in the liver

About 2 percent of alcohol is excreted unchanged

Breath

Skin

Urine

Alcohol

Acetaldehyde

Acetic acid

Alcohol

dehydrogenase

Aldehyde

dehydrogenase

Alcohol Metabolism

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

9-*

Metabolism is based on a stable rate

Exercise, coffee, and other strategies do not speed up the rate of metabolism

Liver responds to chronic intake of alcohol by increasing enzyme activity

Contributes to tolerance among heavy users

For heavy alcohol users

When alcohol is present, metabolism of other drugs is slower

When alcohol is not present, metabolism of other drugs if faster

Alcohol Metabolism

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

9-*

Women may be more susceptible than men to the effects of alcohol after consuming the same amount

Explanations:

Absorption: women tend to weigh less and have a higher proportion of body fat

Thus, women absorb a greater proportion of the alcohol they drink

Metabolism: alcohol dehydrogenase is less active in women

Sex Differences

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

9-*

In general, alcohol is a central nervous system depressant

Exact mechanism of action is not clear

Alcohol has many effects on the CNS

Alcohol enhances the inhibitory effect of GABA at the GABA-A receptor

Similar to barbiturates and benzodiazepines

At high doses, alcohol blocks glutamate

Alcohol also affects dopamine, serotonin, and acetylcholine neurons

Mechanism of Action

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

9-*

Mood changes can include:

euphoria

reduced anxieties

reduced inhibitions

Effects are dose-dependent

Blood alcohol concentration determines effects

For example:

At low blood levels, complex and abstract behaviors may be disrupted

At higher blood levels, simpler behaviors may be affected

Behavioral Effects

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

9-*

Effects depend on the time course

For example, effects are greater when BAC rises rapidly

Effects are influenced by the individual’s alcohol experience

For example, a higher BAC is needed to impair a chronic heavy drinker

Effects are influenced by expectations

For example, placebo effects explain many of the effects on social behavior

Behavioral Effects

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

9-*

BAC and Behavioral Effects

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

BAC (%)	Behavioral Effects
0.05	Lowered alertness, release of inhibitions, impaired judgment
0.10	Slower reaction times, impaired motor function, less caution
0.15	Large, consistent increases in reaction time
0.20	Marked depression in sensory and motor capability, intoxication
0.25	Severe motor disturbance, staggering, great impairment
0.30	Stuporous but conscious—no comprehension of what’s going on
0.35	Surgical anesthesia; about LD1, minimal level causing death
0.40	About LD50

9-*

Approximately 40 percent of all traffic crash fatalities are linked to alcohol use

2011 data indicate that total fatalities have dropped to about 32,000

Driving Under the Influence

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

SOURCE: H. Y. Yi and others, “NIAAA Surveillance Report #76: Trends in Alcohol-Related Traffic Fatalities in the United States, 1982–2004 (Bethesda, MD: USPHS, 2006)

9-*

Risk of a fatal crash is dose-related

Sharp increase in fatalities with BAC over 0.10

Men are more likely than women to be involved in an alcohol-related fatal crash

The majority of alcohol-related individuals are not “problem drinkers”

Driving Under the Influence

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

9-*

Sexual behavior

Alcohol use may enhance interest in sex but impair physiological arousal

Linked to risky sexual behavior

Blackouts

A danger sign of excessive alcohol use

Crime and violence

Alcohol use is statistically related to:

Homicide

Assault, including family violence, sexual assault, and date rape

Suicide

Behavioral Effects

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

9-*

Peripheral circulation

Dilation of peripheral blood vessels

drinkers lose body heat but feel warm

Fluid balance

Alcohol has a diuretic effect that:

Increases urine flow

Lowers blood pressure in some individuals

Hormonal effects

Chronic alcohol abusers can develop a variety of hormone-related disorders

For example, disrupted reproductive functioning

Physiological Effects

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

9-*

Two pieces of advice:

If someone drinks enough to pass out

Do not leave the person alone

Place her or him on side and monitor breathing or take to ER immediately

If someone drinks enough to vomit

S/he should stop drinking

Vomiting reflex is suppressed at BACs above 0.20 and can quickly reach lethal levels

Acute Physiological Toxicity

Alcohol overdose is relatively common and dangerous

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

9-*

Hangovers are not well understood

Symptoms:

upset stomach, fatigue, headache, thirst, depression, anxiety, and general malaise

Possible causes:

alcohol withdrawal, exposure to congeners, cellular dehydration, gastric irritation, reduced blood sugar, and/or the accumulation of acetaldehyde

What is a Hangover?

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

9-*

Brain tissue loss and cognitive impairment

Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome

Heart disease:

Cardiomyopathy, heart attack, hypertension, stroke

Although moderate alcohol use may reduce heart attack risk

Liver disease

Hepatitis, fatty liver, cirrhosis

Chronic Toxicity in Heavy Users

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

9-*

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

Facial and developmental abnormalities associated with mother’s alcohol use during pregnancy

Related to peak BAC and to duration of alcohol exposure

Prevalence: 0.2–1.5 per 1,000 births

Diagnostic criteria (one must be present)

Growth retardation before and/or after birth

Pattern of abnormal features of the face and head

Evidence of CNS abnormality

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

Image Source: Amanda Mills/CDC

9-*

Fetal alcohol effects

All alcohol-related developmental abnormalities associated with prenatal alcohol exposure

Prevalence: 80 to a few hundred per 1,000 births

Drinking during pregnancy increases risk of spontaneous abortion

Data do not prove that low levels of alcohol use during pregnancy are safe or that they are unsafe

Alcohol and Pregnancy

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

9-*

Abstinence syndrome is medically more severe and more deadly than opioid withdrawal

If untreated, mortality can be as high as 1 in 7

Stages of withdrawal:

Stage 1: tremors, rapid heartbeat, hypertension, heavy sweating, loss of appetite, insomnia

Stage 2: hallucinations (auditory, visual, and/or tactile)

Stage 3: delusions, disorientation, delirium

Stage 4: seizures

Detoxification should be carried out in an inpatient medical setting

Sedatives given in stage 1 or 2 prevent stages 3 and 4

Withdrawal Syndrome

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

9-*

Alcoholics Anonymous view

Alcohol dependence as a progressive disease characterized by loss of control over drinking

Only treatment is abstinence from alcohol

Disease model: alcohol dependence is the primary disease and not the result of another underlying cause

Alternative view: APA explicitly defines alcohol use disorder

Alcohol use disorder is a complex psychosocial disorder

Cognitive and genetic factors are of current scientific interest

Dependent Behaviors

or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.