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9/28/21, 10:03 AM Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals Chapter 2 - Part 1 Summary & Analysis | SparkNotes
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Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals Immanuel Kant
Summary
Chapter 2 - Part 1
Summary
It is generally recognized that actions are not truly moral if they are performed in conformity with duty but not for the sake of duty alone.
Nevertheless, it is almost impossible to �nd examples of actions performed exclusively out of a sense of duty. Nearly every action we observe can
be attributed to some motive other than pure duty. Indeed, it is often impossible to know whether even our own true motives are pure.
The lack of examples of pure moral action may seem disheartening. Yet we may take heart in the fact that all rational beings may recognize that
reason imposes clear moral demands.
Furthermore, we should recognize that it would be impossible for us to derive universal moral laws from speci�c events and experiences; since all
events are contingent upon speci�c circumstances, none of our experiences can be a source of moral principles that apply in all cases and all
circumstances. Even our idea of God, the perfect being, is not based on experience, but rather on our a priori idea of moral perfection. Developing a
clearer understanding of a priori moral concepts can help to reinforce our moral sense against the distractions of competing interests and
motivations.
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9/28/21, 10:03 AM Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals Chapter 2 - Part 1 Summary & Analysis | SparkNotes
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Rational beings may align their "will" either with the objective laws of reason and morality or with subjective needs and interests. Reason's demands
may be called "imperatives." "Hypothetical imperatives" command that a particular action is necessary as a means to some purpose, such as the
attainment of personal happiness. "Categorical imperatives" command that some action is necessary in and of itself.
Hypothetical imperatives are regular and obvious occurrences. Anytime someone settles upon some purpose or objective, reason may make clear
to them what course of action they should pursue. This undertaking is more complicated in the case of indeterminate objectives like happiness,
where it is di�cult to know what particular actions will bring about the goal. Nevertheless, we have no problem understanding that people have
chosen to act in a certain way as a result of a hypothetical imperative.
By contrast, we cannot �nd evidence for categorical imperatives in the decisions and actions we observe. People may appear to act in a certain way
because of a pure demand of reason, yet we can never be sure that they do not have some circumstantial interest or ulterior motive other than a
pure categorical imperative. Categorical imperatives must therefore be derived a priori.
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9/28/21, 10:03 AM Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals Chapter 2 - Part 1 Summary & Analysis | SparkNotes
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