Class 6 Unit 3 Discussion

section iV

Peer reViews, Grammar, and GradinG

What an accomplishment it is to complete the first draft of a writing assignment. A lot of work goes into first drafts, and if you broke down that workload into steps, you might have found it a satisfying experience. It’s important, though, to note that a first draft is still a work in progress; nothing is set in stone.

Now is a good time to get some feedback on your paper. You might want to submit your draft to the Writing Center Paper Review service for comments on its overall organization and structure. You can also set up a study group with classmates and discuss your papers. At this stage in the writing process, focus on content, organization, and structure only. After you receive initial feedback, revise your draft, and then move on to editing and proofreading.

Prior to editing, reflect on your experience while drafting. What areas of writing did you struggle with? Did you know where to place periods, commas, and how to use semicolons? Does the wording flow smoothly and sound “right”? Before you start edit- ing, do some preliminary review that focuses on your problem areas. For instance, if you are guessing where commas go, review the section on commas in Chapter 17, go to Live Tutoring to prac- tice and reinforce your understanding of comma rules, and then apply those concepts as best you can to your own paper. This is really the only way you will learn how to use commas properly.

Take your time reading about best practices for peer review, study parts of grammar that you struggle with, and then read up on how most papers at Kaplan University are graded.

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Words from Writers Peer Review “We have found in our 22 years of experience in teach- ing composition that effective peer reviews can be very beneficial to students in the revision process.”

—Ellen Grady, Composition Instructor, and Dena King, General Education Department Chair, KU-Omaha

Why Use Peer revieWs? Imagine you’re getting ready for an important job interview or a first

date. Do you put on the first outfit you pull out of your closet, or do you

try on several outfits and ask others for their opinions? If you’re like

most people, you probably try on at least two outfits. Why do you do

this? Because you want to make a good impression.

Putting forth your best is essential in making a good impression,

whether it is in how you dress or how you present yourself in writing.

Peer reviews help you in the writing process by providing feedback

from your classmates’ perspectives. You can choose what feedback

you want to use and how you want to use it in revising your work.

Peer reviews can range from unsolicited, casual comments to

specific, written comments given purposely to be used in revision.

Effective peer reviews should take into consideration the following

guidelines.

First, you need to understand what a peer review is. A peer review

is the process of evaluating another writer’s work to enhance the qual-

chaPter 16

effectiVe Peer reViews

ellen Grady and dena KinG

214 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

ity of writing. This helps ensure assignment objectives are met and a

professional finished product is the result. A peer review should not

just tell the other writer what was done well, nor should it artificially

overstate the quality to gain favor with the instructor.

The goal of any peer review is to help the author improve the writ-

ing, and peer reviews that fail to give meaningful feedback do not give

the author what is needed.

Peer reviews have a variety of purposes. They are intended to help

students achieve the following:

●● Engage in an environment where students feel safe in

expressing and receiving input ●● Grow as a writer ●● Refine skills ●● Think critically ●● Gain awareness of audience ●● Engage in all aspects of the writing process ●● Revise for quality

Effective peer reviews involve successful collaborations. As

a writer and reviewer, you will be working with at least one peer to

receive and give feedback. Working as a team, you will provide valu-

able insight that can assist with revisions.

strateGies for sUccess Benefits of Peer Review Most students dread peer reviews. Usually, two concerns come to light: (1) Students feel like they are not strong writ- ers themselves, so they question how they could possibly give good feedback, and (2) they feel vulnerable and queasy about getting feedback from others in their class.

First, although you might struggle with writing your- self, no two writers are alike. You have writing strengths

215effective Peer re vieWs

other students might not have and vice versa. Peer review relies on this variability as we all have something to con- tribute. Second, you might feel like a weak writer, but you are still a thinking individual and you know when you are persuaded and when you’re not. If you cannot comment at the sentence- or word-level during a peer review, give feedback on the content or the flow of the argument or presentation of information in the paper.

As for feeling vulnerable, well, that gets bet- ter with time; just remember that all writers, no mat- ter their level of expertise, have to rewrite, revise, and edit. They can’t possibly get their best work com- pleted without constructive feedback from others.

As you participate in the peer review process, it might be helpful

to keep in mind the Triple As of successful collaboration:

●● Accountability for writers and peers ●■ Maintain your credibility and respect your peer’s

efforts. ●■ Provide sincere, honest feedback. ●■ Avoid being overly critical.

●● Assistance with revisions that lead to professional finished

products ●■ Be thorough and specific. ●■ Evaluate in terms of content, mechanics, structure,

organization, style, tone, coherence. ●■ Be constructive.

●● Audience awareness ●■ Determine whether the content takes the audience into

consideration. ●■ Evaluate from the audience’s perspective—whether

employers, professors, or peers. ●■ Audience’s response can provide valuable insight.

216 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

Words from Writers Through Another’s Eyes “After reading my peer’s review, I saw my paper through her eyes. This helped me to make improvements in my final draft.”

—Kaplan University Student

Peer revieW Process Once you become familiar with the purpose of peer reviews and the

keys to collaboration, you will be ready to begin the actual peer review

process. This process involves three basic steps:

1. Read the entire paper once (without passing judgment).

2. Evaluate for the following (which will vary by class and rubric

used): ●● Content refers to the meaning behind the words and para-

graphs. Good content is on topic and has meaning. ●● Organization refers to the overall structure of a paper. Does

the paper have an introduction, body, and conclusion? Do

individual paragraphs have topic sentences, supporting

sentences, and concluding sentences? Does the argument or

logic in the paper flow smoothly or does the writer jump from

point to point with little or no organization? ●● Coherency means that the writing makes sense. The paper

should be written to a particular audience, and it should make

sense for that audience. For instance, you would not use

highly technical medical terms to explain what measles is to a

first grader. They wouldn’t understand; it would not be coher-

ent to them. ●● Mechanics deals with correct grammar, punctuation, and

spelling. ●● Format is the physical layout or design of the paper. Are there

one-inch margins all the way around or do the pages have

217effective Peer re vieWs

different margins that make the paper difficult to read? Is it all

single spaced or double spaced or mixed? Is the font easy to

read and consistent throughout? Does the formatting adhere

to the assignment directions?

3. Offer specific suggestions for improvement (consider construc-

tive comments versus comments that are not constructive).

The type of feedback you provide to your peers is important. There

are two types of comments: constructive comments and those that are

not constructive. Constructive comments give concrete, specific sug-

gestions that are helpful in making revisions. Some examples include

the following:

“Your thesis clearly identifies your main point.”

“Add two or three more sentences to your conclusion to highlight

the main ideas you want readers to remember from your paper.”

“Try to paraphrase more instead of using so many direct quotes.”

Comments that are not constructive provide vague or overly positive

or negative suggestions that are difficult to use in making revisions:

“I really liked it.”

“The conclusion is too short.”

“You need to add more examples.”

“It’s really good.”

“You did a good job.”

“It doesn’t make sense.”

“It’s boring.”

Consider the following peer review examples.

Writing sample: All parents experience the joys and sorrows of

raising children, but single parents face the task of raising children on

their own. Today, there are more and more single parents in America.

According to Carter (2005), “Being a single parent is one of the most

challenging and rewarding jobs” (p. 135). Single parents can be just as

effective as families with two parents.

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Peer review that is not constructive: I really liked your topic. I

think your paper is interesting. I am a single parent too, so I know what

you’re talking about. It’s a good paper.

Constructive peer review: This is an interesting topic choice

because a lot of people are single parents. You might consider using

an example or a statistic to show how many people are affected by this

topic. Your thesis statement clearly describes your position.

revisinG after a Peer revieW Once you have received your peer review, you are ready to begin

the revision process. When revising, consider not only peer review

comments but also the assignment objectives and the instructor’s

feedback.

Here is a revision of the sample paragraph after taking the con-

structive peer review comments into account:

All parents experience the joys and sorrows of raising chil-

dren, but single parents face the task of raising children on

their own. In America, there were approximately 12.9 million

one-parent families in 2006 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2006).

According to Carter (2005), “being a single parent is one of the

most challenging and rewarding jobs” (p. 135). Single parents

can be just as effective as families with two parents.

The writer has incorporated a statistic into the paragraph, per the

reviewer’s suggestion. The addition gives a concrete representation

of how many people are affected by this topic. Using the advice of a

peer has helped the writer present the information in a more effective

way by backing up an assertion with a statistic from a reliable source.

This is just one example of how a peer review can be used to make

revisions that strengthen the overall product. With the input of a peer,

the writer was able to clarify and bolster the point, as well as make the

best impression possible on the reader. Whether working to enhance

219effective Peer re vieWs

a paper, or choosing the best outfit for the occasion, using the com-

ments of a peer can be extremely helpful. Understanding the advan-

tages of peer reviews and the keys to successful collaboration will

allow you and your peers to help each other become stronger writers.

Words from Writers Appreciating Other Voices “At first I wasn’t sure why I had to do peer reviews, but now I know that they can be helpful to both the writer and reviewer. This process helped me to appreciate other people’s writing styles.”

—Kaplan University Student

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strateGies for sUccess Grammar and Editing The time to study grammar is when it is most relevant to your writing, and usually this is in the editing stage of the writing process. The grammar section of a handbook or guide like this one is not meant to be read from beginning to end; it is a reference chapter, and should be used as a reference. This means you will read and study only those parts of the chapter that you have a particular interest in or want to learn more about. Then, you can take those concepts and apply them to your paper.

The word grammar can be daunting and downright scary to some.

Images of fierce red lines, complicated terminology, or confusing excep-

tions to rules can haunt any writer. What students might not realize is

that those grammar rules do not apply to all language usage. Rather,

these rules are in place to help standardize language for the academic

and business worlds so that individuals understand a common form of

written and spoken English. In the United States, we refer to that com-

mon form as Standard American English (SAE). In fact, nearly every

country has a standardized form of its language, and Standard Ameri-

can English is one of many English language standards. Others include

British English (also called the Queen’s English) and Canadian English.

As the majority of Kaplan University students live in the United States,

we use Standard American English in this text.

chaPter 17

Grammar, mechanics, and sPellinG

Joni Boone

222 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

Because you are a part of the academic community, learning to

use SAE can help you communicate clearly with your classmates, pro-

fessors, and a more global college community. These skills can also

help you communicate clearly in the business world with supervisors,

colleagues, and clients.

Words from Writers Style and Content “With the Internet Age growing and affecting so many people, I think many students are forgetting the importance of proper writing skills when communicating online. Instant messaging and texting have become so popular that the language associated with these tools is becoming common written language for many students. Although this type of language is okay for casual communication with friends, it is important to keep this in its proper place. Complete and proper sentences are still important to use to portray a mature communication style in the business world.”

—Heather Booth, Senior Systems Developer

This chapter explains the basic elements of SAE. Whenever pos-

sible, the reason behind the rule is explained as well. Knowing why a

comma, a particular verb form, or a capital letter is needed helps you

better understand and learn the rules. Relating the material to your

own writing also helps you learn the rules. Whenever possible, look

for similar situations in your own papers and projects.

strateGies for sUccess Focus for Better Learning To become a stronger writer, first reflect on your writing experience. In one column on a piece of paper, write down all of the things you do well when it comes to writing. In a sec- ond column, write down those things that you struggle with. Although there might be 15 items in the second column, you don’t tackle all 15 at one time. Choose two things from the second column and look them up in this chapter. To solidify your understanding of the concepts you just read about, visit a live tutoring session at the Writing Center and ask a tutor to work through a few examples with you. Next, go back to the

223Gr ammar, mechanics, and sPellinG

second draft of your paper and apply the concepts of those two grammar issues that you studied this week.

By focusing on only two things at a time, you can devote more time to truly understanding those two issues and then apply them to your writing with- out becoming confused or rushed. On your next writ- ing assignment, review the previous two issues for more clarity and then pick one or two more items from your second column to work on this time around.

Parts of sPeech The eight parts of speech (noun, pronoun, adjective, preposition, con-

junction, verb, adverb, and interjection) are the foundations of gram-

mar. Understanding how each part of speech communicates ideas

helps you use them correctly.

Nouns Nouns name people, places, things, and ideas; they are the stuff of

life, the things we cannot do without. In the following sentence, all of

the nouns are italicized:

Charlie knew that his obsession with collecting min-

iature bottles of condiments had to stop when he no

longer had room for anything other than mustard in

his pantry.

Without nouns, writers would have nothing to talk about:

Knew that his with collecting miniature of had to stop

when he no longer had for anything other than in his.

Table 17.1 provides examples of different categories of nouns. Stu-

dents of grammar typically find it easier to identify people, places, and

things as nouns than ideas as nouns. It is sometimes more challenging

to recognize an abstract idea such as happiness or success as a noun.

224 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

Nouns can be further categorized as either common or proper.

Common nouns are general nouns. They refer to types or categories

of people, places, things, and ideas. Because common nouns are not

specific names, they do not need to be capitalized. Here are some

examples of common nouns:

●● tree ●● portfolio ●● master’s degree ●● teacher ●● state

Proper nouns are specific nouns. They name individual people,

places, things, or ideas. Here are some examples of proper nouns:

●● Elvis Costello ●● Bachelor of Arts in English ●● Tallahassee, Florida ●● Professor Dunkin

It is important to know the difference between common and

proper nouns so that you can decide whether the word needs to be

Table 17.1 DIFFERENT CATEGORIES OF NOUNS

PEOPLE/

CHARACTERS PLACES THINGS IDEAS �

Jan Nana girl child Albert Einstein Amelia Earhart

Tahiti South Carolina New York City living room yard school

shovel flower store Web site iPod phone

democracy happiness destitution connectivity helplessness progress

225Gr ammar, mechanics, and sPellinG

capitalized. If you cannot decide if a word is common or proper, try

using a college-level dictionary to find out.

Collective nouns are nouns that refer to a group of things or peo-

ple. Some examples of collective nouns are as follows:

●● team ●● class ●● group ●● congregation

Sometimes collective nouns are considered singular and some-

times they are considered plural. To make sure your collective noun

agrees with the verb of the sentence, ask yourself if the group is work-

ing together as a whole or if you are highlighting the actions of individ-

uals within the group. If the group is working as a whole, the collective

noun is singular:

The team is winning by one goal!

If you are emphasizing actions of individuals in the group, the col-

lective noun is plural:

The team are going to their homes after an exhaust-

ing day.

Because using a collective noun as a plural noun can sometimes

sound awkward to your audience, consider changing the wording a bit

to avoid this construction. Instead of saying, “The team are going to

their homes after an exhausting day” consider “The team members

are going to their homes after an exhausting day.” Just because a con-

struction is grammatically correct does not mean that it is the clearest

way to communicate an idea.

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Words from Writers Effective Communication in Law “The best attorneys in my field are those who not only speak and write well, but who also use their communication tools to reach out and engage their clients to avoid problems caused by assumptions. Quite often, practicing effective communication not only helps you present your thoughts more effectively, it also helps others communicate their ideas better too. Students, or future attorneys, who have the right tools to write and communicate well, will be better at representing their clients because they will be able to focus on the logic of the legal issues, by knowing when an assumption is no longer reasonable, instead of handicapping themselves by having to deal with problems caused by inef- fective communication.”

—Matthew R. Day, Attorney

Pronouns Pronouns are noun placeholders. They are like the people who fill

in seats during an awards show when the celebrities get up to walk

around. They keep the crowd full. Without pronouns, the wording of

a sentence would sound repetitive and distracting. Imagine a world

without pronouns:

Jane placed Jane’s keys on the table in front of Jane.

Jane then decided that Jane better put Jane’s keys on

the hook by the door so Jane wouldn’t forget where

Jane placed Jane’s keys.

Does that sound a bit clunky?

Pronouns allow sentences to vary in word choice and style, encour-

aging writers to create a smoother flow of ideas at the sentence level.

Jane placed her keys on the table in front of her. She

then decided that she better put them on the hook

by the door so she wouldn’t forget where she placed

them.

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Table 17.2 shows some examples of different types of pronouns.

Table 17.2 DIFFERENT T YPES OF PRONOUNS

PERSONAL

PRONOUNS

RELATIVE

PRONOUNS

REFLEXIVE

PRONOUNS

DEMON-

STRATIVE

PRONOUNS

INTER-

ROGATIVE

PRONOUNS

INDEFINITE

PRONOUNS � he she it him her his hers they their them we us our you your yours

that which who whom

itself himself herself them- selves

that those these

what who when where how

anybody anyone somebody someone each everybody everyone something neither either nothing

Pronoun Reference A reader should be able to easily identify who or what a pronoun is

referring to. In the following example, the pronoun we is used without

a specific reference.

Childhood obesity is a problem that plagues

America. We need to take responsibility for modeling

healthy lifestyles to help influence the way children

in America eat and live.

The reader might wonder if we refers to all Americans, parents, just

the author and the reader, or some other group of people. In general,

228 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

first person plural pronouns (we, us, our, ourselves) are avoided in for-

mal writing to prevent any confusion about the reference of the pro-

noun. Second person pronouns ( you, your, yours, yourself ) are also

typically avoided in formal writing situations unless you are explaining

a process or set of procedures, as in a technical training document. In

certain situations, using second person pronouns can be off-putting to

a reader, especially in a negative context:

Pediatricians will tell you that modeling the couch

potato lifestyle to your child will only perpetuate the

obesity to the next generation.

Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement Pronouns and the words they refer to must agree in number so the

reader does not confuse the reference of the pronoun. If the noun or

pronoun that comes before the pronoun, the antecedent, is singular,

the pronoun should also be singular. The following is an example:

The student took her responsibility as hall monitor

very seriously.

If the antecedent is plural, the pronoun should also be plural. The

following is an example:

The students took their responsibilities as hall moni-

tors very seriously.

Issues that writers typically have with pronoun-antecedent agree-

ment occur when the antecedent is an indefinite pronoun or a noun

without a specific gender. Examples of each situation are as follows:

Everyone should turn in their homework by midnight

on Tuesday to receive full credit.

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The indefinite pronoun everyone, like most indefinite pronouns, is con-

sidered singular. However, the pronoun their is plural. To correct the

problem in agreement, you could make the antecedent plural:

All students should turn in their homework by mid-

night on Tuesday to receive full credit.

Or, you could make the pronoun singular:

Everyone should turn in his or her homework by mid-

night on Tuesday to receive full credit.

Because the gender of the group is not identified in the sentence, the

singular pronoun his or her is used as a gender-neutral option. If you

find this construction too clunky, you can always use the previous

option and make both the pronoun and antecedent plural.

Words from Writers Lasting Legacies “At times it appears that good writing has become a lost art. In this age of instant text messages, voice text messag- ing, and cryptic voice mails, let alone wing dings and smiley faces in e-mails, someone with any kind of writing skills is a welcome sight. Written communications are a fundamental element of good engineering and especially project execu- tion. Clear, concise writing in e-mails, memos, notes, and whatever other document format is used is key in conveying an idea or concept. The writing has to be able to stand alone; it has to speak for you when you are not there. An aspect that few people in engineering realize is that writing skills leave a lasting legacy in the company where you work. For example, our company still has guidelines that were written in the 1940s that have stood the test of time and are still used in fundamental system design theories and applications today. It is probably safe to assume that when these documents were written, the writer never for a moment thought that over 60 years later, people would still be referring to the document as a reference or guide for solving a current-day problem.”

—Timothy K. Hannigan, Manager

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Adjectives Adjectives are words that describe or modify nouns and pronouns.

These words provide details to better identify, limit, and define what

a noun is. There are two types of adjectives: predicate adjectives and

modifying adjectives.

A predicate adjective is an adjective that describes or limits the sub-

ject of the sentence (a noun or noun phrase) and is placed after a linking

verb (is, am, are, was, were). Here are examples of predicate adjectives:

I am happy.

I am confused.

My yoga teacher is too perky today.

The children were wild in the library.

This assignment is quite difficult.

Most other adjectives fit into the category of modifying adjectives

and are used in situations where the noun or pronoun and adjective

are not connected by the linking verb. These types of adjectives are

typically placed before the noun. The following are examples of modi-

fying adjectives:

The confused child raised her trembling hand in class.

My perky yoga teacher showed us a new pose in

class today.

The wild children were asked to keep quiet or leave

the library.

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I’m trying to tackle that difficult assignment this

afternoon.

Coordinate adjectives are adjectives that modify the same word

equally and are separated by a comma. Two scenarios can help you

determine if adjectives are coordinate:

If you can use the word and between the adjectives and the

phrase makes sense, use the comma.

●● I got dizzy at the top of the long, winding staircase. (Long and

winding works too.)

If you can switch the order of the adjectives and the phrase still

makes sense, use the comma.

●● That sweet-looking, unsuspecting kitten in the corner will

attack your leg if you look at her in the wrong way. (Unsus-

pecting, sweet-looking kitten works too.)

Comparative and Superlative Adjectives can also help you assess relationships between nouns.

They can do so by either comparing two nouns (comparative adjective)

or comparing more than two nouns (superlative adjective).

A comparative adjective is formed by either adding –er to the end

of the word or by using the adverb more before the adjective. Here are

some examples:

Shelly is taller than Mikey.

The first novel of the series was more engaging than

the rest of the novels in the series.

232 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

A superlative adjective is formed by either adding –est to the end

of the word or by using the adverb most in front of the word. Here are

some examples:

Jonathan is the pickiest eater in our family.

Top Chef is the most addictive reality show on televi-

sion today.

How do you determine which method to choose? Check your col-

lege-level dictionary for correct usage.

Articles Articles, a type of adjective, are the words a, an, and the. They are

placed before nouns that you can count. A and an are used before

countable nouns that aren’t specific. The is used before a countable

noun that is specific.

I am going to take a bus to the city this weekend. (No

particular bus is emphasized here, but a particular

city is emphasized.)

I am going to take the #4 bus to the city this week-

end. (A particular bus—the #4—is emphasized here.)

How do you know when to use a or an? Your decision depends on

the beginning sound of the noun that follows the article. If the noun

begins with a consonant sound, use a:

●● a car ●● a doughnut ●● a podcast

233Gr ammar, mechanics, and sPellinG

●● a union (Don’t be fooled by the spelling. Listen to the sound.

“Union” starts with a consonant “y” sound.)

If the noun begins with a vowel or vowel sound, use an:

●● an apple ●● an ego ●● an asthma attack ●● an iPod ●● an hour (As above, don’t be fooled by the spelling. Listen to

the sound.)

Prepositions Prepositions are words that are part of a phrase, aptly named the

prepositional phrase. These phrases show the relationships between

nouns and pronouns in a sentence. They are bridges between ideas

and are usually discussed in grammar books along with conjunc-

tions (see the following “Conjunctions” section, pp. 235–237). Some

common prepositions are in, around, on, between, over, under, from,

within, before, after, beyond, through, with, by, since, near, through-

out, until, for, above, and below. A good way to remember preposi-

tions is that most will fit in the blank in this sentence: The squirrel ran

the tree.

Prepositional phrases include the preposition, an object, and any

modifiers. The following are examples of prepositional phrases:

●● over the ant hill ●● behind the refrigerator ●● in the classroom ●● throughout the afternoon ●● with my cousin Jenny and my brother James

234 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

The following is an example of a sentence using prepositional

phrases to show the relationship between elements of the sentence:

The three mischievous children in the back of the

classroom are throwing paper airplanes around the

room and filming their aeronautic adventures with

their iPhones.

Recognizing prepositions in a sentence does more than help you

appreciate the nuances of the English language. This skill can help

you edit your paper for clarity, agreement, and sentence structure. If a

sentence contains several prepositional phrases in a row, it might lack

focus and strong, active verbs:

The committee is in need of major restructuring

before the New Year.

You could cut the wordiness and get to the point by eliminating a prep-

ositional phrase and making the verb active:

The committee should restructure before January.

If a preposition is placed between the subject and verb of a sen-

tence, do not mistake the object of the preposition for the subject:

Do you know which reality T V show on one of

the major networks are going to be canceled this

season?

In the preceding sentence, the writer has confused the object of the

preposition, networks, with the subject of the sentence, creating an

error in subject-verb agreement. To correct the sentence, the writer

would need to recognize the true subject of the sentence, show:

235Gr ammar, mechanics, and sPellinG

Do you know which reality T V show on one of the

major networks is going to be canceled this season?

If a sentence begins with a preposition, make sure you are not

confusing the object of the preposition with the subject:

For most students who procrastinate on their weekly

assignments are getting lower grades because they

do not have time to revise and edit their work.

In the preceding example, the word students is the object of the prepo-

sitional phrase for most students, so it cannot be the subject of the

sentence. That leaves the verb are without a subject. To correct the

sentence, you could eliminate the prepositional phrase:

Most students who procrastinate on their weekly

assignments are getting lower grades because they

do not have the time to revise and edit their work.

In the preceding example, the preposition for was removed, leaving

the word students to function as the subject of the sentence.

Conjunctions Conjunctions are connecting words. They can connect elements that

are similar or different in a sentence. Using conjunctions helps the

writer avoid short, choppy sentences.

Conjunctions that join similar grammatical elements are coor-

dinating conjunctions. You can remember these conjunctions by the

acronym FANBOYS:

●● for ●● and ●● nor

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●● but ●● or ●● yet ●● so

Coordinating conjunctions join two words, two phrases, or two

clauses:

●● Words: The dog and the cat caused havoc in the RV during our

trip across country. ●● Phrases: They were either tearing up the upholstery on the

seats or eating all of our snacks. ●● Clauses: We wanted to take them with us to Aunt Betty’s

house for Thanksgiving, but after this fiasco, they will be eat-

ing their turkey and gravy in the kennel.

Notice how a conjunction can be used to join two independent clauses

(sentences), as indicated in the final example; a comma must be used

with the conjunction in these situations to ensure that the reader

pauses appropriately.

Correlative conjunctions also join similar grammatical elements.

However, these conjunctions always come in pairs: Either…or, neither…

nor, not only…but also, both…and. The following are some examples of

correlative conjunctions used in complete sentences:

To fit back into my pants, I will not only have to diet

after the holidays, but I will also have to exercise

strenuously.

The monkey in the zoo either has a generally jovial

disposition or is laughing specifically at me for slip-

ping on the sidewalk.

237Gr ammar, mechanics, and sPellinG

Subordinating conjunctions join a dependent and an independent

clause. These conjunctions begin the subordinate (dependent) clause:

Before I decide to buy a new puppy, I should prob-

ably house-train my 2-year-old Collie.

When I finally left the heat of Savannah, I vowed to

return to Minnesota and never again complain of the

snow drifts in winter.

Verbs Verbs either express the action of the sentence or provide a link from

the subject to the rest of a sentence. Let us examine action first.

Action verbs show the reader what the subject is doing. Here are

some examples:

My granny won the shuffleboard competition at the

Senior Games this year.

Her victory dance embarrassed our family somewhat,

but we hid our embarrassment well.

Linking verbs link the subject with a noun or adjective that

renames or describes the subject.

Grandpa Bob was a grumpy old man.

My hound dog, Charles, is sleepy.

Writers must be aware of appropriate verb forms to make sentences

clear to readers. There are three standard forms of English verbs: base,

past, and past participle. Regular verbs have a regular pattern of adding

an –ed ending to the form to create the past and past participle forms.

238 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

Irregular verbs change spelling to create the past and past participle

forms. The helping verbs has, have, and had are used before the past

participle form. Table 17.3 lists the various types of verbs.

Table 17.3 DIFFERENT T YPES OF VERBS

BASE PAST PAST PARTICIPLE � laugh laughed (have) laughed

give gave (have) given

sit sat (have) sat

fly flew (have) flown

write wrote (have) written

show showed (have) shown

Tense In Standard American English, various verb tenses are used to reflect

the specific time an event occurs. Simple tenses include the present,

past, and future tense:

●● Past Tense: For the simple past tense, use the past tense form

of the verb.

Yesterday I gave my sister a dollar. ●● Present Tense: For the simple present tense, use the base

form of the verb.

Today I give my sister a dollar. ●● Future Tense: For the future tense, add the helping verb will to

the base form of the verb.

Tomorrow I will give my sister a dollar.

To allow for more specific increments of time, the English verb

phrases get more complex. In addition to the simple tenses, there are

239Gr ammar, mechanics, and sPellinG

also perfect tenses. Perfect tenses specify that an action either has

been, is being, or will be completed. There is an essence of finality

(perfection, completeness) to this tense. The helping verbs had, have,

and has, and will have are used to indicate past, present, and future

perfect tenses. The following are examples of each tense used appro-

priately in sentences:

●● Past perfect: I had given Jenny another chance to turn in the

report before our boss returned from vacation. (had + past

participle) ●● Present perfect: We have gone to the store for the last time

today. (have or has + past participle) ●● Future perfect: The city council will have decided on the traf-

fic circle proposal before the next meeting. (will have + past

participle)

Though grammar books tend to disagree about the classification

of this next set of verbs, because it distinguishes time, we also refer

to it as a tense—the progressive tense. Progressive verbs show a con-

tinuation of time, indicated by the –ing ending added to the base form.

As with the perfect tenses, progressive forms require helping verbs.

The following examples use the base form writing to demonstrate

the use of progressive tense:

●● Past progressive: She was writing a dissertation last year. ●● Present progressive: She is writing a conference proposal this

week. ●● Future progressive: She will be writing a book of essays next

year. ●● Past perfect progressive: She had been writing drafts

of the essays in graduate school before delving into the

dissertation. ●● Present perfect progressive: She has been writing profession-

ally since she was 15 years old.

240 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

●● Future perfect progressive: She will have been writing for 20

years at her next birthday.

Keeping all of these tenses in order can be challenging. Writers

must avoid switching tenses unnecessarily so that the reader does not

get confused about when an event is occurring. This issue typically

happens when writers are using narration to develop an idea.

The following is an example of a tense shift that might cause con-

fusion for the reader:

Last night when I first saw Larry, I thought he was

wearing a shirt with orange sleeves. However, I look

closer, ask him to step in the light, and see that he

is actually the victim of cheap self-tan lotion that

changed his skin an odd pumpkin shade.

In this passage, the entire event with Larry took place in the past, but

the tense shifts in the second sentence, and the reader might think

that the writer didn’t discover the self-tan fiasco until now. Shifts in

tense like this can cause issues with clarity.

Adverbs Adverbs, like adjectives, are modifiers. Instead of modifying nouns

and pronouns, adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

Adverbs typically answer the question how or when.

The following examples show adverbs modifying verbs:

Scotty ran quickly down the hall. (Quickly tells the

reader how Scotty ran.)

Yesterday, I threw my television out the window in an

angry fit. (Yesterday tells the reader when I threw the

television.)

241Gr ammar, mechanics, and sPellinG

The following examples show adverbs modifying adjectives:

My roommate was very angry at me for destroying

our television. (Very tells the reader how angry the

roommate was.)

My actions were completely inappropriate, and I

apologized to my roommate for destroying the televi-

sion set. (Completely tells the reader how inappropri-

ate my actions were.)

The following examples show adverbs modifying other adverbs:

Although my roommate was obviously upset, she

remained quite calmly situated at the end of the hall-

way staring down at the mess of glass, plastic, and

metal on the pavement below. (Quite tells the reader

how calmly situated the roommate was.)

I can almost always predict what my roommate will

say to me, but I was blown away by her response

that it was okay. (Almost tells the reader how often

the correct predictions occur.)

Conjunctive adverbs are adverbs that helps introduce an inde-

pendent clause. They usually provide a type of transition within the

context of the passage. The following are frequently used conjunctive

adverbs:

●● however ●● therefore ●● nevertheless ●● furthermore

242 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

●● similarly ●● thus ●● nonetheless ●● likewise ●● consequently

If these adverbs are used in the beginning or middle of a sentence, they

are usually followed by a comma. Because they typically begin an inde-

pendent clause, they are usually preceded by a period or semicolon. The

following are some examples of conjunctive adverbs used in sentences:

The father took away the children’s Internet privi-

leges for the night; furthermore, he threatened to

give away their computer if they refused to take turns

in the future.

I wanted to believe my little sister’s bargain to clean

my room for a week if I let her borrow my new scarf.

However, I had been burned too many times with her

empty promises.

Interjections Interjections are words that exclaim an emotion. These words are

rarely used in formal, academic writing. In the following examples,

interjections are used in sentences:

Wow! I wonder who ordered the one-pound, triple

cheeseburger with a large basket of fries?

Well, who would have imagined little Jeannie Smith

could eat all of that food?

Oh! I forgot to turn off the coffeemaker before leav-

ing the house this morning!

243Gr ammar, mechanics, and sPellinG

sentence constrUction The parts of speech, explained in the previous section, shape how

individual words or phrases are used in writing. The parts of a sen-

tence shape the meaning and form of independent ideas. To under-

stand how to avoid common problems with coordinating elements or

combining sentences—run-on sentences, comma splices, fragments—

the writer must learn what makes a sentence a sentence. A sentence

needs a subject and a verb. It should also express a complete thought.

Subject A subject is the main player of the sentence. Typically, the subject is a

noun (Harry, discussion, effects), but it can also be in the form of a ver-

bal (a word that looks like a verb but acts like another part of speech)

or phrase (learning to ski, figuring it all out, painting). Subjects can

also be compound, joined by the conjunctions and or or. Despite its

form, the subject is the center of the discussion in the sentence.

In the following examples, the subject is italicized:

Harry decided it was time for a change.

The heated discussion at our last staff meeting

prompted many employees to leave the company.

During much of his life, the effects of the war

haunted my grandfather.

Learning to ski was a lesson in humility for me.

Though Sarah wanted to consider all of her

employees’ vacation requests this holiday season,

figuring it all out was not going to be easy.

Painting produces a calming effect on my hyperac-

tive three-year-old.

244 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

Either my brother or my cousin ate the last ice cream

bar, and I was furious.

Through their latest exploration of the flea market,

my mother and my great aunt discovered a treasure

trove of mismatched dinnerware and tacky floral

prints.

Verb (Predicate) The verb or predicate of the sentence is where all the action happens

or where the writer makes an assertion about the subject.

In the following examples, the verb is italicized.

Harry decided it was time for a change. (Decided is

an action verb.)

The heated discussion at our last staff meeting

prompted many employees to leave the company.

(Prompted is an action verb.)

During much of his life, the effects of the war

haunted my grandfather. (Haunted is an action verb.)

Learning to ski was a lesson in humility for me. (Was

is a linking verb.)

Though Sarah wanted to consider all of her

employees’ vacation requests this holiday season,

figuring it all out was not going to be easy. (Was

going is an action verb.)

Painting produces a calming effect on my hyperac-

tive three-year-old. (Produces is an action verb.)

245Gr ammar, mechanics, and sPellinG

Either my brother or my cousin Tommy ate the last ice

cream bar, and I was furious. (Ate is an action verb;

was is a linking verb.)

Through their latest exploration of the flea market,

my mother and my great aunt discovered a treasure

trove of mismatched dinnerware and tacky floral

prints. (Discovered is an action verb.)

Typically, there is more wording after the verb in a sentence. This infor-

mation could include an object or a complement. Some action verbs

need objects. Linking verbs need complements.

Action verbs that require a direct object (something or someone to

receive the action of the verb) are called transitive verbs.

Buster, my hound dog, ate spaghetti and meatballs

for supper tonight.

In the preceding example, the subject is Buster and the verb is ate. The

reader will need to know what Buster ate for the sentence to be com-

plete, so the direct object is spaghetti and meatballs.

Sarah loaned me her copy of the Great Gatsby.

In the preceding example, the subject is Sarah. The verb is loaned.

The reader will need to know what was being loaned, and copy is the

answer to that question—the direct object. The word me is the indirect

object, the person to whom the copy is being loaned.

Intransitive verbs do not need a direct object to complete the

thought expressed by the verb.

The children played until midnight.

246 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

My sister talks incessantly.

John Jr. swam gracefully across the pool.

Your college-level dictionary will indicate if a verb is transitive or

intransitive.

Linking verbs require a subject complement—a noun or adjective

that completes the subject. Linking verbs include the forms of to be: is,

am, are, was, and were. Other verbs that can be linking verbs when fol-

lowed by a subject complement include words like look, taste, appear,

become, seem, sound, prove, and remain.

Surprisingly, Judy remained calm after almost run-

ning into the median on a busy interstate highway.

In the preceding example, calm (an adjective) describes the subject Judy.

I am a rock star.

In the preceding example, rock star (a noun) renames the subject I.

Phrases Phrases are groups of words that may contain a subject or a verb, but

will not contain both of these elements. By describing, renaming, and

relating to other words, phrases can enrich sentences and make the

information more precise.

Prepositional Phrases A prepositional phrase modifies a word or other phrase in a sentence

and can be used as either an adjective (modifying nouns or pronouns)

or an adverb (modifying verbs, adjectives, or adverbs). Prepositional

phrases begin with prepositions (words or phrases like in, around,

from, by, on, and with) and end with an object (a noun or pronoun). In

the following sentences, prepositional phrases are italicized:

247Gr ammar, mechanics, and sPellinG

When you go to the beach for your next vacation,

don’t forget to take me!

Instead of taking me to the beach, Henry brought his

dog with him.

Verbal Phrases Verbal phrases are a bit deceptive at first glance. These word groups

begin with a form of a verb but are used as nouns, adjectives, or

adverbs. These sneaky phrases are divided into three categories—ger-

und phrases, participial phrases, and infinitive phrases.

A gerund phrase begins with a verb ending in –ing and is used as

a noun. Gerund phrases can either be the subject of a sentence, direct

object, subject complement, or object of a preposition. The following

sentences contain gerund phrases:

Paying attention in class was one of my strategies

for improving my grade point average. (The gerund

phrase is used as the subject of the sentence.)

Facebook has a way of distracting me from doing my

homework. (The gerund phrases are used as objects

of prepositions.)

Participial phrases begin with a verb ending in –ing or a verb in

the past participle form. Participial phrases function as adjectives

(describing nouns or pronouns). The following sentences contain par-

ticipial phrases:

The dog, leaning out the window with his tongue flap-

ping in the breeze, looked as though he was enjoy-

ing the car ride. (The participial phrase modifies the

noun dog.)

248 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

The child stared at the enormous wrapped package

given to her by her grandmother. (The participial

phrase modifies the noun package.)

Infinitive phrases are formed by combining the word to with the

base form of a verb. These phrases can be used as nouns, adjectives,

or adverbs. The following sentences contain infinitive phrases:

To forgive and forget is truly therapeutic. (The infini-

tive phrase is used as a subject.)

It took Benjamin several years to master his bread-

making techniques. (The infinitive phrase is used as

an adverb modifying the verb took.)

Other Types of Phrases Appositive phrases are placed after and rename a noun or pronoun:

My older brother, the family prankster, keeps us busy

on April Fool’s day.

Absolute phrases modify clauses. They typically modify an entire

sentence:

My eyesight not being what it used to be, I am afraid

to drive at night when it is raining.

Clauses A clause is a group of words that contains both a subject and a verb.

Clauses can either be dependent or independent based on their ability

to stand alone as a complete sentence.

Dependent clauses (also known as subordinate clauses) cannot

stand alone as a sentence. They “depend” on another clause to be

complete. Some common words that begin dependent clauses are

249Gr ammar, mechanics, and sPellinG

that, which, who, whom, when, if, since, before, after, because, what,

where, and how.

If you want to avoid the crowds, you should probably

consider staying at home on Black Friday.

I don’t remember when my brother’s birthday is.

My mother is the twin who always wears her hair in

an up do.

Notice the punctuation in the preceding examples. If the dependent

clause comes before the independent clause, a comma is placed after

it. If the dependent clause comes after the independent clause, no

comma is needed.

A common issue writers have is placing end punctuation after a

dependent clause, creating a sentence fragment.

Mary will pay back the money she owes you. If you

remind her.

In the preceding example, if you remind her is a dependent clause and

can’t stand alone as a sentence. It is a fragment. To correct the prob-

lem, simply link the two clauses together:

Mary will pay back the money she owes you if you

remind her.

Recognizing the words that typically begin dependent clauses

helps you learn to avoid creating fragments.

Independent clauses contain a subject and a verb and can stand

alone as a complete sentence. The following are examples of indepen-

dent clauses:

250 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

The fish tank overflowed onto our new white carpet.

We managed to pry the children away from the televi-

sion set in order to take a family walk around the

neighborhood.

Fragments The fragment is an incomplete sentence. At first glance, these groups

of words might appear to be a sentence because they might include a

subject or a verb. They might even include both, but still not create a

complete thought. The following are examples of sentence fragments:

Tillie, the woman who always interrupts our meetings

with long, boring personal anecdotes.

By learning to fix motors in electronic toys and simple

gadgets around the house at an early age.

When I first became a palm reader.

To correct a fragment, writers can add the missing sentence ele-

ments (a subject or a verb), complete the thought of the sentence,

change the wording of the sentence (usually removing the dependent

element), or add the fragment to another sentence in the paragraph to

create a complete thought.

When a sentence is missing a subject or a verb, the writer can sim-

ply add the missing element to create the complete thought:

Tillie, the woman who always interrupts our meetings

with long, boring personal anecdotes, extended the

meeting for 20 extra minutes and exhausted our staff.

Many times, writers mistake a dependent clause for an inde-

pendent clause or sentence. Both types of clauses contain a subject

251Gr ammar, mechanics, and sPellinG

and a verb. However, a dependent clause does not create a complete

thought. Instead, it depends on another clause (independent clause)

to complete the thought:

When I first became a palm reader, I had to get a

second job to pay the bills.

If an adjacent sentence completes the thought of a fragment, you

can combine those elements to create a sentence:

Tommy was an engineer from the start. By learning

to fix motors in electronic toys at an early age, he

showed potential and talent that was fully realized in

adulthood.

Run-on Sentences The infamous run-on sentence occurs when two or more complete

thoughts “run” together without an appropriate break (punctuation).

Run-on sentences can be further categorized as either fused sentences

or comma splices. In either case, run-on sentences can be distracting to

readers or cause them to either misinterpret the author’s intentions or

wear down trying to understand the main point of the sentence.

Fused Sentence A fused sentence occurs when two or more sentences run together

without any punctuation break. The reader needs to be able to stop at

the end of a complete thought so several thoughts do not run together

in the mind. The following are examples of fused sentences:

My little sister has been pulling the same stunt

for years she promises to attend my grandma’s

Thanksgiving luncheon so that I don’t have to face

our eccentric relatives alone then she pulls out at the

252 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

last minute claiming her children are sick or her car

needs repair.

The first sentence ends and the next sentence begins without a break.

There are actually three complete thoughts (sentences) in this exam-

ple and no break is provided. You will find it difficult to read the sen-

tence out loud without a break and will probably end up providing your

own pausing to get the entire sentence out.

Comma Splice A comma splice occurs when two or more sentences are spliced

together with a comma when more of a break is needed. The following

example includes a fused sentence and a comma splice:

My little sister has been pulling the same stunt

for years she promises to attend my grandma’s

Thanksgiving luncheon so that I don’t have to face

our eccentric relatives alone, then she pulls out at

the last minute claiming her children are sick or her

car needs repair.

Correcting Run-Ons Run-ons need punctuation to allow the reader to pause or stop and to

provide a break between independent ideas. Here are some ways to

correct a run-on sentence (comma splice or fused sentence):

●● Period: Add a period between independent clauses to create

the break:

My little sister has been pulling the same stunt for

years. She promises to attend my grandma’s Thanks-

giving luncheon so that I don’t have to face our eccen-

tric relatives alone.

253Gr ammar, mechanics, and sPellinG

●● Semicolon: Use a semicolon between independent clauses

that have a close relationship. This relationship could cause

an effect or a further explanation or extension of an idea:

My sister promises to attend my grandma’s Thanks-

giving luncheon so that I don’t have to face our

eccentric relatives alone; then she pulls out at the last

minute claiming her children are sick or her car needs

repair. ●● Comma with a coordinating conjunction: You can use a

comma between independent clauses but only when that

comma is accompanied by a coordinating conjunction. These

conjunctions include for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so and can be

remembered by the acronym FANBOYS.

My sister promises to attend my grandma’s Thanks-

giving luncheon so that I don’t have to face our

eccentric relatives alone, but she pulls out at the last

minute claiming her children are sick or her car needs

repair. ●● Subordinating conjunction: You can convert one sentence into

a subordinate (dependent) clause so you are not joining two

independent clauses (sentences) together:

Although my sister promises to attend my grandma’s

Thanksgiving luncheon so that I don’t have to face our

eccentric relatives alone, she always pulls out at the

last minute claiming her children are sick or her car

needs repair.

Reading your work out loud can help you avoid fragments and

run-ons. When you read out loud, be sure to pause slightly for com-

mas; pause a bit longer, almost stopping, for semicolons; and stop

briefly for periods. If your sentences do not seem to be complete at the

period, check for fragments. If you run out of breath before the period,

check for run-ons.

254 Peer re views, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

aGreement (Pronoun-antecedent; subject-verb) In Standard American English, certain elements of a sentence must

agree in number (either plural or singular). This agreement provides

harmony between the writer and the audience as well, for the reader

will not be searching aimlessly for a reference or meaning in the

sentence.

Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement Pronouns are those words that replace nouns and offer variety in sen-

tences (see the earlier “Parts of Speech” section, pp. 223–242). The

pronouns must agree in number with those nouns or other pronouns

(also referred to as antecedents) that they refer to. This agreement

helps the reader easily understand the meaning of the pronoun. With-

out the agreement, there will be clarity issues.

Consider this sentence:

If a student registers for class late, they will have

fewer options to choose from.

In this example, the pronoun they is plural, but the antecedent stu-

dent is singular. The pronoun and antecedent do not agree in number.

The reader might be left wondering who the word they refers to. Could

there be another group of people in this sentence?

To correct the preceding sentence, the pronoun needs to be

singular:

If a student registers for class late, he or she will

have fewer options to choose from.

Or, the antecedent needs to be plural:

If students register for class late, they will have fewer

options to choose from.

255Gr ammar, mechanics, and sPellinG

Typically, writers have trouble with pronoun-antecedent structure

when using singular, indefinite pronouns. The following is a list of sin-

gular indefinite pronouns.

●● anybody ●● anyone ●● somebody ●● someone ●● each ●● everybody ●● everyone ●● something ●● neither ●● either ●● nothing

Anyone can try out for the team if they have the skills

and motivation to stick with practice.

Anyone is singular, but they is plural. Here are three options to correct

the sentences:

●● Make the pronoun singular:

Anyone can try out for the team if he or she has the skills and

motivation to stick with practice. ●● Make the antecedent plural:

Students can try out for the team if they have the skills and

motivation to stick with practice. ●● Change the sentence to avoid the issue:

Anyone with the skills and motivation to stick with practice

can try out for the team.

A generic noun can cause the same problem that an indefinite pro-

noun causes:

256 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

Every student must practice writing daily if they want

to build stronger writing skills.

Student is singular, but the pronoun they is plural.

Here are three options to correct the sentence:

Every student must practice writing daily if he or she

wants to build stronger writing skills.

Students must practice daily if they want to build

stronger writing skills.

To build stronger writing skills, students must prac-

tice daily.

Subject-Verb Agreement To avoid clarity issues, subjects and verbs must agree in number (sin-

gular or plural). A subject is the main player of the sentence. The verb

is either the action or the expression of the state of that subject. For

more on subjects and verbs, see the previous “Sentence Construc-

tion” section, pp. 243–254.

In the following sentences, subjects and verbs agree in number:

Sammy is happy to see his aunts over the holidays.

There is only one Sammy, so Sammy is singular. The verb is is singular

as well.

His aunts are happy to see him too.

There are multiple aunts, so aunts is plural. The verb are is plural as

well.

257Gr ammar, mechanics, and sPellinG

Here is the trick. Typically, a singular subject does not end in –s

or –es, but a singular present tense verb does end in –s. Many times,

a plural subject ends in –s or –es, but a plural present tense verb does

not end in –s. There are exceptions, but this general guideline will

help you edit for subject-verb agreement.

Issues can arise in the following situations:

●● The subject and verb are separated by a phrase. ●● The subject of the sentence is an indefinite pronoun. ●● The sentence order is inverted (verb comes before subject). ●● The subject is compound.

Strong writers tend to vary their sentence structure to create flow

and rhythm in their writing and to emphasize particular points. These

are positive qualities. However, when writers use these intricate tech-

niques, sometimes the subject and verb of the sentence are not easy

to distinguish, leading to agreement problems.

Here is an example of a sentence where the subject and verb

are interrupted by a phrase, causing a problem with subject-verb

agreement:

Traditional media outlets like the print newspaper is

of little interest to youth today.

The subject of this sentence is outlets. Some writers might think that

newspaper is the subject because it is next to the verb. However,

newspaper is the object in the phrase like the print newspaper. The

verb is (singular) does not agree with the subject outlets (plural). Here

is the corrected version:

Traditional media outlets like the print newspaper

are of little interest to youth today.

258 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

Most indefinite pronouns are considered singular. So they agree with

singular verbs. Many of these types of pronouns end in –one or –body

as in anybody, anyone, somebody, someone, everybody, and everyone.

Other examples include each, something, neither, and either.

In the following example, a student has used a singular indefinite

pronoun as a subject with a plural verb, creating a problem with sub-

ject-verb agreement:

Everybody in the room have tickets for the play.

The subject everybody is singular, but the verb have is plural. They

do not agree. The verb needs to be singular to agree with the singular

subject:

Everybody in the room has tickets for the play.

Each of the four children are cooking this week.

The subject each is singular, but the verb are is plural. They do not

agree. The verb has to be singular to agree with the subject:

Each of the four children is cooking this week.

You might consider memorizing a list of indefinite pronouns if you

find a pattern of subject-verb agreement errors in your writing.

Some writers invert the traditional sentence order to add variety

to a passage of text. Although this practice can make writing more

dynamic and interesting, the writer must also be aware of subject-verb

agreement. These topsy-turvy sentences might make it difficult to iso-

late the subject.

259Gr ammar, mechanics, and sPellinG

There are several excuses that I could make for not

going to the party, but I will just try my best to avoid

the inquiries for a while.

The subject excuses (plural) follows the verb are (plural).

The following sentence contains a problem with subject-verb

agreement:

In the shadows lurk a strange figure.

The subject is figure (singular), but the verb is lurk (plural). The verb

needs to be singular to agree with the subject:

In the shadows lurks a strange figure.

Compounding the Issue A compound subject can be considered either singular or plural,

depending on the conjunction that joins the subject. Subjects joined

by “and” are considered plural.

Pat and Lisa are visiting their great-great aunt in

Tallahassee next weekend.

When two subjects are joined by or, the verb agrees with the clos-

est subject:

Option 1: Either Tammy or her three children are

going to join them on the trip.

Option 2: Either the three children or Tammy is going

to join them on the trip.

260 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

If one of the subjects is plural, consider placing it closest to the verb

to avoid any awkward phrasing. In the preceding examples, option #1

is probably the best choice because children is plural and closest to

the verb.

Parallelism To avoid awkward, unclear phrasing, writers must keep items in a

series parallel. Parallelism means that the structures of those items

will be similar. For instance, a series could include all noun forms, all

–ing forms, or all infinitives but not a combination of the forms. The

following is an example of a series that is not parallel:

The child is more likely to finish her language arts

homework this evening than working through her

assigned math problems.

In the preceding example, one item is structured as an infinitive—to

finish—but the other item is structured as a participle—working.

Many adults are taking advantage of the opportuni-

ties to advance their careers and enroll in an online

university.

In the preceding example, one verb is in the present progressive

tense—are taking—and the other is in the plain present tense—enroll.

To correct the previous sentences above, the writer needs to cre-

ate parallel structures:

The child is more likely to finish her language arts

homework this evening than to work through her

assigned math problems.

261Gr ammar, mechanics, and sPellinG

Many adults are taking advantage of the opportu-

nities to advance their careers and enrolling in an

online university.

When comparing objects using the words like or as, a writer must

also create parallel structures to keep the comparison clear and avoid

awkward phrasing. The following is an example of a comparison that

is not parallel:

My granny would rather peddle across town on her

bicycle than to take a bus.

The preceding series includes peddle and to take.

My granny would rather peddle across town on her

bicycle than take a bus.

The preceding series is parallel.

Point of vieW The point of view in which a piece is written depends on the purpose

of that piece and the level of formality the author wants to create.

First person point of view allows writers to speak from their per-

sonal perspective. Pronouns such as I, me, my, myself, we, us, our,

ourselves create the first person perspective. Typically, first person

pronouns are avoided in academic projects and essays to create a

more formal tone. Academic authors tend to distance themselves from

their texts and avoid revealing personal opinions.

Second person point of view allows the writer to speak directly

to the audience, as if in a conversation with another individual. Sec-

ond person pronouns include you, your, yours, and yourself. Typically,

second person pronouns are avoided in academic projects unless the

writer is explaining or describing a process.

262 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

Third person point of view is used most often in academic writing.

This perspective allows the authors to distance themselves personally

from the text and creates a more formal, objective discussion. Third

person pronouns include words such as he, his, him, she, her, hers,

they, them, and their. Nouns also create the third person perspective

(individuals, theorists, studies, practitioners, students).

Writers should keep a consistent point of view throughout a work

to ensure clarity in their writing. In the following example, the point of

view is not consistent, causing awkward phrasing:

Students should be aware of the pitfalls of a busy

academic life. Without proper planning and time

management, you get worn down, and students

burn out quickly. I must create an action plan at the

beginning of each semester and stick to it to make it

through the courses.

In this example, first (I), second ( you), and third person (students)

points of view are used, causing an unclear passage. The reader might

wonder who the word you refers to and if the author is suggesting that

all students or just I should create the action plan.

Here is a revision of the preceding text using a consistent point of

view:

Students should be aware of the pitfalls of a busy

academic life. Without proper planning and time

management, they can get worn down and burn out

quickly. Students should create an action plan at the

beginning of each semester and stick to it to make it

through their courses.

263Gr ammar, mechanics, and sPellinG

PUnctUation Using punctuation effectively allows a writer to create rhythm, empha-

sis, and space for the reader. Punctuation also helps to separate inde-

pendent thoughts from each other. The following section explains

punctuation usage for both end punctuation, such as the period,

exclamation mark, and question mark, and internal punctuation, such

as the comma, semicolon, colon, dash, hyphen, and apostrophe.

The Period A period is also referred to as a full stop, meaning the reader should

stop, not merely pause, when approaching a period in text. Therefore,

a period is used to end a complete thought—an independent clause,

also known as a sentence. Periods end sentences of declaration or

command:

Jeffrey and Shelly’s movie marathon lasted 48 hours.

(declarative sentence)

Avoid movie marathons over six hours long unless

plenty of stretching and snack breaks are built in.

(command)

The Exclamation Mark The exclamation mark is used to show elevated emotion or exclama-

tion in a sentence.

“Quick, throw me the baking soda!” yelled Mom as

she tried to control the grease fire on the stove.

Oh no! We’re out of baking soda!

264 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

Exclamation marks are used sparingly to emphasize the emotion of

the expression and are typically avoided in academic and business

writing where a more even, formal tone is used.

The Question Mark The question mark is used after a direct question.

Did grandpa find his false teeth?

When did the city council make the decision to create

a traffic circle downtown?

Question marks are not used with indirect questions:

Jamie asked grandpa where his false teeth were.

I wanted to know when the city council made the

decision to create a traffic circle downtown.

The Comma A comma provides the reader with a pause and is typically used to

separate items within the sentence. There are many uses for the

comma, but writers should avoid unnecessary commas that can inter-

rupt the flow of a text. This section explains common uses of commas.

Commas can be used between independent clauses along with

coordinating conjunctions ( for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so). The

comma and the conjunction provide enough of a break between com-

plete thoughts, but both elements should be used to avoid running

sentences together or creating comma splices.

The community orchestra practiced twice a week for

the upcoming holiday event, and Sam ensured that

he attended each session.

265Gr ammar, mechanics, and sPellinG

Sam wanted more than anything to play the trumpet

solo, but the more experienced trumpeter, Steven,

got that honor.

Commas are used to separate introductory words, phrases, or

clauses from the rest of the sentence. Many times, these introductory

elements also provide transitions for the reader.

Yesterday, I finally admitted to eating the last slice of

cake.

In the middle of the night, I had gotten hungry and

couldn’t resist the temptation.

Before I confessed, I planned to bake another cake so

my husband could have a slice tonight.

However, I was out of flour and sugar and could not

continue with my plan.

When two adjectives modify a noun equally rather than cumula-

tively, a comma is needed to separate the adjectives. A writer can use

two unofficial tests to determine if adjectives are coordinate:

●● The writer can switch the order of cumulative adjectives with-

out affecting clarity. ●● The word and can be used between coordinate adjectives.

My daughter is a playful, imaginative child.

The preceding example passes both coordinate adjective tests. You

could easily switch the order of adjectives (My daughter is an imagi-

266 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

native, playful child) or use the word and in place of the comma (My

daughter is a playful and imaginative child).

She wore a light blue tutu around the house for sev-

eral days. (cumulative)

The preceding example does not pass the coordinate adjective test;

therefore, a comma is not needed between adjectives. You could not

switch the order of adjectives (She wore a blue light tutu around the

house for several days) or separate the items with and (She wore a

light and blue tutu around the house for several days).

Commas are used between three or more items in a series to help

separate and distinguish those items from each other. Many academic

style manuals encourage writers to place a comma before the last

item, but others, including journalistic manuals, do not encourage the

use of that last comma.

We went over the river, through the woods, and past

a hermit’s cottage before arriving at the camp site for

the evening.

Mom, Granny, and Aunt Ida wanted to snoop around

the cottage, but I insisted that we keep hiking to

reach our destination before midnight.

A nonrestrictive element does not restrict or refine the meaning

of a word in the sentence in order to affect the meaning of that word.

Therefore, a nonrestrictive element is not absolutely essential for

the meaning of the sentence. Instead, these elements provide extra

description or detail that the reader will find interesting.

Nonrestrictive elements are set off from the rest of the sentence

by commas:

267Gr ammar, mechanics, and sPellinG

My mother’s frequent warnings, which I rarely

heeded in the past, flashed through my mind as I

jumped back on the curb barely avoiding a speeding

city bus.

Sue’s clunker car, with its rusted and duct-taped exte-

rior, chugged and smoked up the mountain on her

way back to school.

In both of the preceding cases, the information within the commas is

interesting and descriptive, but it is not necessary to understand the

main point of each sentence. Contrast these to a sentence like this:

The man with the tribal tattoo cut my hair.

In this case, with the tribal tattoo identifies exactly which man cut the

hair. Without it, it could have been any man, so this is a restrictive

element (because it restricts who the man could be) and is not set off

with commas.

Commas are used to set apart transitional words or phrases used

within a sentence:

I watched the weather forecast on the local news

station last night; therefore, I was prepared for the

downpour that occurred this afternoon.

As a matter of fact, I brought extra umbrellas to pass

out to drenched pedestrians that I passed on my way

into the office.

Commas are used to set apart parenthetical elements within a

sentence as well:

268 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

The coffeepot, luckily, had an automatic shut down

feature.

Richard, my dear, you must return to the grocery

store because you forgot the milk and bread.

Commas are needed after appositive phrases. Appositive phrases

rename a noun or pronoun in the sentence.

Tommy, being the stereotypical class clown, fre-

quently got in trouble for placing tacks in chairs and

flying paper airplanes around the classroom.

Commas are used to separate the year of a date from other items

in the sentence. A comma is also needed between a city and its state.

On January 14, 1975, my mother moved to Nashville,

Tennessee, to begin her career as a country singer/

songwriter.

Frequently Misused Commas Unnecessary commas can interrupt the flow of writing or cause clarity

issues. Writers should avoid including commas if no particular reason

to use one exists. The following examples reveal commonly misused

commas, which are highlighted:

A comma should not be placed between two items joined by a

coordinating conjunction ( for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) unless the

items are independent clauses:

Sarah thought of how responsible and trustworthy

her son had always been, and decided to allow him

to stay out an hour past curfew.

269Gr ammar, mechanics, and sPellinG

In the preceding example, the conjunction and is joining two verbs—

thought and decided—so the comma is not necessary.

A single comma should never separate a subject and verb:

The child who finishes her homework first, will be

able to choose the recess activity this afternoon.

Commas are not needed within a prepositional phrase:

Virginia found several rules of her new job difficult to

follow, such as, arriving on time, completing her daily

tasks, and not falling asleep at her desk after lunch.

In the preceding example, the comma after such as is not necessary as

it interrupts the phrase such as arriving on time, completing her daily

tasks, and not falling asleep at her desk after lunch.

Commas are not needed to set off essential information in the

sentence:

I promise never to call after 10:00 p.m. again, unless

it is an emergency.

In the preceding example, the clause unless it is an emergency is nec-

essary for the meaning of the sentence, so the comma should not be

placed before that clause.

The Semicolon A semicolon provides a substantial break in or between sentences. A

semicolon is typically used in two ways.

Semicolons can be used to separate sentences that have a close

connection with each other. The semicolon provides enough of a break

to indicate to the reader that there are two distinct, complete thoughts.

At the same time, the semicolon shows the reader that the complete

270 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

thoughts are related enough not to warrant separation by a period.

Many times, conjunctive adverbs are used in these constructions:

Harry wanted to ask Janelle to marry him; however,

he couldn’t get up the nerve to do so in a crowded

restaurant.

Janelle knew something was going on; she could

sense Harry’s tension from across the table.

Semicolons can also be used between three or more items in a

series when the items are complex and contain commas. The semi-

colons help distinguish the larger elements from the smaller elements

in the series:

To show support for her son’s little league team,

Tonya drove the neighborhood kids to practices;

served drinks, snacks, and ice cream at the conces-

sion stand; and sold magazines, candy bars, and

wrapping paper to raise funds for new uniforms.

The Colon A colon is used after an independent clause (sentence) that introduces

a list, definition, quote, explanation, or example:

Millard’s Pizza Palace has several delicious items on

the menu that I would recommend: cheese calzones,

Chicago-style pies, and Greek salad.

My father had only one rule for his household of

teenage kids: Get home before midnight or be pre-

pared for an early alarm and yard work chores the

next morning.

271Gr ammar, mechanics, and sPellinG

Grammar Geeks Online (2008) offers the following

suggestion: “Keep your grammar handbooks with

you at all times and be prepared for questions about

participial phrases” (para. 4).

Book collectors can be quite obsessive: My Uncle

Frank can no longer walk down his hallway without

tripping over tomes lining the path.

A common mistake that writers make is not creating an independent

clause before the colon. In these instances, the colon many times

interrupts a phrase, as in the following example:

Our picnic consisted of: cold fried chicken, potato

salad, fruit salad, and plenty of ants.

The Dash Dashes are used to set aside parenthetical information and emphasize

or highlight the information. To create a dash, type two hyphens (--).

Please note, however, that some word-processing programs, depend-

ing on how they are configured, automatically convert two hyphens(--)

to a solid dash—and this is acceptable.

The following are examples of situations where a dash would be

used:

The city council’s final decision—evolving from many

hours of citizen complaints and heated debates

among council members—seemed to satisfy most

parties involved.

Last night’s dinner—broccoli salad, chicken casse-

role, cloverleaf rolls, sweet tea, and pound cake—

was a southern potluck-lover’s dream meal.

272 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

Try to avoid using dashes too often in college-level and business writ-

ing as they can interrupt the flow of writing and distract readers.

The Hyphen Hyphens are used to combine terms and create compound words that

come before and modify nouns (these are also called “compound

adjectives”):

My ninety-year-old granny practices yoga at the

YMCA daily to keep fit.

The ever-popular class clown, Jimmy Simms, had us

all in stitches from his latest prank.

Hyphens are also used after certain prefixes.

Jenny McGhee was a self-made millionaire.

Despite the horrible sunburn and a weight gain of

10 pounds, I enjoyed the all-inclusive trip to the

Bahamas I won for contributing to a local public

radio station last year.

I downloaded an e-book last night to take to the

beach for some light reading.

The Apostrophe An apostrophe is used to show possession.

My dog’s tail

Sarah’s new car

The home’s appeal

The decision’s finality

273Gr ammar, mechanics, and sPellinG

To make a singular noun possessive, add an apostrophe and an

–s ending:

The car’s fender

My sister’s room

The store’s sale

To make a plural noun that doesn’t already end in –s possessive,

add an apostrophe and an –s:

Children’s mischief

Oxen’s load

To make a plural noun that ends in –s possessive, simply add the

apostrophe:

Employees’ complaints

Boys’ toys

Bears’ cave

To make a singular noun that ends in –s possessive, simply add an

apostrophe as well, especially if adding another –s ending makes the

word difficult to pronounce:

Tom Jones’ songs

Possessive pronouns do not require an apostrophe:

The dog chased its tail.

The children lost their shoes.

We will always keep our holiday traditions.

274 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

caPitalization The basic capitalization principle to remember is to capitalize proper

nouns, nouns that name specific people, places, things, or ideas. Rec-

ognizing categories of proper nouns will help you remember specific

words to capitalize. In addition, a college-level dictionary is a wonder-

ful resource to have on hand when trying to determine whether a word

should be capitalized.

The following lists rules for proper capitalization of various cat-

egories of nouns.

Capitalize Key Words in a Title Nouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, and pronouns are all capitalized in

a title. Also, any word that contains more than four letters is capital-

ized, according to APA guidelines:

The Naked and the Dead

A Community of Writers

“Writing and Knowing: Toward Redefining the Writing

Process”

Exception: Capitalization of titles on an APA-formatted reference page

differs from the preceding rule. Only the first word of the title, first word

of the subtitle, and any proper nouns are capitalized in a full reference

citation.

Smith, J. (2009). Grammar rocks. New York:

McGraw-Hill.

Titles of People Capitalize a title used with a person’s name. Titles used alone typi-

cally do not need capitalization.

Doctor Phillip J. Jones

275Gr ammar, mechanics, and sPellinG

Phillip J. Jones, my daughter’s doctor

Professor Jeannie Jones

The professor currently teaching the class

Places Capitalize the proper names of places, but do not capitalize common

nouns naming a general type of place:

New York City the city

Atlantic Ocean the ocean

Germany a country

Agencies/Companies Capitalize the proper names of specific agencies, companies, organi-

zations, and departments:

Kaplan University

Washington Post Company

American Medical Association

Communications Department

Sentences Capitalize the first word of a sentence and a sentence in a quoted

passage:

Three years have gone by, and I haven’t had a

cigarette.

My daughter often asks, “May I borrow the car?”

abbreviations An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or phrase. In formal,

college-level writing, most abbreviations are avoided to ensure that

276 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

the reader will not misinterpret the meaning of the abbreviated form.

The following are some common abbreviations that are typically used

in any type of writing.

A title is abbreviated when a person’s proper name is used:

Ms. Stephanie Cartier

Dr. Janice Rollins

Prof. Patrick Smith

Rev. Leah Sanders

Tyrone Parker, MD

Sam Clark Jr.

Erin Cloninger, PhD

Benjamin Bartley, DDS

The abbreviations BCE (before the Common Era), BC (before

Christ), CE (the Common Era), AD (Anno Domini—“in the year of the

Lord”), a.m., and p.m. are acceptable when using specific information.

500 BCE (or 500 BC)

1280 CE (or AD 1280)

9:00 a.m.

3:30 p.m.

Avoid using these abbreviated forms when a specific date or time is

not mentioned:

My history class focuses on Palestine before the

Common Era, specifically during the time of Herod.

We arrived home from Aunt Ida’s in the afternoon.

277Gr ammar, mechanics, and sPellinG

nUmbers Generally, spell out numbers one through nine unless used as mea-

surement, ages, percentages, or with a dollar sign:

There were three children running around the living

room.

I downloaded five songs to my MP3 player last night.

The student had reached nearly 6 feet tall by her

senior year in high school.

Sylvia is looking forward to turning 9 this year.

Will you loan me $20?

Use figures for numbers less than one and include the zero:

How would I round .067 to the nearest tenth?

Use figures for specific dates:

Jenny will begin graduate school on August 14, 2010.

Note: An apostrophe is not needed when indicating a specific decade:

Harry grew up in the 1980s and still referred to his friends as the other

Brat Pack.

Spell out fractions less than one and convert larger fractions to

decimals:

In the study, one-half of all students within the uni-

versity regularly used writing center services.

278 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

The tank held 20 gallons of gasoline.

Use a comma for numbers greater than 100:

My final project turned out to be 12,239 words long.

commonly missPelled (and sometimes misUsed) Words

accept/except

Accept is a verb meaning receive, believe, or recognize.

I accepted Jim’s apology right away to avoid further

conflict.

Except is a preposition meaning other than.

Tom has completed all of his exams except for his

geometry final that is due tonight by midnight.

adapt/adopt

Adapt is a verb meaning to become accustomed to.

I had to adapt to the new living situation when my

Granny Sarah came to stay with us.

Adopt is a verb meaning to take ownership of.

I adopted the habit of texting after realizing how

quickly and easily I can communicate with my daugh-

ter that way.

affect/effect

Affect is typically used as a verb meaning make an impact on.

A sedentary lifestyle can affect a child’s weight and

physical condition.

Effect is typically used as a noun meaning a result.

The effects of good study habits could include better

grades, a more organized life, and peace of mind.

279Gr ammar, mechanics, and sPellinG

advice/advise

Advice is a noun meaning a piece of wisdom.

My advice to students recently graduating from high

school is to learn the basics of personal finance

before leaving home.

Advise is a verb meaning to give out those pieces of wisdom.

The college counselor advised Jenny to take at least

24 credit hours this year in order to graduate on

time.

all ready/already

All ready means prepared.

We are all ready to leave for the mountains.

Already is an adverb meaning that an act has occurred in the past.

We were already on the road when we heard the

weather report indicating that a blizzard awaited us

at the ski lodge.

choose/chose

Choose is a present-tense verb meaning to make a selection.

The children were allowed to choose one toy to bring

home on their outing to the mall.

Chose is a past tense verb meaning made a selection.

After much consideration, we chose to take the

puppy with the calmer disposition over the ener-

getic, playful one.

cite/sight/site

Cite is a verb meaning to give credit to an outside source.

I need to cite the online article that I used in my

paper.

Sight is a noun meaning vision.

280 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

I caught sight of a woodpecker trying to drill a hole in

the side of the house.

Site is a noun meaning location.

The site for our new log cabin is deep in the woods.

conscience/conscious

Conscience is a noun meaning your inner moral voice.

I listened to my conscience and decided to tell the

truth to my boss no matter how difficult it was to do

so.

Conscious is a verb meaning to be aware of or to be alert and

awake.

I was conscious of the small child staring at my extra

large feet.

everyday/every day

Everyday is an adjective meaning daily or common. It is typically

used before a noun.

My chocolate bar break is becoming an everyday

occurrence, unfortunately.

Every day is a two-word phrase meaning each day. It typically is

not placed before a noun.

I go to the grocery store every day to pick up fresh

produce.

imply/infer

Imply is a verb meaning to suggest without actually stating.

My Aunt Minnie implied that our house was a mess

when she kept recommending cleaning products and

tools that would be useful for us.

Infer is a verb meaning to come to a conclusion based on a situa-

tion or facts.

281Gr ammar, mechanics, and sPellinG

From her cleaning recommendations and her refusal

to sit down on our furniture, we inferred that Aunt

Minnie was not comfortable being in our cluttered

home.

its/it’s

Its is a possessive pronoun.

The dog chased its tail.

It’s is a contraction of it is.

It’s cloudy today.

lay/lie

Lay is a verb meaning to place.

I will lay the keys by the door so I’ll remember where

I put them next time.

Lie is a verb meaning to recline.

I’m feeling quite faint, so I must lie down.

The conjugations of the verbs lay and lie are typically what con-

fuse writers.

Lay (present tense) Today they lay the foundation of

the house.

Laid (past tense) Yesterday, they laid the foundation

of my neighbor’s house.

Laid (past participle) In the past three weeks, they

have laid foundations for more than 10 houses in our

new neighborhood.

Lie (present tense) Right now I must lie down and

rest.

Lay (past tense) Yesterday, I lay down for a two-hour

nap in the middle of the day!

Lain (past participle) I would have lain down for lon-

ger, but my spastic dog woke me up with his inces-

sant barking.

282 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

loose/lose

Loose is an adjective meaning, free and roomy.

Hadley chose to wear loose-fitting pants during our

Thanksgiving turkey feast.

Lose is a verb meaning to misplace, to be defeated, or to evade.

Unfortunately, after realizing that she had forgot-

ten to put coffee in the buggy, Sarah had to lose her

place in the long grocery line and run back through

the aisles one last time.

Determined not to lose to that arrogant team with the

professional looking uniforms, Coach Terry spend

half-time in the locker room with her rag-tag team

trying to inspire them to win.

Henry tried to lose the hall monitor by slipping down

the third hall on his way to the gym, but the eagle

eyes of Jerry Smithers caught him running between

the lockers.

passed/past

Passed is a past-tense verb meaning went by, delivered, hap-

pened, approved, succeeded, or threw.

Johnny passed Rita the note in class.

Time passed quickly as we tried to wrap up the last

major project for the year.

The Senate passed a resolution last night.

I passed my math class with a B average!

Past is a noun meaning a previous time period.

Although in the past Jenny would have never thought

to borrow money from her older brother, his recent

success in the stock market and newfound generous

spirit encouraged her to ask for a small loan.

283Gr ammar, mechanics, and sPellinG

principal/principle

Principal is an adjective meaning main or a noun meaning head of

a school.

The principal at the middle school showed his

encouragement and support for students and teach-

ers with a generous spirit and a positive, successful

outlook for the school.

The principal point Gina’s father tried to make in his

lecture to her was that she needed more experience

on the road before he would trust her to drive his

new car to school.

Principle is a noun meaning a belief or rule.

There are several principles that apply to good man-

agement practices.

than/then

Than is an adjective used to show a comparison.

The building to my right is much taller than the build-

ing to my left.

Then is an adverb meaning next or at that moment.

First Granny made the punch. Then we all sat down

around the fireplace to enjoy the holiday.

It was then that I realized how important time with

my family was to me.

their/there

Their is a possessive pronoun.

The children left their books at school and were not

able to complete their homework.

There is an adjective indicating a location.

My keys are over there on the coffee table.

284 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

to/too/two

To is used before a verb in an infinitive phrase or as a preposition

in a prepositional phrase.

If you burn yourself in the kitchen, use mustard to

prevent blistering.

Let’s pack up and head to the beach for the weekend!

Too is an adverb meaning very or also.

Benjamin was too tired to cook super, so he stopped

by a fast-food restaurant on the way home.

I want a fast-food hamburger too.

Two is a noun meaning the number between one and three.

I was hungry, so I ate two servings of mashed

potatoes.

It is rare to have two full moons in the same month.

weather/whether

Weather is a noun meaning climate or a verb meaning to endure.

The weather is beautiful today!

The customer service representative weathered the

flood of angry customers coming in to exchange

broken merchandise after the holiday.

Whether is used to show a comparison.

I’m not sure whether I should choose the German

restaurant or the French restaurant for my birthday

dinner.

were/where

Were is the past tense form of the verb to be.

The three children were chattering away in the tent

on their scout retreat.

Where is an adverb that refers to a location.

Where will you go on your honeymoon?

285Gr ammar, mechanics, and sPellinG

your/you’re

Your is the possessive form of the pronoun you.

Let’s go to your house to watch the game.

You’re is the abbreviated form of you are.

That’s so exciting that you’re going on a cruise next

month.

common Grammar mistakes Though writers are individuals with their own writing identity—voice

and, unfortunately, patterns of error—writers’ errors tend to fall into

several major categories. The following sections explain some of these

common grammar mistakes. Practice exercises also accompany each

section so you can work on identifying and correcting these types of

errors as you edit your work.

Answers to the practice exercises are included at the

end of this chapter.

Agreement In Standard American English, there are situations when words must

agree in number (plural or singular). Subjects and verbs must agree

in number as well as pronouns and their antecedents. Each of these

agreement situations are explained in more detail in the earlier sec-

tion, “Agreement (Pronoun-Antecedent; Subject-Verb),” pp. 254–260.

Here are the basics.

Pronouns must agree in number with the words they refer to

(nouns or pronouns).

The mechanics in the shop next door baked their

famous oatmeal chocolate chip cookies for my birth-

day party.

286 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

Exercise A: Find and correct any errors in pronoun-antecedent agreement.

Joe’s attempt to learn to cook Mexican food (thinking

they would impress his girlfriend) began in an inter-

esting way. As he was flipping through the television

stations one night, bored out of his mind, he stopped

at the local PBS station to watch what seemed to

be a documentary about Mexico City. Each of the

locations that the camera panned by revealed their

unique identity within the city, and in these loca-

tions was a chef whose food reflected these unique

identities.

Present tense subjects and verbs must agree in number.

The mechanics bake cookies for us to celebrate any

special occasion.

Harry, in particular, bakes sugar cookies that are out

of this world!

Exercise B: Find and correct any errors in subject-verb agreement.

As the snow continues to fall outside, the sixth

graders fidget in their seats. Each of the students

are sure that the principal will interrupt the teacher

over the intercom at any minute announcing an early

dismissal. The teacher, trying to regain the attention

of her students, begin a new lesson on Shakespeare.

Neither her efforts to calm the class nor her attempt

to close the blinds are helping the situation as stu-

287Gr ammar, mechanics, and sPellinG

dents remain distracted. Just as she finishes handing

out a reading list, the intercom buzzes and the voice

of Ms. Smith, the principal, rings out. There is shouts

of joy everywhere!

Run-on Sentences and Comma Splices As your writing skill and confidence develops, you might begin com-

bining sentences in interesting ways. Though this practice certainly

helps you build skills, it also can cause punctuation issues. Each com-

plete thought needs appropriate punctuation. You can end a sentence

with a period, or you can combine two sentences with a semicolon or a

comma with a conjunction (FANBOYS). The following are several exam-

ples of correct punctuation of combined sentences:

I wanted to leap in the car and drive home as fast as

possible; however, I realized that I would hit rush

hour traffic. I decided to stay in the office for a cou-

ple of hours instead of fighting the other commuters

for a lane, and my plan was successful. I completed

a project that I had been working on for days in that

quiet office after hours.

Exercise C: Find and correct any run-on sentences or comma splices.

Sarah’s first day on the job began as a disaster.

Walking into the front office, she slipped and fell on

the mat at the doorway, she tumbled across the floor

landing at the feet of her new boss. The entire lobby

froze in disbelief at what just happened the recep-

tionist then rushed over to ensure that she was okay.

Her boss knelt down and offered her a hand. Instead

of going straight back up to her office, Sarah’s boss

288 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

invited her to the break room for some tea and Sarah

gladly accepted because she knew she would need

some time to shake off the embarrassing event.

Unnecessary Commas and Missing Commas Many writers have issues with commas. Some writers put in unneces-

sary commas; other writers leave out essential commas. The “Punc-

tuation” section, pp. 263–273, indicates the guidelines for using

commas correctly. This section describes situations when writers typi-

cally misuse commas.

Commas are not needed between two items joined by the word

and.

Sally opened the refrigerator door, and nearly fell

on the floor from amazement. Her roommate had

stocked the shelves with food for the entire week!

Corrected version: Sally opened the refrigerator door

and nearly fell on the floor from amazement. Her

roommate had stocked the shelves with food for the

entire week!

In the preceding sentence, the comma is not needed to join the verbs

opened and fell. They are already joined by the conjunction and.

Commas are needed between two sentences joined by the word

and:

Sally opened the refrigerator door and she nearly

fell on the floor from amazement. Her roommate had

stocked the shelves with food for the entire week!

Corrected version: Sally opened the refrigerator

door, and she nearly fell on the floor from amaze-

289Gr ammar, mechanics, and sPellinG

ment. Her roommate had stocked the shelves with

food for the entire week!

Because the subject she was added to the second clause, now there

are two sentences. They need both a comma and a conjunction (and )

to be combined.

Commas are needed to set off introductory elements and transi-

tional elements in a sentence:

The grass in my yard is getting quite tall; however

the first cold spell of the season is approaching, so

I think I’ll keep the lawn mower in the garage until

next spring.

Corrected version: The grass in my yard is getting

quite tall; however, the first cold spell of the season

is approaching, so I think I’ll keep the lawn mower in

the garage until next spring.

After the four-course dinner I was stuffed and quite

lethargic.

Corrected version: After the four-course dinner, I was

stuffed and quite lethargic.

Commas are not needed in the middle of a prepositional phrase.

Many times, writers try to insert commas within a phrase that begins

with such as. These commas are not necessary:

I bought many unnecessary items at the grocery

store, such as, cookies, ice cream, and nacho chips.

290 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

Corrected version: I bought many unnecessary items

at the grocery store, such as cookies, ice cream, and

nacho chips.

Commas are not needed between the subject and verb of a

sentence:

Since I was a little girl my dream, has always been to

coach little league baseball.

Corrected version: Since I was a little girl, my dream

has always been to coach little league baseball.

Exercise D: Find and correct any misused commas or missing commas.

As Jerry walked into the front of the restaurant that

comforting smell of greasy burgers and crispy French

fries hit him. He knew this would be the perfect place

for his first job. He loved eating fast-food meals, and

often begged his mother to buy the family a round of

value meals instead of preparing home-cooked items

such as, meatloaf with mashed potatoes or chicken

and rice. As he reveled in the sights and smells of

the restaurant, the assistant manager rushed over

to greet him. The manager was quite busy trying

to attend to a string of full ordering lines, however

he made time to talk with Jerry and make him feel

welcomed.

Fragments (Subordinate Clauses) Fragments are another issue that many students have. A fragment is

an incomplete thought. Typically, students create fragmented sen-

291Gr ammar, mechanics, and sPellinG

tences when they place a period after a subordinate clause (a clause

that doesn’t create a complete thought) or when they place a period

after a gerund phrase (a phrase beginning with an –ing verb).

The following are examples of fragments and corrections to those

fragments:

Running down the slippery sidewalk in the middle of

a snowstorm. Kara frantically waved down the bus.

Corrected version: Running down the slippery side-

walk in the middle of a snowstorm, Kara frantically

waved down the bus.

Since my last doctor’s appointment. I have taken

excellent care of myself by eating right and

exercising.

Corrected version: Since my last doctor’s appoint-

ment, I have taken excellent care of myself by eating

right and exercising.

Exercise E: Find and correct any sentence fragment errors.

Several years ago. My mother began taking pottery

classes. She heard about the opportunity to learn

basic wheel thrown pottery in our local Parks and

Recreation Department summer catalog. She has

always had an interest in pottery. Especially since

her great grandfather made his living as a potter in

the early twentieth century. With only a few shards

of old pots saved from her grandfather’s legacy. My

mother decided to take the stories and memories

that her mother passed down to her for inspiration.

292 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

Exercise F: Find and correct any common grammatical errors.

After a week of frantic searching, Amanda realized

that she must have left her coat at the local YMCA.

She immediately got in the car and sped over there.

As she approached the YMCA lost-and-found counter

eager to retrieve the coat, a present that her Grandpa

Steven had given her last Christmas. Each of the

attendants were intently listening to their iPods and

paying Amanda no attention. She waited for one of

them to notice her then approached the young man

at the closest counter. She waved her hand in front of

his face To ensure he was paying attention.

“I can see you, ma’am,” the 16-year-old said in an

apathetic tone.

“I’m sorry. I just need to pick up my coat I must have

left it here last Tuesday after swim class.”

The young man sighed and slumped off his stool. He

returned and plopped a box full of coats, hats, and

gloves on the counter. Then plugged his earbuds

back in and stared back off into space.

Taken aback, Amanda wondered if she had ever

experienced such horrible customer service, then

she spotted her jacket smashed in the corner of the

box. Elated at finding the coat she pulled it out, and

thanked the young man for his trouble. Each time

that she returns to the YMCA, there are another

group of bored looking teenagers leaning against the

counter. Waiting for their shift to end.

293Gr ammar, mechanics, and sPellinG

Grammar Exercise Keys

Exercise A Answers: Pronoun-antecedent agreement

Joe’s attempt to learn to cook Mexican food (thinking

it would impress his girlfriend) began in an interest-

ing way. As he was flipping through the television

stations one night, bored out of his mind, he stopped

at the local PBS station to watch what seemed to be

a documentary about Mexico City. Each of the loca-

tions that the camera panned by revealed its unique

identity within the city. And in these locations was a

chef whose food reflected these unique identities.

Exercise B Answers: Subject-verb agreement

As the snow continues to fall outside, the sixth grad-

ers fidget in their seats. Each of the students is sure

that the principal will interrupt the teacher over the

intercom at any minute announcing an early dis-

missal. The teacher, trying to regain the attention of

her students, begins a new lesson on Shakespeare.

Neither her efforts to calm the class nor her attempt

to close the blinds is helping the situation as stu-

dents remain distracted. Just as she finishes hand-

ing out a reading list, the intercom buzzes and the

voice of Ms. Smith, the principal, rings out. There are

shouts of joy everywhere!

Exercise C Answers: Run-on sentences and comma splices

Sarah’s first day on the job began as a disaster.

Walking into the front office, she slipped and fell on

294 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

the mat at the doorway, and she tumbled across the

floor landing at the feet of her new boss. The entire

lobby froze in disbelief at what just happened. The

receptionist then rushed over to ensure that she

was okay. Her boss knelt down and offered her a

hand. Instead of going straight back up to her office,

Sarah’s boss invited her to the break room for some

tea. Sarah gladly accepted because she knew she

would need some time to shake off the embarrassing

event.

Exercise D Answers: Misused commas and missing commas

As Jerry walked into the front of the restaurant, that

comforting smell of greasy burgers and crispy French

fries hit him. He knew this would be the perfect place

for his first job. He loved eating fast-food meals and

often begged his mother to buy the family a round of

value meals instead of preparing home-cooked items

such as meatloaf with mashed potatoes or chicken

and rice. As he reveled in the sights and smells of

the restaurant, the assistant manager rushed over

to greet him. The manager was quite busy trying

to attend to a string of full ordering lines; however,

he made time to talk with Jerry and make him feel

welcomed.

Exercise E Answers: Sentence fragment errors

Several years ago, my mother began taking pottery

classes. She heard about the opportunity to learn

basic wheel thrown pottery in our local Parks and

Recreation Department summer catalog. She has

295Gr ammar, mechanics, and sPellinG

always had an interest in pottery especially since her

great grandfather made his living as a potter in the

early twentieth century. With only a few shards of old

pots saved from her grandfather’s legacy, my mother

decided to take the stories and memories that her

mother passed down to her for inspiration.

Exercise F Answers: Common grammatical errors

After a week of frantic searching, Amanda realized

that she must have left her coat at the local YMCA.

She immediately got in the car and sped over there.

As she approached the YMCA lost-and-found coun-

ter, she was eager to retrieve the coat, a present that

her Grandpa Steven had given her last Christmas.

All of the attendants were intently listening to their

iPods and paying Amanda no attention. She waited

for one of them to notice her and then approached

the young man at the closest counter. She waved

her hand in front of his face to ensure he was paying

attention.

“I can see you, ma’am,” the 16-year-old said in an

apathetic tone.

“I’m sorry. I just need to pick up my coat. I must have

left it here last Tuesday after swim class.”

The young man sighed and slumped off his stool. He

returned and plopped a box full of coats, hats, and

gloves on the counter and then plugged his earbuds

back in and stared off into space.

296 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

Taken aback, Amanda wondered if she had ever

experienced such horrible customer service; then

she spotted her jacket smashed in the corner of the

box. Elated at finding the coat, she pulled it out and

thanked the young man for his trouble. Each time

that she returns to the YMCA, there is another group

of bored-looking teenagers leaning against the coun-

ter and waiting for their shift to end.

297

We are all familiar with grading. Almost every class we have attended

has some form of grading attached to it. Every assignment is, for the

most part, graded by our instructor. This can include all tests or quiz-

zes, term papers, projects, discussion posts, seminar participation,

and even homework. These assignments show our instructor what we

have learned about a subject or topic. Therefore, we are assessed on

our performance or ability to understand and apply the information we

have been taught.

However, grading implies much more. Grades certainly evaluate

how well a student progresses in a class or on a particular assignment.

They also assess learning and indicate how well a student meets an

assignment’s criteria. Grades can also be looked at as motivators that

encourage students to strive for a better understanding and practice

of a course’s learning objectives.

Most assignments and projects require a grade, and it is, there-

fore, necessary to provide students with a clear set of guidelines so

they will know how that grade is derived. All graded assignments in a

class, when added together, provide the student with an overall grade

for the course, so it is important to understand how each assignment

is weighted and what criteria are being measured.

chaPter 18

UnderstandinG GradinG

ellen manninG

298 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

rUbrics Rubrics are the written guidelines that measure degrees of quality in a

particular assignment. They are a clearly outlined set of expectations,

and they can be as varied as the assignments they assess. Usually,

instructors post rubrics for each graded class assignment in the sylla-

bus at the start of the term. Students can easily see what is expected

for each assignment, which outcomes the instructor will assess, and

how much each criterion is worth.

There are generally three types of rubrics: holistic, analytic, and

hybrid.

Holistic rubrics evaluate the assignment as a whole. They do not

assign specific point values to particular criteria. Many instructors will

use this type of rubric to make sure the student understands the larger

elements of an assignment. These rubrics allow the instructor to give

a general overview reaction to the assignment. They tend to focus on

more general concepts so the student will not feel penalized by small

errors.

Analytic rubrics assign specific points for each main criteria of the

assignment. The number of points the assignment earned for each cri-

terion determines the grade. It could be any number of points depend-

ing on the particular assignment. For example, a project worth 200

points might have 50 points allocated for each of four main criteria—

organization, content, writing skills, and formatting. When the points

are added together, the final grade would reflect how well the student

met each criterion. Analytic rubrics help identify specific strengths

and weaknesses of each student’s performance. The students can

clearly see which areas they need to work on and which they might

have mastered. Therefore, analytic rubrics give the students specific

information on how to improve. They also give benchmarks so student

improvement can be demonstrated over time.

299UnderstandinG Gr adinG

Hybrid rubrics look like holistic rubrics, but with broader-based

criteria. They also have point assignments, so they are used analyti-

cally. Many of the rubrics used by Kaplan University professors are

hybrids.

Tables 18.1, 18.2, and 18.3 show some samples of the kinds of

rubrics your class syllabus may contain.

Table 18.1 HOlISTIC RUBRIC

UNIT 1 EXERCISE RUBRIC: 40 TOTAL POINTS � Credit (40 Points) • Exercise includes screen shots for each of the four

assigned areas.

• Exercise includes paragraphs discussing goals and/ or concerns.

• Goals and concerns are written in complete sentences.

• Minimal spelling, grammar, and mechanical errors exist.

� Partial Credit (Point Values Vary)

• Exercise is missing some screen shots.

• Exercise is missing some goals or concerns.

• Grammar, spelling, and mechanical errors are more than minimal.

� No Credit (0 Points) • Exercise is not turned in.

• Exercise does not include screen shots or goals/con- cerns.

• Grammatical errors make it impossible to understand the points of the author.

� • Project is turned in late, but before the end of Unit 2: –20%

• Project is turned in late, but before the end of Unit 3: –30%

• Project is turned in after Unit 3: 0.

300 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

Table 18.2 ANAlYTIC RUBRIC

DISCUSSION BOARD RUBRIC � Timeliness 6 points Original response and peer responses made

on time.

4 points Original response and one peer response posted on time.

2 points Original response posted on time.

1 point Original response not posted on time.

0 points No responses were made. � Quality of Origi- nal Response

6 points Information clearly relates to the main topic. Original response addresses all parts of the original question and provides several sup- porting details or examples.

4 points Information clearly relates to the main topic. Original response addresses all parts of the original question and provides one to two sup- porting details or examples.

2 points Information clearly relates to the main topic. Original response addresses most parts of the original question. No details and/or examples are given.

1 point Information has little or nothing to do with the main topic.

0 points Original response was not made. � Quality of Peer Response

6 points Minimum of two peer responses meets length requirements and contributes to the quality and advancement of the discussion.

4 points Minimum of two peer responses does not meet length requirements, but contributes to the quality and advancement of the discussion.

2 points Only one peer post is made that meets length requirements and contributes to the quality and advancement of the discussion.

[continued]

301UnderstandinG Gr adinG

Table 18.2 ANAlYTIC RUBRIC [continued]

DISCUSSION BOARD RUBRIC � Quality of Peer Response (cont.)

1 point Peer posts, regardless of number, do not contribute to the quality or advance the discus- sion.

0 points Peer posts were not made.

� Amount of Information

6 points Original response meets length requirement.

4 points Original response falls slightly short of length requirement.

2 points Original response does not meet length requirement.

1 point Amount of information seriously short of length requirements.

0 points Original response was not made.

� Mechanics 6 points Responses are clearly written. No grammatical,

spelling, or punctuation errors exist. If ap- plicable, references or resources used are cited using APA format.

4 points Responses are clearly written. Almost no grammatical, spelling, or punctuation errors exist. If applicable, attempt is made at using APA format for any references or resources used.

2 points Responses are clearly written. There are a few grammatical, spelling, or punctuation errors. If applicable, attempt is made at using APA format for any references or resources used.

1 point Response is not clearly written. Many gram- matical, spelling, or punctuation errors exist. If applicable, references were not included.

0 points Responses were not made.

302 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

Table 18.3 HYBRID RUBRIC

FINAL PROjECT RUBRIC: 250 TOTAL POINTS � A 225– 250 pts

Content Includes a strong thesis statement, introduction, and conclusion. Shows original thought. Supports arguments well (no logical flaws; outside sources used to support arguments). Develops main points clearly. Skillfully refutes counterarguments and does not ignore data contradicting its claim. Refers to at least five outside sources in the text and references page, three of which are academic sources. Meets page requirements. Includes abstract, title page, and references page.

Organization Should be very well ordered. Internally, each section must have a strong internal organization. Transitions found between and within sections must be clear and effective.

Writing Style Appropriate to the assignment, fresh (interesting to read), accurate (no far-fetched, unsupported com- ments), precise (say what you mean), and concise (not wordy).

Mechanics Project is free of serious errors; grammar, punctua- tion, and spelling help to clarify the meaning by following accepted conventions. Citations follow APA guidelines.

� B 200– 224 pts

Content Includes a good thesis statement, introduction, and conclusion that need some revision. Shows original thought. Supports most arguments concretely (no logical flaws; outside sources supporting most claims). Develops the main points clearly. Refutes counterarguments and does not ignore data contra- dicting its claim, though the refutation might need tightening and additional support. Refers to a mini- mum of five outside sources both in text and in the references page, two of which are academic sources. Less than a page short of the requirement.

[continued]

303UnderstandinG Gr adinG

Table 18.3 HYBRID RUBRIC [continued]

FINAL PROjECT RUBRIC: 250 TOTAL POINTS � B 200– 224 pts (cont.)

Organization Should be well ordered. Internally, each section must have a good internal organization. Transitions found between and within sections are mostly clear and effective.

Writing Style Should generally be appropriate to the assignment, accurate (no far-fetched, unsupported comments), precise (say what you mean), and concise (not wordy).

Mechanics Contains some generally minor grammatical and punctuation errors. Few misspellings. Citations generally follow APA guidelines (perhaps one or two minor errors).

� C 175– 199 pts

Content Includes a thesis statement that needs revision. The introduction and conclusion do not set up or close the paper very effectively. Shows too little original thought. Main points are adequately defined in only some areas of the paper; points might be over emphasized or repeated. Some arguments are sup- ported with outside research, but others might not be. Relies too heavily on personal experience or one or two sources. Some obvious counterarguments are ignored or not well refuted. The paper is largely informative with little persuasive claim. Contains references to three to four outside sources, only one of which is academic. One to two pages short of the requirement. Does not include one of the following: title page, abstract, reference page.

Organization The organization has a few problems. Sections lack transitions, and several sentences may be mo- notonous or confusing. The overall structure of the assignment is not effective.

Writing Style Appropriate in places, but elsewhere language is vague and/or inappropriate.

Mechanics Numerous grammatical and punctuation errors exist. Misspellings are more frequent, but they are the sort spell-checkers do not catch, such as “effect/affect.” An attempt at APA citation was made, but there are multiple errors larger than a misplaced period.

[continued]

304 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

Table 18.3 HYBRID RUBRIC [continued]

FINAL PROjECT RUBRIC: 250 TOTAL POINTS � D 150– 174 pts

Content The thesis statement identifies a topic but no claim and needs major revision. The introduction or conclusion is poorly developed. The essay’s main points are developed inconsistently, or repetitiously. Many obvious counterarguments are ignored and go unrefuted. Relies too heavily on personal experience. The paper does not meet many of the source require- ments. There are too few in-text citations or one or two sources are relied on exclusively; the references page might be missing. The paper is largely infor- mative with little persuasive claim. Three or more pages short of the requirement. Is missing two of the following: abstract, reference page, title page.

Organization The organization has multiple problems. Most sec- tions lack transitions, and sentences are often mo- notonous or incomprehensible. The overall structure of the assignment is not effective.

Writing Style

Inappropriate and vague writing interferes with the development and clarity of the main points.

Mechanics Many serious and minor grammar or punctuation errors; frequent misspellings, including those that should have been caught by the spell-checker. Cita- tion meets few APA guidelines.

� F 0–149 pts

It meets no or few of the assignment’s guidelines. The components outlined for a D paper are not met. It might be plagiarized.

� Project may not be turned in late.

305UnderstandinG Gr adinG

How Instructors Use These Rubrics Instructors use rubrics to assign grades for seminar, discussion posts,

some exercises, and all projects. The types of rubrics vary with each

class, but for the most part, they should look something like the previ-

ous samples. Instructors read an assignment and then compare it with

the rubric for evaluation.

For holistic rubrics, the instructor gets an overall sense of the stu-

dent’s performance on the assignment and then assigns the appropri-

ate grade, usually A, B, C, and so forth. They may also use pluses and

minuses with those grades.

For analytic rubrics, the instructor assigns specific points for each

criterion of the rubric and then totals them to arrive at a final grade,

usually in points. The points correspond to a letter grade. For exam-

ple, a seminar valued at 10 points might have earned 8.5 points in

total, which would correspond to a B.

For hybrid rubrics, the instructor might indicate performance by

highlighting the criteria that the student met in each analytic category.

Table 18.4 shows a sample of this.

306 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

Table 18.4 FINAl PROjECT RUBRIC

FINAL PROjECT RUBRIC: 100 TOTAL POINTS � A 225– 250 pts

Content Includes a strong thesis statement, introduction, and conclusion. Shows original thought. Supports arguments well (no logical flaws; outside sources used to support arguments). Develops main points clearly. Skillfully refutes counterarguments and does not ignore data contradicting its claim. Refers to at least five outside sources in the text and references page, three of which are academic sources. Meets page requirements. Includes abstract, title page, and references page.

Organization Should be very well ordered. Internally, each section must have a strong internal organization. Transitions found between and within sections must be clear and effective.

Writing Style Appropriate to the assignment, fresh (interesting to read), accurate (no far-fetched, unsupported com- ments), precise (say what you mean), and concise (not wordy).

Mechanics Project is free of serious errors; grammar, punctua- tion, and spelling help to clarify the meaning by following accepted conventions. Citations follow APA guidelines.

� B 200– 224 pts

Content Includes a good thesis statement, introduction, and conclusion that need some revision. Shows original thought. Supports most arguments concretely (no logical flaws; outside sources supporting most claims). Develops the main points clearly. Refutes counterarguments and does not ignore data contra- dicting its claim, though the refutation might need tightening and additional support. Refers to a mini- mum of five outside sources both in text and in the references page, two of which are academic sources. Less than a page short of the requirement.

[continued]

307UnderstandinG Gr adinG

Table 18.4 FINAl PROjECT RUBRIC [continued]

FINAL PROjECT RUBRIC: 100 TOTAL POINTS � B 200– 224 pts (cont.)

Organization Should be well ordered. Internally, each section must have a good internal organization. Transitions found between and within sections are mostly clear and effective.

Writing Style Should generally be appropriate to the assignment, accurate (no far-fetched, unsupported comments), precise (say what you mean), and concise (not wordy).

Mechanics Contains some generally minor grammatical and punctuation errors. Few misspellings. Citations generally follow APA guidelines (perhaps one or two minor errors).

� C 175– 199 pts

Content Includes a thesis statement that needs revision. The introduction and conclusion do not set up or close the paper very effectively. Shows too little original thought. Main points are adequately defined in only some areas of the paper; points might be over emphasized or repeated. Some arguments are sup- ported with outside research, but others might not be. Relies too heavily on personal experience or one or two sources. Some obvious counterarguments are ignored or not well refuted. The paper is largely informative with little persuasive claim. Contains references to three to four outside sources, only one of which is academic. One to two pages short of the requirement. Does not include one of the following: title page, abstract, reference page.

Organization The organization has a few problems. Sections lack transitions, and several sentences may be mo- notonous or confusing. The overall structure of the assignment is not effective.

Writing Style Appropriate in places, but elsewhere language is vague and/or inappropriate.

Mechanics Numerous grammatical and punctuation errors exist. Misspellings are more frequent, but they are the sort spell-checkers do not catch, such as “effect/affect.” An attempt at APA citation was made, but there are multiple errors larger than a misplaced period.

[continued]

308 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

Table 18.4 FINAl PROjECT RUBRIC [continued]

FINAL PROjECT RUBRIC: 100 TOTAL POINTS � D 150– 174 pts

Content The thesis statement identifies a topic but no claim and needs major revision. The introduction or conclusion is poorly developed. The essay’s main points are developed inconsistently, or repetitiously. Many obvious counterarguments are ignored and go unrefuted. Relies too heavily on personal experience. The paper does not meet many of the source require- ments. There are too few in-text citations or one or two sources are relied on exclusively; the references page might be missing. The paper is largely infor- mative with little persuasive claim. Three or more pages short of the requirement. Is missing two of the following: abstract, reference page, title page.

Organization The organization has multiple problems. Most sec- tions lack transitions, and sentences are often mo- notonous or incomprehensible. The overall structure of the assignment is not effective.

Writing Style

Inappropriate and vague writing interferes with the development and clarity of the main points.

Mechanics Many serious and minor grammar or punctuation errors; frequent misspellings, including those that should have been caught by the spell-checker. Cita- tion meets few APA guidelines.

� F 0–149 pts

It meets no or few of the assignment’s guidelines. The components outlined for a D paper are not met. It might be plagiarized.

� Project may not be turned in late.

309UnderstandinG Gr adinG

This paper is clearly a B paper. The exact points applied would

equal the sum of the four main criteria. A for Content; B for each of the

remaining three criteria: Organization, Writing Style, and Mechanics.

Assigning points for each criterion would then enable the instructor to

add the points together and come up with a final grade. In this case,

the student might have earned 24 points for Content, 21 for Organiza-

tion, 21 for Writing Style, and 21 for Mechanics for a total of 87. That is

one way to calculate a hybrid rubric grade.

Which Rubrics Are Better to Use? Many students feel that holistic rubrics are too vague and do not pro-

vide enough specific detail as to why a paper received a certain grade.

On the other hand, other students like holistic rubrics because they

feel they will not be penalized for small errors in writing, for example.

The type of assignment generally dictates what kind of rubric would

be best. A peer review that needs to fulfill three or four main objec-

tives, with the main emphasis on answering specific questions about

the peer paper, might be better evaluated holistically. Did the student

do the peer review and answer all the questions? If so, that student

might earn full points for that particular assignment.

Analytic rubrics might be best used in complex research paper

assignments where the student needs to demonstrate several learn-

ing objectives like content, organization, APA formatting, writing style,

and mechanical and grammatical correctness. Then, each criterion

would earn a certain number of points. When added together, the paper

receives a specific number of total points, which equals a particular let-

ter or number grade. Scoring tends to be more consistent. Assignments

using these types of rubrics usually take more time to grade.

Hybrid rubrics offer the advantages of both forms of rubrics. They

show clearly how the assignment addresses each of the criteria, but

also allow for an overall rating of the assignment’s success.

310 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

How Students Can Use Rubrics Students can easily understand how their grades were determined by

following the rubrics. They can also see the criteria upon which the

paper is graded and use those as a guide. To successfully meet all cri-

teria would mean that the assignment earns a significantly high grade.

Hence, students should always review the rubrics before completing

and submitting an assignment.

Student Grading Expectations Many students are under the assumption that if they complete all the

work for a course, they should be guaranteed an A. This is actually a

false assumption and needs to be explained. An A implies perfect or

excellent, where there is little room for improvement. A B corresponds

to good work, which meets the assignment criteria, but has potential

for improvement in a few areas. A C grade is earned when several cri-

teria were met, but there was need for improvement in several areas.

See the following list for a more detailed description of each grade.

Great learning comes with great effort, and so students should strive

to perform above and beyond the average to earn a grade of B or A.

Students who fall short of the course objectives might earn lower than

a C. Students who miss assignments, intentionally or unintentionally,

might also be at risk for lower grades.

Grades are generally assigned as follows:

●● A: Excellent—Meets and exceeds all course objectives and

assignment criteria. There is little room for improvement. ●● B: Good—Meets all course assignment criteria, and has

demonstrated good understanding of most course objectives.

There is room for further improvement in some areas. ●● C: Satisfactory—Meets most assignment criteria, but might

need more work on several course objectives. ●● D: Unsatisfactory—Does not meet several assignment

requirements and needs to demonstrate better understanding

of course objectives.

311UnderstandinG Gr adinG

●● F: Failure—Lacks several course assignments and/or might

have not met most assignment criteria. An F can also be the

result of detected plagiarism.

It is also important to understand that universities require that

students take certain courses because the skill sets they can provide

allow the students to become more successful in their field of study.

Without those skills, students might not be as effective in their cho-

sen professions. Basic writing and math courses generally fall into the

“required” course area. Everyone needs to learn to write more effec-

tively and think more critically, skills that these required basics pro-

vide. Some students might find these courses more difficult because

they are not specific to their chosen field specifically, yet are still nec-

essary for greater achievement and success in general.

Another consideration is turnaround time for grading. Most

instructors are teaching other courses and will return projects and

assignments in a reasonable time frame. It is not feasible to expect

an immediate response, although university policies usually require

between five and seven days for most graded work. Assignments

submitted after the due date may incur point deductions and lower

grades. Late policies are always explained in the syllabus.

Overall, students really need to develop their own learning goals

and expectations for a course. Working for an A is a lofty goal, but

remember to consider all that is required to achieve that. Your instruc-

tor will follow the rubrics for grading your work, so you can clearly see

how you can demonstrate improvement in the course objectives and

skills for the course.

strateGies for sUccess Learning Does Not Always Equal an A Learning is an intrinsic process. It cannot always be com- puted into a number or letter grade. It’s perfectly possible to meet certain expectations on the surface, but not actually internalize information. Internalization is what every student should aim for. When you start a course, read the course

312 Peer re vieWs, Gr ammar, and Gr adinG

concepts and ask your instructor if you have questions about your understanding of what you should be able to do when you complete the course. As you write assignments, use the rubrics to help you identify what skills are being empha- sized. Learning is not about earning an A. It’s perfectly possible to earn a C in a course and yet walk away having learned a world of information you did not know previously.

An Instructor’s View of Grading I truly hope all my students will at least meet the learning objectives of

the course. If they successfully complete all assignments on time and

post the required number of responses to peers as required, there is

no reason they cannot pass the course.

It is unreasonable, however, for a student to expect a perfect

grade just for submitting an assignment. The rubrics will clearly map

out the kind of responses that are necessary to earn an appropriate

grade. To strive for an A is wonderful, but sometimes it takes more

time and practice for students to fully understand and apply certain

concepts. Trying is good (and necessary), but perfection takes time

and dedication.

This is not to say that students cannot earn an A if they have mas-

tered the skills of the course objectives. Quite the contrary; I have had

students who demonstrated with great proficiency the ability to meet

the A standards by working hard, applying what they learned, and

submitting all assignments within the allotted time frame.

I provide a good deal of feedback along the way, so students can

fully understand what they need to do to earn a higher grade. Com-

munication is key. If a student does not understand something, it is

the student’s responsibility to ask for clarification. Lastly, it is very

important that the student is able to synthesize the feedback I provide

and apply it to all future work. After all, it is the purpose of education

to empower students to apply what they learned and use it in their

everyday lives.