Group Formation

People thought for centuries that dissecting, reducing, and taking things apart was the best way to learn about something. Scientists examined an entity by analyzing ea

individual component, further splitting the elements until the smallest part could be scrutinized. This way of looking at the world was popular until the twentieth centur

a new approach to understanding began to surface: the systems approach.

In 1952, Ludwig Von Bertelan�y, a theoretical biologist, identified this new approach as general systems theory. General systems theory allowed a new way to think abo

study the interactive and dynamic alterations of living phenomena (Von Bertelan�y, 1952). According to this theory, a system is a structure of an organized set of interrel

and interacting parts that maintain their own balance amid the influences of the environment.

Social scientists, psychologists, and organizational theorists began to see systems theory as a way of explaining the complicated dynamics of interpersonal relationships

book, The Fi�h Discipline, Peter Senge (1990) explained human endeavors as “invisible fabrics of interrelated actions.” Senge observed, “Systems thinking is a conceptu

framework, a body of knowledge and tools that has been developed over the past fi�y years, to make the full patterns clearer, and to help us see how to change them

e�ectively” (p.7). Applying this approach in the study of small groups is the next step to providing an awareness that groups are process-oriented, synergetic, and

environmentally dependent.

Interdependence in Groups

When taken apart, a system, such as a group, loses its interaction and essential properties. Explaining one part of the group’s process without taking the entire structure

account does not give an accurate picture, but thinking of groups as unparalleled, unique units allows a better understanding of why and how groups operate. In spite o

interconnectedness, analyzing small group process traditionally involved a division of the process into smaller, more manageable parts, such as roles, norms, size, and

leadership. This fragmenting allowed an in-depth look at the di�erent forces that take place within a group. But since groups are complex, ever-changing structures, red

the process to individual elements and treating them as though they were independent, constant, and static prevents a clear understanding of how dynamic the group’s

is. Viewing groups as systems allows a deeper level of insight. Borden (1985) explained human communication systems as any dynamic set of interrelating components,

two of which are humans, functioning to achieve an objective through communication among its components. Applying Borden’s theory for general human communica

systems to small group communication provides a solid foundation for examining what happens when people form groups and interact over a period of time to achieve

Interconnected and interrelating aspects of group process cause the members to be interdependent. Interdependence means that groups members can accomplish som

as a whole that would be di�icult or impossible for a single individual to achieve. However, this accomplishment can occur only when members can rely on each other to

their roles and responsibilities. Moreover, only by looking at the system or group in relation to the internal and external forces a�ecting it can an appreciation of the com

of group process be gained.

Groups as Systems By: Linda Henman

Communication

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In other words, no one part of a system can be understood unless it is viewed within the context of the entire system.

Appreciating the complexity of a groups starts with understanding the system’s input, the combination of the raw materials of the particular group and the interaction th

results. Examples of raw material of the group would be the talents, education, experience, and maturity of the members. Since each individual of the group is also a sep

unique system, a group can be thought of as a system of systems, an unparalleled collection of raw material. The input of each person is changed to an output during th

process of creating and modifying ideas in the course of the group’s transformation and evolution.

Sometimes the output is concrete. For example, a committee that formulates a marketing strategy for a new product and then implements the plan for the company has

produced a tangible output. Sometimes output is not so obvious, however. The subtle and radical changes among the group’s participants and their decision are also ex

of output. Katz and Kahn (1966) referred to the process of changing input to output as throughput.

Realizing that work groups make decisions is only part of appreciating what groups do, and considering output in isolation causes distortion. The process or throughput

important too. Group norms, power, leadership, goals, roles, and a host of other variables are all interdependent, and each influences the decisions the group makes. An

component must be analyzed in light of the whole system, the group. Only then will a particular behavior be truly understandable (Wood, Phillips, & Pedersen., 1986).

The group’s purpose and size also influence the interaction and interdependence. Social groups, whose sole purpose is to provide support for its members, will not usua

to rely on the members for financial gain or professional development. Instead, individuals form these types of groups when they want social interaction and will count

other members to provide needed recreation and relaxation. In the case of adolescent groups, the members may even depend on each other for a large part of their iden

Understanding how groups operate rather than merely concentrating on what they do gives a better picture of the wholeness of groups as systems. CLICK TO TWE

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Argyle (1983) pointed out, social groups in general, and adolescent groups in particular, have no specific task except to devise activities which entail the kinds of interact

which meet the needs of members. These invented activities such as dancing, eating pizza, and talking are the system’s output. The parts of these groups mesh to form

of support or maintenance.

A work group, on the other hand, has a task as its primary purpose. Work groups form when one person alone cannot achieve the task, when several types of skills are n

or when people simply prefer the company of others (Zajonc, 1963). The parts of this work system need to influence each other e�ectively in order to accomplish some s

goal. Since understanding the purpose is crucial for success, the group’s process, or how all the parts of this system relate to one another, will determine whether the gro

work will be accomplished.

Another example of group interaction has to do with the group’s size. As groups grow larger, the system becomes more complex. The interdependence is there but less a

Cohesion tends to be weaker and morale tends to be lower in larger groups than in comparable smaller ones. Perhaps this is truer of groups such as social groups that h

option to meet or not to meet, but the principle is noteworthy. If the parts of the systems are interrelated and interdependent, limiting the number of parts a�ords more

opportunity for interaction. Bostrom (1970) found that people like to talk rather than listen in a group. Smaller groups provide this opportunity.

Group size is directly related to communication networks, a part of the overall system. As the size of the group increases, the network begins to bog down in the confusio

Larger groups tend to produce lower levels of satisfaction and weaker interpersonal relations among participants because people have fewer opportunities to interact w

other, and cohesion is compromised (Tubbs, 1988). Cohesion is particularly desirable in family or social groups, but its importance should not be minimized in work grou

either.

Synergy in Groups

Viewing any system in terms of its context is the first step to understanding the synergetic e�ect of the system. Simply put, this means that 1 + 1 = 3, or a system is more t

sum of its parts. Synergy occurs when the group’s performance or accomplishments surpass the capabilities of the individual group members. In other words, the group

unique combination of talents, knowledge, and experience is greater than the sum of the individual contributions. The ideas of one member o�en trigger a response fro

another person that neither would have thought of independently.

Synergy can take either a physical or a mental form. The physical presence of others is o�en arousing, so more work is accomplished. Even ants work harder when there

than one of them on the job (Zajonc, 1963). In the mental sense, synergy forms when a type of collective intelligence and shared memory begins to develop as the group

matures.

Senge described this development as a kind of aligning during which a commonality of direction emerges, and individuals’ energies harmonize. He said that a resonanc

that is “like the ‘coherent’ light of a laser rather than the incoherent and shattered light of a light bulb” (Senge, 1990, p. 234). There is commonality of purpose, a shared

and understanding of how to complement one another’s e�orts.

A system is a collection of parts that interact with each other to function as a whole. If something is made up of a number of parts that do not interact, and the arrangem

these parts is irrelevant, this is a pile of materials rather than a system. For example, a pile of bricks is a pile of bricks whether we add to it or subtract from it. Cutting it in

gives two piles of bricks and adding to it yields a bigger pile of bricks. Essentially, however, the mound of material remains a mound of material; but cutting a car in half

produce two smaller cars.

The vitality of one individual can spur others on when their energy wanes. CLICK TO TWE

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To continue the car analogy, if the best parts of each type of automobile were determined, could the world’s best car be manufactured by collecting each of these parts a

putting them together to make the world’s best automobile? Taking the engine from one type of car, a transmission from another model, and a carburetor from yet anot

would not combine to create a system that would work. The parts would not be compatible and would not operate to make a functioning machine, much less a superlat

mode of transportation.

Groups are even more complicated; they are living systems. Each person can be viewed as a separate segment of the system, but the e�ect of the interaction among the

more than the sum of the parts. The energy created by the members and the outputs of the group are the result of the dynamic relationships of the members who are co

defining and redefining themselves, their behavior, and the functions of the group. Combined, the group members can do things that no one of them could do separatel

Each group is unique because each group member is unique. The group, then, becomes a system of people who bring to the experience an individualized genetic makeu

personal life history, varying combinations of personality traits, di�ering values and attitudes, and a singular view of the world. Adding the input of these individuals tog

however, still does not give a clear picture of what the group is or will do because each person is constantly changing due to the of association with the group; and the g

continuously reacting in response to this person’s membership. The group’s members will interact to create the group, a creation that will be like no other. The members

behaviors, their verbal and nonverbal interactions, their strengths and weaknesses, their insights and talents will not only separate this group from all others; but it will

distinguish this particular group’s interaction today from this group’s interactions tomorrow.

The group’s synergy, or bonding of the system’s components, is a source of energy; and this bonding gives structure to the system, thereby reducing entropy, or disorder

Without an input of energy, an open system, such as a group, which is a�ected by other systems, will run down, and disorganization will occur.

The Domino E�ect in Groups

This interconnection of the parts means that all divisions of the structure are changed when one piece of it changes. When one element alters, all others must adjust to

accommodate it if the system is to survive in a healthy state (Wood, et al. 1986). This “domino e�ect” is apparent whenever groups interact because the e�ects of any act

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cause consequences to ripple through the system. Explaining how or why an outcome occurred is very complex because all the reasons for a result are not obvious. O�e

members never find the answers to their questions because they try to look at just one aspect of the group’s system, which is frequently the most recent action of the gr

one answer is likely to provide the complete story. However, looking at the patterns of causes and e�ects might begin to bring the situation into focus. Thinking in terms

specific cause for a given event in a system is futile and simplistic.

Even though groups are complex, the art of systems thinking lies in seeing through complexity to the underlying structures. Systems thinking does not mean ignoring

complexity. Rather, it means organizing complexity into a coherent story that illuminates the causes of problems and possible remedies. Groups need ways of knowing w

important and what is not important, what variables to focus on and which to pay less attention to. Doing this helps groups or teams develop shared understanding (Sen

1990).

The main principle at play is that groups never do just one thing. One action causes reactions which demand an adjustment within the system and among other systems

group accommodates the changes and responds to them, or the system fails to thrive. Since systems are dynamic, they constantly change in response to internal and ex

challenges. Even the degree of interconnectedness among the group members will ebb and flow during the life of the system as the members and the surrounding envir

change.

In addition to the existence of a complex system within the group, the group is rooted in countless other systems as well. Human systems are never closed (Miller, 1978).

and Bowditch (1973) explained, since open systems are never completely closed o� from the outside world, they are a�ected by the environment and, in turn, have an e

the environment. Just as no part of the group’s process can be considered in isolation, neither can the group be viewed apart from the environment, the group’s supra-s

Individual groups are parts of many other systems such as the organization, the community, and the society in general. Gross (1964) identified four phenomena that cha

these open systems:

1. Entries and exits transform outsiders into members and members into outsiders.

2. Multiple memberships in groups result in members’ loyalties to other groups.

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3. Resource exchange among the groups.

4. Mutual or reciprocal influence by both members and outsiders.

Any open system interacts with its environment in mutually influential ways. Since each group is rooted in many other systems, groups influence these larger environme

are influenced by them. Conflicts occur when incompatible demands of multiple systems clash. A work group that refuses to operate within the general policies of the co

will certainly cause problems for itself and the organization. Similarly, a company that refuses to function within the prevailing ethics or norms of its society will not surv

values of the community and the mores of the overall culture influence both individual members and the group as a whole. Ignoring culturally conditioned attitudes doo

both the work group and the organization.

Conclusion

The essence of systems theory is interdependence. Interlocking relationships among the parts of a system form to create a structure that exists among other systems. W

part of the system changes, the e�ect is felt within the system and throughout other systems. A constellation of factors determines whether a group will succeed in realiz

goals, but one thing is clear. The key parts of the system, the individuals, must join together in a way that harnesses the synergy of the group. A group is a living, dynamic

system that interacts within itself and with the environment. Family, social, political, religious, military, and professional groups share a central principle: Whatever a�ec

part of the system a�ects all its parts and many other parts of the supra-system, our world.

Dr. Linda Henman helps CEOs and Boards of Directors set strategies, mergers and acquisitions, plan succession, and develop talent. She can be reached

at [email protected] or 636-537-3774.

REFERENCE LIST

Argyle, M. (1983). Five kinds of small social groups. In H. Blumberg, A. Hare, V. Kent and M. Davies (Eds.), Small Groups and Social Interaction, I. John Wiley and Sons, Ltd

Bostrom, R. (1970). Patterns of communication interaction in small groups. Speech Monographs, 37. 257-263.

Borden, G. (1985). Human communication systems. Boston: American Press.

Gross, B. (1964). Organizations and their managing. New York: Free Press.

Huse, E. and Bowditch, J. (1973). Behavior in organizations. Reading, MA: AddisonWesley.

The Innovative Learning Series. (1980). Systems one: An introduction to systems thinking.

[Brochure]. S.A. Carlton, Publisher, Minneapolis, MN. Draper Kau�man, Jr. Katz, D. and Kahn, R. (1966). The social psychology of organizations. New York: John Wiley & S

Miller, J. (1978). Living systems. New York: Mcgraw-Hill Book Co.

Schutz, W. (1960). The interpersonal underworld. Palo Alto, CA: Science & Behavior Books Inc.

Senge, P. (1990). The Fi�h Discipline. Doubleday, New York.

Tubbs, S. (1988). A systems approach to small group interaction. New York: Random House.

Wood, J., Phillips, G. & Pedersen, D. (1986). Group discussion: A practical guide to participation and leadership. Harper & Row Publishers.

Von Bertelan�y, L. (1952). Problems of life. London: Watts & Co.

Zajonc, R. (1963). Social facilitation. Science, 149. 269-274.

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