response week 3

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Hardware

Introduction

The physical parts of computing devices—those that you can actually touch—are referred

to as hardware. In this reading, we will take a look at this component of information

systems, learn a little bit about how it works, and discuss some of the current trends

surrounding it.

As stated above, computer hardware encompasses digital devices that you can physically

touch, such as the following:

desktop computers

laptop computers

mobile phones

tablet computers

e-readers

storage devices, such as flash drives

input devices, such as keyboards, mice, and scanners

output devices such as printers and speakers

Besides these more traditional computer hardware devices, many items that were once

not considered digital devices are now becoming computerized themselves. Digital

technologies are now being integrated into many everyday objects, so the days of a

device being labeled categorically as computer hardware may be ending. Examples of

these types of digital devices include automobiles, refrigerators, and even soft- drink

dispensers. Let’s explore digital devices, beginning with defining the term.

Digital Devices

Learning Resource

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A digital device processes electronic signals that represent either a one (“on”) or a zero

(“off”). The on state is represented by the presence of an electronic signal; the off state is

represented by the absence of an electronic signal. Each one or zero is referred to as a bit

(a contraction of binary digit); a group of eight bits is a byte. The first personal computers

could process 8 bits of data at once; modern PCs can now process 64 bits of data at a

time, which is where the term 64-bit processor comes from.

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Understanding Binary

As you know, the system of numbering we are most familiar with is base-ten

numbering. In base-ten numbering, each column in the number represents a power

of 10, with the far-right column representing 10^0 (ones), the next column from the

right representing 10^1 (tens), then 10^2 (hundreds), then 10^3 (thousands), etc.

For example, the number 1010 in decimal represents: (1 x 1000) + (0 x 100) + (1 x

10) + (0 x 1).

Computers use the base-two numbering system, also known as binary. In this

system, each column in the number represents a power of two, with the far-right

column representing 2^0 (ones), the next column from the right representing 2^1

(twos), then 2^2 (fours), then 2^3 (eights), etc. For example, the number 1010 in

binary represents (1 x 8 ) + (0 x 4) + (1 x 2) + (0 x 1). In base ten, this evaluates to 10.

As the capacities of digital devices grew, new terms were developed to identify the

capacities of processors, memory, and disk storage space. Prefixes were applied to

the word byte to represent different orders of magnitude. Since these are digital

specifications, the prefixes were originally meant to represent multiples of 1024

(which is 210), but have more recently been rounded to mean multiples of 1000.

A List of Binary Prefixes

Prefix Represents Examples

kilo one thousand kilobyte=one thousand

bytes

mega one million megabyte=one million

bytes

giga one billion gigabyte=one billion

bytes

tera one trillion terabyte=one trillion

bytes

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Tour of a PC

All personal computers consist of the same basic components: a CPU, memory, circuit

board, storage, and input/output devices. It also turns out that almost every digital device

uses the same set of components, so examining the personal computer will give us insight

into the structure of a variety of digital devices. So let’s take a “tour” of a personal

computer and see what makes it function.

Processing Data: The CPU

As stated above, most computing devices have a similar architecture. The core of this

architecture is the central processing unit, or CPU. The CPU can be thought of as the

“brains” of the device. The CPU carries out the commands sent to it by the software and

returns results to be acted upon.

The earliest CPUs were large circuit boards with limited functionality. Today, a CPU is

generally on one chip and can perform a large variety of functions. Today there are many

manufacturers of CPUs for personal computers; the leaders are Intel and Advanced Micro

Devices (AMD).

The speed (“clock time”) of a CPU is measured in hertz. A hertz is defined as one cycle per

second. Using the binary prefixes mentioned above, we can see that a kilohertz

(abbreviated kHz) is one thousand cycles per second, a megahertz (mHz) is one million

cycles per second, and a gigahertz (gHz) is one billion cycles per second. The CPU’s

processing power has increased at an amazing rate (see “Moore’s Law,” below). Besides a

faster clock time, many CPU chips now contain multiple processors per chip. These chips,

known as dual-core (two processors), quad-core (four processors), etc., increase the

processing power of a computer by providing the capability of multiple CPUs.

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Moore's Law

We all know that computers get faster every year. Many times, we are not sure if we

want to buy today’s model of smartphone, tablet, or PC because next week it won’t

be the most advanced any more. Gordon Moore, one of the founders of Intel,

recognized this phenomenon in 1965, noting that microprocessor transistor counts

had been doubling every year (Moore, 1965). His insight eventually evolved into

Moore’s Law, which states that the number of transistors on a chip will double every

two years. This has been generalized into the concept that computing power will

double every two years for the same price point. Another way of looking at this is to

think that the price for the same computing power will be cut in half every two

years. Though many have predicted its demise, Moore’s Law has held true for over

40 years.

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Moore's Law

A graphical representation of Moore’s Law from 1971 to 2011

CC-BY-SA: Wgsimon

There will be a point, someday, where we reach the limits of Moore’s Law, where we

cannot continue to shrink circuits any further. But engineers will continue to seek

ways to increase performance.

Motherboard

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Motherboard

A computer’s main circuit

board

The motherboard is the main circuit board on the computer. The CPU, memory, and

storage components, among other things, all connect into the motherboard.

Motherboards come in different shapes and sizes, depending upon how compact or

expandable the computer is designed to be. Most modern motherboards have many

integrated components, such as video and sound processing, which used to require

separate components.

The motherboard provides much of the bus of the computer (the term bus refers to the

electrical connection between different computer components). The bus is an important

determiner of the computer’s speed: the combination of how fast the bus can transfer

data and the number of data bits that can be moved at one time determine the speed.

Random-Access Memory

When a computer starts up, it begins to load information from the hard disk into its

working memory. This working memory, called random-access memory (RAM), can

transfer data much faster than the hard disk. Any program that you are running on the

computer is loaded into RAM for processing. In order for a computer to work effectively,

some minimal amount of RAM must be installed. In most cases, adding more RAM will

allow the computer to run faster. Another characteristic of RAM is that it is “volatile.” This

means that it can store data as long as it is receiving power; when the computer is turned

off, any data stored in RAM is lost.

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Dual-inline Memory Module (DIMM)

Means by which RAM is installed on a personal computer

RAM is generally installed in a personal computer through the use of a dual-inline memory

module (DIMM). The type of DIMM accepted into a computer is dependent upon the

motherboard. As described by Moore’s Law, the amount of memory and speeds of DIMMs

have increased dramatically over the years.

Hard Disk

Computer Hard Disk Enclosure

Location of long-term data storage

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While the RAM is used as working memory, the computer also needs a place to store data

for the longer term. Most of today’s personal computers use a hard disk for long-term

data storage. A hard disk is where data is stored when the computer is turned off and

where it is retrieved from when the computer is turned on. It is called a hard disk because

it consists of a stack of disks inside a hard metal case. A floppy disk (discussed below) was

a removable disk that, in some cases at least, was flexible, or “floppy.”

Solid-State Drives

A relatively new component becoming more common in some personal computers is the

solid-state drive (SSD). The SSD performs the same function as a hard disk: long-term

storage. Instead of spinning disks, the SSD uses flash memory, which is much faster.

SSDs are currently quite a bit more expensive than hard disks. However, the use of flash

memory instead of disks makes them much lighter and faster than hard disks. SSDs are

primarily utilized in portable computers, making them lighter and more efficient. Some

computers combine the two storage technologies, using the SSD for the most accessed

data (such as the operating system) while using the hard disk for data that is accessed less

frequently. As with any technology, Moore’s Law is driving up capacity and speed, and

lowering prices of SSDs, which will allow them to proliferate in the years to come.

Removable Media

Besides fixed storage components, removable storage media are also used in most

personal computers. Removable media allows you to take your data with you. And just as

with all other digital technologies, these media have gotten smaller and more powerful as

the years have gone by. Early computers used floppy disks, which could be inserted into a

disk drive in the computer. Data was stored on a magnetic disk inside an enclosure. These

disks ranged from 8″ in the earliest days down to 3 1/2″.

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Floppy Disks (8″ to 5 1/4″ to 3 1/2″)

Removable storage used in

early computers

Public Domain

Around the turn of the century, the USB flash drive was developed (more about the USB

port later in the chapter), and beginning in the late 1990s, the universal serial bus (USB)

connector became standard on all personal computers. As with all other storage media,

flash drive storage capacity has skyrocketed over the years, from initial capacities of 8

megabytes to current capacities of 64 gigabytes and still growing.

Network Connection

When personal computers were first developed, they were stand-alone units, which

meant that data was brought into the computer or removed from the computer via

removable media, such as the floppy disk. Beginning in the mid-1980s, however,

organizations began to see the value in connecting computers together via a digital

network. Because of this, personal computers needed the ability to connect to these

networks. Initially, this was done by adding an expansion card to the computer that

enabled the network connection, but by the mid-1990s, a network port was standard on

most personal computers. As wireless technologies began to dominate in the early 2000s,

many personal computers also began including wireless networking capabilities. Digital

communication technologies will be discussed further in Networking and Communication.

Input and Output

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USB Connector

Connector device for

input and output

devices

In order for a personal computer to be useful, it must have channels for receiving input

from the user and channels for delivering output to the user. These input and output

devices connect to the computer via various connection ports, which generally are part of

the motherboard and are accessible outside the computer case. In early personal

computers, specific ports were designed for each type of output USB connector device.

The configuration of these ports has evolved over the years, becoming more and more

standardized over time. Today, almost all devices plug into a computer through the use of

a USB port. This port type, first introduced in 1996, has increased in its capabilities, both

in its data transfer rate and power supplied.

Bluetooth

Besides USB, some input and output devices connect to the computer via a wireless-

technology standard called Bluetooth. Bluetooth was first invented in the 1990s and

exchanges data over short distances using radio waves. Bluetooth generally has a range of

100 to 150 feet. For devices to communicate via Bluetooth, both the personal computer

and the connecting device must have a Bluetooth communication chip installed.

Input Devices

All personal computers need components that allow the user to input data. Early

computers used simply a keyboard to allow the user to enter data or select an item from a

menu to run a program. With the advent of the graphical user interface, the mouse

became a standard component of a computer. These two components are still the primary

input devices to a personal computer, though variations of each have been introduced

with varying levels of success over the years. For example, many new devices now use a

touch screen as the primary way of entering data.

Besides the keyboard and mouse, additional input devices are becoming more common.

Scanners allow users to input documents into a computer, either as images or as text.

Microphones can be used to record audio or give voice commands. Webcams and other

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types of video cameras can be used to record video or participate in a video chat session.

Output Devices

Output devices are essential as well. The most obvious output device is a display, visually

representing the state of the computer. In some cases, a personal computer can support

multiple displays or be connected to larger-format displays such as a projector or large-

screen television. Besides displays, other output devices include speakers and printers.

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What Hardware Components Contribute to the Speed of a Computer?

The speed of a computer is determined by many elements, some related to

hardware and some related to software. In hardware, speed is improved by giving

the electrons shorter distances to traverse to complete a circuit. Since the first CPU

was created in the early 1970s, engineers have constantly worked to figure out how

to shrink these circuits and put more and more circuits onto the same chip. And this

work has paid off—the speed of computing devices has continuously improved ever

since.

The hardware components that contribute to the speed of a personal computer are

the CPU, the motherboard, RAM, and the hard disk. In most cases, these items can

be replaced with newer, faster components. In the case of RAM, simply adding more

RAM can also speed up the computer. The table shows how each of these

contributes to the speed of a computer. Besides upgrading hardware, there are

many changes that can be made to the software of a computer to make it faster.

Component

Speed

measured by Units Description

CPU Clock speed gHz The time it takes to complete

a circuit.

Motherboard Bus speed mHz How much data can moveacross

the bus simultaneously.

RAM Data transfer

rate

MB/s The time it takes for data to

be transferred from memory

to system.

Hard Disk Access time ms The time it takes before the disk

can transfer data.

Hard Disk Data transfer

rate

MBit/s The time it takes for data to

be transferred from disk to

system.

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Other Computing Devices

A personal computer is designed to be a general-purpose device. That is, it can be used to

solve many different types of problems. As the technologies of the personal computer

have become more commonplace, many of the components have been integrated into

other devices that previously were purely mechanical. We have also seen an evolution in

what defines a computer. Ever since the invention of the personal computer, users have

clamored for a way to carry them around. Here we will examine several types of devices

that represent the latest trends in personal computing.

Portable Computers

Mac Laptop

Apple computer

In 1983, Compaq Computer Corporation developed the first commercially successful

portable personal computer. By today’s standards, the Compaq PC was not very portable;

weighing in at 28 pounds, this computer was portable only in the most literal sense: it

could be carried around. But this was no laptop; the computer was designed like a

suitcase, to be lugged around and laid on its side to be used. Besides portability, the

Compaq was successful because it was fully compatible with the software being run by

the IBM PC, which was the standard for business.

In the years that followed, portable computing continued to improve, giving us laptop and

notebook computers. The “luggable” computer has given way to a much lighter clamshell

computer that weighs from 4 to 6 pounds and runs on batteries. In fact, the most recent

advances in technology give us a new class of laptop that is quickly becoming the

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standard: extremely light and portable, and using less power than their larger

counterparts. The MacBook Air is a good example of this: it weighs less than three pounds

and is only 0.68 inches thick!

Finally, as more organizations and individuals have moved much of their computing to the

internet, many laptops use "the cloud" for all of their data and application storage. These

laptops are also extremely light because they do not need a hard disk. Samsung's

Chromebook is a good example of this type of laptop (sometimes called a netbook).

Smartphones

The first modern-day mobile phone was invented in 1973. Resembling a brick and

weighing in at two pounds, it was priced out of reach for most consumers at nearly

$4000. Since then, mobile phones have become smaller and less expensive and are a

modern convenience available to all levels of society. As mobile phones evolved, they

became more like small computers. These smartphones have many of the same

characteristics as a personal computer, such as an operating system and memory. The first

smartphone was the IBM Simon, introduced in 1994.

In January 2007, Apple introduced the iPhone. Its ease of use and intuitive interface made

it an immediate success and solidified the future of smartphones. Running on an operating

system called iOS, the iPhone was really a small computer with a touch-screen interface.

In 2008, the first Android phone was released, with similar functionality.

Tablet Computers

A tablet computer is one that uses a touch screen as its primary input and is small enough

and light enough to be carried around easily. Tablets generally have no keyboard and are

self-contained inside a rectangular case. The first tablet computers appeared in the early

2000s and used an attached pen as a writing device for input. These tablets ranged in size

from small personal digital assistants (PDAs), which were handheld, to full-sized, 14-inch

devices. Most early tablets used a version of an existing computer operating system, such

as Windows or Linux.

These early tablet devices were, for the most part, commercial failures. In January 2010,

Apple introduced the iPad, which ushered in a new era of tablet computing. Instead of a

pen, the iPad used the finger as the primary input device. Instead of using the operating

system of their desktop and laptop computers, Apple chose to use iOS, the operating

system of the iPhone. Because the iPad had a user interface that was the same as the

iPhone, consumers felt comfortable and sales took off. The iPad has set the standard for

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tablet computing. After the success of the iPad, computer manufacturers began to

develop new tablets that utilized operating systems that were designed for mobile

devices, such as Android.

The Rise of Mobile Computing

Mobile computing has had a huge impact on the business world. The use of smartphones

and tablet computers is replacing the use of PCs for many purposes. It is expected that

the use of PCs will continue to decline as mobile computing increases.

Integrated Computing

Along with advances in computers themselves, computing technology is being integrated

into many everyday products. From automobiles to refrigerators to airplanes, computing

technology is enhancing what these devices can do and is adding capabilities that would

have been considered science fiction just a few years ago. The smart house and the self-

driving car are two of the latest ways that computing technologies are being integrated

into everyday products

The Commoditization of the Personal Computer

Over the past 30 years, as the personal computer has gone from technical marvel to part

of our everyday lives, it has also become a commodity. The PC has become a commodity

in the sense that there is very little differentiation between computers and the primary

factor that controls their sale is their price. Hundreds of manufacturers all over the world

now create parts for personal computers. Dozens of companies buy these parts and

assemble the computers. As commodities, there are essentially no differences between

computers made by these different companies. Profit margins for personal computers are

razor-thin, leading hardware developers to find the lowest-cost manufacturing.

There is one brand of computer for which this is not the case—Apple. Because Apple does

not make computers that run on the same open standards as other manufacturers, they

can make a unique product that no one can easily copy. By creating what many consider

to be a superior product, Apple can charge more for their computers than other

manufacturers. Just as with the iPad and iPhone, Apple has chosen a strategy of

differentiation, which, at least at this time, seems to be paying off.

The Problem of Electronic Waste

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Electronic Waste

Discarded electronic equipment

Public Domain

Personal computers have been around for more than 35 years. Millions of them have been

used and discarded. Mobile phones are now available in even the remotest parts of the

world and, after a few years of use, they are discarded. Where does this electronic debris

end up?

Often, it gets routed to any country that will accept it. Many times, it ends up in dumps in

developing nations. These dumps are beginning to be seen as health hazards for those

living near them. Though many manufacturers have made strides in using materials that

can be recycled, electronic waste is a problem for all of us.

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Summary

Information systems hardware consists of the components of digital technology that you

can touch. We reviewed the components that make up a personal computer, with the

understanding that the configuration of a personal computer is very similar to that of any

type of digital computing device. A personal computer is made up of many components,

most importantly the CPU, motherboard, RAM, hard disk, removable media, and

input/output devices. We also reviewed some variations on the personal computer, such

as the tablet computer and the smartphone. In accordance with Moore’s Law, these

technologies have improved quickly over the years, making today’s computing devices

much more powerful than the devices of just a few years ago. Finally, we discussed two of

the consequences of this evolution: the commoditization of the personal computer and

the problem of electronic waste.

Study Questions

1. Write your own description of what the term information systems hardware

means.

2. What is the impact of Moore’s Law on the various hardware components

described in this chapter?

3. Write a summary of one of the items mentioned in the “Integrated Computing”

section.

4. Explain why the personal computer is now considered a commodity.

5. The CPU can also be thought of as the _____________ of the computer.

6. List the following in increasing order (slowest to fastest): megahertz, kilohertz,

gigahertz.

7. What is the bus of a computer?

8. Name two differences between RAM and a hard disk.

9. What are the advantages of solid-state drives over hard disks?

10. How heavy was the first commercially successful portable computer?

References

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Moore, Gordon E. (1965). Cramming more components onto integrated circuits.

Electronics Magazine, p. 4.

Licenses and Attributions

Chapter 2: Hardware

(https://www.saylor.org/site/textbooks/Information%20Systems%20for%20Business%20

and%20Beyond.pdf) from Information Systems for Business and Beyond by David T.

Bourgeois is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported

(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/) license. © 2014, David T. Bourgeois.

UMGC has modified this work and it is available under the original license.

© 2022 University of Maryland Global Campus

All links to external sites were verified at the time of publication. UMGC is not responsible for the validity or integrity

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