Summary of research
Rev1994
Groothuis-CapstoneFinal2.pdf
Running Head: Sexualization of Female Athletes
Perceptions of
College Students
on the Sexualization
of Female Athletes
Submitted to
Dr. Leah Holland Fiorentino
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for EXER 5990 – Capstone
By
Elke Groothuis
School of Education
The University of North Carolina at Pembroke
April 1, 2016
Sexualization of Female Athletes
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Abstract
Many studies have suggested that women’s sports coverage is severely underrated
compared to men’s sports coverage. There is more media coverage about men’s sports than
women’s sports on all levels (high school, college, and professional/Olympics). Because of
this underrepresentation of women’s sports, media outlets try to represent female athletes
by sexualizing their physical representation. The purpose of this study was to determine the
perceptions of college students regarding the sexualization of female athletes. Participants
(n=764) were invited to complete one of three (Performance Athletes, Sexualized Athletes,
Sexualized Models) surveys. The lead researcher and a member of the research team then
categorized each response to a theme. Different variables (gender, student-status, and
academic year) were tested using chi-square (χ 2 ) analysis to discern any significant
differences. Findings indicated that there were significant differences in the way subsets
(i.e., male respondents versus female respondents, male athlete respondents versus male
non-athlete respondents) of the respondents viewed performance athletes, sexualized
athletes, and sexualized models.
Keywords: sexualization, female athletes, media
Sexualization of Female Athletes
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Acknowledgements
I cannot believe that I am about to close a chapter that had such a big influence on my
life, and I have so many people to thank who made me become so successful during this time.
First and foremost, I would like to thank my parents Ron and Jantien Groothuis. Without your
support I would not be where I am today. Thanks for always being there for me and supporting
me throughout my bachelor and master’s degree. I love both of you so much. I also would like to
thank my sister, Lotte van Oostrum-Groothuis, who has supported me from the beginning of me
going to study and live in the United States. I love you, and thanks for everything.
I would like to thank Dr. Marian Wooten for being such a great mentor and always
supporting and believing in me. Without you, this capstone would not be as great as it is now.
Thanks for everything. I also would like to thank Dr. Leah Fiorentino, who has pushed me from
the first day of class all the way to the end. Thank you for believing in me. Dr. Jeff Bolles, thank
you for always being there to give a second opinion and helping me out with questions I have
about statistics. Dr. Danny Davis, thank you for dealing with all the meetings Dr. Wooten and I
had in the lobby.
Of course, I cannot forget about the person that has been living with me the whole time I
have been in graduate school, my roommate Gamal Marlowe. Thank you for dealing with my
stress every day and proofreading most of my work. You have taught me so much grammar wise,
and I cannot thank you enough for that. I love you.
I also would like to thank my two soccer coaches, Lars Andersson and Pauline Privitera. I
am so thankful for both of you for giving me a chance to play college soccer in the United States.
You have taught me so many life and soccer lessons. Thank you for always supporting me with
everything I have done here at UNC Pembroke.
Sexualization of Female Athletes
4
Todd Anderson, thank you for being such a great boss. You gave me the opportunity to
work in video production and get an education at the same time. Thanks for dealing with my
stress every day and allowing me to be successful in my job and my education.
There are so many others I would like to thank: Dr. Cynthia Miecznikowski, Dana
Moore-Lopez, Dr. Brooke Kelly, Professor Brandi Norman, Coach Rhonda Blank, Rose Bussey,
Coach Robin Langley, Ms. Beverly Justice, Mrs. Susan Edkins, Dr. Jeff Frederick, Dr. Jamie
Litty, Professor Terence Dollard, Professor Erika Young, Coach Othello “O.T.” Johnson, Coach
Comfort Johnson, Coach John Haskins, Coach Kapica Davis, Coach Brittany Bennett, Dr. Peter
Ormsby, Coach Ellen McGill, Coach Paul O’Neil, Coach David Synan, Coach Ben Miller,
Coach Shane Richardson, and Coach Phil Hindson. Thank you all for making my study so
successful.
And for everyone that I forgot to mention, please know that I am thankful for you as well.
Sexualization of Female Athletes
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Table of Contents
Abstract………………………………………………………………………………...
2
Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………….
3
Chapter 1: Introduction………………………………………………………………
10
The Purpose of the Study……………………………………………………..
10
The Rationale………………………………………………………………….
11
The Hypotheses………………………………………………………………..
11
Delimitations and Limitations………………………………………………..
13
Definition of Terms……………………………………………………………
14
Chapter 2: Review of Literature………………………………………………….…..
15
Characteristics of College Students…………………………………………..
15
Lifestyle…………………………………………………………………
15
Risk behavior…………………………………………………………..
16
Alcohol consumption…………………………………………...
16
Gambling………………………………………………………..
17
Peer pressure……………………………………………………
18
Moral reasoning…………………………………………….…..
18
Self-esteem……………………………………………………………...
19
Disordered eating habits………………………………………………
19
Physical health……………………………………………………….…
20
Role of technology in self-perception…………………………………
21
Social media’s impact on self-perception……………………...
21
The impact of television and other media on self-perception…
22
Women’s Sports Participation……………………………………………… 23
Sexualization of Female Athletes
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Title IX and athletics…………………………………………………..
23
Girls’ participation in youth sports…………………………………..
24
Girls’ participation in high school sports…………………………….
25
Gender discrimination in high schools………………………...
27
Women participating in sports at universities/colleges……………...
28
Women in sports beyond college……………………………………...
28
Women Presented in the Media………………………………………………
30
Women’s sports coverage……………………………………………..
31
Women’s sports coverage at colleges/universities……………..
32
Girls’ sports coverage at high schools…………………………
33
Women’s media coverage on body image…………………………….
34
Sexualization of Female Athletes……………………………………………...
35
The objectification theory……………………………………………..
35
Sexualization in women’s beach volleyball…………………………..
36
Uniforms and body image……………………………………………..
37
Perceptions of female athletes………………………………………...
38
Boys’ perceptions of female athletes…………………………...
38
Girls’ and women’s perceptions of female athletes……………
39
Chapter 3: Methodology and Procedures……………………………………………
42
Mixed Methods Research Methodology…………………………………….
42
Descriptive Research Methods………………………………………………
43
Survey Research Technique…………………………………………………
44
Target Population and Sampling Method………………………………….. 45
Sexualization of Female Athletes
7
Instrument and Techniques for Measurement……………………………..
46
Data Collection Design……………………………………………………….
47
Data Collection and Recording Procedures………………………………...
48
Data Analysis Procedures……………………………………………………
50
Pilot Test……………………………………………………………………...
50
Chapter 4: Results……………………………………………………………………..
52
Participant Profile……………………………………………………………..
53
Inter-Rater Reliability…………………………………………………………
58
Theme Frequencies…………………………………………………………….
59
Positive/Negative/Neutral Frequencies of Theme Presence…………………
68
Hypothesis Testing……………………………………………………………..
107
Chapter 5: Discussion and Recommendations……………………………………….
128
Discussion……………………………………………………………………….
128
Hypothesis one………………………………………………………….
129
Hypothesis two…………………………………………………………
130
Hypothesis three……………………………………………………......
131
Hypothesis four……………………………………………………...…
135
Summary of hypotheses two through four……………………..
138
Hypothesis five…………………………………………………………
139
Hypothesis six…………………………………………………………..
140
Hypothesis seven……………………………………………………….
141
Summary of hypotheses five through seven……………………
142
Hypothesis eight……………………………………………………….. 143
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Hypothesis nine………………………………………………………...
143
Hypothesis ten………………………………………………………….
145
Summary of hypotheses eight through 10……………………...
145
Hypothesis 11…………………………………………………………...
146
Hypothesis 12…………………………………………………………...
147
Hypothesis 13…………………………………………………………...
147
Summary of hypotheses 11 through 13………………………...
148
Conclusion………………………………………………………………
148
Recommendations……………………………………………………………...
150
References………………………………………………………………………………
152
Appendix A: Survey Version A……………………………………………………….
164
Appendix B: Survey Version B……………………………………………………….
169
Appendix C: Survey Version C……………………………………………………….
174
Appendix D: Permission E-mail to Coaches/Professors…………………………….
179
Appendix E: Informed Consent………………………………………………………
180
Appendix F: Reminder Permission E-mail to Coaches/Professors…………………
182
Appendix G: Appointment E-mail……………………………………………………
183
Appendix H: E-mail to Coaches/Professors………………………………………….
184
Appendix I: Survey Link E-mail……………………………………………………...
186
Appendix J: Survey Directions………………………………………………………..
187
Appendix K: NIH Certification……………………………………………………….
188
Appendix L: IRB Approval Letter…………………………………………………...
189
Appendix M: Approval E-mail Template Survey Directions………………………. 191
Sexualization of Female Athletes
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Appendix N: Approval E-mail Template Informed Consent……………………….
192
Appendix O: Pilot Test………………………………………………………………...
193
Results of the Pilot Test………………………………………………………..
195
Appendix P: Original Survey before Pilot Test……………………………………... 226
Appendix Q: Class Schedules/Team Meetings Schedule…………………………… 232
Appendix R: Codebook for Themes Distribution…………………………………… 234
Sexualization of Female Athletes
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Chapter 1
Introduction
Since the passage of Title IX in 1972, girls and women are playing sports more than ever.
In 1972, less than 300,000 girls played sports; whereas, now more than three million girls play
sports (The National Federation of State High School Associations, 2015). Although sports
participation increased, women’s sports coverage remains stagnant while men’s sports coverage
continues to dominate the media outlets. Since men watch more sports than women, media
outlets are trying to make women’s sports more popular by showing female athletes in a sexual
way. Unfortunately, this negatively affects the body image of girls and women who watch
women’s sports. Earlier studies suggest that showing female athletes in a more sexualized
manner does not increase the popularity of women’s sports (Harrison & Secarea, 2010; Kane &
Maxwell, 2011), but showing female athletes for their athleticism encourages both men and
women to value women’s sports (Daniels, 2009; Daniels 2012, Daniels & Wartena, 2011)
In this study, perceptions of college students on the sexualization of female athletes were
examined. Previous literature has investigated the perceptions of adolescent boys and girls
(Daniels 2012; Daniels & Wartena, 2011) as well as college women (Daniels, 2009), but other
variables such as gender, student status (athlete or non-athlete), and academic level have not
been examined. This study explored these variables and provided insight into the perceptions of
college students.
The Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was to examine the attitudes of college students regarding the
sexualization of female athletes. Many studies (Holt & Bissell, 2006; Bissell & Duke, 2007;
Daniels, 2009; Daniels, 2012; Daniels & Wartena, 2011) have shown that female athletes are
Sexualization of Female Athletes
11
seen as sex objects rather than athletes. This means that the physical appearance of female
athletes is considered more important than their athletic performance. The researcher wanted to
add to the literature on this topic by analyzing the opinions of college students.
The Rationale
This study has potential to improve awareness of the sexualization of women’s sports in
the media. More girls are engaged in playing sports, which requires the presentation of
appropriate female athlete role models. When female athletes are portrayed as sex objects, this
can potentially harm the body image of many girls and women who aspire to be like those
athletes. More attention should be given to the underrepresentation of positive, non-sexualized
images of female athletes. This could inform sports viewers and the general public that the
sexualization and objectification of female athletes could be detrimental to women’s sports.
Earlier studies (Daniels, 2009; Daniels, 2012; Daniels & Wartena, 2011) have suggested that
female athletes should be portrayed as athletes to encourage girls and women to play sports and
promote women’s sports in the media.
Sexualizing a female athlete does not help promote women’s sports, but rather has the
opposite effect by portraying female athletes and women’s sports in a negative manner. This
kind of negative portrayal of female athletes has been shown to decrease interest in women’s
sports (Harrison & Secarea, 2010; Kane & Maxwell, 2011). This study will examine this concept
to determine whether college students are aware of these damaging representations of female
athletes, and what perceptions they have formed about them.
The Hypotheses
This study has 13 hypotheses. Each of these hypotheses was tested while collecting and
analyzing data.
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H1: There will be no difference between student-status category responses regarding perceptions
of sexualized female athletes.
H2: There will be no difference between gender category responses (male vs. female) regarding
the perceptions of sexualized female athletes.
H3: There will be no difference between gender category responses (male vs. female) regarding
the perceptions of performance female athletes.
H4: There will be no difference between gender category responses (male vs. female) regarding
the perceptions of sexualized models.
H5: There will be no difference between female student status category responses (athlete vs.
non-athlete) regarding the perceptions of sexualized female athletes.
H6: There will be no difference between female student status category responses (athlete vs.
non-athlete) regarding the perceptions of performance female athletes.
H7: There will be no difference between female student status category responses (athlete vs.
non-athlete) regarding the perceptions of sexualized models.
H8: There will be no difference between male student status category responses (athlete vs. non-
athlete) regarding the perceptions of sexualized female athletes.
H9: There will be no difference between male student status category responses (athlete vs. non-
athlete) regarding the perceptions of performance female athletes.
H10: There will be no difference between male student status category responses (athlete vs.
non-athlete) regarding the perceptions of sexualized models.
H11: There will be no difference between academic level category responses on the perceptions
of sexualized female athletes.
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H12: There will be no difference between academic level category responses on the perceptions
of performance female athletes.
H13: There will be no difference between academic level category responses on the perceptions
of sexualized models.
Delimitations and Limitations
A delimitation of this study is that it was conducted and administered at a small, public
southeastern university. Another delimitation is that this university has more female students
(62%) than male students (38%) (The University of North Carolina at Pembroke, 2015a). Lastly,
the majority of students at this university are White (40%), while 34 percent are Black, and 15
percent are Native American Indian/Native Alaskan. Because of the majority female population
and the ethnic diversity at this institution, the study may not be representative of the majority of
public universities. Thus, findings from this study only represent other public universities with a
similar ratio of female/male students and racial/ethnic diversity.
A limitation of this study is the fact that it was completely voluntary. Because of this,
there was no guarantee that everyone completed the survey and therefore several valuable
responses might be missing. Also, there was no control over the length or quality of responses
about the photographs. Since this was a replicated study, the research team carefully selected
photographs of athletes in an attempt to mimic Daniels and Wartena’s (2011) study. The same
athlete could not appear in more than one category (i.e. sexualized athlete and performance
athlete). Since some of the photographs used were different than those Daniels and Wartena
(2011) used, the researcher was aware that results could differ.
Sexualization of Female Athletes
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Definition of Terms
Within the context of this study, the terms below will be defined as follows:
Objectification theory: girls and women are conditioned to view themselves as others view
them (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997)
Performance athletes: athletes who are portrayed by the media with a focus mainly on their
physical ability
Sexualization: adding a sexual component to a woman’s appearance or consciously sexualizing
a woman’s appearance
Sexualized athletes: athletes who are portrayed by the media with a focus on their appearance
rather than their physical ability
Sexualized models: models who are portrayed by the media to showcase their appearance rather
than the product(s) they are modeling
Student-athlete: college students who currently play on a college varsity sport team at the
university
In this chapter, information relevant to the research study was presented to establish the
framework including the introduction, the purpose of the study, the rationale, and hypotheses.
This chapter also introduced the delimitations and limitations of the study. Lastly, the chapter
listed definitions of terms to ensure understanding of the study.
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Chapter 2
Review of Literature
Chapter two provides a review of the pertinent literature concerning the foundation for
this study. In order to address this topic, the research has focused on several areas of interest
including the characteristics of college students, women’s sports, the effects of media coverage
on women’s sports, and the sexualization of female athletes. The first section explains the sample
of this study while the remaining three sections reveal that men’s and women’s sports are viewed
and covered differently by media outlets.
Characteristics of College Students
This section provides insight into the characteristics of college students. According to
Ginder, Kelly-Reid, and Mann (2015), approximately 28 million students attended a college or
university in the United States in the 2013-2014 academic year. There were roughly 15.8 million
female students attending colleges and universities versus 11.9 million male students, resulting in
a 57 percent to 43 percent female to male ratio (Ginder et al., 2015). The percentage of college
students who were pursuing undergraduate degrees in the 2013-2014 academic year was
approximately 86 percent, meaning that 14 percent of college students in that same academic
year were pursuing graduate degrees (Ginder et al., 2015). The following theme will discuss the
lifestyle attributes, risk behaviors, self-esteem, disordered eating habits, and physical health of
college students, as well as the role social media has on their self-perception.
Lifestyle. The characteristics of college students vary considerably and can be compared
through an investigation of varying lifestyle choices. One way to study these characteristics can
be to compare commuter students to on-campus residential students. Gianoutsos and Rosser
(2014) compared the characteristics and demographics of college commuter students to
Sexualization of Female Athletes
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residential students. The results of the study showed that there are demographic differences
between residential and commuter students. Students who were already residents in the same
state as their college were the most likely to be commuter students. A higher percentage of
commuter students were Hispanic than any other race, and a higher percentage of African
American students were residential students than any other race. Also, residential students tended
to have a higher socioeconomic status than commuter students (Gianoutsos & Rosser, 2014). In
addition, the likelihood of a student being residential increases as his/her parents’ level of
education increases. Student-athletes were also a likely group to be residential students.
Gianoutsos and Rosser’s (2014) results suggest that there is a significant difference between
residential and commuter college students.
Risk behavior. During their college years, college students can engage in risk behaviors
including alcohol consumption and gambling. College students are also more prone to engaging
in risk behavior as a result of peer pressure and poor moral reasoning. A more detailed review of
college students engaging in risk behavior and how peer pressure and moral reasoning can affect
this will be discussed below.
Alcohol consumption. One example of risk behavior among college students is alcohol
consumption. Excessive alcohol consumption is a major health problem, and college students
seem to be the group that consumes alcohol at the highest rate (Randolph, Torres, Gore-Felton,
Lloyd, & McGarvey, 2009; Tewksbury, Higgins, & Mustaine, 2008). According to Perkins
(2002) more than 10 percent of adults between ages 18 to 24 are considered to be heavy drinkers,
and approximately 20 percent are binge drinkers. Alcohol consumption is an exceptionally high
risk behavior in the United States, especially among male college students and men in the
general public (Caetano & Cunradi, 2002; Weitzman, 2004).
Sexualization of Female Athletes
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Randolph et al. (2009) investigated alcohol consumption rates among college students
and noted that almost 35 percent of the participants drank alcohol 10 times or more in the past
month. Almost 63 percent reported binge drinking at least once a month, and 31 percent of
participants reported that they engaged in binge drinking three or more times in the past two
weeks. For men, binge drinking is considered drinking five or more drinks at a time, while for
women this is four or more at a time. Similar studies (Wechsler, Dowdall, Maenner, Gledhill-
Hoyt, & Lee, 1998; Wechsler, Lee, Kuo, Seibring, Nelson. & Lee, 2002) found that at least 40
percent of college students participated in binge drinking regularly. Tewksbury et al. (2008)
examined the differences in alcohol use between student-athletes and non-athletes. The results
stated that almost half of the participating student-athletes (47 %) viewed themselves as binge
drinkers, while approximately two-third of non-athletes called themselves binge drinkers. The
results suggested that there was a higher prevalence of male student-athletes self-identifying as
binge drinkers than female student-athletes, which was also evident in the non-athlete
population.
Alcohol consumption can be a serious health problem amongst college students and can
be connected to other risk behaviors. An example of this is sexual victimization. Approximately
33 percent of sexual victimization occurred as a result of alcohol influence (Pope & Shouldice,
2001). Monks, Tomaka, Palicios, and Thompson (2010) also noted that approximately one-third
of all students (N=407) who participated in that study were exposed to some form of sexual
victimization involving alcohol. In addition, approximately 50 percent of college drinkers who
participate in risk behavior reported some form of sexual victimization (Monks et al., 2010).
Gambling. Another risk behavior that can be connected to alcohol consumption is
gambling. There is a correlation between binge drinking and gambling (Stuhldreher, Stuhldreher,
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& Forrest, 2007). Stuhldreher et al. (2007) noted that binge drinkers had bigger problems with
gambling than people who were not binge drinkers. Engwall, Hunter and Steinberg (2004) also
found that drugs and alcohol use was much higher among college students who were seen as
pathological gamblers.
Peer pressure. Peer pressure is another common challenge for college students. Varela
and Mary (2011) studied how peer pressure from others influenced college students’ decisions in
engaging in risk behavior. The results of the study suggested that the students who participated in
risk behaviors were more likely to consume an alcoholic drink if their friends were in the same
room as them (Varela & Mary, 2011). Similar results were noted for the use of tobacco products
where participants were more likely to use tobacco products when they were in the company of
friends. In addition, women were more likely to smoke tobacco products in the company of their
family members, while men were more likely to smoke alone or with friends (Varela & Mary,
2011).
Varela and Mary (2011) also found that students misused and abused prescription
medicine that belonged to others more often when their friends were present. The overall results
suggest that college students are more likely to engage in risk behavior when friends are present.
Logic follows that college students are more likely to feel the effects of peer pressure when
considering risk behavior. Durkin, Wolfe, and Clark (2005) found supporting data and noted that
college students’ peers have a considerable influence on the decisions made by students when
determining whether or not to engage in risk behaviors.
Moral reasoning. Risk behavior can be associated with moral reasoning. According to
DeSensi and Rosenberg (2010), morality is a “set of authoritative ideals that guide behavior” (p.
37). Morality also includes taking an interest in someone else’s welfare. Lyons and Turner
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(2015) compared moral reasoning between college student-athletes and non-athletes and between
the male and female genders. The results of this study implied that female college students had
higher moral reasoning than male college students (Lyons & Turner, 2015). This might explain
why men are more prone to engage in risk behaviors because their moral reasoning is lower than
that of women. There was no difference in moral reasoning between student-athletes and non-
athletes (Lyons & Turner, 2015).
Self-esteem. Other than risk behaviors and moral reasoning, college students also have to
deal with other complications such as emotional feelings, the most common of which is self-
esteem. Self-esteem is important in a college student’s life because college experiences shape the
student’s final personality. Taylor (1995) compared athletes’ and non-athletes’ self-esteem and
noted that athletes had a higher self-esteem than non-athletes. Self-esteem can also be influenced
by body esteem. Because of conditioning integrated into Western culture, people have always
cared about how they look, and this can affect their confidence. Connor-Greene (1988) found
that even 30 years ago women were strongly invested in their looks. Almost nine out of 10 (88%)
of women were not satisfied with their bodies and wanted to lose weight, while 37 percent of
men thought the same thing about their bodies (Connor-Greene, 1988). Sheldon (2010) found
that college women who were comparing themselves with women in the media as well as having
external peer pressures experience lower self-esteem than college women who were not
susceptible to peer pressure regarding their looks.
Disordered eating habits. Having low body-esteem can result in disordered eating
habits. Reinking and Alexander (2005) compared female college athletes divided into lean (e.g.
cross-country, swimming, gymnastics, etc.) and non-lean (e.g. basketball, soccer, tennis, etc.)
sports categories and female non-athletes to find out if there was a significant difference in
Sexualization of Female Athletes
20
eating habits. Female college athletes were more satisfied with their bodies than female non-
athletes. Although athletes were more satisfied with their bodies than non-athletes, the athletes
did want to have a lower bodyweight compared to non-athletes.
There was hardly a difference between female athletes and non-athletes in disordered
eating habits, but the athletes in the lean sports category were more prone to disordered eating
habits than the non-lean sports athletes and non-athletes (Reinking & Alexander, 2005). Davis
(1989) supported the claim that female athletes who participate in lean-sports are more
concerned with their body weight and are more prone to disordered eating. These two studies
suggest that college female athletes are concerned with their body and weight and that this has
been occurring for decades.
Physical health. Since body and weight issues are prevalent among college students,
physical health is important in a college student’s life. For most students, college is their first
time away from home, so they have to be more independent. They have to make more decisions
by themselves such as what to eat. Dinger, Brittain, and Hutchinson (2014) believe that physical
activity is a health behavior connected to other health behaviors. Other behaviors can include
eating right and sleeping enough. Dinger et al. (2014) examined whether college students who
exercise moderately or vigorously every week also engage in healthy eating habits and other
health behaviors. Students who engaged in moderate or vigorous physical activity each week had
healthier BMIs, ate enough vegetables and fruits, engaged less in risk behavior, and had a
sufficient amount of sleep each night (Dinger et al., 2014). Physical activity can be beneficial to
college students and can improve their quality of life and boost emotional intelligence and
mental health (Bhochhinhoya, Branscum, Taylor, & Hofford, 2014).
Sexualization of Female Athletes
21
Unfortunately, college students do not engage in enough physical activity, which has
caused an increase in obesity rates. Wetter, Thomas, and Schoonaert (2013) noted that in the
2010-11 academic year, approximately 38 percent of male college students were either
overweight or obese, while 45 percent of female college students were overweight or obese. In
2012, the American College Health Association reported that about 34 percent of college
students were either overweight or obese.
Role of technology in self-perception. In today’s society, technology has a big impact
on people’s lives. Research has shown that social media and television coverage can have an
influence on self-perception (Subrahmanyam & Šmahel, 2011; Notwatzki & Morry, 2009). In
the following section these two topics are discussed in more detail.
Social media’s impact on self-perception. Although physical health has generally
declined in college students, they continue to display signs of body self-awareness. College
students are involved in social media, which can influence body image. Social media can also be
a source of sexual objectification. According to Fredrickson and Roberts (1997), the term sexual
objectification is explained as when a person is seen or treated as an object rather than a person,
and seen only for how well his/her body and appearance can please others. According to
Subrahmanyam and Šmahel (2011), an emergent source of sexual socialization in Western
cultures is the Internet, where anyone can use social media to post sexualized pictures of
himself/herself. Manago, Ward, Lemm, Reed, and Seabrook (2015) compared college men and
women who were involved with Facebook and found that Facebook use can lead to increased
body consciousness among both male and female college students. The results also indicated that
the more people are using Facebook, the more likely they are to show off their bodies and
sexualize themselves.
Sexualization of Female Athletes
22
The impact of television and other media on self-perception. Social media is not the
only source of sexual objectification among college students; television and other media can
have an impact as well. Zurbriggen and Morgan (2006) investigated reality dating television
shows and the manner in which the show hinted that appearance was the most important aspect
of a person when dating. The mere presence of this type of image on television makes it is more
acceptable among college students to appear more sexualized when dating, causing sexual
objectification to become an acceptable part of everyday life.
Nowatzki and Morry (2009) studied 207 female college students to determine their
perceptions of themselves, their behavior and attitudes, self-objectification, and the choice of
media among other concerns that had to do with sexual objectification. Participants who chose to
watch media that was sexually objectifying were more likely to exhibit sexualized behaviors.
Participants who chose to watch women in the media who displayed a higher form of sexual
objectification were more likely to participate in displaying sexualized behavior and accepting
other women that displayed sexualized behavior. The results suggest that sexual objectification is
a learned behavior as a result of repeated exposure from media.
This section was intended to provide an overview of the characteristics of college
students by considering many variables accounting for differences in students, such as residential
vs. commuter, parents’ educational level, and student-athletes vs. non-athletes. Risk behaviors
were also examined, including alcohol consumption and gambling, and the relation of peer
pressure, moral reasoning, and gender to risk behavior. Physical activity has been proven to
show benefits in a college student’s quality of life. Related to this topic is self-esteem and body
esteem, which are linked to gender and athlete status. The last topic of this section discussed how
modern technology can affect college students’ lives and self-perception.
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23
Women’s Sports Participation
This section addresses literature discussing women’s sports participation. This section
will discuss how Title IX changed school athletics, why girls participate in youth sports, and how
athletics at the high school and college levels has changed for female athletes. Lastly, this section
will examine how the Olympics changed athletic and professional opportunities for women.
Approximately three million girls were participating in high school sports in 2010, and at
the collegiate level, roughly 200,000 women participated in sports (Kennedy, 2010). This large
participation number is all thanks to the enactment of Title IX in 1972. Just before Title IX’s
enactment, there were less than 300,000 girls participating in high school sports, and the
participation of women in collegiate sport was even smaller (32,000). As the numbers reveal,
Title IX has had a big impact upon sports in schools
Since 1972, the participation of female athletes has increased by 904 percent in high
schools, while it has increased by 456 percent at the collegiate level (Kennedy, 2010). The role
of Title IX is to prevent gender discrimination in educational programs, such as sports and clubs
(Mak, 2006). Since its enactment, the presence of Title IX legislation has influenced planning to
ensure that girls and women receive the same treatment as boys and men, but this comes with its
complications.
Title IX and athletics. The enactment of Title IX emerged from the Education
Amendments to the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Mak, 2006). The reason why this law had to be
established was because of institutionalized discrimination against women at various universities
and colleges. Because of Title IX, universities and colleges must comply with guidelines related
to financial assistance in athletic settings, which means that athletic scholarship dollars should be
awarded based on the ratio of male and female athlete participants.
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Although Title IX has taken great strides regarding opportunities for women to
participate in sports, there is still a big gap between men’s and women’s equality. According to
the National Coalition for Women and Girls in Education (NCWGE, 2002), at Division I and II
in 1999, men’s sports received higher funding than women’s sports. The same source also stated
that there were 36 percent more scholarships available in the NCAA for male athletes than for
female athletes. Lastly, NCWGE (2002) reported that universities and colleges spent around
$803 more per male athlete than per female athlete.
Girls’ participation in youth sports. As mentioned before, the overall participation of
girls in sports has increased tremendously. Unfortunately, very little research has been done on
girls’ participating in youth sports, other than general reasons why girls participate in youth
sports. The little research that currently exists on participation levels in sport include both girls’
and boys’ reasons for participation.
Soares, Antunnes, and Van Den Tillaar (2013) focused on why boys and girls participate
in school sports, compared the two, and found that both boys and girls had similar motives for
participating in their particular sport. According to the study, the most popular motive for sports
participation among boys and girls was enjoyment of the sport. Other popular motives were:
wanting to be physically healthy, wanting to be part of a team, and to wanting improve his or her
skills (Soares et al., 2013). Similar results were reported by Weinberg et al. (2000), in which “to
have fun,” and “to improve my skills” (p. 337) were also amongst the top reasons why boys and
girls participated in sports. Sirard, Pfeiffer, and Pate (2005) stated that the top three motivational
factors for middle school girls’ sports participation were to improve their skills, to be with
friends, and to have fun.
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According to these three studies, the main reasons why girls participate in sports are that
they think it is fun, they want to improve their skills, or because they want to be more social
(Soares et al., 2013; Sirard et al., 2005; Weinberg et al., 2000). Since very little research
currently exists that is specifically about girls’ participation in sports, it appears that youth sports
researchers place boys and girls in the same study category because they are still young enough
in order to play together.
Girls’ participation in high school sports. In the 1971-72 academic year, less than
300,000 female high school students participated in sports. By the 2014-15 academic year, that
number had risen to nearly 3.3 million (The National Federation of State High School
Associations, 2015). Before Title IX was established in 1972, only one in every 27 girls
participated in high school athletics, but by 1978 that participation rate had increased to one in
every four girls (Stevenson, 2010). In 2007, one in every three girls participated in high school
athletics (Stevenson, 2007). Although girls’ participation in high school sports has increased, this
does not mean that it is has reached full acceptance by both boys and girls. In 2002, Shakib and
Dunbar found that boys as well as girls believed that girls do not have the ability to compete with
boys, and that they will never be able to achieve this. Fortunately, not everyone thinks this way.
Hardin and Whiteside (2009) found that women and men age 15-26 were all very supportive of
girls and women participating in all levels of sports.
Brown, Ruel, and Medley-Rath (2011) sampled high school boys and girls and came to
the conclusion that non-athlete girls are more supportive of girls’ participation in high school
sports than non-athlete boys. Male competitive athletes were less supportive of increasing
opportunities for girls to play high school sports compared to female non-athletes. There was no
difference in the results between female competitive athletes’ and female non-athletes’ support,
Sexualization of Female Athletes
26
which means that all female participants in this study were supportive of increasing girls’ sport
participation (Brown et al., 2011). Although male participants in this study were less supportive
of the increase in girls’ participation in sports, this does not mean that they are not supportive at
all. Judging by the results of this study, it can be speculated that girls’ participation in high
school sports has generally been more accepted.
Keathley, Himelein, and Srigley (2013) examined boys’ and girls’ reasons for and
benefits of playing club soccer. Although this study was not directly related to high school
sports, the participants were between the ages of 15-17, which means that they attended high
school. Five boys and six girls were asked to participate in this study. The differences between
boys’ and girls’ results were that girls participated in soccer mainly because of the social rewards
associated with playing a team sport. All of the girls listed social rewards as one reason for why
they participated in travel soccer. They regarded their relationships with their teammates and
coaches as very important. The results also indicated that playing soccer benefited girls off the
field as well. For example, they felt more a part of an inclusive school environment because they
played a sport and they were good at it. Five of the six girls thought that the social rewards of
participating in travel soccer was the most important reason they played soccer.
The results for boys revealed different motivations. Four out of five boys played travel
soccer because they thought it was a fun sport to play. This was their number one reason. Only
one girl had that same reason on her list, but she listed it last (Keathley et al., 2013). Keathley et
al. (2013) and Sirard et al. (2006) both agree that girls’ main reason for playing sports is for the
social benefits. Ullrich-French and Smith (2009) noted that both boys and girls participated in
sports because of social relationships, but that girls reported having greater quality of friendships
Sexualization of Female Athletes
27
due to playing a sport. Due to the results of these three studies, it can be speculated that girls will
continue to participate in sports as long as it benefits them socially.
Gender discrimination in high schools. Although it seems from previously discussed
studies that sports participation of high school girls is more accepted, girls are still prone to
gender discrimination in high schools. Wright (1985) concluded that when girls participate in
high school sports, they were seen as being of a lower social status than everyone else at the high
school, especially if the girls participated in sports that were deemed as masculine sports. Leaper
and Brown (2008) made a more recent discovery that 75 percent of the girls they sampled stated
that they received discouraging comments that were linked to them participating in high school
sports. Most of those discouraging comments came from the girls’ male peers (54%) and male
friends and brothers (45%), but they also came from female peers (38%) and female close friends
and sisters (31%). Teachers and coaches were also mentioned as giving discouraging comments,
but they were at the bottom of the list, giving only 28 percent of all discouraging comments.
These two studies suggest that female high school athletes have to deal with discrimination-
related difficulties such as facing discouraging comments from friends and family or even a
lower social status.
Knifsend and Graham (2012) explored gender discrimination in high schools by studying
students from ninth grade to 12 th
grade and observed how female athletes in high school
recognized gender discrimination from their peers, teachers and administrators at the school. The
results suggested that ninth grade female athletes were more aware of gender discrimination than
ninth grade female non-athletes. Female athletes in the 11 th
and 12 th
grades also perceived higher
gender discrimination from peers than female non-athletes in the same grade levels. There was
no correlation between gender discrimination from teachers and school administrators which
Sexualization of Female Athletes
28
may be related to Title IX which protects against gender discrimination from teachers and school
administrators at the high schools; students would be less likely to perceive discrimination from
a teacher or administrator than from peers, whose gender discrimination is more difficult to
avoid and regulate (Knifsend & Graham, 2012).
Women participating in sports at universities/colleges. As stated before, women’s
participation in college sports has also increased tremendously. It is interesting to note the
reasons why women participate in college sports. Just as in youth sports and high school sports,
there are differences in motivational factors between male and female college athletes. Flood and
Hellstedt (1991) concluded that female college athletes mainly participated in their sports
because of social factors and fitness aspects, while male college athletes’ main motivation was
winning and competing.
Pacheco, Mas, Olivárez, and Avila (2012) also examined female athletes and the
motivational factors regarding their participation in college sports and concluded that
skill/mastery and the enjoyment of the sport were the two highest motivational factors. The
lowest ranked motivational factor was affiliation/recognition. Fitness was also noted as a
motivational factor, but it ranked sixth out of the eight motivational factors mentioned in the
study. Shaffer and Witter (2006) also stated that the reason female college athletes participate in
sports was because they enjoyed playing the sport, which supports the study of Pacheco et al.,
(2012). Comparing both studies (Flood & Hellstedt, 1991; Pacheco et al., 2012), it can be argued
that the motivational factors for female athletic participation at a college level has changed
slightly.
Women in sports beyond college. After college play, American women, like men, can
advance in athletics to the Olympics and professional sports. However, women have less sport
Sexualization of Female Athletes
29
options for advancement than their male counterparts. Although the Olympics have little to do
with education and therefore does not fall under Title IX at all, this is where it all started for
women’s sports. The Olympic Studies Centre (2014) reported that the first modern Olympic
Games were held in 1896, and four years later in 1900, women were able to compete. A total of
22 women out of 997 total athletes competed in sports such as tennis, croquet, sailing,
equestrian, and golf. The only two sports that had women only events were tennis and golf
(Olympic Studies Centre, 2014).
Women participating in the Olympics have increased tremendously over the decades.
The Rome Olympics (1960) had only 610 (12%) female athlete participants (Park, 2012), but in
1984, women’s participation in the Olympics had increased to 23 percent of all athletes
(Olympic Studies Centre, 2014). Park (2012) believed that the reason women had more
opportunities at the Olympics was because of the women’s rights movements in multiple
countries during the 1960s. This could explain the rapid increase of female participation at the
Olympics after those years.
In 2008, the Beijing Olympics had a total of 11,000 athletes, and 4,639 of them were
female (Park, 2012). In comparison to previous years, female participation at 42 percent was the
closest it had ever been to being equal with male participation. Statistics from the Olympic
Studies Centre (2014) stated that in the last summer Olympics (London, 2012), 140 of the 302
events were women’s events. A total of 4,676 female athletes participated, which brought
women’s participation in this event to just over 44 (44.2) percent of total participants and ranks
as the highest percentage of women competing at the Olympics.
As for female athletes’ opportunities to play professional sports, there are minimal
options available in the United States. The WNBA was not created until 1996, and its first season
Sexualization of Female Athletes
30
started in 1997 (NBA Media Ventures, LLC, 2015). Another professional league available in the
United States is soccer, but two previous women’s professional leagues failed to be successful
because of expenses (Whiteside, 2012). The current women’s professional soccer league
(National Women’s Soccer League) was established in 2013 (Whiteside, 2012).
This section was intended to provide an overview of girls and women participating in
sports. Since the enactment of Title IX in 1972, girls and women are participating more in sports,
but a gap still exists between women’s and men’s sports. There is a minimal amount of research
on girls participating in youth sports, but there is research on their motivational factors. As for
girls in high school, social rewards were the main reason why they participated in sports. Most
people are supportive of girls participating in school sports. Motives for women participating in
sports on a collegiate level were enjoyment of playing the sport and desire to get better at it.
Lastly, participation of women at the Olympics has increased tremendously. Unfortunately at the
professional level of women’s sports, there are few opportunities available compared to men’s
sports.
Women Presented in the Media
This section addresses literature concerning women presented in the media. This portion
of the chapter will specifically discuss women’s sports coverage. Of particular importance will
be how the coverage of women in the media affects girls and women in general.
It has been 43 years since Title IX came into effect in 1972. Title IX gave girls and
women equal opportunity to participate in sports without the deterrent of discrimination based on
sex. Because of Title IX, women’s sports became more popular and generally accepted in
American society. Unfortunately after 43 years of Title IX, equity has not been achieved;
women’s sports are far from true acceptance and equality with men’s sports.
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Women’s sports coverage. Adams and Tuggle (2004) focused on the sports network
ESPN and recorded ESPN’s SportsCenter every night for four weeks. The four weeks of
recording resulted in 807 sports stories of which 778 were about men, 13 involved men and
women, and 16 stories were about women only. The average number of seconds each story was
also logged; male stories averaged 89.58 seconds. Stories about both men and women averaged
115.62 seconds, and stories about women averaged 50.63 seconds. Finally, SportsCenter never
aired stories only involving women within in the first two segments of the show.
Eastman and Billings (2000) noted similar findings to Adams and Tuggle (2004) using
CNN’s Sport’s Tonight in addition to ESPN’s SportsCenter and added two newspapers, The New
York Times and USA Today, to determine whether or not sports coverage would be more equal
between the sexes. Only sports pages were examined, and USA Today had a total of 2,491 sports
stories, of which 2,025 were stories of men only and 344 were of women only, with the
remaining 122 stories were under the category “Other” ( p. 203). The New York Times had a total
of 951 sports stories: 806 were about men only; 105 were about women only; and 40 were in the
category “Other” (p. 203). The percentage of stories that covered women only was 14 percent in
USA Today and 11 percent in The New York Times and thereby suggested that both television
coverage and printed media focused more on men in sports stories.
Although these studies occurred in the United States, there is evidence to support the fact
that gender equality in sports coverage has not been reached internationally. For instance, French
(2013) investigated women’s sports coverage in New Zealand and analyzed the newspapers The
New Zealand Herald and The Dominion Post. For two continuous weeks, 562 sports articles
were examined from both newspapers: 305 from The New Zealand Herald and 257 from The
Dominion Post. Of The Dominion Post’s 257 sports articles, only 22 were about women only
Sexualization of Female Athletes
32
(8.56%). The New Zealand Herald ranked even lower, having only 11 out of 305 sports articles
about women only, which is not even four percent (French, 2013).
Women’s sports coverage at colleges/universities. The underrepresentation of women’s
sports in media does not just occur at the professional level. Huffman, Tuggle, and Rosengard
(2004) examined college campus sports coverage to observe how different women’s sport
coverage was one generation after Title IX had been in effect at the university. In the year 2000,
56 percent of all college students were female, and in 2003, 41 percent of all the NCAA athletes
were female (Huffman et al., 2004). Speculating from these results, campus sports coverage
should only be slightly more visible for men than for women. Huffman et al. (2004) examined
the ratio of women and men sports in the campus media and found the following: there were a
total of 282 print stories and 157 broadcast stories. Forty-three newspaper stories and 20
television stories had coverage of both men’s and women’s teams (e.g. Track & Field).
When considering different types of media coverage, 240 print stories and 136 broadcast
stories were either about men’s or women’s sports (Huffman et al., 2004). The newspapers gave
men’s sports approximately 73 percent coverage, and television newscasts gave them
approximately 82 percent coverage. In the 63 stories that involved both men’s and women’s
teams, there was also a difference in time spent between the coverage of the men’s and women’s
teams. In the newspapers, 56 percent of the mixed-gender stories focused on male athletes, while
in the television newscasts this was 53 percent. Although the coverage between men and women
was more equally distributed in the mixed-gender stories, stories about men only or women only
did not accurately represent the ratio of male and female athletes. Even one generation after Title
IX had been established, college campus media outlets are still more interested in covering
men’s sports than women’s sports.
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33
Girls’ sports coverage at high schools. Even at the high school level, media coverage
between boys’ and girls’ sports is not equal. Pedersen (2002) examined the high school sports
section of 43 newspapers from Florida and used 14 editions of each newspaper, which totaled
602 editions. Of those 602 editions, a total of 1,792 articles covered high school sports. The
author discovered that nearly 32 percent (563) of those articles were about girls’ sports.
Approximately 58 percent (1,045) of the articles covered boys’ sports, and the remaining 10
percent were news articles that covered miscellaneous aspects of athletics (e.g. award
ceremonies, athletic associations). The average article length about boys’ sports was 12 inches of
page space, while an average article length about girls’ sports was 10.8 inches.
With the percentages of girls and boys enrolled in high schools in Florida (49.5% girls,
and 50.5% boys), the percentage of girls (42.5%) and boys (57.5%) participating in high school
sports, and the percentage of sports offered per gender (51.4% for girls, and 48.6% for boys), the
distribution of coverage between boys’ and girls’ sports in newspapers articles was not equal.
Girls’ high school sports are still under-represented (Pedersen, 2002). High school boys in
Florida receive more media coverage than high school girls.
All of these studies suggest that girls’ and women’s sports coverage is still not the same
as boys’ and men’s sports coverage, and that this varies from high school through professional
sports. These studies indicated that there are no differences between television coverage and
newspaper coverage as well. Title IX has been in effect for 43 years, and thanks in part to this
enactment, girls and women have more rights than their predecessors. However, men’s sports are
still treated as more important than women’s sports, and that probably will not change any time
soon.
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34
Women’s sports are still not as popular as men’s, even 43 years after the passing of Title
IX. Whiteside and Hardin (2011) studied 19 women between the ages of 26 and 43 to find out
what women thought of the underrepresentation of women’s sports. Most of the women claimed
that they did not have time to watch sports at all because of house chores or taking care of their
children, and if they did watch, it was only for a few of minutes at a time. Some participants said
that they only watch sports with their husbands, and if their husbands did not watch women’s
sports, they would not either. Former athletes also participated in this study, and most of them
agreed that even though they did play a women’s sport, they were not interested in the sport itself
outside of playing it.
Women’s media coverage and body image. When women’s sports are reported in the
media, these stories usually consist of a few female athletes shown in magazines and news
articles. These articles mainly focus on the female athlete’s body (discussed in more detail in the
following section), which can have an adverse effect in general on all girls’ and women’s body
image. Sohn (2009) stated that the media had a huge impact on body image mainly because it is
promoting certain body types to be more ideal than others. This is a problem because people
think that the images regarding the ideal body perpetuated in the media are realistic, even though
this is not the case. Because of the media’s continual presentation of unrealistic images of perfect
bodies, people’s body perceptions and the satisfaction of them can be drastically affected.
Sohn (2009) investigated men’s and women’s perceptions of their bodies compared to
what the media (magazines and television) presents and found that women often compared
themselves with women on television, and this had a direct impact on their body perception and
body satisfaction. This means that women actually had a lower body satisfaction because they
were comparing themselves with unrealistic images of women shown in the media. Although
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35
Sohn (2009) did not focus on female athletes or women’s sports, the types of women’s coverage
in the media can have an impact on the women watching them. There is minimal literature
available that focuses on body dissatisfaction caused by female athletes’ coverage in the media,
but Bissell (2004) found that women who watched women participating in lean sports in the
Olympics felt body dissatisfaction as a result.
This section was intended to provide an overview of how underrated women’s sports
coverage really is. The literature showed evidence that on all levels (high school, college, and
professional/Olympics), there was more media coverage about men’s sports than women’s
sports. This section also provided some information about how women are being affected by the
unrealistic body types presented in the media. The next section will go into more detail about
how female athletes are being treated in the media and how this affects girls and women.
Sexualization of Female Athletes
This section focuses on pertinent research on the subject of the sexualization of female
athletes. Because of Title IX, women’s sports became more popular and generally accepted in
American society. When women’s sports do receive coverage, female athletes are mostly shown
as sexual objects rather than professional athletes. Showing female athletes in a sexualized
manner is something which is frequently done in the United States (Bernstein & Kian, 2013).
The objectification theory. This theory states that girls and women are conditioned to
view themselves as others view them (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997). The objectification theory
can be used as a theoretical framework because it explains how many people, particularly
women, view themselves in relation to other people. According to Fredrickson and Roberts
(1997), “. . . perhaps the most profound and persuasive of these experiences is the disruption in
the flow of consciousness that results as many girls and women internalize the culture’s practices
Sexualization of Female Athletes
36
of objectification and habitually monitor their bodies’ appearance” (p. 196). This can result in
emotional stress and other mental and physical health risks among women. As explained by
Fredrickson and Roberts (1997), “The objectification theory is there to name one set of
sociocultural barriers that diminish women’s well-being and limit their potential” (p. 196).
Sexualization in women’s beach volleyball. The coverage of the U.S. women’s beach
volleyball team, which participated at the 2004 Summer Olympics, is a great example of how
women are portrayed as sexual objects. Holt and Bissell (2006) reported how different camera
shots and angles were focused on team USA and the four teams they played (Czech Republic,
Sweden, China, and Brazil). Data were collected via camera angle starting on the serve of each
play. There were two cameras analyzed, one that showed the shot immediately after the serve,
and the other following up the first camera. The body shots consisted of face shots, chest shots,
buttocks shots, and full body shots. Between both cameras, the percentages showed that the chest
shots, buttocks shots, and full body shots were most used in all four games.
This evidence suggests that the director of the women’s beach volleyball events was
more focused on showing the audience how sexually these women could be portrayed instead of
showing the women as athletes. A follow up study (Bissell & Duke, 2007) focused on the same
content analysis as the previous study, but examined if the same 2004 beach volleyball event was
more focused on the sexualization of the female athletes rather than their athleticism in the
commentary and the camera shots. The commentators focused more on the play-by-play and the
athletes’ athletic abilities rather than the female athletes’ appearances. However, the camera
shots did show a lot of footage of the female athletes’ buttocks, mainly when the athletes “made
uniform adjustments” (p. 43).
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37
Bissell and Duke (2007) also noticed that there were cameras placed all over the beach
volleyball court, but the director most frequently chose to use the camera behind the team that
was receiving the serve. The shots were mostly of the women’s buttocks, while the head and feet
were cut out the shot. Another popular shot focused on the players’ chests. Because of these two
studies, it can be speculated that the beach volleyball event at the 2004 Olympics was meant to
sexualize the female athletes, and that their appearances are more important than their
athleticism, even though the commentary does not provide evidence of that.
Uniforms and body image. Girls and women who participate in sports tend to be more
muscular than girls and women who do not participate in sports. Being muscular as a woman
contradicts the ideal body type desired in popular American culture (Krane, Choi, Baird, Aimar,
& Kauer, 2004; Steinfeldt, Carter, Benton, & Steinfeldt, 2011), regardless of the fact that being
muscular is necessary for participating in sports. Krane, Waldron, Michalenok, and Stiles-
Shipley (2001) discovered that female athletes felt positively about their bodies during athletic
activities, but as soon the athletes were outside of their athletics comfort zone, their positive
body image turned negative.
Other studies (Feather, Ford, & Herd, 1996; Reel & Gill, 1996, 2001) also revealed that
female athletes who play sports in which they were required to wear tight uniforms showed more
concern for their bodies because of the tight uniforms. A more recent study (Steinfeldt,
Zakrajsek, Bodey, Middendorf, & Martin, 2013) focused on the emotional and mental state of
NCAA Division I volleyball players. The results suggested that the athletes who participated in
the study were very aware of their bodies during matches and were more worried about how they
looked on the court rather than focusing on the match. This could cause the players to perform
inadequately. Not only could wearing tight and revealing uniforms affect female athletes’
Sexualization of Female Athletes
38
confidence during game time, it could also make female athletes feel that they are seen more as
sexual objects than performance athletes (Krane, et al., 2004). Wearing tight uniforms can also
be related to eating disorders in female athletes who play sports that require tight uniforms (de
Bruin, Oudejans, Bakker, & Woertman, 2011). Overall, these studies provide evidence that
wearing revealing and tight uniforms can have a significant impact upon female athletes’
perceptions of their bodies.
Perceptions of female athletes. With all of the previously discussed evidence on the
differences between women’s and men’s sports coverage, the question of equality between these
types of coverage is nearly irrelevant. It is even arguable that female athletes are more likely than
non-female athletes to be seen as homosexual and not fitting the normative standard (Knight &
Giuliano, 2003). Harrison and Secarea (2010) studied the attitudes of college students towards
the sexualization of professional women basketball players. The participants were presented with
two different newspapers; one presented the female basketball players in a sexualized manner,
and the other presented them in a performance non-sexualized manner. The results indicated that
the college students who participated in the study saw the sexualized basketball players as more
feminine than the non-sexualized basketball players. The sexualized athletes were more likely to
be seen as heterosexual than the non-sexualized athletes. The participants did not perceive the
sexualized basketball players as athletic or even being good at basketball. Overall, this study
indicated that female athletes who are sexualized are more accepted in accordance with the
feminine normative standard, but they are less likely to be accepted for their abilities in their
sports.
Boys’ perceptions of female athletes. Daniels and Wartena (2011) studied 104 adolescent
boys’ perceptions of female athletes. The participants had to view five photographs of either
Sexualization of Female Athletes
39
sexualized athletes only, performance athletes only, or sexualized models only. The results
indicated that the boys had almost the same responses towards sexualized athletes as sexualized
models, suggesting that women are sexually objectified in American culture, which is supported
by the objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997). The boys who saw the photographs
of the sexualized athletes thought appearance and the attractiveness of the athletes were the most
important factor. Boys barely made any statements about the physical ability of the sexualized
athletes, and if they did the statements were negative.
That boys make more statements about appearance and the attractiveness of athletes
instead of physical ability also supports Harrison and Secarea’s (2010) research. Additionally, it
can be speculated that women’s sports will not be watched more frequently because of female
athletes’ sexualization. Kane and Maxwell (2011) supported this speculation as they found that
showing images of sexualized female athletes did not create more interest in women’s sports, nor
did it create more support of women’s sports in general. Daniels and Wartena (2011) noted that
boys thought sexualized athletes were seen more as the ideal woman than sexualized models.
Boys who saw the performance athletes made fewer comments about the appearance of the
female athletes, stating that if they saw more pictures of performance athletes, they would focus
more on the sport the athlete plays rather than their physicality and attractiveness. However, as
stated before, this would not increase viewers of women’s sports.
Girls’ and women’s perceptions of female athletes. Daniels (2012) studied the
perceptions of girls and women towards female athletes and divided them into three groups and
viewed only sexualized female athletes, performance female athletes, or sexualized female
models. The responses of the girls and women who viewed the performance athletes were very
positive as they made comments about their athletic ability and talent. The participants observed
Sexualization of Female Athletes
40
the pictures of the performance athletes and stated that those pictures were “inspirational to them
as women, and considered these women to be role models” (p. 87). When the participants were
asked to use the images to compare their personal physical activity to the perceived activity of
the athlete in the photo, the participants reacted positively. They were motivated to be active as
well and appreciated the sport they were playing.
Participants who observed the sexualized female athletes responded negatively towards
the photographs (Daniels, 2012). They were jealous of the appearance of the sexualized female
athletes. The participants did not make any statements regarding the sexualized female athletes’
athletic abilities. Schooler and Daniels’ (2014) study had similar results where girls compared
their own bodies with the bodies of the pictures of sexualized athletes and reacted negatively
towards this. Girls and women also thought just as the boys in Daniels and Wartena’s (2011)
study that sexualized female athletes were seen more as the ideal woman than sexualized models.
Overall, both studies (Daniels & Wartena, 2011; Daniels, 2012) suggested that female
athletes should be more recognized for their athletic abilities rather than their physical
appearance, because it could generate more positive attitudes towards women’s sports. Daniels’
earlier study (2009) also proposed that showing performance athletes instead of sexualized
athletes could have a more positive impact on women who watch women’s sports and further
noted that female viewers perceived sexualized images of female athletes as a point of concern.
The sexualization of female athletes can impact the self-objectification of female athletes and
their performance (Steinfeldt et al., 2013).
This section was intended to provide an overview of the sexualization of female athletes.
The objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997) is the foundation for how women view
themselves, and how others, particularly men, view them. The literature explained how the
Sexualization of Female Athletes
41
media can sexualize athletes (beach volleyball and camera shots), but also how uniform style can
be a concern. Uniforms can serve as a distraction to fans, but mainly it can be a distraction to the
players because they are more worried about how they look in them rather than focusing on the
game. Lastly, the impact of gender (male and female) and age on perceptions of sexualization of
female athletes were examined.
This chapter included relevant literature to understand the background and importance of
this study. The first section explained the characteristics of college students, since they will be
the sample used in this study. The second section provided an overview of girls and women
participating in sports on all levels. The third section presented information on how underrated
women’s sports are in comparison to men’s sports. Lastly, the fourth section completely focused
on the sexualization of female athletes in the media.
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42
Chapter 3
Methodology and Procedures
In this chapter, pertinent information will be provided related to the details of the
research study. This information will include specific references to the research approach,
research design, research instrument, and analysis tools. The research study utilized a mixed
methods approach based on descriptive research techniques. The tool used in this approach was
an adaptation of the instrument developed by Daniels (Daniels & Wartena, 2011) and was used
to compare the perceptions of student-athletes and non-athletes relative to the sexualization of
women in the media.
Mixed Methods Research Methodology
Mixed methods research is a combination of techniques characteristic to quantitative and
qualitative research approaches. Qualitative research techniques can be used to investigate
sociological issues by providing a multifaceted, interconnected web of information collected in
an uncontrolled setting, composed of text information, and thorough responses of participants
(Creswell, 1994). Qualitative research also uses techniques characterized by examining
“. . . narratives, phenomenologies, ethnographies, grounded theory studies, or case studies” and
where “. . . the researcher collects open-ended, emerging data with the primary intent of
developing themes from the data” (Creswell, 2003, p.18).
One technique characteristic of quantitative research is the use of surveys to collect data
(Creswell, 2003). Quantitative research results always contain statistical and numerical data and
are grounded in the attempt to test stated hypotheses through the careful adherence to research
procedures (Gay, Mills, & Airasian, 2012). One of the situations where quantitative techniques
Sexualization of Female Athletes
43
are valuable is the examination of sociological issues with a set of predetermined variables, using
clear statistical analysis tools and evaluated with numerical values (Creswell, 1994).
The purpose of the mixed methods research design is to provide a more comprehensive
understanding of the issue being studied through a combination of quantitative or qualitative
research designs (Gay et al., 2012; Creswell & Clark, 2007). Mixed methods research design
provides a better, more comprehensive understanding of what is being studied (Creswell &
Clark, 2007). Mixed methods research involves the use of instruments to collect numerical and
statistical data and then combines that data with qualitative interview data or other forms of
personal communication to better understand the complex situation (Creswell, 2003).
This study can be categorized as a mixed methods study because thematic analysis was
used in order to code the open-ended responses of the participants. Thematic analysis is
categorized as an analysis often used in qualitative research (Boyatzis, 1998; Braun & Clarke,
2006). The thematic analysis transformed the qualitative open-ended responses into quantitative
categories to describe the significance of the participants’ responses. This mixed methods study
can be categorized as one of the models composed by Steckler, McLeroy, Goodman, Bird, and
McCormick (1992) as it subscribes to the notion that “. . . quantitative methods are used to
embellish a primarily qualitative study” (Steckler et al., 1992, p. 5).
Descriptive Research Methods
Cuneen and Tobar (2015) define descriptive research as the most suitable means of
finding research answers. Descriptive research pays more attention to what is actually taking
place rather than the specific reasons why it occurs (Andrew, Pedersen, & McEvoy, 2011) and
describes what was observed during the study (Babbie, 2002). For example, after researchers
collect all their data, they will describe what was observed from the answers of the participants.
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44
The participants in descriptive research are selected because they have certain characteristics that
are beneficial to the researcher and the issue being studied (Lauer, 2006).
The present study utilized descriptive research because the goal of the study was to
describe what was observed from the responses of the participants. This research study is not
asking for why the respondents gave the answers they did, but rather what they answered.
Participants reported their perceptions of the digital images based on their personal perspectives.
The study did not investigate how the perspectives were created but focuses on the expression of
those perspectives in response to the digital images.
Survey Research Technique
Surveys were utilized to collect all data for this study. Surveys are used to access the
attitudes, judgments, points of view and sometimes emotions of the participants (Shaughnessy,
Zechmeister, & Zechmeister, 2012). To collect survey data, researchers administer a set of
predetermined questions to a specifically selected population via a questionnaire or an interview
(Gay, Mills, & Airasian, 2012). According to Weisberg, Krosnick, and Bowen (1996), the four
main types of questions that surveys answer are: “. . . (a) the prevalence of attitudes, beliefs, and
behavior; (b) changes in them over time; (c) differences between groups of people in their
attitudes, beliefs, and behavior; and (d) causal propositions about these attitudes, beliefs, and
behavior” (p. 15). The survey used in this study was a 10-item questionnaire with eight closed
and two open-ended questions in which the participants responded in a narrative form.
The specific instrument that used for this study was an instrument created by Daniels
(2011) and has been used in several studies (Daniels, 2009; Daniels & Wartena, 2011; Daniels,
2012). Several adaptations of the study were available, and one was selected for this study
(Daniels & Wartena, 2011). Daniels and Wartena (2011) checked for inter-rater reliability after
Sexualization of Female Athletes
45
collecting data, and Kappa (κ) coefficients were calculated. This research study used the same
method to check inter-rater reliability. The authors also tested their instrument for ecological
validity, or generalizability to real life. To increase the ecological validity of the study,
photographs of female athletes were selected based on the way that the athlete is typically
portrayed in the media. This study used the same logic in photograph selection.
General demographic questions were inserted at the start of the questionnaire to
determine gender, age, ethnicity, student status, academic major, and academic status
(Appendices A, B, and C). Another adaption made to the instrument is a reduction in the number
of photographic images (from five to two) per condition. The last adaption made to the
instrument was the use of different photographs for every condition. The images selected
included more recent photographs of athletes and models in poses similar to those selected by
Daniels and Wartena (2011) in order to remain current for the respondents.
Target Population and Sampling Method
The target population for this study was college students identified as student-athletes and
non-athletes at a small, public university in the southeastern region of the United States. There
was a total of 406 student-athletes enrolled at this university for the Fall 2015 semester (UNC
Pembroke Athletics, 2015); however, this number dropped to 361 for the Spring 2016 semester
(M. Sanger, personal communication, February 9, 2016). This university had 14 total sports
during the 2015-2016 academic year, seven men’s teams and seven women’s teams. In Fall
2015, there were 291 male athletes and 115 female athletes attending the university. The goal of
the researcher was to survey as many student-athletes as possible.
The sample that represented non-athletes was comprised of students enrolled at the same
small, public university in the southeastern region of the United States. Classes that were
Sexualization of Female Athletes
46
targeted to acquire the sample for this study can be found in Appendix Q. This specific approach
for selecting non-athletes was intended to reflect the diversity of students attending the
university. The majority (67%) of the student body was between the ages of 18-24, while 62
percent was female, and 38 percent was male (The University of North Carolina at Pembroke,
2015a). The most heavily represented race at the university was White (40%), with Black at 34
percent, and American Indian/Alaskan at 15 percent. The remaining 11 percent consisted of
Hispanic, Asian, and two or more race. Because the sample that represents non-athletes was
taken from different departments and majors, it was similar to the student-athletes sample. An
equal number of participants from each of the student status categories were invited to participate
in the study.
The sample method was convenience sampling, as the lead researcher is a former student-
athlete and worked in the athletic department at the university where the study was conducted.
Because of this access to the target population, response rates were predicted to be high. The
benefit of surveying classes across campus was that it enabled the lead researcher to access a
pool of students from different academic classifications (i.e., freshmen, sophomores, juniors,
seniors, and graduate students).
Instrument and Techniques for Measurement
The instrument used for this study was a survey. There were three versions of the survey,
with each survey representing one condition: performance athletes, sexualized athletes, and
sexualized models (Appendices A, B, and C). All demographic questions remained the same
across the three versions. Two unique photographs per condition were displayed below the
demographics section, and participants were asked open-ended questions about the photographs,
as follows: After looking at this photograph. Please write one paragraph (at least 3 sentences),
Sexualization of Female Athletes
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describing the woman in the photograph and discussing how this photograph makes you feel.
The demographics that were recorded to use as variables were gender, student status, and
academic level. These three variables were used to disaggregate the data for comparison
purposes.
The demographic questions were closed-ended questions where participants chose from
specific categories. The responses to the two photographs were in form fields, which meant that
the participants were directed to write a narrative response of at least three sentences describing
the woman pictured in the photograph and how that image made them feel. The survey should
have taken less than 15 minutes to complete, but if participants needed more time, that time was
allotted. The researcher did not leave the classroom until everyone who participated in the study
had finished the survey.
Data Collection Design
The survey was available online through the UNCP Qualtrics software system. All the
coaches and professors were contacted by e-mail to ask for permission to invite their team/class
members to participate (Appendix D), while an informed consent (Appendix E) was attached to
the e-mail as well. If the coaches/professors did not respond to the first e-mail after a week, a
reminder e-mail was sent (Appendix F). If there was still no response, the researcher met the
coaches/professors in person during their office hours to assess interest in providing access to
their team/class. When coaches/professors responded with their intent to allow the researcher to
invite their athletes/students to participate, the researcher made appointments for a time and date
with each team/class, so the survey could be administered in classrooms (Appendix Q). The
appointments were also set via e-mail (Appendix G), and these e-mails reminded
Sexualization of Female Athletes
48
coaches/professors that each participant needed to have an electronic device (e.g. laptop, iPad,
tablet) to complete the survey.
After the appointments were set, the researcher contacted all the coaches/professors the
week of the appointment via e-mail (Appendix H). This reminder e-mail contained the agreed
upon date and time of the scheduled appointment and an introduction section for the participants.
The researcher asked the coach/professor to forward that e-mail to all his/her athletes/students, so
they were aware of the upcoming visit. In the same e-mail, there was an attachment of the
informed consent material (Appendix E) and the survey directions (Appendix J). The participants
were not able to fill out the survey until the scheduled appointment. On the day of the scheduled
appointment, the researcher e-mailed the coaches/professors the link to the active survey
(Appendix I).
The survey was administered in classrooms to ensure that all participants were able to
finish the survey without problems. The group format for administration of the survey was
intended to collect data in the most efficient means possible and utilized the most convenient
time blocks as noted by the coaches/professors. The survey was activated in late November and
closed January 31, 2016.
Data Collection and Recording Procedures
The survey was available online in the UNCP Qualtrics system. Qualtrics is a free online
survey tool that can be used by everyone. All the questions were available in the Qualtrics
survey (Appendices, A, B, and C), including the photographs of the performance athletes,
sexualized athletes, and sexualized models. There were three different surveys available (one per
condition). The participants were assigned to a condition randomly through Qualtrics. All
demographic questions required a response prior to proceeding to the open-ended narrative
Sexualization of Female Athletes
49
questions regarding the unique images. The forced response format ensured that the participant
did not skip an answer before submitting the survey.
In order to guarantee the privacy and confidentially of the participants, Qualtrics has a
privacy policy that protects participants’ e-mail addresses and personal information (Qualtrics,
LLC., 2015). Qualtrics also meets the terms with the U.S. and E.U. Safe Harbor Framework,
while also complying with the U.S. and Swiss Safe Harbor Framework. Qualtrics’ servers
contain high-end firewall systems, to ensure the protection and privacy of anyone who uses the
survey system, while also ensuring that the personal information and e-mail addresses will not be
traceable by anyone because they are stored in a specific secured location (Qualtrics, LLC.,
2015).
The data captured from the narrative responses on the two photographs was coded using
thematic analysis. As explained earlier in this chapter, thematic analysis translated the open-
ended responses into quantitative frequency reports within prescribed categories. Pre-categorized
themes developed by Daniels and Wartena (2011) were used to categorize the narrative
responses. These themes include appearance, body shape/size, weight, sexy, female ideal/male
gaze, physicality, play-by-play/at the game, gender marking, emotional reaction, and
advertisement/marketing tactic. An eleventh theme, describing emotions/motivation, was added
by the lead researcher and a member of the research team after conducting the pilot test. The
reason why this theme was added is because some of the responses of the sample in the pilot test
described the women’s emotions or motivation rather than their appearance, and these responses
could not be categorized in any of the other 10 themes. The themes were displayed first between
each hypothesis.
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Data Analysis Procedures
In order to code the narrative responses and align them into the 11 pre-categorized
themes, for the pilot test, the lead researcher and a member of the research team read the
narrative responses and discussed with each other in which one the 11 categories the responses
belong. A final decision was not made until both the lead researcher and the member of the
research team agreed that a certain narrative response belonged in a certain category (Appendix
R).
For data analysis of the final data set, the lead researcher and a member of the research
team coded 10-20 percent of the total responses and compared inter-coder reliability using
Cohen’s Kappa (Cohen, 1960). When inter-rater reliability had been established between both
researchers, the coding of the sample was divided between both researchers. Since the survey
had nominal and ordinal scales (both of which are categorical data), chi-square (χ 2 ) tests were
used to discern any significant differences in observed and expected frequencies. Chi-square (χ 2 )
tests were used because the goal of this study was to find out which aspects of the women in the
photos in each condition were most noticeable to the participants, and it was a tool to determine
how frequently the themes occurred in each photograph condition. After each hypothesis was
tested using chi-square (χ 2 ) analysis, each theme was divided into positive, negative, and neutral
responses. The positive, negative, and neutral responses were only displayed as frequencies and
were not tested.
Pilot Test
Before the survey was published, the lead researcher and a member of the research team
conducted a pilot test (Appendix O). After the pilot test, some changes were made to the survey
and the hypotheses. The first change was that the initial hypotheses were revised. Three
hypotheses were removed (there will be no difference between academic major category
Sexualization of Female Athletes
51
responses on the perceptions of sexualized female athletes; there will be no difference between
academic major category responses on the perceptions of performance female athletes; and there
will be no difference between academic major category responses on the perceptions of
sexualized models). Therefore, the academic major question was removed in all the versions of
the survey. Due to the number of majors at the university under investigation (63), it would be
unlikely to find any significant differences among majors. The original survey can be viewed in
Appendix P. There were also new hypotheses added (there will be no difference between gender
category responses (male vs. female) regarding the perceptions of sexualized female athletes;
there will be no difference between gender category responses (male vs. female) regarding the
perceptions of performance female athletes; and there will be no difference between gender
category responses (male vs. female) regarding the perceptions of sexualized models). No extra
question had to be added for these three hypotheses. The reason for adding these three
hypotheses was because the pilot test indicated that the new hypotheses would be more effective
than the original hypotheses that were removed.
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52
Chapter 4
Results
The purpose of this study was to examine the perceptions of college students on the
sexualization of female athletes. This chapter presents descriptive statistics and data analysis
used to determine the results of the earlier stated hypotheses that were first introduced in Chapter
One. The thirteen hypotheses that were tested were H1: There will be no difference between
student-status category responses regarding perceptions of sexualized female athletes; H2: There
will be no difference between gender category responses (male vs. female) regarding the
perceptions of sexualized female athletes; H3: There will be no difference between gender
category responses (male vs. female) regarding the perceptions of performance female athletes;
H4: There will be no difference between gender category responses (male vs. female) regarding
the perceptions of sexualized models; H5: There will be no difference between female student
status category responses (athlete vs. non-athlete) regarding the perceptions of sexualized female
athletes; H6: There will be no difference between female student status category responses
(athlete vs. non-athlete) regarding the perceptions of performance female athletes; H7: There
will be no difference between female student status category responses (athlete vs. non-athlete)
regarding the perceptions of sexualized models; H8: There will be no difference between male
student status category responses (athlete vs. non-athlete) regarding the perceptions of sexualized
female athletes; H9: There will be no difference between male student status category responses
(athlete vs. non-athlete) regarding the perceptions of performance female athletes; H10: There
will be no difference between male student status category responses (athlete vs. non-athlete)
regarding the perceptions of sexualized models; H11: There will be no difference between
academic level category responses on the perceptions of sexualized female athletes; H12: There
Sexualization of Female Athletes
53
will be no difference between academic level category responses on the perceptions of
performance female athletes; and H13: There will be no difference between academic level
category responses on the perceptions of sexualized models. In order to present the data analysis
and the finding of the hypotheses, tables and figures are used. The hypotheses were tested using
chi square (χ 2 ) analysis performed on participants’ narrative responses, which were coded by
researchers.
Participant Profile
Table 4.1
Response Rate from the Total Completed Responses Sample
Total Responses of Student-
Athletes
Total Student-Athletes in the
Spring 2016 Semester
Response Percentage of
Student-Athletes
308 361 85.3%
Total Responses of Non-
Athletes
Total Non-Athletes in
Visited Classes
Response Percentage of
Non-Athletes
456 751* 60.7%** *Some student-athletes were in these classes
as well, and were not surveyed during class.
** There is a great possibility that there were duplicate students in a variety of classes
visited that took the survey in another class,
as well as student-athletes who had already taken the survey. Because of this, the
response percentage is not 100% accurate and
was impossible to calculate. It is likely that the adjusted response rate is higher than the
calculated response rate due to probable
overlap not being accounted for and total number of individuals in classes.
According to the department of athletics’ compliance director at the university where the
study was conducted, the total number of student-athletes enrolled in the spring 2016 semester
was 361 (M. Sanger, personal communication, February 9, 2016). The lead researcher scheduled
an appointment with every sports team at the university, and this resulted in 308 completed
responses, for an 85.3% response rate (Appendix Q). To get responses from non-athletes, the
lead researcher visited 27 classes with permission of the professors (Appendix Q). The
Sexualization of Female Athletes
54
enrollment in those 27 classes was 751. The total number of completed responses was 456,
which means there was a 60.7% response rate. There is a great possibility that in those 27
classes, there were duplicate students, and even student-athletes. This means that the response
rate of the non-athletes is inaccurate, but it cannot be predicted more precisely.
Table 4.2
Surveys Excluded from Data Analysis
Surveys Excluded Reason for Exclusion
43 Participant was <18 years
15 Did not agree with informed consent
35 Did not complete narrative questions
Total 93
Ninety-three responses were excluded from data-analysis (Table 4.2). There are three
reasons why these responses were excluded: the respondent was under the age of 18; the
respondent did not agree with the informed consent; and the respondent did not complete the
narrative questions. Because of these 93 responses being excluded, the total sample of this study
was N=764.
Table 4.3
Responses Divided between each Survey Version
Survey Version Frequency Percent
Performance Athletes 254 33.2
Sexualized Athletes 250 32.7
Sexualized Models 260 34
Total 764 100
The total sample of 764 participants was divided into three groups (Table 4.3). As
explained in Chapter Three, the participants were randomly assigned to a group (survey version)
by Qualtrics. The total sample who took the performance athletes survey was 254 (33.2%); the
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55
total sample of sexualized athletes was 250 (32.7%), and the total sample of sexualized models
was 260 (34%).
Table 4.4
Male/Female Frequencies
Gender Frequency Percent
Male 362 47.4
Female 402 52.5
Total 764 100
Respondent demographics provide a more thorough understanding of the 764
participants. Demographic information was collected for gender, academic year, ethnicity, and
student-status. The total number of respondents who were female was 402 (52.5%), while the
total number of respondents who were male was 362 (47.4%) (Table 4.4).
Table 4.5
Academic Year Frequencies
Academic Year Frequency Percent
Freshman 253 33.1
Sophomore 149 19.5
Junior 185 24.2
Senior 149 19.5
Graduate Student 28 3.7
Total 764 100
Of the total number of participants (N=764), 253 (33.1%) participants answered that they
were a freshman, and 185 (24.2%) participants answered that they were a junior. Tied for third
were sophomores at 149 (19.5%) and seniors at 149 (19.5%); finally 28 (3.7%) participants
answered that they were a graduate student (Table 4.5). Thus, freshman was the most frequently
reported academic year.
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56
Table 4.6
Ethnicity Frequencies
Ethnicity Frequency Percent
Asian American/Pacific Islander/Chicano/Latino 37 4.8
Black/African American 298 39
Native American Indian 90 11.8
White/European American 295 38.6
Other 44 5.8
Total 764 100
Of the total amount of participants (N=764), the highest number of participants (N=298,
39%) answered that their ethnicity was Black/African American (Table 4.6). The second highest
response was White/European American (N=295, 38.6%). Ninety (11.8%) participants answered
that their ethnicity was Native American Indian, and 44 (5.8%) participants answered that their
ethnicity was Other. Finally, 37 (4.8%) participants answered that their ethnicity was Asian
American/Pacific Islander/Chicano/Latino
Table 4.7
Age Frequencies
Age Frequency Percent
18-24 715 93.6
25-34 33 4.3
35-44 7 0.9
45-54 7 0.9
55+ 2 0.3
Total 764 100
Out of the total number of participants (N=764), 715 (93.6%) participants answered that
their age was between 18-24 (Table 4.7). This was by far the largest group, as seen by responses
in other categories. Thirty-three (4.3%) participants answered that their age was between 25-34;
whereas, seven (0.9%) participants answered that their age was between 35-44, and seven (0.9%)
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57
participants answered that their age was between 45-54. Finally, two (0.3%) participants
answered that their age was 55+.
Table 4.8
Demographic Profile Based on Student-Status
Athletes Non-Athletes
Male Female Total Male Female Total
Age
18-24 189 116 305 152 258 410
25-34 3 - 3 14 16 30
35-44 - - - 1 6 7
45-54 - - - 2 5 7
55 & Over - - - 1 1 2
Total 192 116 308 170 286 456
Ethnicity
AA/PI/C/L 3 3 6 13 18 31
Black 75 36 111 64 123 187
Am. Indian 7 9 16 22 52 74
White 97 61 158 60 77 137
Other 10 7 17 11 16 27
Total 192 116 308 170 286 456
Year
Freshman 60 36 96 56 101 157
Sophomore 37 33 70 29 50 79
Junior 57 26 83 40 62 102
Senior 32 19 51 34 64 98
Graduate 6 2 8 11 9 20
Total 192 116 308 170 286 456
Table 4.8 provides a summary of demographic data based on a comparison of the
characteristics of varsity athletes and non-athletes. Since many of the hypotheses presented later
in this chapter compare responses of varsity athletes and non-athletes, a side-by-side comparison
of these two groups of respondents allows the reader to understand the similarities and
differences among the two groups.
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58
Inter-Rater Reliability
Before the data could be coded, the lead researcher and a member of the research team
tested for inter-rater reliability using Cohen’s Kappa (Cohen, 1960). Kappa coefficients were
interpreted using the following scale provided by Landis and Koch (1977):
Kappa Interpretation
<0 Poor agreement
0.0 – 0.20 Slight agreement
0.21 – 0.40 Fair agreement
0.41 – 0.60 Moderate agreement
0.61 – 0.80 Substantial agreement
0.81 – 1.00 Almost perfect agreement
After discussing several responses and what response fit in what theme, the lead
researcher and a member of the research team coded 15 percent of the final data set. After
numerous attempts, inter-rater reliability was reached for all themes and can be found below in
Table 4.9.
Table 4.9
Inter-Rater Reliability Agreement between Both Coders
Theme Kappa
Coefficient
Inter-Rater
Reliability Range
Appearance (1) 0.765 Substantial
Body shape/size (2) 0.935 Almost Perfect
Weight (3) 1.000 Almost Perfect
Sexy (4) 1.000 Almost Perfect
Female Ideal/Male Gaze (5) 0.655 Substantial
Physicality (6) 0.799 Substantial
Play-by-play/at the Game (7) 0.700 Substantial
Gender Marking (8) 0.886 Almost Perfect
Emotional Reaction (9) 0.898 Almost Perfect
Advertisement/Marketing Tactic (10) 1.000 Almost Perfect
Describing Emotions/Motivation (11) 0.697 Substantial
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For each theme, the minimum requirement of both coders was to reach at least substantial
agreement (0.61-0.80). As seen in Table 4.9, both coders reached almost perfect agreement for
weight (1.000), sexy (1.000), and advertisement/marketing tactic (1.000). Although kappa co-
efficients were slightly smaller, the coders reached almost perfect reliability for three additional
themes: body shape/size (0.935), emotional reaction (0.898), and gender marking (0.886).
Substantial agreement was reached for the remaining five themes, as follows in order of
decreasing kappa coefficients: physicality (0.799), appearance (0.765), play-by-play/at the game
(0.700), describing emotions/motivation (0.697), and female ideal/male gaze (0.655). After
reaching a high level of inter-rater reliability, both researchers divided the pictures for coding the
final data set. Therefore, researcher one coded picture one in survey versions A, B, and C, and
researcher two coded the second picture in survey versions A, B, and C. Following this coding,
data analysis, including frequencies and hypothesis testing could begin.
Theme Frequencies
The participants responded in narrative form on the last two questions of the survey.
These responses were categorized in 11 themes (appearance, body shape/size, weight, sexy,
female ideal/male gaze, physicality, play-by-play/at the game, gender marking, emotional
reaction, advertisement/marketing tactic, and describing emotions/motivation). Theme
frequencies reporting the presence of the themes were compiled for each of the six pictures and
are displayed in Figures 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, and 4.6.
As seen in Figure 4.1, the top three themes of picture one of the performance athletes
survey were play-by-play/at the game, physicality, and gender marking. Body shape/size and
describing emotions/motivation come close to that top three as well. Weight, sexy, and female
ideal/male gaze were used the least, and advertisement/marketing tactic was not mentioned once.
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Figure 4.2 shows the presence of themes for picture two of the performance athletes
survey. The top three themes were similar to those reported in picture one, with physicality,
describing emotions/motivation, and play-by-play/at the game receiving the most mention.
Emotional reaction and gender marking were often used as well. Appearance, female ideal/male
gaze, body shape/size, and sexy were used the least, while weight and advertisement/marketing
tactic were not mentioned at all.
The presence of themes in picture one of the sexualized athletes survey is presented in
Figure 4.3. The top two themes for that picture were appearance and physicality, and sharing
third place were sexy and emotional reaction. Female ideal/male gaze, weight, and
advertisement/marketing tactic were used the least, while play-by-play/at the game was
unusually used twice.
Figure 4.4 presents the presence of themes in responses for picture two of the sexualized
athletes survey. The top three themes used were appearance, emotional reaction, and sexy. Body
shape/size, advertisement/marketing tactic, and weight were used the least, with play-by-play/at
the game used only once.
The presence of themes for picture one of the sexualized models survey is presented in
Figure 4.5. The top three themes used in picture one were appearance, weight, and emotional
reaction. Body shape/size, gender marking, and describing emotions/motivation were used the
least. It should be noted that the remaining themes are not used very often compared to the top
three themes in this picture.
Figure 4.6 displays the frequency of the appearance of themes for picture two of the
sexualized models survey. The two themes elicited most frequently for this picture are emotional
Sexualization of Female Athletes
61
reaction and appearance. Sexy, weight, and female ideal/male gaze are used most after the top
two themes, but they do not really stand out from the themes that were used the least.
S e x
u a li
z a ti
o n o
f F
e m
a le
A th
le te
s
6 2
F ig
u re
4 .1
. T
h e m
e P
re se
n c e C
o u n t
o f
P ic
tu re
1 o
f P
e rf
o rm
a n c e A
th le
te s
0
2 0
4 0
6 0
8 0
1 0
0
1 2
0
A p p e a ra
n c e
B o
d y
S h
a p e /S
iz e
W e ig
h t
S e x y
F e m
a le
I d e a l/
M a le
G a z e
P h y
si c a li
ty P
la y
-b y -P
la y /A
t th
e
G a m
e
G e n d e r
M a rk
in g
E m
o ti
o n
a l
R e a c ti
o n
A d v e rt
is e m
e n t/
M a rk
e ti
n g
T a c ti
c
D e sc
ri b in
g S
u b
je c t' s
E m
o ti
o n
s/ M
o ti
v a ti
o n
5 3
8 6
1 1
9
1
4
9 6
1 1
7
8 9
7 2
0
8 8
Count
P e rf
o rm
a n
c e A
th le
te s
- P
ic tu
re 1
S e x
u a li
z a ti
o n o
f F
e m
a le
A th
le te
s
6 3
F ig
u re
4 .2
. T
h e m
e P
re se
n c e C
o u n t
o f
P ic
tu re
2 o
f P
e rf
o rm
a n c e A
th le
te s
0
2 0
4 0
6 0
8 0
1 0
0
1 2
0
1 4
0
1 6
0
1 8
0
A p p e a ra
n c e
B o
d y
S h
a p e /S
iz e
W e ig
h t
S e x y
F e m
a le
I d e a l/
M a le
G a z e
P h y
si c a li
ty P
la y
-b y -P
la y /A
t th
e
G a m
e
G e n d e r
M a rk
in g
E m
o ti
o n
a l
R e a c ti
o n
A d v e rt
is e m
e n t/
M a rk
e ti
n g
T a c ti
c
D e sc
ri b in
g S
u b
je c t' s
E m
o ti
o n
s/ M
o ti
v a ti
o n
3 4
9
0
4
1 5
1 6
2
8 6
7
7
8 5
0
9 7
Count P
e rf
o rm
a n
c e A
th le
te s
- P
ic tu
re 2
S e x
u a li
z a ti
o n o
f F
e m
a le
A th
le te
s
6 4
F ig
u re
4 .3
. T
h e m
e P
re se
n c e C
o u n t
o f
P ic
tu re
1 o
f S
e x
u a li
z e d A
th le
te s
0
2 0
4 0
6 0
8 0
1 0
0
1 2
0
A p p e a ra
n c e
B o
d y
S h
a p e /S
iz e
W e ig
h t
S e x y
F e m
a le
I d e a l/
M a le
G a z e
P h y
si c a li
ty P
la y
-b y -P
la y /A
t th
e
G a m
e
G e n d e r
M a rk
in g
E m
o ti
o n
a l
R e a c ti
o n
A d v e rt
is e m
e n t/
M a rk
e ti
n g
T a c ti
c
D e sc
ri b in
g S
u b
je c t' s
E m
o ti
o n
s/ M
o ti
v a ti
o n s
1 0
5
4 0
2 1
6 4
2 4
1 0
2
2
2 9
6 4
1 6
3 4
Count S
e x
u a li
z e d A
th le
te s
P ic
tu re
1
S e x
u a li
z a ti
o n o
f F
e m
a le
A th
le te
s
6 5
F ig
u re
4 .4
. T
h e m
e P
re se
n c e C
o u n t
o f
P ic
tu re
2 o
f S
e x
u a li
z e d A
th le
te s
0
2 0
4 0
6 0
8 0
1 0
0
1 2
0
A p p e a ra
n c e
B o
d y
S h
a p e /S
iz e
W e ig
h t
S e x y
F e m
a le
I d e a l/
M a le
G a z e
P h y
si c a li
ty P
la y
-b y -P
la y /A
t th
e
G a m
e
G e n d e r
M a rk
in g
E m
o ti
o n
a l
R e a c ti
o n
A d v e rt
is e m
e n t/
M a rk
e ti
n g
T a c ti
c
D e sc
ri b in
g S
u b
je c t' s
E m
o ti
o n
s/ M
o ti
v a ti
o n s
1 0
7
1 4
5
8 7
2 4
4 5
1
6 8
1 0
4
1 1
3 4
Count S
e x
u a li
z e d A
th le
te s
P ic
tu re
2
S e x
u a li
z a ti
o n o
f F
e m
a le
A th
le te
s
6 6
F ig
u re
4 .5
. T
h e m
e P
re se
n c e C
o u n t
o f
P ic
tu re
1 o
f S
e x
u a li
z e d M
o d e ls
0
2 0
4 0
6 0
8 0
1 0
0
1 2
0
1 4
0
A p p e a ra
n c e
B o
d y
S h
a p e /S
iz e
W e ig
h t
S e x y
F e m
a le
I d e a l/
M a le
G a z e
P h y
si c a li
ty P
la y
-b y -P
la y /A
t th
e
G a m
e
G e n d e r
M a rk
in g
E m
o ti
o n
a l
R e a c ti
o n
A d v e rt
is e m
e n t/
M a rk
e ti
n g
T a c ti
c
D e sc
ri b in
g S
u b
je c t' s
E m
o ti
o n
s/ M
o ti
v a ti
o n
1 2
8
3 1
1 1
7
4 1
4
7
3 7
0
2 9
9 9
3 4
1 2
Count
S e x
u a li
z e d M
o d
e ls
P ic
tu re
1
S e x
u a li
z a ti
o n o
f F
e m
a le
A th
le te
s
6 7
F ig
u re
4 .6
. T
h e m
e P
re se
n c e C
o u n t
o f
P ic
tu re
2 o
f S
e x
u a li
z e d M
o d e ls
0
2 0
4 0
6 0
8 0
1 0
0
1 2
0
1 4
0
A p p e a ra
n c e
B o
d y
S h
a p e /S
iz e
W e ig
h t
S e x y
F e m
a le
I d e a l/
M a le
G a z e
P h y
si c a li
ty P
la y
-b y -P
la y /A
t th
e
G a m
e
G e n d e r
M a rk
in g
E m
o ti
o n
a l
R e a c ti
o n
A d v e rt
is e m
e n t/
M a rk
e ti
n g
T a c ti
c
D e sc
ri b in
g S
u b
je c t' s
E m
o ti
o n
s/ M
o ti
v a ti
o n
1 2
2
2 0
4 2
4
8
3 4
1 9
0
7
1 3
2
1 7
1
2
Count
S e x
u a li
z e d M
o d
e ls
P ic
tu re
2
Sexualization of Female Athletes
68
Positive/Negative/Neutral Frequencies of Theme Presence
Each time researchers identified a theme in a respondent’s answer, the tone of the theme
was then coded as a positive, negative, or neutral response. The following tables (4.10-4.47)
report the tone of responses for all six pictures appearing in the three versions of the survey. The
tables have been divided between all variables that are tested (gender, student-status, academic
year), but the first table for each condition (performance athletes, sexualized athletes, sexualized
models) is a combination of all variables together.
Table 4.10
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses for Performance Athletes Pictures 1 and 2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 57% 36% 7% 100% 26% 71% 3% 100% Body Shape/Size 1% 98% 1% 100% 44% 44% 12% 100% Weight - 91% 9% 100% - - - - Sexy 33% 11% 56% 100% 25% 50% 25% 100% Female Ideal/Male Gaze 14% 22% 64% 100% 13% 13% 74% 100% Physicality 18% 81% 1% 100% 16% 83% 1% 100% Play-by-play/at the Game 56% 44% - 100% 33% 67% - 100% Gender Marking 37% 63% - 100% 37% 63% - 100% Emotional Reaction 49% 44% 7% 100% 63% 26% 11% 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - - - - - - - -
Describing
Emotions/Motivation 58% 41% 1% 100% 27% 73% - 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Table 4.10 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequencies of each theme of both
performance athletes pictures. According to picture one in the table, the themes with mostly
positive responses were describing emotions/motivation (58%), appearance (57%), play-by-
play/at the game (56%), and emotional reaction (49%), and the themes that had mostly negative
response were female ideal/male gaze (64%) and sexy (56%). The themes that had mostly neutral
Sexualization of Female Athletes
69
responses were body shape/size (98%), weight (91%), physicality (81%), and gender marking
(63%).
Table 4.10 also provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequencies of each theme of
the second performance athletes picture. As indicated in the table, the themes with mostly
positive responses were body shape/size (44%), and emotional reaction (63%). The theme that
had mostly negative response was female ideal/male gaze (74%). The themes that had mostly
neutral responses were appearance (71%), body shape/size (44%), physicality (83%), play-by-
play/at the game (67%), gender marking (63%), and describing emotions/motivation (73%).
Table 4.11
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses by Male Athletes for Performance Athletes
Pictures 1 and 2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 56% 36% 8% 100% 78% 22% - 100% Body Shape/Size - 97% 3% 100% - 100% - 100% Weight - 100% - 100% - - - - Sexy 25% - 75% 100% 67% - 33% 100% Female Ideal/Male Gaze - - 100% 100% - - 100% 100% Physicality 7% 93% - 100% 15% 85% - 100% Play-by-play/at the Game 32% 68% - 100% 43% 57% - 100% Gender Marking 23% 77% - 100% 25% 75% - 100% Emotional Reaction 40% 50% 10% 100% 55% 18% 27% 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - - - - - - - -
Describing
Emotions/Motivation 67% 33% - 100% 28% 72% - 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Table 4.11 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequency responses of male
athletes only who took the performance athletes survey. The table represents both picture one
and picture two. According to the table, the themes with mostly positive responses for picture
one were describing emotions/motivation (67%) and appearance (56%). The themes that had
Sexualization of Female Athletes
70
mostly negative responses were female ideal/male gaze (100%) and sexy (75%). The themes that
had mostly neutral responses were weight (100%), body shape/size (97%), physicality (93%),
gender marking (77%), play-by-play/at the game (68%), and emotional reaction (50%).
The themes of picture two of performance athletes (Table 4.11) that had mostly positive
responses were appearance (78%), sexy (67%), and emotional reaction (55%). The theme that
mostly had negative responses was female ideal/male gaze (100%). The themes that had mostly
neutral responses were body shape/size (100%), physicality (85%), gender marking (75%),
describing emotions/motivation (72%), and play-by-play/at the game (57%).
Table 4.12
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses by Male Non-Athletes for Performance Athletes
Pictures 1 and 2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 50% 36% 14% 100% 82% 18% - 100% Body Shape/Size - 100% - 100% 33% 34% 33% 100% Weight - 100% - 100% - - - - Sexy - - - - - - - - Female Ideal/Male Gaze - - 100% 100% - - 100% 100% Physicality 17% 83% - 100% 22% 78% - 100% Play-by-play/at the Game 60% 40% 100% 100% 33% 67% - 100% Gender Marking 30% 70% - 100% 37% 63% - 100% Emotional Reaction 78% 22% - 100% 33% 67% - 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - - - - - - - -
Describing
Emotions/Motivation 63% 37% - 100% 60% 30% 10% 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Table 4.12 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequency responses of male non-
athletes only who took the performance athletes survey. The table represents both picture one
and picture two. As seen in the table, the themes with mostly positive responses for picture one
were emotional reaction (78%), describing emotions/motivation (63%), play-by-play/at the game
Sexualization of Female Athletes
71
(60%), and appearance (50%). The theme that had mostly negative responses was female
ideal/male gaze (100%). The themes that had mostly neutral responses were body shape/size
(100%), weight (100%), physicality (83%), and gender marking (70%).
The themes of picture two of performance athletes (Table 4.12) that had mostly positive
responses were appearance (82%), sexy (67%), and describing emotions/ motivation (60%). The
theme that mostly had negative responses was female ideal/male gaze (100%). The themes that
had mostly neutral responses were physicality (78%), describing emotions/motivation (72%),
play-by-play/at the game (67%), emotional reaction (67%), and gender marking (63%).
Table 4.13
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses by Female Athletes for Performance Athletes
Pictures 1 and 2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 100% - - 100% 100% - - 100% Body Shape/Size 7% 93% - 100% 100% - - 100% Weight - 67% 33% 100% - - - - Sexy 50% - 50% 100% - - - 100% Female Ideal/Male Gaze - - 100% 100% 25% 25% 50% 100% Physicality 29% 71% - 100% 16% 81% 3% 100% Play-by-play/at the Game 64% 36% - 100% 30% 70% - 100% Gender Marking 54% 46% - 100% 50% 50% - 100% Emotional Reaction 18% 64% 18% 100% 77% 23% - 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - - - - - - - -
Describing
Emotions/Motivation 42% 53% 5% 100% 8% 92% - 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Table 4.13 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequency responses of female
athletes only who took the performance athletes survey. The table represents both picture one
and picture two. The table shows that the themes with mostly positive responses for picture one
were appearance (100%), play-by-play/at the game (64%), and gender marking (64%). The
Sexualization of Female Athletes
72
theme that had mostly negative responses was female ideal/male gaze (100%). The themes that
had mostly neutral responses were body shape/size (93%), physicality (71%), weight (67%),
emotional reaction (64%), and describing emotions/motivation (53%).
The themes of picture two of performance athletes (Table 4.13) that had mostly positive
responses were appearance (100%), body shape/size (100%), and emotional reaction (77%). The
theme that mostly had negative responses was female ideal/male gaze (50%). The themes that
had mostly neutral responses were describing emotions/motivation (92%), physicality (81%), and
play-by-play/at the game (70%).
Table 4.14
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses by Female Non-Athletes for Performance
Athletes Pictures 1 and 2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 44% 56% - 100% 29% 57% 14% 100% Body Shape/Size - 100% - 100% 50% 50% - 100% Weight - 100% - 100% - - - - Sexy 33% 33% 34% 100% - 100% - 100% Female Ideal/Male Gaze 24% 38% 38% 100% 14% 14% 72% 100% Physicality 21% 76% 3% 100% 16% 84% - 100% Play-by-play/at the Game 66% 34% - 100% 28% 72% - 100% Gender Marking 47% 53% - 100% 40% 60% - 100% Emotional Reaction 52% 43% 5% 100% 63% 27% 10% 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - - - - - - - -
Describing
Emotions/Motivation 61% 39% - 100% 33% 67% - 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Table 4.14 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequency responses of female
athletes only who took the performance athletes survey. The table represents both picture one
and picture two. According to the table, the themes with mostly positive responses for picture
one were play-by-play/at the game (66%), and describing emotions/motivation (61%). There
Sexualization of Female Athletes
73
were no themes that mostly had negative responses as female ideal/male gaze shares the same
percentages (38%) with the neutral (38%) responses and sexy shares about the same percentage
(33%) with neutral (34%) and positive (33%) responses. The themes that had mostly neutral
responses were body shape/size (100%), weight (100%), physicality (76%), and gender marking
(53%).
The theme of picture two of performance athletes (Table 4.14) that had mostly positive
responses was emotional reaction (63%). The theme that mostly had negative responses was
female ideal/male gaze (72%). The themes that had mostly neutral responses were sexy (100%),
physicality (84%), play-by-play/at the game (72%), describing emotions/motivation (67%),
gender marking (60%), and appearance (57%).
Table 4.15
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses by Men for Performance Athletes Pictures 1 and
2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 54% 36% 10% 100% 80% 20% - 100% Body Shape/Size - 98% 2% 100% 20% 60% 20% 100% Weight - 100% - 100% - - - - Sexy 25% - 75% 100% 67% - 33% 100% Female Ideal/Male Gaze - - 100% 100% - - 100% 100% Physicality 11% 89% - 100% 18% 82% - 100% Play-by-play/at the Game 45% 55% - 100% 39% 61% - 100% Gender Marking 27% 73% - 100% 30% 70% - 100% Emotional Reaction 58% 37% 5% 100% 58% 26% 16% 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - - - - - - - -
Describing
Emotions/Motivation 64% 36% - 100% 25% 75% - 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Table 4.15 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequency responses of all men
who took the performance athletes survey. The table represents both picture one and picture two.
Sexualization of Female Athletes
74
As shown in the table, the themes with mostly positive responses for picture one were describing
emotions/motivation (64%), emotional reaction (58%), and appearance (54%). The themes that
had mostly negative responses were female ideal/male gaze (100%) and sexy (75%). The themes
that had mostly neutral responses were weight (100%), body shape/size (98%),physicality (89%),
and gender marking (73%).
The themes of picture two of performance athletes (Table 4.15) that had mostly positive
responses were appearance (80%), sexy (67%), and emotional reaction (58%). The theme that
mostly had negative responses was female ideal/male gaze (100%). The themes that had mostly
neutral responses were physicality (82%), describing emotions/motivation (75%), gender
marking (70%), play-by-play/at the game (61%), and body shape/size (60%).
Table 4.16
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses by Women for Performance Athletes Pictures 1
and 2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 64% 36% - 100% 44% 44% 12% 100% Body Shape/Size 3% 97% - 100% 75% 25% - 100% Weight - 80% 20% 100% - - - - Sexy 40% 20% 40% 100% - 100% - 100% Female Ideal/Male Gaze 18% 28% 54% 100% 18% 18% 64% 100% Physicality 23% 75% 2% 100% 16% 83% 1% 100% Play-by-play/at the Game 66% 34% - 100% 28% 72% - 100% Gender Marking 49% 51% - 100% 43% 57% - 100% Emotional Reaction 45% 48% 7% 100% 67% 26% 7% 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - - - - - - - -
Describing
Emotions/Motivation 55% 43% 2% 100% 28% 72% - 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Table 4.16 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequency responses of all women
who took the performance athletes survey. The table represents both picture one and picture two.
Sexualization of Female Athletes
75
According to the table, the themes with mostly positive responses for picture one were play-by-
play/ at the game (66%), appearance (64%), and describing emotions/motivation (55%). The
theme that had mostly negative responses was female ideal/male gaze (54%). The themes that
had mostly neutral responses were body shape/size (97%), weight (80%), physicality (75%),
gender marking (51%), and emotional reaction (48%).
The themes of picture two of performance athletes (Table 4.16) that had mostly positive
responses were body shape/size (75%), and emotional reaction (67%). The theme that mostly
had negative responses was female ideal/male gaze (64%). The themes that had mostly neutral
responses were sexy (100%), physicality (83%), play-by-play/at the game (72%), describing
emotions/motivation (72%), and gender marking (57%).
Table 4.17
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses by Freshmen for Performance Athletes Pictures
1 and 2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 50% 50% - 100% 73% 27% - 100% Body Shape/Size - 100% - 100% 50% 50% - 100% Weight - 100% - 100% - - - - Sexy 100% - - 100% 100% - - 100% Female Ideal/Male Gaze 33% - 67% 100% 20% - 80% 100% Physicality 31% 69% - 100% 12% 86% 2% 100% Play-by-play/at the Game 50% 50% - 100% 26% 74% - 100% Gender Marking 42% 58% - 100% 50% 50% - 100% Emotional Reaction 52% 41% 7% 100% 65% 19% 16% 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - - - - - - - -
Describing
Emotions/Motivation 76% 24% - 100% 42% 58% - 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Table 4.17 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequency responses of all
freshmen who took the performance athletes survey. The table represents both picture one and
Sexualization of Female Athletes
76
picture two. As displayed in the table, the themes with mostly positive responses for picture one
were sexy (100%), describing emotions/motivation (76%), and emotional reaction (52%). The
theme that had mostly negative responses was female ideal/male gaze (67%). The themes that
had mostly neutral responses were body shape/size (100%), weight (100%), physicality (69%),
and gender marking (58%).
The themes of picture two of performance athletes (Table 4.17) that had mostly positive
responses were sexy (100%), appearance (73%), and emotional reaction (65%). The theme that
mostly had negative responses was female ideal/male gaze (80%). The themes that had mostly
neutral responses were physicality (86%), play-by-play/at the game (74%), gender marking
(70%), and describing emotions/motivation (58%).
Table 4.18
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses by Sophomores for Performance Athletes
Pictures 1 and 2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 61% 31% 8% 100% 50% 50% - 100% Body Shape/Size 6% 88% 6% 100% 67% - 33% 100% Weight - 67% 33% 100% - - - - Sexy - 50% 50% 100% - - - - Female Ideal/Male Gaze 33% 33% 34% 100% 25% 25% 50% 100% Physicality 12% 88% - 100% 19% 81% - 100% Play-by-play/at the Game 52% 48% - 100% 42% 58% - 100% Gender Marking 41% 59% - 100% 12% 88% - 100% Emotional Reaction 34% 58% 8% 100% 60% 40% - 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - - - - - - - -
Describing
Emotions/Motivation 53% 42% 5% 100% 22% 78% - 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Table 4.18 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequency responses of all
sophomores who took the performance athletes survey. The table represents both picture one and
Sexualization of Female Athletes
77
picture two. According to the table, the themes with mostly positive responses for picture one
were appearance (61%), describing emotions/motivation (53%), and play-by-play/at the game
(52%). There were no themes that had mostly negative responses. The theme sexy shares the
same amount of negative responses (50%) as neutral responses (50%). The themes that had
mostly neutral responses were body shape/size (88%), physicality (88%), weight (67%), gender
marking (59%), and emotional reaction (58%).
The themes of picture two of performance athletes (Table 4.18) that had mostly positive
responses were body shape/size (67%), and emotional reaction (60%). The theme that mostly
had negative responses was female ideal/male gaze (50%). The themes that had mostly neutral
responses were gender marking (88%), physicality (81%), describing emotions/motivation
(78%), and play-by-play/at the game (58%).
Table 4.19
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses by Juniors for Performance Athletes Pictures 1
and 2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 69% 23% 8% 100% 57% 43% - 100% Body Shape/Size - 100% - 100% 100% - - 100% Weight - 100% - 100% - - - - Sexy 50% - 50% 100% 50% 50% - 100% Female Ideal/Male Gaze - 50% 50% 100% - 33% 67% 100% Physicality 12% 84% 4% 100% 25% 75% - 100% Play-by-play/at the Game 54% 46% - 100% 40% 60% - 100% Gender Marking 32% 68% - 100% 45% 55% - 100% Emotional Reaction 59% 35% 6% 100% 53% 26% 21% 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - - - - - - - -
Describing
Emotions/Motivation 50% 50% - 100% 35% 65% - 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Sexualization of Female Athletes
78
Table 4.19 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequency responses of all juniors
who took the performance athletes survey. The table represents both picture one and picture two.
Table 4.19 reveals that the themes with mostly positive responses for picture one were
appearance (69%), emotional reaction (59%), and play-by-play/at the game (54%). There were
no themes that had mostly negative responses. The theme sexy shares the same amount of
negative responses (50%) as positive responses (50%), and the theme female ideal/male gaze
shares the same amount of negative responses (50%) as neutral responses (50%). The themes
that had mostly neutral responses were body shape/size (100%), weight (100%), physicality
(84%), and gender marking (68%).
The themes of picture two of performance athletes (Table 4.19) that had mostly positive
responses were body shape/size (100%), appearance (57%), and emotional reaction (53%). The
theme that mostly had negative responses was female ideal/male gaze (67%). The themes that
had mostly neutral responses were physicality (75%), describing emotions/motivation (65%),
play-by-play/at the game (60%), and gender marking (55%).
Sexualization of Female Athletes
79
Table 4.20
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses by Seniors for Performance Athletes Pictures 1
and 2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 46% 46% 8% 100% 88% - 12% 100% Body Shape/Size - 100% - 100% - 100% - 100% Weight - 100% - 100% - - - - Sexy - - 100% 100% - - 100% 100% Female Ideal/Male Gaze - - 100% 100% - - 100% 100% Physicality 14% 86% - 100% 13% 87% - 100% Play-by-play/at the Game 77% 23% - 100% 33% 67% - 100% Gender Marking 38% 62% - 100% 38% 62% - 100% Emotional Reaction 40% 53% 7% 100% 75% 25% - 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - - - - - - - -
Describing
Emotions/Motivation 50% 50% - 100% 21% 79% - 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Table 4.20 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequency responses of all seniors
who took the performance athletes survey. The table represents both picture one and picture two.
According to the table, the theme with mostly positive responses for picture one was play-by-
play/at the game (77%). The themes that had mostly negative responses were sexy (100%) and
female ideal/male gaze (100%). The themes that had mostly neutral responses were body
shape/size (100%), weight (100%), physicality (86%), and gender marking (62%).
The themes of picture two of performance athletes (Table 4.20) that had mostly positive
responses were appearance (88%), and emotional reaction (75%). The themes that mostly had
negative responses were sexy (100%) and female ideal/male gaze (100%). The themes that had
mostly neutral responses were body shape/size (100%), physicality (87%), play-by-play/at the
game (74%), describing emotions/motivation (79%), and gender marking (62%).
Sexualization of Female Athletes
80
Table 4.21
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses by Graduate Students for Performance Athletes
Pictures 1 and 2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 50% 25% 25% 100% 100% - - 100% Body Shape/Size - 100% - 100% - - - - Weight - 100% - 100% - - - - Sexy - - - - - - - - Female Ideal/Male Gaze - - - - - - - - Physicality - 100% - 100% 12% 88% - 100% Play-by-play/at the Game 25% 75% - 100% - 100% - 100% Gender Marking - 100% - 100% - 100% - 100% Emotional Reaction 100% - - 100% - - - - Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - - - - - - - -
Describing
Emotions/Motivation - 100% - 100% - 100% - 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Table 4.21 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequency responses of all
graduate students who took the performance athletes survey. The table represents both picture
one and picture two. As seen in the table, the themes with mostly positive responses for picture
one were emotional reaction (100%) and appearance (50%). There were no themes with mostly
negative responses. The themes that had mostly neutral responses were body shape/size (100%),
weight (100%), physicality (100%), gender marking (100%), describing emotions/motivation
(100%), and play-by-play/at the game (75%).
The theme of picture two of performance athletes (Table 4.21) that had mostly positive
responses was appearance (100%). There were no themes with mostly negative responses. The
themes that had mostly neutral responses were play-by-play/at the game (100%), gender marking
(100%), describing emotions/motivation (100%), and physicality (88%),
Sexualization of Female Athletes
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Table 4.22
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses for Sexualized Athletes Pictures 1 and 2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 88% 11% 1% 100% 85% 11% 4% 100% Body Shape/Size 45% 50% 5% 100% 64% 21% 15% 100% Weight 76% 5% 19% 100% 17% 50% 33% 100% Sexy 39% 14% 47% 100% 78% 3% 19% 100% Female Ideal/Male Gaze 29% 17% 54% 100% 46% 25% 29% 100% Physicality 15% 37% 48% 100% 20% 80% - 100% Play-by-play/at the Game 50% 50% - 100% 100% - - 100% Gender Marking 7% 76% 17% 100% 4% 49% 47% 100% Emotional Reaction 13% 68% 19% 100% 36% 29% 35% 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - 62% 38% 100% 18% 55% 27% 100%
Describing
Emotions/Motivation 65% 32% 3% 100% 59% 32% 9% 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Table 4.22 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequencies of each theme of both
sexualized athletes pictures. According to the table, the themes with mostly positive responses
for picture one were appearance (88%), weight (76%), and describing emotions/motivation
(65%). The themes that had mostly negative response were female ideal/male gaze (54%),
physicality (48%), and sexy (47%). The themes that had mostly neutral responses were gender
marking (76%), emotional reaction (68%), advertisement/marketing tactic (62%), and body
shape/size (50%).
Table 4.22 also provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequencies of each theme of
the second sexualized athletes picture. According to the table, the themes with mostly positive
responses were appearance (88%), sexy (78%), body shape/size (64%), describing
emotions/motivation (59%), female ideal/male (46%), and emotional reaction (36%). There were
no themes where the majority of responses were negative. The themes that had mostly neutral
Sexualization of Female Athletes
82
responses were physicality (80%), advertisement/marketing tactic (55%), weight (50%), and
gender marking (49%).
Table 4.23
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses by Athletes for Sexualized Athletes Pictures 1
and 2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 89% 11% 2% 100% 90% 8% 2% 100% Body Shape/Size 35% 60% 5% 100% 63% 12% 25% 100% Weight - 57% 43% 100% 50% 50% - 100% Sexy 52% 7% 41% 100% 79% 6% 15% 100% Female Ideal/Male Gaze 36% 18% 46% 100% 36% 46% 18% 100% Physicality 24% 35% 41% 100% 18% 82% - 100% Play-by-play/at the Game 50% 50% - 100% - - - 100% Gender Marking - 100% - 100% 8% 46% 46% 100% Emotional Reaction 10% 80% 10% 100% 53% 20% 27% 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - 57% 43% 100% - 67% 33% 100%
Describing
Emotions/Motivation 73% 20% 7% 100% 38% 38% 24% 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Table 4.23 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequency responses of athletes
only who took the sexualized athletes survey. The table represents both picture one and picture
two. As represented in the table, the themes with mostly positive responses for picture one were
appearance (89%), describing emotions/motivation (73%), and sexy (52%). The theme with
mostly negative responses was female ideal/male gaze (46%). The themes that had mostly
neutral responses were gender marking (100%), emotional reaction (80%), body shape/size
(60%), weight (57%), and advertisement/marketing tactic (57%).
The themes of picture two of sexualized athletes (Table 4.23) that had mostly positive
responses were appearance (90%), sexy (79%), body shape/size (63%), and emotional reaction
(53%). There were no themes that mostly had negative responses, although the theme gender
Sexualization of Female Athletes
83
marking had the same amount of negative responses (46%) as neutral responses (46%). The
themes that had mostly neutral responses were physicality (82%), advertisement/marketing tactic
(67%), and female ideal/male gaze (46%).
Table 4.24
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses by Non-Athletes for Sexualized Athletes Pictures
1 and 2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 86% 14% - 100% 80% 15% 5% 100% Body Shape/Size 55% 40% 5% 100% 67% 33% - 100% Weight 7% 86% 7% 100% - 50% 50% 100% Sexy 29% 20% 51% 100% 77% 2% 21% 100% Female Ideal/Male Gaze 23% 15% 62% 100% 54% 8% 38% 100% Physicality 7% 39% 54% 100% 22% 78% - 100% Play-by-play/at the Game - - - 100% 100% - - 100% Gender Marking 11% 63% 26% 100% 2% 50% 48% 100% Emotional Reaction 14% 63% 23% 100% 25% 33% 42% 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - 67% 33% 100% 25% 50% 25% 100%
Describing
Emotions/Motivation 58% 42% - 100% 71% 29% - 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Table 4.24 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequency responses of non-
athletes only who took the sexualized athletes survey. The table represents both picture one and
picture two. According to the table, the themes with mostly positive responses for picture one
were appearance (86%), describing emotions/motivation (58%), and body shape/size (55%). The
themes with mostly negative responses were female ideal/male gaze (62%), physicality (54%),
and sexy (51%). The themes that had mostly neutral responses were weight (86%),
advertisement/marketing tactic (67%), gender marking (63%), and emotional reaction (63%).
The themes of picture two of sexualized athletes (Table 4.24) that had mostly positive
responses were play-by-play/at the game (100%), appearance (86%), sexy (77%), describing
Sexualization of Female Athletes
84
emotions/motivation (71%), body shape/size (67%), female ideal/male gaze (54%). There were
no themes that mostly had negative responses, although the theme weight had the same amount
of negative responses (50%) as neutral responses (50%). The themes that had mostly neutral
responses were physicality (78%), gender marking (50%), and advertisement/marketing tactic
(50%).
Table 4.25
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses by Male Athletes for Sexualized Athletes
Pictures 1 and 2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 96% 4% - 100% 93% 7% - 100% Body Shape/Size 36% 57% 7% 100% 57% 14% 29% 100% Weight - 60% 40% 100% 50% 50% - 100% Sexy 61% 9% 30% 100% 95% - 5% 100% Female Ideal/Male Gaze 50% - 50% 100% 25% 50% 25% 100% Physicality 23% 44% 33% 100% 21% 79% - 100% Play-by-play/at the Game 50% 50% - 100% - - - - Gender Marking - 100% - 100% 13% 54% 33% 100% Emotional Reaction 11% 89% - 100% 64% 18% 18% 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - 50% 50% 100% - 100% - 100%
Describing
Emotions/Motivation 60% 40% - 100% 37% 37% 26% 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Table 4.25 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequency responses of male
athletes only who took the sexualized athletes survey. The table represents both picture one and
picture two. The table shows that the themes with mostly positive responses for picture one were
appearance (96%), sexy (61%), and describing emotions/motivation (60%). There were no
themes with mostly negative responses. The theme female ideal/male gaze shares the same
amount of negative responses (25%) as positive responses (25%), while the theme
advertisement/marketing tactic shares the same amount of negative responses (50%) as neutral
Sexualization of Female Athletes
85
responses (50%). The themes that had mostly neutral responses were gender marking (100%),
emotional reaction (89%), weight (60%), body shape/size (57%), and physicality (44%).
The themes of picture two of sexualized athletes (Table 4.25) that had mostly positive
responses were sexy (95%), appearance (93%), and emotional reaction (64%). There were no
themes that mostly had negative responses. The themes that had mostly neutral responses were
advertisement/marketing tactic (100%), physicality (79%), and gender marking (54%).
Table 4.26
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses by Male Non-Athletes for Sexualized Athletes
Pictures 1 and 2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 88% 12% - 100% 87% 13% - 100% Body Shape/Size 57% 43% - 100% 100% - - 100% Weight - 100% - 100% - 50% 50% 100% Sexy 40% 10% 50% 100% 82% 6% 12% 100% Female Ideal/Male Gaze - - 100% 100% 80% - 20% 100% Physicality - 47% 53% 100% 20% 80% - 100% Play-by-play/at the Game - - - - - - - - Gender Marking - 67% 33% 100% 4% 52% 44% 100% Emotional Reaction 20% 53% 27% 100% 33% 29% 38% 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - 50% 50% 100% 33% 34% 33% 100%
Describing
Emotions/Motivation 50% 50% - 100% 88% 12% - 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Table 4.26 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequency responses of male non-
athletes only who took the sexualized athletes survey. The table represents both picture one and
picture two. According to the table, the themes with mostly positive responses for picture one
were appearance (88%), and body shape/size (57%). The themes with the most negative
responses were female ideal/male gaze (100%) and physicality (53%). The themes that had
Sexualization of Female Athletes
86
mostly neutral responses were weight (100%), gender marking (67%), and emotional reaction
(53%).
The themes of picture two of sexualized athletes (Table 4.26) that had mostly positive
responses were body shape/size (100%), describing emotions/motivation (88%). appearance
(87%), sexy (82%), and female ideal/male gaze (80%). There were no themes that mostly had
negative responses. The theme weight had the same amount of negative responses (50%) as
neutral responses (50%). The themes that had mostly neutral responses were physicality (80%),
and gender marking (52%).
Table 4.27
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses by Female Athletes for Sexualized Athletes
Pictures 1 and 2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 63% 25% 12% 100% 80% 10% 10% 100% Body Shape/Size 33% 67% - 100% 100% - - 100% Weight - 50% 50% 100% - - - - Sexy 17% - 83% 100% 60% 13% 27% 100% Female Ideal/Male Gaze 33% 23% 44% 100% 43% 43% 14% 100% Physicality 25% 19% 56% 100% 12% 88% - 100% Play-by-play/at the Game - - - - - - - - Gender Marking - 100% - 100% - 36% 64% 100% Emotional Reaction 10% 70% 20% 100% 31% 25% 44% 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - 60% 40% 100% - - 100% 100%
Describing
Emotions/Motivation 10% 80% 10% 100% 40% 40% 20% 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Table 4.27 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequency responses of female
athletes only who took the sexualized athletes survey. The table represents both picture one and
picture two. As seen in Table 4.27, the theme with mostly positive responses for picture one was
appearance (63%). The themes with the most negative responses were sexy (83%) and
Sexualization of Female Athletes
87
physicality (56%). The themes that had mostly neutral responses were gender marking (100%),
describing emotions/motivation (80%), emotional reaction (70%), body shape/size (67%), and
advertisement/marketing tactic (60%).
The themes of picture two of sexualized athletes (Table 4.27) that had mostly positive
responses were body shape/size (100%), appearance (80%), and sexy (60%). The themes with
mostly negative responses were advertisement/marketing tactic (100%), gender marking (64%),
and emotional reaction (44%). The theme that had mostly neutral responses was physicality
(88%).
Table 4.28
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses by Female Non-Athletes for Sexualized Athletes
Pictures 1 and 2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 83% 17% - 100% 71% 17% 12% 100% Body Shape/Size 54% 38% 8% 100% 60% 40% - 100% Weight 9% 82% 9% 100% - 50% 50% 100% Sexy 13% 34% 53% 100% 75% - 25% 100% Female Ideal/Male Gaze 33% 23% 44% 100% 37% 13% 50% 100% Physicality 10% 36% 54% 100% 22% 78% - 100% Play-by-play/at the Game - - - - 100% - - 100% Gender Marking 15% 62% 23% 100% - 47% 53% 100% Emotional Reaction 10% 69% 21% 100% 20% 35% 45% 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - 80% 20% 100% 20% 60% 20% 100%
Describing
Emotions/Motivation 60% 40% - 100% 62% 38% - 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Table 4.28 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequency responses of female
non-athletes only who took the sexualized athletes survey. The table represents both picture one
and picture two. According to the table, the themes with mostly positive responses for picture
one were appearance (83%), describing emotions/motivation (60%), and body shape/size (54%).
Sexualization of Female Athletes
88
The themes with the most negative responses were physicality (54%), sexy (53%), and female
ideal/male gaze (44%). The themes that had mostly neutral responses were weight (82%),
advertisement/marketing tactic (80%), emotional reaction (69%), and gender marking (62%).
The themes of picture two of sexualized athletes (Table 4.28) that had mostly positive
responses were play-by-play/at the game (100%), sexy (75%), appearance (71%), describing
emotions/motivation (62%), and body shape/size (60%). The themes with mostly negative
responses were gender marking (53%), female ideal/male gaze (50%), and emotional reaction
(45%). The themes that had mostly neutral responses were physicality (78%) and
advertisement/marketing tactic (60%).
Table 4.29
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses by Men for Sexualized Athletes Pictures 1 and 2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 92% 8% - 100% 90% 10% - 100% Body Shape/Size 43% 52% 5% 100% 62% 13% 25% 100% Weight - 75% 25% 100% 25% 50% 25% 100% Sexy 51% 9% 40% 100% 89% 3% 8% 100% Female Ideal/Male Gaze 13% - 87% 100% 22% 56% 22% 100% Physicality 15% 45% 40% 100% 21% 79% - 100% Play-by-play/at the Game 50% 50% - 100% - - - - Gender Marking - 83% 17% 100% 8% 52% 40% 100% Emotional Reaction 16% 68% 16% 100% 51% 22% 27% 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - 50% 50% 100% 20% 60% 20% 100%
Describing
Emotions/Motivation 55% 45% - 100% 63% 25% 12% 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Table 4.29 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequency responses of all men
who took the sexualized athletes survey. The table represents both picture one and picture two.
As displayed in the table, the themes with mostly positive responses for picture one were
appearance (92%), describing emotions/motivation (55%), and sexy (51%). The theme that had
Sexualization of Female Athletes
89
mostly negative responses was female ideal/male gaze (87%). The themes that had mostly
neutral responses were gender marking (83%), weight (75%), emotional reaction (68%), and
physicality (45%).
The themes of picture two of sexualized athletes (Table 4.29) that had mostly positive
responses were appearance (90%), sexy (89%), describing emotions/motivation (63%), body
shape/size (62%), and emotional reaction (51%).There were no themes with mostly negative
responses. The themes that had mostly neutral responses were physicality (79%),
advertisement/marketing tactic (60%), female ideal/male gaze (56%), gender marking (52%),
and weight (50%).
Table 4.30
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses by Women for Sexualized Athletes Pictures 1
and 2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 78% 19% 3% 100% 73% 15% 12% 100% Body Shape/Size 47% 47% 6% 100% 67% 33% - 100% Weight 8% 77% 15% 100% - 50% 50% 100% Sexy 14% 24% 62% 100% 71% 4% 25% 100% Female Ideal/Male Gaze 33% 23% 44% 100% 40% 27% 33% 100% Physicality 14% 31% 55% 100% 19% 81% - 100% Play-by-play/at the Game - - - - 100% - - 100% Gender Marking 12% 70% 18% 100% - 43% 57% 100% Emotional Reaction 10% 70% 20% 100% 23% 33% 44% 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - 70% 30% 100% 17% 50% 33% 100%
Describing
Emotions/Motivation 68% 28% 4% 100% 56% 39% 5% 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Table 4.30 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequency responses of women
only who took the sexualized athletes survey. The table represents both picture one and picture
two. The table shows that the themes with mostly positive responses for picture one were
Sexualization of Female Athletes
90
appearance (78%), and describing emotions/motivation (68%). The themes with the most
negative responses were sexy (62%), female ideal/male gaze (44%), and physicality (55%). The
themes that had mostly neutral responses were weight (77%), gender marking (70%), emotional
reaction (70%), and advertisement/marketing tactic (70%).
The themes of picture two of sexualized athletes (Table 4.30) that had mostly positive
responses were play-by-play/at the game (100%), appearance (73%), sexy (71%), body
shape/size (67%), and describing emotions/motivation (56%). The themes with mostly negative
responses were gender marking (57%), and emotional reaction (44%). The themes that had
mostly neutral responses were physicality (81%) and advertisement/marketing tactic (50%).
Table 4.31
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses by Freshmen for Sexualized Athletes Pictures 1
and 2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 94% 6% - 100% 79% 12% 9% 100% Body Shape/Size 46% 46% 8% 100% - 100% - 100% Weight 33% 67% - 100% - 50% 50% 100% Sexy 33% 13% 54% 100% 71% - 29% 100% Female Ideal/Male Gaze 62% - 37% 100% 66% 17% 17% 100% Physicality 15% 39% 46% 100% 22% 78% - 100% Play-by-play/at the Game - 100% - 100% - - - - Gender Marking 10% 70% 20% 100% 5% 43% 52% 100% Emotional Reaction 18% 47% 35% 100% 21% 31% 48% 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - 67% 33% 100% - - 100% 100%
Describing
Emotions/Motivation 60% 40% - 100% 44% 34% 22% 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Table 4.31 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequency responses of all
freshmen who took the sexualized athletes survey. The table represents both picture one and
picture two. According to the table, the themes with mostly positive responses for picture one
Sexualization of Female Athletes
91
were appearance (94%), female ideal/male gaze (62%), and describing emotions/motivation
(60%). The themes that had mostly negative responses were sexy (54%), and physicality (46%).
The themes that had mostly neutral responses were play-by-play/at the game (100%), gender
marking (70%), weight (67%), and advertisement/marketing tactic (67%).
The themes of picture two of sexualized athletes (Table 4.31) that had mostly positive
responses were appearance (79%), sexy (71%), female ideal/male gaze (66%), and describing
emotions/motivation (44%). The theme that mostly had negative responses was female
ideal/male gaze (80%). The themes that had mostly neutral responses were body shape/size
(100%) and physicality (78%).
Table 4.32
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses by Sophomores for Sexualized Athletes Pictures
1 and 2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 72% 28% - 100% 77% 23% - 100% Body Shape/Size 29% 71% - 100% 100% 100% Weight - 80% 20% 100% - - 100% 100% Sexy 67% 8% 25% 100% 88% 6% 6% 100% Female Ideal/Male Gaze 25% 50% 25% 100% 40% 40% 20% 100% Physicality 9% 43% 48% 100% 9% 91% - 100% Play-by-play/at the Game - - - - 100% - - 100% Gender Marking - 83% 17% 100% - 50% 50% 100% Emotional Reaction 20% 60% 20% 100% 45% 32% 23% 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - 60% 40% 100% - 50% 50% 100%
Describing
Emotions/Motivation 67% 33% - 100% 86% 14% - 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Table 4.32 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequency responses of all
sophomores who took the sexualized athletes survey. The table represents both picture one and
picture two. As indicated by the table, the themes with mostly positive responses for picture one
Sexualization of Female Athletes
92
were appearance (72%), sexy (67%), and describing emotions/motivation (67%). The theme that
had mostly negative responses was physicality (48%). The themes that had mostly neutral
responses were gender marking (83%), weight (80%), body shape/size (71%), emotional reaction
(60%), advertisement/marketing tactic (67%), and female ideal/male gaze (50%).
The themes of picture two of sexualized athletes (Table 4.32) that had mostly positive
responses were body shape/size (100%), play-by-play/at the game (100%), sexy (88%),
describing emotions/motivation (86%), appearance (77%), sexy (71%), and emotional reaction
(45%). The theme that mostly had negative responses was weight (100%). The theme that had
mostly neutral responses was physicality (91%).
Table 4.33
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses by Juniors for Sexualized Athletes Pictures 1
and 2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 92% 4% 4% 100% 92% 8% - 100% Body Shape/Size 43% 43% 14% 100% 50% 17% 33% 100% Weight - 33% 67% 100% - - - - Sexy 30% 9% 61% 100% 80% 3% 17% 100% Female Ideal/Male Gaze - 17% 83% 100% 43% 14% 43% 100% Physicality 13% 26% 61% 100% 30% 70% - 100% Play-by-play/at the Game - - - - - - - - Gender Marking - 100% - 100% 6% 59% 35% 100% Emotional Reaction 6% 83% 11% 100% 33% 23% 44% 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - 25% 75% 100% 40% 40% 20% 100%
Describing
Emotions/Motivation 40% 40% 20% 100% 57% 43% - 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Table 4.33 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequency responses of all juniors
who took the sexualized athletes survey. The table represents both picture one and picture two.
As shown in Table 4.33, the theme with mostly positive responses for picture one was
Sexualization of Female Athletes
93
appearance (92%). The themes that had mostly negative responses were female ideal/male gaze
(83%), advertisement/marketing tactic (75%), weight (67%), sexy (61%), and physicality (61%).
The themes that had mostly neutral responses were gender marking (100%) and emotional
reaction (83%).
The themes of picture two of sexualized athletes (Table 4.33) that had mostly positive
responses were appearance (92%), sexy (80%), and describing emotions/motivation (57%). The
theme that mostly had negative responses was emotional reaction (44%). The themes that had
mostly neutral responses were physicality (70%) and gender marking (59%).
Table 4.34
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses by Seniors for Sexualized Athletes Pictures 1
and 2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 88% 12% - 100% 92% 4% 4% 100% Body Shape/Size 50% 50% - 100% 100% - - 100% Weight - 88% 12% 100% 50% 50% - 100% Sexy 33% 34% 33% 100% 79% - 21% 100% Female Ideal/Male Gaze 20% - 80% 100% 40% 40% 20% 100% Physicality 23% 42% 35% 100% 14% 86% - 100% Play-by-play/at the Game 100% - - 100% - - - - Gender Marking 17% 50% 33% 100% 8% 46% 46% 100% Emotional Reaction 8% 92% - 100% 55% 28% 17% 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - 100% - 100% - 100% - 100%
Describing
Emotions/Motivation 80% 20% - 100% 55% 36% 9% 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Table 4.34 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequency responses of all seniors
who took the sexualized athletes survey. The table represents both picture one and picture two.
According to the table, the themes with mostly positive responses for picture one were
appearance (88%), play-by-play/at the game (100%), and describing emotions/motivation
Sexualization of Female Athletes
94
(80%). The theme that had mostly negative responses was female ideal/male gaze (80%). The
themes that had mostly neutral responses were advertisement/marketing tactic (100%),
emotional reaction (92%), weight (88%), gender marking (50%), and physicality (42%).
The themes of picture two of sexualized athletes (Table 4.34) that had mostly positive
responses were body shape/size (100%), appearance (92%), sexy (79%), emotional reaction
(55%), and describing emotions/motivation (55%). There were no themes with mostly negative
responses, although the theme gender marking shares the same amount of negative responses
(46%) as neutral responses (46%). The themes that had mostly neutral responses were
advertisement/marketing tactic (100%) and physicality (86%).
Table 4.35
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses by Graduate Students for Sexualized Athletes
Pictures 1 and 2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 80% 20% - 100% - 100% - 100% Body Shape/Size 100% - - 100% - - - - Weight - 100% - 100% - 100% - 100% Sexy 50% - 50% 100% - 100% - 100% Female Ideal/Male Gaze - 100% - 100% - - 100% 100% Physicality - 25% 75% 100% 100% - - 100% Play-by-play/at the Game - - - - - - - - Gender Marking - 100% - 100% - 33% 67% 100% Emotional Reaction - - 100% 100% 50% 25% 25% 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - - - - - - - -
Describing
Emotions/Motivation - - - - - - - -
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Table 4.35 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequency responses of all
graduate students who took the sexualized athletes survey. The table represents both picture one
and picture two. As seen in the table, the themes with mostly positive responses for picture one
Sexualization of Female Athletes
95
were body shape/size (100%) and appearance (80%). The themes that had mostly negative
responses were emotional reaction (100%) and physicality (75%).The themes that had mostly
neutral responses were weight (100%), female ideal/male gaze (100%), and gender marking
(100%).
The themes of picture two of sexualized athletes (Table 4.35) that had mostly positive
responses were physicality (100%) and emotional reaction (50%). The themes that mostly had
negative responses were female ideal/male gaze (100%) and gender marking (67%). The themes
that had mostly neutral responses were appearance (100%), weight (100%), and sexy (100%).
Table 4.36
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses for Sexualized Models Pictures 1 and 2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 84% 13% 3% 100% 94% 6% - 100% Body Shape/Size 29% 58% 13% 100% 80% 20% - 100% Weight 1% 44% 55% 100% 12% 55% 33% - Sexy 36% 15% 49% 100% 85% 8% 7% 100% Female Ideal/Male Gaze 28% 30% 42% 100% 68% 6% 26% 100% Physicality 3% 54% 43% 100% 26% 63% 11% 100% Play-by-play/at the Game - - - - - - - - Gender Marking 3% 97% - 100% - 29% 71% 100% Emotional Reaction 8% 57% 35% 100% 24% 51% 25% 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - 74% 26% 100% 53% 41% 6% 100%
Describing
Emotions/Motivation 75% 25% - 100% 71% 17% 12% 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Table 4.36 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequencies of each theme of both
sexualized models pictures. According to the table, for picture one, the themes with mostly
positive responses were appearance (84%) and describing emotions/motivation (75%). The
themes that had mostly negative response were weight (55%), sexy (49%), and female ideal/male
gaze (42%). The themes that had mostly neutral responses were gender marking (97%),
Sexualization of Female Athletes
96
advertisement/marketing tactic (74%), body shape/size (58%), emotional reaction (57%), and
physicality (54%).
Table 4.36 also provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequencies of each theme of
the second sexualized models picture. The table shows that the themes with mostly positive
responses were appearance (94%), sexy (85%), body shape/size (80%), describing
emotions/motivation (71%), female ideal/male gaze (68%), and advertisement/marketing tactic
(53%). The theme that had mostly negative response was gender marking (71%). The themes
that had mostly neutral responses were physicality (63%), weight (55%), and emotional reaction
51%).
Table 4.37
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses by Male Athletes for Sexualized Models
Pictures 1 and 2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 92% 5% 3% 100% 92% 8% - 100% Body Shape/Size 46% 36% 18% 100% 100% - - 100% Weight 5% 29% 66% 100% 14% 57% 29% 100% Sexy 33% - 67% 100% 86% 7% 7% 100% Female Ideal/Male Gaze - 75% 25% 100% 100% - - 100% Physicality - 86% 14% 100% 33% 67% - 100% Play-by-play/at the Game - - - - - - - - Gender Marking 17% 83% - 100% - - - - Emotional Reaction 36% 64% - 100% 56% 36% 8% 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - 83% 17% 100% - - 100% 100%
Describing
Emotions/Motivation 50% 50% - 100% 75% 25% - 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Table 4.37 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequency responses of male
athletes only who took the sexualized models survey. The table represents both picture one and
picture two. According to the table, the themes with mostly positive responses for picture one
Sexualization of Female Athletes
97
were appearance (92%) and body shape/size (46%). The themes with mostly negative responses
were sexy (67%) and weight (66%). The themes that had mostly neutral responses were gender
marking (100%), physicality (83%), advertisement/marketing tactic (83%), female ideal/male
gaze (75%), and emotional reaction (64%).
The themes of picture two of sexualized models (Table 4.37) that had mostly positive
responses were body shape/size (100%), female ideal/male gaze (100%), appearance (92%),
sexy (86%), describing emotions/motivation (75%), and emotional reaction (56%). The theme
that had mostly negative response was advertisement/marketing tactic (100%). The themes that
had mostly neutral responses were physicality (67%) and weight (57%).
Table 4.38
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses by Male Non-Athletes for Sexualized Models
Pictures 1 and 2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 84% 13% 3% 100% 94% 6% - 100% Body Shape/Size 33% 67% - 100% 100% - - 100% Weight - 48% 52% 100% 25% 25% 50% 100% Sexy 50% 8% 42% 100% 92% 8% - 100% Female Ideal/Male Gaze 33% 34% 33% 100% 67% - 33% 100% Physicality - 25% 75% 100% 25% 50% 25% 100% Play-by-play/at the Game - - - - - - - - Gender Marking - 100% - 100% - 67% 33% 100% Emotional Reaction 25% - 75% 100% 21% 52% 27% 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - 63% 37% 100% 67% 33% - 100%
Describing
Emotions/Motivation 100% - - 100% 67% - 33% 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Table 4.38 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequency responses of male non-
athletes only who took the sexualized models survey. The table represents both picture one and
picture two. As displayed in the table, the themes with mostly positive responses for picture one
Sexualization of Female Athletes
98
were describing emotions/motivation (100%), appearance (84%), and sexy (50%). The themes
with mostly negative responses were physicality (75), emotional reaction (75%), and weight
(52%). The themes that had mostly neutral responses were gender marking (100%), body
shape/size (67%), and advertisement/marketing tactic (63%).
The themes of picture two of sexualized models (Table 4.38) that had mostly positive
responses were body shape/size (100%), appearance (94%), sexy (92%), female ideal/male gaze
(67%), advertisement/marketing tactic (67%), and describing emotions/motivation (67%). The
theme that had mostly negative response was weight (50%). The themes that had mostly neutral
responses were gender marking (67%), emotional reaction (52%), and physicality (50%).
Table 4.39
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses by Female Athletes for Sexualized Models
Pictures 1 and 2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 92% - 8% 100% 100% - - 100% Body Shape/Size 20% 40% 40% 100% 80% 20% - 100% Weight - 48% 52% 100% 11% 78% 11% 100% Sexy 33% 34% 33% 100% 66% 17% 17% 100% Female Ideal/Male Gaze 37% 25% 38% 100% 42% 29% 29% 100% Physicality - 56% 44% 100% 25% 75% - 100% Play-by-play/at the Game - - - - - - - - Gender Marking - 100% - 100% - - 100% 100% Emotional Reaction 7% 50% 43% 100% 32% 47% 21% 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - 75% 25% 100% 100% - - 100%
Describing
Emotions/Motivation 100% - - 100% 83% - 17% 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Table 4.39 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequency responses of female
athletes only who took the sexualized models survey. The table represents both picture one and
picture two. According to the table, the themes with mostly positive responses for picture one
Sexualization of Female Athletes
99
were describing emotions/motivation (100%) and appearance (92%). The theme with mostly
negative responses was weight (52%). The themes that had mostly neutral responses were gender
marking (100%), advertisement/marketing tactic (75%), physicality (56%), and emotional
reaction (50%).
The themes of picture two of sexualized models (Table 4.39) that had mostly positive
responses were appearance (100%), advertisement/marketing tactic (100%), describing
emotions/motivation (83%), body shape/size (80%), sexy (66%), and female ideal/male gaze
(42%). The theme that had mostly negative response was gender marking (100%). The themes
that had mostly neutral responses were weight (78%), physicality (75%), and emotional reaction
(47%).
Table 4.40
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses by Female Non-Athletes for Sexualized Models
Pictures 1 and 2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 74% 23% 3% 100% 95% 5% - 100% Body Shape/Size 11% 89% - 100% 57% 43% - 100% Weight - 46% 54% 100% 9% 50% 41% 100% Sexy 29% 21% 50% 100% 86% 7% 7% 100% Female Ideal/Male Gaze 27% 23% 50% 100% 75% - 25% 100% Physicality 8% 54% 38% 100% 25% 50% 25% 100% Play-by-play/at the Game - - - 100% - - - - Gender Marking - 100% - 100% - - 100% 100% Emotional Reaction 4% 52% 44% 100% 10% 58% 32% 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - 73% 27% 100% 50% 50% - 100%
Describing
Emotions/Motivation 67% 33% - 100% 57% 29% 14% 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Table 4.40 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequency responses of female
non-athletes only who took the sexualized models survey. The table represents both picture one
Sexualization of Female Athletes
100
and picture two. As displayed in the table, the themes with mostly positive responses for picture
one were appearance (74%), and describing emotions/motivation (67%). The theme with mostly
negative responses was weight (55%), sexy (50%), and female ideal/male gaze (50%). The
themes that had mostly neutral responses were gender marking (100%), body shape/size (89%),
advertisement/marketing tactic (73%), physicality (54%), and emotional reaction (52%).
The themes of picture two of sexualized models (Table 4.40) that had mostly positive
responses were appearance (95%), sexy (86%), female ideal/male gaze (75%), body shape/size
(57%), and describing emotions/motivation (57%). The theme that had mostly negative response
was gender marking (100%). The themes that had mostly neutral responses were emotional
reaction (58%), weight (50%), and physicality (50%).
Table 4.41
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses by Men for Sexualized Models Pictures 1 and 2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 88% 9% 3% 100% 93% 7% - 100% Body Shape/Size 41% 47% 12% 100% 100% - - 100% Weight 2% 38% 60% 100% 18% 46% 36% 100% Sexy 43% 5% 52% 100% 89% 7% 4% 100% Female Ideal/Male Gaze 23% 46% 31% 100% 73% - 27% 100% Physicality - 53% 47% 100% 29% 57% 14% 100% Play-by-play/at the Game - - - 100% - - - - Gender Marking 9% 91% - 100% - 67% 33% 100% Emotional Reaction 19% 70% 11% 100% 37% 44% 19% 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - 71% 29% 100% 50% 25% 25% 100%
Describing
Emotions/Motivation 71% 29% - 100% 73% 18% 9% 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Table 4.41 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequency responses of all men
who took the sexualized models survey. The table represents both picture one and picture two.
The results presented in the table show the themes with mostly positive responses to picture one
Sexualization of Female Athletes
101
were appearance (88%), and describing emotions/motivation (71%). The themes that had mostly
negative responses were weight (60%) and sexy (52%). The themes that had mostly neutral
responses were gender marking (91%), advertisement/marketing tactic (71%), emotional
reaction (70%), physicality (53%), body shape/size (47%), and female ideal/male gaze (46%).
The themes of picture two of sexualized models (Table 4.41) that had mostly positive
responses were body shape/size (100%), appearance (93%), sexy (89%), describing
emotions/motivation (73%), and advertisement/marketing tactic (50%). There were no themes
with mostly negative responses. The themes that had mostly neutral responses were gender
marking (67%), physicality (57%), weight (46%), and emotional reaction (44%).
Table 4.42
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses by Women for Sexualized Models Pictures 1 and
2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 78% 18% 4% 100% 96% 4% - 100% Body Shape/Size 14% 72% 14% 100% 67% 33% - 100% Weight - 47% 53% 100% 10% 58% 32% 100% Sexy 30% 25% 45% 100% 9% 82% 9% 100% Female Ideal/Male Gaze 29% 24% 47% 100% 65% 9% 26% 100% Physicality 6% 55% 41% 100% 25% 67% 8% 100% Play-by-play/at the Game - - - - - - - - Gender Marking - 100% - 100% - - 100% 100% Emotional Reaction 4% 52% 44% 100% 15% 55% 30% 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - 75% 25% 100% 54% 46% - 100%
Describing
Emotions/Motivation 80% 20% - 100% 70% 15% 15% 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Table 4.42 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequency responses of all women
who took the sexualized models survey. The table represents both picture one and picture two.
According to the table, the themes with mostly positive responses for picture one were
Sexualization of Female Athletes
102
describing emotions/motivation (80%) and appearance (78%). The themes that had mostly
negative responses were weight (53%), female ideal/male gaze (47%), and sexy (45%). The
themes that had mostly neutral responses were gender marking (100%), advertisement/marketing
tactic (75%), body shape/size (72%), physicality (55%), and emotional reaction (52%).
The themes of picture two of sexualized models (Table 4.42) that had mostly positive
responses were appearance (96%), describing emotions/motivation (70%), body shape/size
(67%), female ideal/male gaze (65%), and advertisement/marketing tactic (54%).The theme with
mostly negative responses was gender marking (100%). The themes that had mostly neutral
responses were sexy (82%), physicality (67%), weight (58%), and emotional reaction (55%).
Table 4.43
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses by Freshmen for Sexualized Models Pictures 1
and 2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 82% 16% 2% 100% 94% 6% - 100% Body Shape/Size 27% 64% 9% 100% 80% 20% - 100% Weight 2% 38% 60% 100% 4% 64% 32% 100% Sexy 33% 14% 53% 100% 78% 11% 11% 100% Female Ideal/Male Gaze 17% 39% 44% 100% 73% - 27% 100% Physicality 6% 55% 39% 100% 18% 73% 9% 100% Play-by-play/at the Game - - - - - - - - Gender Marking 10% 90% - 100% - 50% 50% 100% Emotional Reaction 10% 58% 32% 100% 17% 58% 25% 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - 67% 33% 100% - 75% 25% 100%
Describing
Emotions/Motivation 75% 25% - 100% 86% 14% - 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Table 4.43 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequency responses of all
freshmen who took the sexualized models survey. The table represents both picture one and
picture two. As seen in Table 4.43, the themes with mostly positive responses to picture one
Sexualization of Female Athletes
103
were appearance (82%), and describing emotions/motivation (75%). The themes that had mostly
negative responses were weight (60%), sexy (53%), and female ideal/male gaze (44%). The
themes that had mostly neutral responses were gender marking (90%), advertisement/marketing
tactic (67%), body shape/size (64%), emotional reaction (58%), and physicality (55%).
The themes for picture two of sexualized models (Table 4.43) that had mostly positive
responses were appearance (94%), describing emotions/motivation (86%), body shape/size
(80%), sexy (78%), and female ideal/male gaze (73%). There were no themes with mostly
negative responses, although the theme gender marking had the same amount of negative
responses (50%) as neutral responses (50%). The themes that had mostly neutral responses were
advertisement/marketing tactic (75%), physicality (73%), weight (64%), and emotional reaction
(58%).
Table 4.44
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses by Sophomores for Sexualized Models Pictures
1 and 2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 92% 4% 4% 100% 92% 8% - 100% Body Shape/Size 75% 25% - 100% 80% 20% - 100% Weight - 59% 41% 100% 25% 25% 50% 100% Sexy 36% 9% 55% 100% 84% 8% 8% 100% Female Ideal/Male Gaze - 37% 63% 100% 57% 14% 29% 100% Physicality - 67% 33% 100% 33% 67% - 100% Play-by-play/at the Game - - - - - - - - Gender Marking - 100% - 100% - - 100% 100% Emotional Reaction 10% 55% 35% 100% 35% 45% 20% 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - 80% 20% 100% 75% 25% - 100%
Describing
Emotions/Motivation 50% 50% - 100% 80% - 20% 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Sexualization of Female Athletes
104
Table 4.44 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequency responses of all
sophomores who took the sexualized models survey. The table represents both picture one and
picture two. According to the table, the themes with mostly positive responses for picture one
were appearance (92%) and body shape/size (75%). The themes that had mostly negative
responses were female ideal/male gaze (63%) and sexy (55%). The themes that had mostly
neutral responses were gender marking (100%), advertisement/marketing tactic (80%),
physicality (67%), weight (59%), and emotional reaction (55%).
The themes of picture two of sexualized models (Table 4.44) that had mostly positive
responses were appearance (92%), sexy (84%), body shape/size (80%), describing emotions/
motivation (80%), advertisement/marketing tactic (75%), and female ideal/male gaze (57%). The
themes that had mostly negative responses were gender marking (100%) and weight (50%).The
themes that had mostly neutral responses were physicality (67%) and emotional reaction (45%).
Table 4.45
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses by Juniors for Sexualized Models Pictures 1 and
2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 83% 11% 6% 100% 93% 7% - 100% Body Shape/Size 17% 66% 17% 100% 100% - - 100% Weight - 50% 50% 100% 33% 50% 17% 100% Sexy 33% 34% 33% 100% 100% - - 100% Female Ideal/Male Gaze 64% 18% 18% 100% 60% - 40% 100% Physicality - 40% 60% 100% 33% 67% - 100% Play-by-play/at the Game - - - - - - - - Gender Marking - 100% - 100% - - - - Emotional Reaction 5% 58% 37% 100% 30% 47% 23% 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - 90% 10% 100% 75% 25% - 100%
Describing
Emotions/Motivation 100% - - 100% 80% - 20% 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Sexualization of Female Athletes
105
Table 4.45 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequency responses of all juniors
who took the sexualized models survey. The table represents both picture one and picture two.
As shown in the table, the themes with mostly positive responses for picture one were describing
emotions/motivation (100%), appearance (83%), and female ideal/male gaze (64%). The theme
that had mostly negative responses was physicality (60%). The themes that had mostly neutral
responses were gender marking (100%), advertisement/marketing tactic (90%), body shape/size
(66%), and emotional reaction (58%).
The themes of picture two of sexualized models (Table 4.45) that had mostly positive
responses were body shape/size (100%), sexy (100%), appearance (93%), describing
emotions/motivation (80%), advertisement/marketing tactic (75%), and female ideal/male gaze
(60%). There were no themes with mostly negative responses. The themes that had mostly
neutral responses were physicality (67%), weight (50%), and emotional reaction (47%).
Table 4.46
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses by Seniors for Sexualized Models Pictures 1 and
2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 81% 19% - 100% 100% - - 100% Body Shape/Size 33% 34% 33% 100% 75% 25% - 100% Weight - 36% 64% 100% 12% 50% 38% 100% Sexy 25% - 75% 100% 80% 20% - 100% Female Ideal/Male Gaze 33% 23% 44% 100% 76% 12% 12% 100% Physicality 25% - 75% 100% 50% - 50% 100% Play-by-play/at the Game - - - - - - - - Gender Marking - 100% - 100% - 50% 50% 100% Emotional Reaction 8% 54% 38% 100% 25% 46% 29% 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - 50% 50% 100% 75% 25% - 100%
Describing
Emotions/Motivation 50% 50% - 100% 33% 50% 17% 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Sexualization of Female Athletes
106
Table 4.46 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequency responses of all seniors
who took the sexualized models survey. The table represents both picture one and picture two.
According to the table, the theme with mostly positive responses for picture one was appearance
(81%). The themes that had mostly negative responses were sexy (75%), physicality (75%),
weight (64%), and female ideal/male gaze (44%). The themes that had mostly neutral responses
were gender marking (100%) and emotional reaction (54%).
The themes of picture two of sexualized models (Table 4.46) that had mostly positive
responses were appearance (100%), sexy (80%), female ideal/male gaze (76%), body shape/size
(75%), and advertisement/marketing tactic (75%). There were no themes with mostly negative
responses, although the theme physicality had the same amount of negative responses (50%) as
positive responses (50%). The theme gender marking had the same amount of negative responses
(50%) as neutral responses (50%). The themes that had mostly neutral responses were weight
(50%), describing emotions/motivation (50%), and emotional reaction (46%).
Table 4.47
Positive/Neutral/Negative Frequency Responses by Graduate Students for Sexualized Models
Pictures 1 and 2
Picture 1 Picture 2
Positive Neutral Negative Total* Positive Neutral Negative Total*
Appearance 100% - - 100% 100% - - 100% Body Shape/Size - 100% - 100% - 100% - 100% Weight - 20% 80% 100% - 50% 50% 100% Sexy 100% - - 100% 100% - - 100% Female Ideal/Male Gaze - - 100% 100% 67% - 33% 100% Physicality - 100% - 100% - - - - Play-by-play/at the Game - - - - - - - - Gender Marking - 100% - 100% - - - - Emotional Reaction - 67% 33% 100% 40% 20% 40% 100% Advertisement/Marketing
Tactic - 100% - 100% - 100% - 100%
Describing
Emotions/Motivation - - - - 100% - - 100%
*All percentages are rounded to make it 100%
Sexualization of Female Athletes
107
Table 4.47 provides the positive, neutral, and negative frequency responses of all
graduate students who took the sexualized models survey. The table represents both picture one
and picture two. As displayed in the table, the themes with mostly positive responses for picture
one were appearance (100%) and sexy (100%). The themes that had mostly negative responses
were female ideal/male gaze (100%) and weight (80%). The themes that had mostly neutral
responses were body shape/size (100%), physicality (100%), gender marking (100%), emotional
reaction (67%), and advertisement/marketing tactic (100%).
The themes of picture two of sexualized models (Table 4.47) that had mostly positive
responses were appearance (100%), sexy (100%), describing emotions/motivation (100%), and
female ideal/male gaze (67%). There were no themes with mostly negative responses, although
the theme weight had the same amount of negative responses (50%) as neutral responses (50%).
The theme emotional reaction had the same amount of negative responses (40%) as positive
responses (40%). The themes that had mostly neutral responses were body shape/size (100%)
and advertisement/marketing tactic (100%).
Hypothesis Testing
This section is used to present the analysis of data. Chi square (χ 2 ) analysis was used to
test the previously stated hypotheses.
H1: There will be no difference between student-status category responses regarding perceptions
of sexualized female athletes.
Sexualization of Female Athletes
108
Table 4.48
Frequencies of Themes in Participants’ Responses by Student-Status (Sexualized Athletes)
Percentage within
Category - Absent Percentage within
Category - Present
Theme Non-
Athlete
Athlete Non-
Athlete
Athlete Chi square df p
Appearance 48.6 35.2 51.4 64.8 4.504 1 0.034 Body Shape/Size 83.1 77.8 16.9 22.2 1.119 1 0.290 Weight 88 92.6 12 7.4 1.420 1 0.233
Sexy 51.4 52.8 48.6 47.2 0.046 1 0.830 Female Ideal/Male Gaze 83.8 82.4 16.2 17.6 0.085 1 0.770 Physicality 54.9 51.9 45.1 48.1 0.234 1 0.629 Play-by-Play/at the Game 99.3 98.1 0.7 1.9 0.681 1 0.409 Gender Marking 62.7 71.3 37.3 28.7 2.043 1 0.153 Emotional Reaction 47.2 51.9 52.8 48.1 0.535 1 0.465 Advertisement/Marketing 88.7 90.7 11.3 9.3 0.266 1 0.606 Emotions/Motivation 77.5 77.8 22.5 22.2 0.003 1 0.953
Table 4.48 displays the coded narrative responses divided in each of the 11 themes of the
participants (N= 250) who took the sexualized athletes survey. The 250 participants were
categorized as a varsity athlete or non-athlete for hypothesis testing. There were 142 (56.8%)
non-athletes who took the sexualized athletes survey, while there were 108 (43.2%) varsity
athletes completing this version of the survey. After conducting a chi-square (χ 2 ) analysis on each
of the 11 themes (Table 4.48), there was significant difference found in the appearance theme
(p=0.034). No significant difference was found (p> 0.05) in the remaining 10 themes, For the
theme appearance, student-status category does influence the responses of the two sexualized
athletes photographs. In all the other 10 themes, student-status category does not influence the
response of the sexualized athletes photographs. Thus, hypothesis one (There will be no
difference between student-status category responses regarding perceptions of sexualized female
athletes) failed to reject on 10 of the themes, but it was rejected on the appearance theme.
Sexualization of Female Athletes
109
H2: There will be no difference between gender category responses (male vs. female) regarding
the perceptions of sexualized female athletes.
Table 4.49
Frequencies of Themes in Participants’ Responses by Gender (Sexualized Athletes)
Percentage within
Category - Absent Percentage within
Category - Present
Theme Male Female Male Female Chi square df p Appearance 25.2 61 74.8 39.0 32.672 1 <0.001 Body Shape/Size 81.1 80.5 18.9 19.5 0.015 1 0.902 Weight 91.3 88.6 8.7 11.4 0.514 1 0.473
Sexy 51.2 52.8 48.8 47.2 0.069 1 0.792 Female Ideal/Male Gaze 89.8 76.4 10.2 23.6 7.956 1 0.005 Physicality 58.3 48.8 41.7 51.2 2.261 1 0.133 Play-by-Play/at the Game 98.4 99.2 1.6 0.8 0.306 1 0.580 Gender Marking 64.6 68.3 35.4 31.7 0.389 1 0.533 Emotional Reaction 52 46.3 48 53.7 0.792 1 0.374 Advertisement/Marketing 91.3 87.8 8.7 12.2 0.837 1 0.360 Emotions/Motivation 81.9 73.2 18.1 26.8 2.733 1 0.098
Table 4.49 displays the coded narrative responses divided in each of the 11 themes of the
participants (N= 250) who took the sexualized athletes survey. The 250 participants are
displayed as either male or female. There were 127 (50.8%) male students who took the
sexualized athletes survey, while there were 123 (49.2%) female students taking this version.
After conducting a chi-square (χ 2 ) analysis on each of the 11 themes (Table 4.49), there was
significant difference found in the appearance theme (p<0.001) and the female ideal/male gaze
theme (p=0.005). In the remaining nine themes, there was no significant difference found (p>
0.05). Hypothesis two (There will be no difference between gender category responses (male vs.
female) regarding the perceptions of sexualized female athletes) could not be rejected for nine of
the themes, but it was rejected on the appearance and female ideal/male gaze themes. Thus, for
the themes appearance and female ideal/male gaze, gender does influence the responses of the
Sexualization of Female Athletes
110
two sexualized athletes photographs. In all the other nine themes, gender does not influence the
response of the sexualized athletes photographs.
H3: There will be no difference between gender category responses (male vs. female) regarding
the perceptions of performance female athletes.
Table 4.50
Frequencies of Themes in Participants’ Responses by Gender (Performance Athletes)
Percentage within
Category - Absent
Percentage within
Category - Present
Theme Male Female Male Female Chi square df p Appearance 59 86.9 41 13.1 25.518 1 <0.001 Body Shape/Size 56.4 73 43.6 27 7.664 1 0.006 Weight 94.9 96.4 5.1 3.6 0.333 1 0.564
Sexy 95.7 96.4 4.3 3.6 0.65 1 0.799 Female Ideal/Male Gaze 94 86.1 6 13.9 4.271 1 0.039 Physicality 30.8 28.5 69.2 71.5 0.161 1 0.688 Play-by-Play/at the Game 40.2 40.1 59.8 59.9 0.000 1 0.997 Gender Marking 48.7 52.6 51.3 47.4 0.372 1 0.542 Emotional Reaction 67.5 47.4 32.5 52.6 10.360 1 0.001 Advertisement/Marketing 100 100 0 0 - - - Emotions/Motivation 58.1 36.5 41.9 63.5 11.862 1 0.001
Table 4.50 displays the coded narrative responses divided in each of the 11 themes of the
participants (N= 254) who took the performance athletes survey. The 254 participants are
displayed as either male or female. There were 137 (54.9%) female students who took the
performance athletes survey, while 117 (46.1%) male students took this version. After
conducting a chi-square (χ 2 ) analysis on each of the 11 themes (Table 4.50), there was significant
difference found in the appearance theme (p<0.001), the body shape/size theme (p=0.006), the
female ideal/male gaze theme (p=0.039), the emotional reaction theme (p=0.001), and the
describing emotions/motivation (p=0.001). In the remaining six themes was no significant
difference found (p> 0.05). For the themes appearance, body shape/size, female ideal/male gaze,
Sexualization of Female Athletes
111
emotional reaction, and describing emotions/motivation, gender does influence the responses of
the two performance athletes photographs. In all the other six themes, gender does not influence
the response of the performance athletes photographs. Chi-square analysis revealed that for
hypothesis three (There will be no difference between gender category responses (male vs.
female) regarding the perceptions of performance athletes), the hypothesis failed to be rejected
on six of the times, but was rejected on the appearance, body shape/size, female ideal/male gaze,
emotional reaction, and describing emotions/motivation themes.
H4: There will be no difference between gender category responses (male vs. female) regarding
the perceptions of sexualized models.
Table 4.51
Frequencies of Themes in Participants’ Responses by Gender (Sexualized Models)
Percentage within
Category - Absent Percentage within
Category - Present
Theme Male Female Male Female Chi square df p Appearance 23.7 49.3 76.3 50.7 17.937 1 <0.001 Body Shape/Size 82.2 83.8 17.8 16.2 0.117 1 0.732 Weight 63.6 43.7 36.4 56.3 10.235 1 0.001
Sexy 66.1 77.5 33.9 22.5 4.156 1 0.041 Female Ideal/Male Gaze 83.1 65.5 19.9 34.5 10.191 1 0.001 Physicality 83.9 80.3 16.1 19.7 0.569 1 0.451 Play-by-Play/at the Game 100 100 0 0 - - - Gender Marking 88.1 85.2 11.9 14.8 0.473 1 0.492 Emotional Reaction 46.6 31.7 53.4 68.3 6.061 1 0.014 Advertisement/Marketing 87.3 81 12.7 19 1.890 1 0.169 Emotions/Motivation 87.3 89.4 12.7 10.6 0.291 1 0.589
Table 4.51 displays the coded narrative responses divided in each of the 11 themes of the
participants (N= 260) who took the sexualized models survey. The 260 participants are displayed
as either male or female. There were 142 (54.6%) female students and118 (45.4%) male students
who took the sexualized models survey. After conducting a chi-square (χ 2 ) analysis on each of
Sexualization of Female Athletes
112
the 11 themes (Table 4.51), there was significant difference found for five themes: the
appearance theme (p<0.001), the weight theme (p=0.001), the sexy theme (p=0.041), the female
ideal/male gaze theme (p=0.001), and the emotional reaction theme (p=0.014). For the
remaining six themes, there was no significant difference found (p> 0.05). The data indicates that
for the themes appearance, weight, sexy, female ideal/male gaze, and emotional reaction, gender
does influence the responses of the two sexualized models photographs. In all the other six
themes, gender does not influence the response of the sexualized models photographs. To
summarize hypothesis four (There will be no difference between gender category responses
(male vs. female) regarding the perceptions of sexualized models), the researcher failed to reject
the hypothesis for six of the themes but rejected the hypothesis for the appearance, weight, sexy,
female ideal/male gaze, and emotional reaction themes.
H5: There will be no difference between female student-status category responses (athlete vs.
non-athlete) regarding the perceptions of sexualized female athletes.
Sexualization of Female Athletes
113
Table 4.52
Frequencies of Themes in Participants’ Responses by Female Student-Status (Sexualized
Athletes)
Percentage within
Category - Absent Percentage within
Category - Present
Theme Non-
Athlete
Athlete Non-
Athlete
Athlete Chi square df p
Appearance 60.5 62.2 39.5 37.8 0.031 1 0.860 Body Shape/Size 80.2 19.8 81.1 18.9 0.012 1 0.913 Weight 86 94.6 14 5.4 1.874 1 0.171
Sexy 53.5 51.4 46.5 48.6 0.047 1 0.828 Female Ideal/Male Gaze 81.4 64.9 18.6 35.1 3.923 1 0.048 Physicality 48.8 48.6 51.2 51.4 0.000 1 0.985 Play-by-Play/at the Game 98.8 100 1.2 0 0.434 1 0.510 Gender Marking 68.6 67.6 31.4 32.4 0.013 1 0.910 Emotional Reaction 44.2 51.4 55.8 48.6 0.534 1 0.465 Advertisement/Marketing 89.5 83.8 10.5 16.2 0.799 1 0.371 Emotions/Motivation 75.6 67.6 24.4 32.4 0.846 1 0.358
Table 4.52 displays the coded narrative responses divided in each of the 11 themes of the
participants (N= 123) who took the sexualized athletes survey. The 123 participants are
displayed as either a varsity athlete or non-athlete. There were 86 (69.9%) female non-athletes
who took the sexualized athletes survey, while there were 37 (30.1%) female varsity athletes.
After conducting a chi-square (χ 2 ) analysis on each of the 11 themes (Table 4.52), there was
significant difference found in the female ideal/male gaze theme (p=0.048). In the remaining 10
themes was no significant difference found (p> 0.05). For the theme female ideal/male gaze,
student-status category does influence the responses of the two sexualized athletes photographs.
In all the other 10 themes, student-status category does not influence the response of the
sexualized athletes photographs. Therefore for hypothesis five (There will be no difference
between female student-status category responses (athlete vs. non-athlete) regarding the
Sexualization of Female Athletes
114
perceptions of sexualized female athletes), the researcher failed to reject the hypothesis for 10 of
the themes but rejected the hypothesis for the female ideal/male gaze theme.
H6: There will be no difference between female student-status category responses (athlete vs.
non-athlete) regarding the perceptions of performance female athletes.
Table 4.53
Frequencies of Themes in Participants’ Responses by Female Student-Status (Performance
Athletes)
Percentage within
Category - Absent
Percentage within
Category - Present
Theme Non-
Athlete
Athlete Non-
Athlete
Athlete Chi square df p
Appearance 86.7 87.2 13.3 12.8 0.005 1 0.945 Body Shape/Size 76.5 64.1 23.5 35.9 2.186 1 0.139 Weight 98 92.3 2 7.7 2.534 1 0.111
Sexy 96.9 94.9 3.1 5.1 0.339 1 0.560 Female Ideal/Male Gaze 87.8 82.1 12.2 17.9 0.760 1 0.383 Physicality 31.6 20.5 68.4 79.5 1.694 1 0.193 Play-by-Play/at the Game 32.7 59 67.3 41 8.044 1 0.005 Gender Marking 52 53.8 48 46.2 0.036 1 0.849 Emotional Reaction 41.8 61.5 58.2 38.5 4.343 1 0.037 Advertisement/Marketing 100 100 0 0 - - - Emotions/Motivation 35.7 36.5 64.3 61.5 0.091 1 0.763
Table 4.53 displays the coded narrative responses divided in each of the 11 themes of the
participants (N= 137) who took the performance athletes survey. The 137 participants are
displayed as either a varsity athlete or non-athlete. There were 98 (71.5%) female non-athletes
who took the performance athletes survey, while there were 39 (28.5%) female varsity athletes.
After conducting a chi-square (χ 2 ) analysis on each of the 11 themes (Table 4.53), there was
significant difference found in the play-by-play/at the game theme (p=0.005) and the emotional
reaction theme (p=0.037). In the remaining nine themes no significant difference was found (p>
Sexualization of Female Athletes
115
0.05). For the themes play-by-play/at the game and emotional reaction, student-status category
does influence the responses of the two performance athletes photographs. In all the other nine
themes, student-status category does not influence the response of the performance athletes
photographs. Hypothesis six (There will be no difference between female student-status category
responses (athlete vs. non-athlete regarding the perceptions of performance female athletes)
failed to be rejected on nine of the themes, but it was rejected on the play-by-play/at the game
and emotional reaction themes.
H7: There will be no difference between female student-status category responses (athlete vs.
non-athlete) regarding the perceptions of sexualized models.
Table 4.54
Frequencies of Themes in Participants’ Responses by Female Student-Status (Sexualized
Models)
Percentage within
Category - Absent Percentage within
Category - Present
Theme Non-
Athlete
Athlete Non-
Athlete
Athlete Chi square df p
Appearance 46.1 57.5 53.9 42.5 1.500 1 0.221 Body Shape/Size 85.3 80 14.7 20 0.593 1 0.441 Weight 45.1 40 54.9 60 0.304 1 0.582
Sexy 76.5 80 23.5 20 0.205 1 0.651 Female Ideal/Male Gaze 64.7 67.5 35.3 32.5 0.099 1 0.753 Physicality 86.3 65 13.7 35 8.215 1 0.004 Play-by-Play/at the Game 100 100 0 0 - - - Gender Marking 87.3 80 12.7 20 1.200 1 0.273 Emotional Reaction 30.4 35 69.6 65 0.282 1 0.596 Advertisement/Marketing 79.4 85 20.6 15 0.583 1 0.445 Emotions/Motivation 91.2 85 8.8 15 1.160 1 0.281
Table 4.54 displays the coded narrative responses divided in each of the 11 themes for the
participants (N= 142) who took the sexualized models survey. The 142 participants are displayed
Sexualization of Female Athletes
116
as either a varsity athlete or non-athlete. There were 102 (71.8%) female non-athletes who took
the sexualized models survey, while there were 40 (28.2%) female varsity athletes. After
conducting a chi-square (χ 2 ) analysis on each of the 11 themes (Table 4.52), there was significant
difference found in the physicality theme (p=0.004). In the remaining 10 themes, no significant
difference was found (p> 0.05). For the physicality theme, student-status category does influence
the responses of the two sexualized models photographs. In all the other 10 themes, student-
status category does not influence the response of the sexualized models photographs. Based on
chi-square analysis hypothesis seven (There will be no difference between female student-status
category responses (athlete vs. non-athlete) regarding the perceptions of sexualized models)
failed to be rejected on 10 of the themes, but was rejected on the physicality theme.
H8: There will be no difference between male student-status category responses (athlete vs. non-
athlete) regarding the perceptions of sexualized female athletes.
Table 4.55
Frequencies of Themes in Participants’ Responses by Male Student-Status (Sexualized Athletes)
Percentage within
Category - Absent Percentage within
Category - Present
Theme Non-
Athlete
Athlete Non-
Athlete
Athlete Chi square df p
Appearance 30.4 21.1 69.6 78.9 1.415 1 0.234 Body Shape/Size 87.5 76.1 12.5 23.9 2.675 1 0.102 Weight 91.1 91.5 8.9 8.5 0.009 1 0.924
Sexy 48.2 53.5 51.8 46.5 0.353 1 0.552 Female Ideal/Male Gaze 87.5 91.5 12.5 8.5 0.559 1 0.455 Physicality 64.3 53.5 35.7 46.5 1.492 1 0.222 Play-by-Play/at the Game 100 97.2 0 2.8 1.603 1 0.206 Gender Marking 53.6 73.2 46.4 26.8 5.294 1 0.021 Emotional Reaction 51.8 52.1 48.2 47.9 0.001 1 0.971 Advertisement/Marketing 87.5 94.4 12.5 5.6 1.866 1 0.172 Emotions/Motivation 80.4 83.1 19.6 16.9 0.159 1 0.690
Sexualization of Female Athletes
117
Table 4.55 displays the coded narrative responses divided in each of the 11 themes of the
participants (N= 127) who took the sexualized athletes survey. The 127 participants are
displayed as either a varsity athlete or non-athlete. There were 71 (55.9%) male varsity athletes
and 56 (44.1%) male non-athletes who took the sexualized athletes survey. After conducting a
chi-square (χ 2 ) analysis on each of the 11 themes (Table 4.55), there was significant difference
found in the gender marking theme (p=0.021). In the remaining 10 themes there was no
significant difference found (p> 0.05). Hypothesis eight (There will be no difference between
male student-status category responses (athlete vs. non-athlete) regarding the perceptions of
sexualized female athletes) failed to be rejected on 10 of the themes but was rejected on the
gender marking theme. This indicates that for the gender marking theme, student-status
category does influence the responses of the two sexualized athletes photographs. In all the other
10 themes, student-status category does not influence the response of the sexualized athletes
photographs.
H9: There will be no difference between male student-status category response (athlete vs. non-
athlete) regarding the perceptions of performance female athletes.
Sexualization of Female Athletes
118
Table 4.56
Frequencies of Themes in Participants’ Responses by Male Student-Status (Performance
Athletes)
Percentage within
Category - Absent Percentage within
Category - Present
Theme Non-
Athlete
Athlete Non-
Athlete
Athlete Chi square df p
Appearance 69.1 50 30.9 50 4.390 1 0.036 Body Shape/Size 61.8 51.6 38.2 48.4 1.234 1 0.267 Weight 94.5 95.2 5.5 4.8 0.023 1 0.880
Sexy 100 91.9 0 8.1 4.633 1 0.031 Female Ideal/Male Gaze 90.9 96.8 9.1 3.2 1.782 1 0.182 Physicality 36.4 25.8 63.6 74.2 1.525 1 0.217 Play-by-Play/at the Game 38.2 41.9 61.8 58.1 0.171 1 0.679 Gender Marking 47.3 50 52.7 50 0.087 1 0.768 Emotional Reaction 56.4 77.4 43.6 22.6 5.892 1 0.015 Advertisement/Marketing 100 100 0 0 - - - Emotions/Motivation 50.9 64.5 49.1 35.5 2.217 1 0.136
Table 4.56 displays the coded narrative responses divided in each of the 11 themes of the
participants (N= 117) who took the performance athletes survey. The 117 participants are
displayed as either a varsity athlete or non-athlete. There were 62 (53%) male varsity athletes 55
(47%) male non-athletes who took the performance athletes survey, while there were completing
this version. After conducting a chi-square (χ 2 ) analysis on each of the 11 themes (Table 4.56),
there was significant difference found in the appearance theme (p=0.036), sexy theme (p=0.031),
and the emotional reaction theme (p=0.015). No significant difference was found (p> 0.05) in
the remaining nine themes. For the appearance, sexy, and emotional reaction themes, student-
status category does influence the responses of the two performance athletes photographs. In all
nine other themes, student-status category does not influence the response of the performance
athletes photographs. In summary, for hypothesis nine (There will be no difference between male
Sexualization of Female Athletes
119
student-status category response (athlete vs. non-athlete) regarding the perceptions of
performance female athletes), the hypothesis failed to be rejected for eight of the themes but was
rejected for the appearance, sexy, and emotional reaction themes.
H10: There will be no difference between male student-status category responses (athlete vs.
non-athlete) regarding the perceptions of sexualized models.
Table 4.57
Frequencies of Themes in Participants’ Responses by Male Student-Status (Sexualized Models)
Percentage within
Category - Absent Percentage within
Category - Present
Theme Non-
Athlete
Athlete Non-
Athlete
Athlete Chi square df p
Appearance 25.4 22 74.6 78 0.187 1 0.665 Body Shape/Size 84.7 79.7 15.3 20.3 0.521 1 0.470 Weight 62.7 64.4 37.3 35.6 0.037 1 0.848
Sexy 62.7 69.5 37.3 30.5 0.605 1 0.437 Female Ideal/Male Gaze 74.6 91.5 25.4 8.5 6.020 1 0.014 Physicality 83.1 84.7 16.9 15.3 0.063 1 0.802 Play-by-Play/at the Game 100 100 0 0 - - - Gender Marking 86.4 89.8 13.6 10.2 0.342 1 0.569 Emotional Reaction 44.1 49.2 55.9 50.8 0.306 1 0.580 Advertisement/Marketing 86.4 88.1 13.6 11.9 0.076 1 0.782 Emotions/Motivation 91.5 83.1 8.5 16.9 1.909 1 0.167
Table 4.57 displays the coded narrative responses divided in each of the 11 themes of the
participants (N= 118) who took the sexualized models survey. The 118 participants are displayed
as either a varsity athlete or non-athlete. There were 59 (50%) male non-athletes and 59 (50%)
male varsity athletes who took the sexualized models survey. After conducting a chi-square (χ 2 )
analysis on each of the 11 themes (Table 4.57), there was significant difference found in the
female ideal/male gaze theme (p=0.014). In the remaining 10 themes no significant difference
found was found (p> 0.05). For the female ideal/male gaze theme, student-status category does
Sexualization of Female Athletes
120
influence the responses of the two sexualized models photographs. In all the other 10 themes,
student-status category does not influence the response of the sexualized models photographs.
Therefore hypothesis 10 (There will be no difference between male student-status category
responses (athlete vs. non-athlete) regarding the perceptions of sexualized models) failed to be
rejected for 10 of the themes but was rejected only for the female ideal/male gaze theme.
H11: There will be no difference between academic level category responses on the perceptions
of sexualized female athletes.
S e x
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5 6 .4
8 7 .5
4 .0
7 5
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9 6
B o d
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W e ig
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1 6 .4
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5 6 .3
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3 8 .1
5 6 .4
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F e m
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M a le
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8 1 .7
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7 5
1 8 .3
1 3 .2
1 5 .9
1 8 .2
2 5
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9 4
P h
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5 7 .7
5 0 .9
6 0 .3
4 5 .5
3 7 .5
4 2 .3
4 9
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3 9 .7
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8 5
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9 5
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9 8 .1
1 0 0
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7 7
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0 .8
6 5
G e n
d e r M
a r k
in g
6 3 .4
6 6
6 8 .3
7 0 .9
5 0
3 6 .6
3 4
3 1 .7
2 9 .1
5 0
1 .8
5 6
4
0 .7
6 2
E m
o ti
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a l
R e a c ti
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4 7 .9
4 5 .3
4 9 .2
5 4 .5
5 0
5 2 .1
5 4 .7
5 0 .8
4 5 .5
5 0
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0 9
A d
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se m
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9 4 .4
8 6 .8
8 5 .7
8 9 .1
1 0 0
5 .6
1 3 .2
1 4 .3
1 0 .9
0
4 .1
4 4
4
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8 7
E m
o ti
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s/ M
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7 6 .1
7 7 .4
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1 7 .5
2 9 .1
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1 8
Sexualization of Female Athletes
122
Table 4.58 displays the coded narrative responses divided in each of the 11 themes of the
participants (N= 250) who took the sexualized athletes survey. The 250 participants are
displayed as freshmen, sophomores, juniors, seniors, and graduate students. There were 71
(28.4%) freshmen, 63 (25.2%) juniors, 55 (22%) seniors, 53 (21.2%) sophomores, and eight
(3.2%) graduate students who took the sexualized athletes survey. After conducting a chi-square
(χ 2 ) analysis on each of the 11 themes (Table 4.58), there was significant difference found in the
weight theme (p=0.013). In the remaining 10 themes, there was no significant difference found
(p> 0.05). For the weight theme, academic category does influence the responses of the two
sexualized athletes photographs. In all the other 10 themes, academic level does not influence the
responses of the two sexualized athletes photographs. Thus for hypothesis 11 (There will be no
difference between academic level category responses on the perceptions of sexualized female
athletes), the researcher failed to reject 10 of the themes and rejected the hypothesis for the
weight theme.
H12: There will be no difference btween academic level category responses on the perceptions
of performance female athletes. E
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f F
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A th
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1 2 3
T a b le
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s o f
T h e m
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in P
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a n ts
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s b y A
c a d e m
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(P e rf
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a n c e A
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C
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C a te
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- A
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C
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8 0 .5
6 8 .6
7 3 .8
7 2 .2
5 5 .6
1 9 .5
3 1 .3
2 6 .2
2 7 .8
4 4 .4
4 .1
6 5
4
0 .3
8 4
B o d
y S
h a p
e /S
iz e
6 5 .9
6 2 .5
6 7 .2
6 6 .7
5 5 .6
3 4 .1
3 7 .5
3 2 .8
3 3 .3
4 4 .4
0 .6
9 8
4
0 .9
5 2
W e ig
h t
9 7 .6
9 3 .8
9 6 .7
9 4 .4
8 8 .9
2 .4
6 .3
3 .3
5 .6
1 1 .1
2 .4
9 2
4
0 .6
4 6
S e x
y
9 7 .6
9 5 .8
9 3 .4
9 6 .3
1 0 0
2 .4
4 .2
6 .6
3 .7
0
1 .9
7 7
4
0 .7
4 0
F e m
a le
I d
e a l/
M a le
G a z e
9 0 .2
8 7 .5
9 0 .2
8 8 .9
1 0 0
9 .8
1
2 .8
9 .8
1 1 .1
0
1 .3
7 0
4
0 .8
4 9
P h
y si
c a li
ty
3 5 .4
3 1 .3
3 1 .1
2 0 .4
1 1 .1
6 4 .6
6 8 .8
6 8 .9
7 9 .6
8 8 .9
5 .1
3 2
4
0 .2
7 4
P la
y -b
y -P
la y
/a t
th e G
a m
e
4 2 .7
4 1 .7
4 4 .3
3 3 .3
2 2 .2
5 7 .3
5 8 .3
5 5 .7
6 6 .7
7 7 .8
2 .9
4 2
4
0 .5
6 8
G e n
d e r M
a r k
in g
5 2 .4
4 5 .8
4 9 .2
5 5 .6
4 4 .4
4 7 .6
5 4 .2
5 0 .8
4 4 .4
5 5 .6
1 .2
6 0
4
0 .8
6 8
E m
o ti
o n
a l
R e a c ti
o n
5 2 .4
6 2 .5
5 5 .7
5 3 .7
8 8 .9
4 7 .6
3 7 .5
4 4 .3
4 6 .3
1 1 .1
5 .2
8 3
4
0 .2
6 0
A d
v e r ti
se m
e n
t/ M
a r k
e ti
n g
1 0 0
1 0 0
1 0 0
1 0 0
1 0 0
0
0
0
0
0
- -
- E
m o ti
o n
s/ M
o ti
v a ti
o n
4 3 .9
5 0
4 4 .3
5 0
4 4 .4
5 6 .1
5 0
5 5 .7
5 0
5 5 .6
0 .8
6 3
4
0 .9
3 0
Sexualization of Female Athletes
124
Table 4.59 displays the coded narrative responses divided in each of the 11 themes of the
participants (N= 254) who took the performance athletes survey. The 254 participants are
displayed as freshmen, sophomores, juniors, seniors, and graduate students. There were 82
(32.3%) freshmen, 61 (24%) juniors, 54 (21.3%) seniors, 48 (18.9%) sophomores, and nine
(3.5%) graduate students that took the performance athletes survey. After conducting a chi-
square (χ 2 ) analysis on each of the 11 themes (Table 4.59), no significant difference was found in
any of the 11 themes (> p= 0.05). Because hypothesis 12 (There will be no difference between
academic level category responses on the perceptions of performance female athletes) failed to
be rejected for all 11 themes, this means that academic level does not influence the responses of
the two performance athletes photographs.
H13: There will be no difference between academic level category responses on the perceptions
of sexualized models.
S e x
u a li
z a ti
o n o
f F
e m
a le
A th
le te
s
1 2 5
T a b le
4 .6
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q u e n c ie
s o f
T h e m
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in P
a rt
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s b y A
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(S e x u a li
ze d M
o d e ls
)
C
o u
n t
w it
h in
C a te
g o ry
- A
b se
n t
C
o u n t
w it
h in
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g o ry
- P
re se
n t
T h
e m
e
F r .
S o
. J
r .
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F
r .
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G r .
C
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d f
p
A p
p e a
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3 8
3 7 .5
2 7 .9
4 5
6 3 .6
6 2
6 2 .5
7 2 .1
5 5
3 6 .4
6 .5
7 3
4
0 .1
6 0
B o d
y S
h a p
e /S
iz e
8 5
8 3 .3
7 7
8 5
9 0 .9
1 5
1 6 .7
2 3
1 5
9 .1
2 .4
2 7
4
0 .6
5 8
W e ig
h t
5 5
5 4 .2
5 5 .7
4 0
5 4 .5
4 5
4 5 .8
4 4 .3
6 0
4 5 .5
3 .0
8 3
4
0 .5
4 4
S e x
y
7 4
6 0 .4
7 7
8 0
5 4 .5
2 6
3 9 .6
2 3
2 0
4 5 .5
7 .1
3 3
4
0 .1
2 9
F e m
a le
I d
e a l/
M a le
G a z e
7 6
7 2 .9
7 7
6 2 .5
7 2 .7
2 4
2 7 .1
2 3
3 7 .5
2 7 .3
3 .2
0 9
4
0 .5
2 3
P h
y si
c a li
ty
7 8
7 7 .1
8 6 .9
8 7 .5
9 0 .9
2 2 .
2 2 .9
1 3 .1
1 2 .5
9 .1
4 .2
5 3
4
0 .3
7 3
P la
y -b
y -P
la y
/a t
th e G
a m
e
1 0 0
1 0 0
1 0 0
1 0 0
1 0 0
0
0
0
0
0
- -
- G
e n
d e r M
a r k
in g
8 8
8 9 .6
8 5 .2
8 0
9 0 .9
1 2
1 0 .4
1 4 .8
2 0
9 .1
2 .3
0 1
4
0 .6
8 1
E m
o ti
o n
a l
R e a c ti
o n
3 9
4 3 .8
3 9 .3
3 0
3 6 .4
6 1
5 6 .3
6 0 .7
7 0
6 3 .6
1 .8
3 0
4
0 .7
6 7
A d
v e r ti
se m
e n
t/ M
a r k
e ti
n g
9 0
8 7 .5
7 8 .7
7 2 .5
8 1 .8
1 0
1 2 .5
2 1 .3
2 7 .5
1 8 .2
8 .3
0 2
4
0 .0
8 1
E m
o ti
o n
s/ M
o ti
v a ti
o n
9 0
8 9 .6
8 8 .5
8 2 .5
9 0 .9
1 0
1 0 .4
1 1 .5
1 7 .5
9 .1
1 .7
4 9
4
0 .7
8 2
Sexualization of Female Athletes
126
Table 4.60 displays the coded narrative responses divided in each of the 11 themes of the
participants (N= 260) who took the sexualized models survey. The 260 participants are displayed
as freshmen, sophomores, juniors, seniors, and graduate students. There were 100 (38.5%)
freshmen, 61 (23.5%) juniors, 48 (18.5%) sophomores, 40 (15.4%) seniors, and 11 (4.2%)
graduate students who took the sexualized models survey. Chi-square (χ 2 ) analysis for each of the
11 themes (Table 4.60) indicated no significant difference for any of the 11 themes (p> 0.05).
This means that academic level does not influence the responses of the two sexualized models
photographs, or hypothesis 13 (There will be no difference between academic level category
responses on the perceptions of sexualized models) failed to be rejected for all 11 themes.
Sexualization of Female Athletes
127
Table. 4.61
Summary of Hypothesis Findings
Hypothesis Significant Results (from chi-square analysis)
H1: Comparison athletes and non-athletes’ responses
for sexualized female athletes
Appearance (p=0.034)
H2: Comparison male students and female students’
responses for sexualized female athletes
Appearance (p<0.001) Female Ideal/Male Gaze (p=0.005)
H3: Comparison male students and female students’
responses for performance female athletes
Appearance (p<0.001),
Body Shape/Size (p=0.006), Female Ideal/Male Gaze (p=0.039),
Emotional Reaction (p=0.001),
Describing Emotions/Motivation (p=0.001)
H4: Comparison male students and female students’
responses for sexualized models
Appearance (p<0.001)
Weight (p=0.001) Sexy (p=0.041)
Female Ideal/Male Gaze (p=0.001)
Emotional Reaction (p=0.014)
H5: Comparison female student-athletes and female
non-athletes’ responses for sexualized female athletes
Female Ideal/Male Gaze (p=0.048)
H6: Comparison female student-athletes and female
non-athletes’ responses for performance female
athletes
Play-by-Play/At the Game (p=0.005) Emotional Reaction (p=0.037)
H7: Comparison female student-athletes and female
non-athletes’ responses for sexualized models
Physicality (p=0.004)
H8: Comparison male student-athletes and male non-
athletes’ responses for sexualized female athletes
Gender Marking (p=0.021)
H9: Comparison male student-athletes and male non-
athletes’ responses for performance female athletes
Appearance (p=0.036) Sexy (p=0.031)
Emotional Reaction (p=0.015)
H10: Comparison male student-athletes and male
non-athletes’ responses for sexualized models
Female Ideal/Male Gaze (p=0.014)
H11: Comparison freshmen, sophomores, juniors,
seniors, and graduate students’ responses for
sexualized female athletes
Weight (p=0.013)
H12: Comparison freshmen, sophomores, juniors,
seniors, and graduate students’ responses for
performance female athletes
-
H13: Comparison freshmen, sophomores, juniors,
seniors, and graduate students’ responses for
sexualized models
-
Table 4.61 provides a summary of all 13 hypothesis findings and their significant results
using chi-square (χ 2 ) analysis.
Sexualization of Female Athletes
128
Chapter 5
Discussion and Recommendations
Discussion
Women’s sports are still not as popular as men’s sports, even 44 years after the enactment
of Title IX. Media outlets compound the problem of underrepresentation of women’s sports by
oversexualizing female athletes in the media. The purpose of this study was to examine the
perceptions of college students regarding the sexualization of female athletes. In order to
understand these perceptions, the researcher identified and tested thirteen hypotheses. The
thirteen hypotheses are as follows: H1: There will be no difference between student-status
category responses regarding perceptions of sexualized female athletes; H2: There will be no
difference between gender category responses (male vs. female) regarding the perceptions of
sexualized female athletes; H3: There will be no difference between gender category responses
(male vs. female) regarding the perceptions of performance female athletes; H4: There will be
no difference between gender category responses (male vs. female) regarding the perceptions of
sexualized models; H5: There will be no difference between female student status category
responses (athlete vs. non-athlete) regarding the perceptions of sexualized female athletes; H6:
There will be no difference between female student status category responses (athlete vs. non-
athlete) regarding the perceptions of performance female athletes; H7: There will be no
difference between female student status category responses (athlete vs. non-athlete) regarding
the perceptions of sexualized models; H8: There will be no difference between male student
status category responses (athlete vs. non-athlete) regarding the perceptions of sexualized female
athletes; H9: There will be no difference between male student status category responses (athlete
vs. non-athlete) regarding the perceptions of performance female athletes; H10: There will be no
difference between male student status category responses (athlete vs. non-athlete) regarding the
Sexualization of Female Athletes
129
perceptions of sexualized models; H11: There will be no difference between academic level
category responses on the perceptions of sexualized female athletes; H12: There will be no
difference between academic level category responses on the perceptions of performance female
athletes; and H13: There will be no difference between academic level category responses on the
perceptions of sexualized models.
Hypothesis one. This hypothesis was tested using chi-square (χ 2 ) analysis, which is
presented in Table 4.48. There was a significant difference found in the appearance theme
(p=0.034) where 64.8% of the athletes’ narrative responses were categorized in that theme, while
51.4% of the non-athletes’ narrative responses were categorized. The researcher can conclude
that athletes (regardless of gender) are more concerned about the appearance of sexualized
female athletes than non-athletes.
Interestingly, when referring to the positive/negative/neutral frequencies tables of
student-status category responses of sexualized athletes (Tables 4.23 and 4.24), more student-
athletes wrote positive responses than non-athletes. In fact 89% of student-athletes wrote a
positive response in the appearance theme for picture one and 90% for picture two, examples of
which are “she is a beautiful woman in a zebra bikini” (picture one) and “this is another
attractive athlete” (picture two); whereas, 86% of non-athletes wrote a positive response in the
appearance theme for picture one and 80% for picture two, examples of which are “this woman
is very pretty” (picture one) and “she is a very beautiful woman in a bathing suit that draws my
attention” (picture two). This is a quite interesting finding because this means that student-
athletes like the appearance of both women in the sexualized athletes condition more than non-
athletes. Student-athletes also found the appearance of the women more important than the non-
athletes because they mentioned it more. Accordingly, when examining Tables 4.23 and 4.24, it
Sexualization of Female Athletes
130
can be noted that the appearance theme was ranked the most positive for both student-athletes
and non-athletes. This echoes the findings of Daniels and Wartena (2011), who found that the
appearance theme of sexualized athletes was one of the most important themes to the boys.
Harrison and Sacarea’s (2010) study supports these findings as they found similar results.
Hypothesis two. This hypothesis was tested using chi-square (χ 2 ) analysis, which is
presented in Table 4.49. There was significant difference found in the appearance (p<0.001) and
female ideal/male gaze (p=0.005) themes. For appearance 74.8% of male students wrote a
narrative response in that category, while 39% of female students wrote a narrative response.
Thus, the researcher can conclude that the appearance of sexualized female athletes made a
bigger impact on male respondents than female respondents.
In the female ideal/male gaze theme, 10.2% of male students wrote a narrative response
in that category, while 23.6% of female students wrote a narrative response. As for this finding,
the researcher can conclude that female students are more aware of the female ideal and male
gaze towards the sexualized athletes. This can be connected to the objectification theory
(Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997), which supports the self-objectifying of women. Women compare
themselves more with other women (who are mostly in better shape) and recognize the female
ideal the media and society spreads.
When referring to the positive/negative/neutral frequencies tables of gender category
responses of sexualized athletes (Tables 4.29 and 4.30), 92% of male students wrote a positive
response in the appearance theme for picture one and 90% for picture two. When considering
female students’ responses 78% of female students wrote a positive response in the appearance
theme for picture one and 73% for picture two. It can be noted that 12% of female students wrote
a negative response about the appearance of the second sexualized athlete. The researcher can
Sexualization of Female Athletes
131
conclude that male students wrote more positive responses about appearance of sexualized
female athletes than female students, and male students cared more about the appearance than
female students. Again, these findings are supported by Daniels and Wartena (2011), who
concluded that appearance is very important to men. That female students make more negative
comments about the appearance of the sexualized athletes is supported by Daniels (2012), who
studied girls and women’s perceptions towards the sexualization of female athletes. Daniels
(2012) found that participants who took the sexualized athletes survey responded more
negatively towards the appearance of the athletes.
When referring to Tables 4.29 and 4.30, in the female ideal/male gaze theme, 87% of
male students wrote a negative response in that category for picture one, while only 22% did for
picture two. For female students, 44% wrote a negative response in the female ideal/male gaze
theme for picture one and 33% for picture two. It is interesting to see that female students are
more aware of the female ideal/male gaze category, but when male students write about the
theme, they write about it more negatively. More research should be conducted to conclude why
this is happening.
Hypothesis three. This hypothesis was tested using chi-square (χ 2 ) analysis, which is
presented in Table 4.50. There was significant difference found in the appearance (p<0.001),
body shape/size (p=0.006), female ideal/male gaze (p=0.039), emotional reaction (p=0.001), and
describing emotions/motivation (p=0.001) themes. For appearance, 41% of male students wrote
a narrative response, while 13.1% of female students did so. For the body shape/size theme,
43.6% of male students wrote a narrative response, while 27% of female students did so. Only
six percent of male students wrote a narrative response, while 13.9% of female students did for
female ideal/male gaze. For the emotional reaction theme, 32.5% percent of male students wrote
Sexualization of Female Athletes
132
a narrative response, while 52.5% of female students did so. As for the describing
emotions/motivation theme, 41.9% of narrative responses came from male students, while 63.5%
of narrative responses came from female students.
The researcher can conclude that male students look more at the appearance of
performance athletes than female students do. This supports the findings in the earlier
hypotheses stating that male students think appearance is far more important than any other
theme. Male students also mention the body shape and size of a performance athlete more often
than female students. Although there were not a lot of responses for female ideal/male gaze,
female students wrote more responses than male students in that category, which could indicate
that female students are more aware of how women are supposed to look like in the media.
More than half of the responses of female students were categorized in the emotional
reaction theme, while almost one-third (32.5%) of male students responded in that theme,
showing that female students could have felt more connected to the pictures than women. This
can be because the pictures are of women only. Almost two-thirds (63.5%) of female students
wrote a response describing the female athlete’s emotions/motivation, while 41.9% of male
students did this. Out of this finding the researcher can conclude that female students cared more
about the emotions or motivation of the performance athletes used in this study than male
athletes did.
Female students responded more in the describing emotions/motivation theme as they had
63.5% of responses in that theme compared to 41.9% of male students’ responses. The
researcher can conclude that female students describe the emotions and motivation of the
performance athletes more often than male students. This can be due to the fact that these
athletes are women as well.
Sexualization of Female Athletes
133
Investigating the positive/negative/neutral responses for significant variables provided
additional insight into male and female students’ views of performance athletes. When referring
to the positive/negative/neutral frequencies tables of gender category responses for performance
athletes (Tables 4.15 and 4.16), 54% of male students wrote a positive response in the
appearance theme for picture one and 80% for picture two, while 64% of female students wrote
a positive response in the appearance theme for picture one and 44% for picture two. It can be
speculated that the low positive responses for male students in picture one and for female
students in picture two indicated respondents believed that the women do not look that attractive
in their basketball/soccer uniforms. This can be connected to the study of Harrison and Secarea
(2010) who found out that when participants looked at basketball players who were not
sexualized and wore their basketball uniforms, the athletes were seen as less feminine and
attractive.
When referring to the positive/negative/neutral frequencies tables of gender category
responses of performance athletes (Tables 4.15 and 4.16), none of the male students wrote a
positive response in the body shape/size theme for picture one (98% were neutral), and 20%
wrote a positive response for picture two (60% were neutral); three percent of female students
wrote a positive response (97% was neutral) in the body shape/size theme for picture one and
75% for picture two. While picture two had more positive mentions of the body shape/size
theme, the researcher can conclude that both male students and female students mostly have
neutral responses towards the body shape and size of a performance athlete. It can be noted that
the bodies of the performance athletes were mostly covered by their uniforms, so this could have
had an impact of the responses.
Sexualization of Female Athletes
134
When referring to the positive/negative/neutral frequencies tables of gender category
responses of performance athletes (Tables 4.15 and 4.16), 100% of the male students responses
were negative responses in the female ideal/male gaze theme for picture one, and this was also
the case for picture two; whereas, 54% of female students wrote a negative response in the
female ideal/male gaze theme for picture one and 64% for picture two. Both male and female
students have more negative responses towards this theme, which means that the researcher can
conclude that more female students are associating performance athletes with negative, physical
attributes (e.g. “manly,” “does not look like a woman to me”) than male students because they
mention that category more often, but the few male students that did mention this theme also
responded negatively. This supports Knight and Giuliano’s (2003) study, which concluded that
female athletes (in uniforms) are interpreted to be homosexual and not fitting the normative
(heterosexual) standard. The terms homosexual and “manly” are often associated with each
other and do not fit into the female ideal/male gaze standard.
When referring to the positive/negative/neutral frequencies tables of gender category
responses of performance athletes (Tables 4.15 and 4.16), 58% of male students wrote a positive
response in the emotional reaction theme for picture one and 58% for picture two, while 45% of
female students wrote a positive response in the emotional reaction theme for picture one (48%
were neutral) and 67% for picture two. The researcher can conclude that female students react
more emotionally towards pictures of performance athletes than male students, while both male
and female students are divided between positive and neutral responses. A possible reason why
female students react more emotionally towards the pictures of the performance athletes could
be because they get inspired by the way the women look like (muscular, toned, and in shape).
Most comments by female students in the emotional reaction theme were about how they want
Sexualization of Female Athletes
135
to get back in shape again and that these pictured inspired them to do so. This echoes Daniels’
(2012) findings that women and girls who took the performance athletes condition survey were
inspired by the photographs and were motivated to be more physically active.
When referring to the positive/negative/neutral frequencies tables of gender category
responses for performance athletes (Tables 4.15 and 4.16), 64% of male students wrote a
positive response in the describing emotions/motivation theme for picture one and 25% for
picture two (75% was neutral); whereas, 55% of female students wrote a positive response in the
describing emotions/motivation theme for picture one (43% of responses were neutral) and 28%
for picture two (72% of responses were neutral). Since both male and female students had about
the same percentage of positive and neutral responses, the researcher can conclude that both
groups were alike in describing the performance athletes’ mental state while engaging in their
sporting activities.
Hypothesis four. This hypothesis was tested using chi-square (χ 2 ) analysis, which is
presented in Table 4.51. There was significant difference found in the appearance (p<0.001),
weight (p=0.001), sexy (p=0.041), female ideal/male gaze (p=0.001), and emotional reaction
(p=0.014) themes. For appearance, 76.3% of male students wrote a narrative response, while
50.7% of female students did so. For the weight theme, 36.4% of male students wrote a narrative
response, while 56.3% of female students did. Only 22.5% of female students wrote a narrative
response for the theme sexy, while 33.9% of male students wrote a narrative response for this
theme. For female ideal/male gaze, 19.9% percent of male students wrote a narrative response,
while 34.5% of female students did so. As for the emotional reaction theme, 53.4% of the
narrative responses came from male students, and 68.3% of narrative responses came from
female students. The researcher can conclude that male students pay more attention to the
Sexualization of Female Athletes
136
appearance of sexualized models than female students. This is the same finding as for
performance athletes and sexualized athletes (H1, H2, and H3). Also, female students mention
the weight of a sexualized model more often than male students. This is an interesting finding as
it can be speculated that, because of the objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997),
women compare themselves with other women. Also Connor-Greene (1988) found that women
are strongly invested in their looks, and Sheldon (2010) concluded that when women look at
other women in the media and compare themselves, they tend to have a lower self-esteem.
Because of this, women might have mentioned the weight because the model was “too skinny”
for most of the respondents, which could have resulted in better self-esteem about their own
bodies. For the theme sexy the researcher can conclude that male students are more concerned
about how sexy or not sexy a sexualized model is because they commented more in that theme
than female students did. Just as in hypothesis three, female students commented more in the
female ideal/male gaze category (34.5%) than male students did (19.9%). It can be concluded
since the percentages were both higher in the sexualized models section, it is more important to
female students to mention the female ideal and male gaze category. Lastly, the researcher can
conclude that female students react more in an emotional way when looking at pictures of
sexualized models, which was also found in hypothesis three.
When referring to the positive/negative/neutral frequencies tables of gender category
responses of sexualized models (Tables 4.41 and 4.42), 88% of male students wrote a positive
response in the appearance theme for picture one and 93% for picture two, while 78% of female
students wrote a positive response in the appearance theme for picture one and 96% for picture
two. Both male students and female students tend to have more positive responses regarding the
appearance of sexualized models.
Sexualization of Female Athletes
137
With respect to the positive/negative/neutral frequencies tables of gender category
responses for sexualized models (Tables 4.41 and 4.42), 60% of male students wrote a negative
response in the weight theme for picture one (38% were neutral) and 36% for picture two (46%
was neutral), while 53% of female students wrote a negative response (47% were neutral) in the
weight theme for picture one and 32% for picture two (58% were neutral). The researcher can
conclude that both male students and female students mostly had negative responses towards the
weight of a sexualized model.
For the positive/negative/neutral frequencies tables of gender category responses of
sexualized models (Tables 4.41 and 4.42), 52% of the male students responses were negative
responses in the sexy theme for picture one (43% was positive), and 89% of responses were
positive in picture two; 45% of female students wrote a negative response in the sexy theme for
picture one (30% was positive), and 82% were neutral response for picture two. The responses of
both male and female students are distributed throughout positive, negative, and neutral
responses in pictures one and two.
When referring to the positive/negative/neutral frequencies tables of gender category
responses of sexualized models (Tables 4.41 and 4.42), 46% of male students wrote a neutral
response in the female ideal/male gaze theme for picture one (31% were negative), and 73%
wrote a positive response for picture two. Almost half (47%) of female students wrote a negative
response in the female ideal/male gaze theme for picture one (29% were positive), and 65% of
responses were positive responses for picture two. Since the positive/negative/neutral responses
are divided between both pictures, it can be concluded that there were a lot of different opinions.
It can be noted that some negative responses by female students in this theme were that both
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pictures show unrealistic bodies and that they did not want to look like that because they looked
“too fake.”
Lastly when referring to the positive/negative/neutral frequencies tables of gender
category responses for sexualized models (Tables 4.41 and 4.42), 70% of male students wrote a
neutral response in the emotional reaction theme for picture one and 44% for picture two (where
37% were neutral), while 52% of female students wrote a neutral response in the emotional
reaction theme for picture one (44% were negative), and 55% for picture two (30% were
negative). The responses of female students were also more negative than those of male students.
This can mean that female students feel more uncomfortable with their bodies when looking at
pictures of sexualized models. This finding can be connected to the study of Schooler and
Daniels (2014), who stated that girls who saw photos of sexualized women (athletes, non-
athletes) were more focused on their own bodies and reacted negatively toward pictures of the
models.
Summary of hypotheses two through four. Out of these three hypotheses that compared
male students versus female students towards the three conditions (sexualized athletes,
performance athletes, sexualized models), there were three most noticeable observations. First,
male students were more focused on appearance than female students were in all three
conditions, providing comments such as “she is extremely attractive” (sexualized athletes), “I
can see her muscles, which is attractive” (performance athletes), and “very beautiful woman”
(sexualized models). Secondly, female students reacted more emotionally towards the two
photos per condition (performance athletes and sexualized models); examples are “this
photograph makes me feel competitive and willing to try the game” (performance athletes) and
“the photograph makes me feel like I’m fat compared to the lady in the picture” (sexualized
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139
models). Finally, female students are more aware of the female ideal/male gaze topic because of
the objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997) and the way media has such a big
impact on their body and self-esteem. This can be seen in their comments such as “this woman is
posed in a very sexual manner. The way she is posed symbolizes submission. The image is very
provocative and aiming to promote no athletic abilities” (sexualized athletes), “makes women
look strong and confident. Somewhat manly attire” (performance athletes), “good looking
woman on the beach would appeal to straight males” (sexualized models).
Hypothesis five. This hypothesis was tested using chi-square (χ 2 ) analysis, which is
presented in Table 4.52. There was a significant difference found in the female ideal/male gaze
(p=0.048) theme. In this theme, 18.6% of female non-athletes responded, and 35.1% percent of
female athletes responded. The researcher can conclude that female athletes are more aware of
the female ideal/male gaze towards sexualized athletes.
When observing the positive/negative/neutral frequencies between female athletes and
non-athletes (Tables 4.27 and 4.28), female athletes and female non-athletes had the exact same
negative responses (44%), as well as positive responses (33%), and neutral responses (23%) in
picture one. For picture two, female non-athletes had more negative responses (50%) towards the
female ideal/male gaze theme than female athletes (14%). An explanation for this finding could
be that female athletes see the athletic bodies of the sexualized athletes more as ideal rather than
negative because they are athletes as well. Because of this, female athletes accept muscular
women more often because they understand these muscles are necessary for playing sports. For a
woman to have muscles contradicts the ideal body type that is so popular in American culture
(Krane et al., 2004; Steinfeldt et al., 2011). This can explain why female non-athletes responded
more negatively towards the sexualized athletes photos. Daniels (2012) found out that women
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and girls believed that the bodies of the sexualized athletes looked more like the ideal bodies
than of the other two conditions. An example of one of the responses of female athletes was “I
wish my body looked like this,” which can be concluded that female athletes strive more for a
body like the one in the pictures of the sexualized athletes.
Hypothesis six. This hypothesis was tested using chi-square (χ 2 ) analysis, which is
presented in Table 4.53. There was a significant difference found in the play-by-play/at the game
(p=0.005) theme. More female non-athletes’ responses were categorized in this theme (67.3%)
than female athletes’ responses (41%). This is a very interesting finding because women’s sports
are barely covered compared to men’s sports (Adams & Tuggle, 2004; Eastman & Billings,
2000). It is likely that female athletes watch more women’s sports in support of their fellow
competitors and as a matter of personal interest than do female non-athletes, who may simply
watch what is more readily available and popularized (i.e., men’s sports competitions); however,
the findings show the opposite. This finding can be connected to Daniels and Wartena’s (2011)
study who found out that big names (in this study this would be Elena Delle Donne and Tobin
Heath) in professional leagues (e.g. WNBA) raised the social change in the past years and may
have helped female non-athletes see female athletes without being involved in sports, just as
boys in their study saw female performance athletes in the media as well.
When observing the positive/negative/neutral frequencies of both female athletes and
female non-athletes regarding performance athletes (Tables 4.13 and 4.14), both female athletes
and female non-athletes have close percentages for both pictures. For female athletes, 64% of
responses in the play-by-play/at the game category were positive (36% were neutral) for picture
one, while 30% of female athletes’ responses were positive (70% were neutral) for picture two.
For female non-athletes, 66% of responses in the same category were positive (34% neutral) for
Sexualization of Female Athletes
141
picture one, while 28% of responses were positive (72% neutral) for picture two. This is also an
interesting finding because although female non-athletes mentioned play-by-play/at the game
more often than female athletes, both female athletes and non-athletes have about the same
opinion towards this theme. Since none of the responses of female athletes and female non-
athletes were negative in the play-by-play/at the game theme and since this theme was one of the
themes mentioned the most in the performance athletes condition, it can be speculated that
showing more female athletes performing their sports can help raise better awareness of
women’s sports in general. This is also supported by the studies of Daniels (2009; 2012) and
Daniels and Wartena (2011).
Hypothesis seven. This hypothesis was tested using chi-square (χ 2 ) analysis, which is
presented in Table 4.54. There was a significant difference found in the physicality (p=0.004)
theme. The responses of female athletes were significantly higher (35%) in this theme than the
responses of female non-athletes (13.7%). The researcher can conclude that female athletes pay
more attention to the physicality of a sexualized model than female non-athletes. Most responses
in this theme were in the tone of the sexualized models not looking like athletes at all and that
they did not have any muscles. Because of this, it makes sense that female athletes had more
responses in this theme than female non-athletes.
As for the positive/negative/neutral responses of both female athletes and female non-
athletes regarding sexualized models (Tables 4.39 and 4.40), it can be observed that the narrative
responses of female athletes in the physicality theme of sexualized athletes were 44% negative
(56% were neutral) in picture one, but surprisingly, 25% of narrative responses in picture two
were positive (75% neutral). As for female non-athletes, 35% of narrative responses were
negative (54% were neutral) for picture one, while the responses were more divided in picture
Sexualization of Female Athletes
142
two (25% positive, 25% negative, and 50% neutral). It can be noted that some of the negative
responses in the phsyicality theme had to do with the women “not looking like athletes,” and not
having the ideal body (Daniels & Wartena, 2011; Daniels, 2012). These frequencies also help
explain why female athletes mentioned the physicality theme more often than female non-
athletes because it can be assumed that female athletes are more aware of how the bodies of
professional athletes normally look like.
Summary of hypotheses five through seven. Out of these hypotheses that compared
female student-athletes versus female non-athletes towards the three conditions (sexualized
athletes, performance athletes, sexualized models), there were three most noticeable
observations. First, female student-athletes are more aware of female ideal/male gaze towards the
pictures of the sexualized athletes and believe that the bodies of female athletes are more ideal.
Examples of comments include “she gives off a sexual appeal. Very seductive. Her outfit and
hair color fit the general stereotype” and “this photo makes me feel like all women that play
basketball should like this woman. She is not super fit but fit enough to be considered ‘sexy.’”
Secondly, female non-athletes responded more in the play-by-play/at the game theme in the
performance athletes condition (with comments including “the player seems as if she is going to
try to make the winning goal” and “I think she looks ready to make a shot”), which is very
unusual when it was expected that female athletes would comment more in this theme because
they watch more female sports than non-athletes do. Finally, female athletes responded more in
the physicality theme on the sexualized models photographs (as seen in comments such as “she
doesn’t have much muscle” and “she does lack muscular build and has very small shoulders”).
This was expected because of the assumption that female athletes believe that the bodies of
female athletes are more realistic than sexualized models.
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143
Hypothesis eight. This hypothesis was tested using chi-square (χ 2 ) analysis, which is
presented in Table 4.55. There was a significant difference found in the gender marking
(p=0.021) theme. Of the narrative responses, 46.4% of male non-athletes’ responses were
categorized in the gender marking theme, while only 26.8% of male athletes’ responses were
categorized in that theme. The researcher found this interesting, as it was concluded that male
athletes have a tendency to disconnect gender and the sexualized athlete, although these women
are displaying themselves in highly sexualized manner, as compared to their presentations of
themselves while engaged in their respective sports.
As for the positive/negative/neutral frequency responses of the theme gender marking for
sexualized athletes (Tables 4.25 and 4.26), 100% of narrative responses of male athletes were
neutral for picture one, while 54% of picture two were neutral (33% negative, 13% positive). For
the narrative responses of male non-athletes for picture one, 67% were neutral and 33% were
negative. For picture two the positive/negative/neutral responses were 52% neutral, 44%
negative, and 4% positive. Because of these frequencies, it can be concluded that there is not a
lot of difference between male athletes’ and male non-athletes’ positive, negative, and neutral
responses.
Hypothesis nine. This hypothesis was tested using chi-square (χ 2 ) analysis, which is
presented in Table 4.56. There was a significant difference found in the appearance (p=0.036)
theme, sexy (p=0.031) theme, and the emotional reaction (p=0.015) theme. For appearance,
30.9% of male non-athletes wrote a narrative response in this category, while 50% of male
athletes did so. As for the sexy theme, none of the narrative responses of male non-athletes were
categorized in this theme, but 8.1% of male athletes’ narrative responses were categorized in this
theme. For the emotional reaction theme, 43.6% of male non-athletes’ narrative responses fell
Sexualization of Female Athletes
144
into this category, while not even one-fourth (22.6%) of male athletes’ narrative responses were
categorized in this theme. From these findings, it can be concluded that male athletes pay more
attention to the appearance of performance athletes, as well look at the “sexiness” of
performance athletes, but expressed less emotions towards performance athletes than male non-
athletes.
Tables 4.11 and 4.12 display the positive/negative/neutral responses regarding male
athletes and male non-athletes for the performance athletes condition. When examining the
appearance theme, male athletes had mostly positive responses (56%) for picture one and mostly
positive responses (78%) for picture two as well. These results were the same for male non-
athletes (50% positive in picture one and 82% positive in picture two). Because of this finding, it
can be concluded that both male athletes and male non-athletes mostly are positive about the
appearance of the two performance athletes.
For the sexy theme, interestedly, male athletes had more negative responses towards
picture one (75%) than picture two (33%). Male athletes thought the second picture was more
“sexy” than the first picture. This is mainly because the male athletes who participated in this
study thought that the more muscular athlete (picture two) was more sexy than the less muscular
athlete (picture one). Male non-athletes did not respond in this theme, so it can be concluded that
male non-athletes do not find performance athletes sexy.
As for the positive/negative/neutral responses of the emotional reaction theme, male non-
athletes had more positive responses (78%) for picture one than picture two (33%) towards
performance athletes. For male athletes, picture one and two are more equally divided (40%
positive, 50% neutral, 10% negative for picture one and 55% positive, 18% neutral, 27%
negative for picture two). It is plausible that between male athletes and male non-athletes, the
Sexualization of Female Athletes
145
athletes would have a stronger reaction to the pictures of female performance athletes because
they can identify with the athletes in the photos.
Hypothesis 10. This hypothesis was tested using chi-square (χ 2 ) analysis, which is
presented in Table 4.57. There was a significant difference found in the female ideal/male gaze
(p=0.014) theme. For the sexualized models condition, 25.4% of male non-athletes had a
response categorized in the female ideal/male gaze theme, while only 8.5% of male athletes did
so. This is an interesting finding, and it might have a connection with male athletes viewing
sexualized models as the less ideal woman than male non-athletes because male athletes find
sexualized athletes more attractive since they are muscular and can identify with their
athleticism. When comparing the responses of male athletes in the sexualized athletes and
sexualized models conditions, male athletes found the sexualized athletes more attractive and
appealing because they were not too skinny and were toned.
When referring to the positive/negative/neutral frequencies regarding sexualized models
(Tables 4.37 and 4.38), male athletes were mostly neutral (75%) towards the first picture, but
100% were positive responses in picture two. As for male non-athletes, the responses were very
close for all three frequencies for picture one (33% positive, 34% neutral, and 33% negative), but
were more positive (67%) in picture two. It can be concluded that both male athletes and male
non-athletes saw the second sexualized model as the more ideal woman than the first woman.
Summary of hypotheses eight through 10. Out of these hypotheses that compared male
student-athletes versus male non-athletes towards the three conditions (sexualized athletes,
performance athletes, sexualized models), there were five noticeable observations. First male
non-athletes responded more in the gender marking theme than male student-athletes in the
sexualized athletes condition (as seen in comments such as “this photograph shows a woman in a
Sexualization of Female Athletes
146
bathing suit”), and more research should be conducted on why this occurred. Next, male student-
athletes thought that the appearance of the performance athletes was more important than male
non-athletes, and some examples of statements include “the woman is very beautiful” and “the
woman looks very athletic. The woman looks very strong. She looks pretty”. Third, male non-
athletes did not find the performance athletes “sexy” because there were no responses. Male
non-athletes expressed more emotions towards the performance athletes pictures than male
student-athletes (as evidenced statements like “it makes me intrigued about the game she is a part
of” and “basketball is the best sport there is so this photo makes me excited”), which is
interesting because it was expected that male student-athletes expressed more emotions towards
these pictures because they are athletes as well and identify with them. Finally male non-athletes
commented more in the female ideal/male gaze theme (as seen in comments including “I feel
that she portrays beautiful qualities” and “she has a body that many women crave for. She is the
type of woman many men want to date for a long time”), which can mean male non-athletes
portrayed the sexualized models as more ideal women and that male athletes believed that
sexualized models are not the ideal women because they identified more with the sexualized
athletes because of them being athletes as well.
Hypothesis 11. This hypothesis was tested using chi-square (χ 2 ) analysis, which is
presented in Table 4.58. There was a significant difference found in the weight (p=0.013) theme.
For the sexualized athletes condition, 5.6% of freshmen, 11.3% of sophomores, 4.8% of juniors,
16.4% of seniors, and 37.5% of graduate students had a response categorized in the weight
theme. Reasons that graduate students might have commented more on this theme are because
there were few graduate students who responded and perhaps being slightly older and more
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mature than the majority of undergraduate students could have led to more awareness of how
“skinny” these female athletes are.
When observing the positive/negative/neutral responses of all academic years, it can be
noted that graduate students were the only academic year that had all neutral responses for both
pictures. Juniors did not respond at all regarding the weight of the sexualized athlete in picture
two, but two-thirds (67%) of responses in picture one were negative. Seniors were mostly neutral
(88%) in picture one but split the percentages between positive and neutral (both 50%) for
picture two. Sophomores were dominant in the neutral responses (80%) for picture one, but they
were 100% negative in picture two. Lastly, freshmen were 33% positive (67% neutral) in picture
one but were 50% negative (50% neutral) for picture two. Since all these rated responses are
divided between academic years and both pictures, the only thing that can be concluded is that
different students in different academic years have diverse opinions.
Hypothesis 12. This hypothesis was tested using chi-square (χ 2 ) analysis, which is
presented in Table 4.59. There was no significant difference found in any of the themes in the
performance athletes condition. Because of this, the researcher can conclude that there is no
connection between the perceptions of different academic years in college on the sexualization of
performance female athletes.
Hypothesis 13. This hypothesis was tested using chi-square (χ 2 ) analysis, which is
presented in Table 4.60. There was no significant difference found in any of the themes in the
sexualized models condition. Because of this, the researcher can conclude that there is no
connection between the perceptions of different academic years in college on the sexualization of
female athletes. One of the reasons why there was no significant difference found in hypothesis
12 and 13 is because a majority of the participants (N=715) were between the ages 18-24. If
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148
exact ages were recorded, rather than age categories, significant difference may have been found.
All traditional college students, entering college immediately following high school graduation,
should fall within the 18-22 year age range. Obviously it cannot be concluded that all freshman
are 18-19, sophomores 19-20, and so forth, and this may be a major issue with the respondents to
this study, since the university in question has a large percentage of non-traditional students (The
University of North Carolina at Pembroke, 2015b).
Summary of hypotheses 11 through 13. Out of these hypotheses that compared all
academic years (freshmen, sophomores, juniors, seniors, and graduate students) towards the
three conditions (sexualized athletes, performance athletes, sexualized models), two noticeable
observations are that graduate students commented more on the weight theme in the sexualized
athletes condition, and there is no connection between the perceptions of different academic
years in college towards the sexualization of performance athletes and sexualized models. An
explanation for the graduate students’ weight comments may be, as stated before, that there were
not many graduate students who participated in this study (only two out of eight had a response
in the weight theme), that they were perhaps more mature than undergraduate students, and that
they were more aware that the sexualized athletes are skinny in the pictures. The two comments
from graduate students were “she is skinny and very tan” and “this image makes it seem that you
do not have to be skin and bones to wear a bikini.”
Conclusion. When taken together, the results of hypothesis testing reveal the following
general trends within the study population. Student-athletes are more aware of the appearance of
sexualized athletes than non-athletes, which means that student-athletes found the appearance
more important than non-athletes. In addition, male students focused more on the appearance of
sexualized athletes, performance athletes, and sexualized models than female students, which
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149
means that male students think that appearance is very important. In addition, male athletes were
more concerned about the appearance of performance athletes than male non-athletes.
All female students shared the following characteristics. They showed more emotions
towards all conditions than male students, probably because they felt more connected to the
women because they were women as well. Additionally, both female students and female
athletes were more aware of the female ideal and male gaze towards the women because of the
objectification theory (Fredrickson & Robert, 1997). Female non-athletes described the actions
of the performance athletes more than female student-athletes, which is very interesting because
female athletes should be more connected to the performance athletes because they are athletes
as well. Female athletes found the physicality of the sexualized models more important than
female non-athletes because they were aware that these models do not look like athletes and are
not muscular at all.
Male non-athletes did not find the women in the photos of the performance athletes
condition sexy as male athletes did. Male athletes did find that sexualized models were not as
attractive as sexualized athletes as male athletes commented more in the female ideal/male gaze
theme in the sexualized athletes Male athletes were more concerned about the appearance of
performance athletes than male non-athletes version.
Lastly, academic year did not have any effect on the perceptions of all three conditions
(performance athletes, sexualized athletes, and sexualized models).
When considered as a whole, two major conclusions can be drawn from this study. First,
female athletes should be presented as athletes rather than sex symbols because their presentation
does affect viewers. Male viewers tend to look at a woman’s appearance (according to the
findings of the study), and how a woman is presented may affect how seriously she is taken as an
Sexualization of Female Athletes
150
athlete. For female viewers, the objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997) may lead
women to judge themselves particularly harshly based on the physiques of the athletes. Second,
based on the perceptions of male and female respondents, female athletes should protect their
images more in public portrayal. This, however, could be a problem for female athletes, since the
majority of them have modeling endorsements requiring them to wear revealing clothing. If they
cease to use their bodies to sell products, they will lose money. While this thesis has shed light
on problems in media portrayal of female athletes, it can offer no resolutions.
Recommendations
For future research on this topic, different age groups can be studied. Instead of college
students or adolescent boys and girls (Daniels & Wartena, 2013; Daniels, 2012; Daniels, 2009),
future research on middle aged people or even senior citizens could provide more literature on
the importance of the sexualization of female athletes. Research done on these people could
indicate a difference between before the enactment of Title IX in 1972 and after the enactment of
this law. What also can provide more literature towards this topic is to conduct it at universities
with different ethnicities than the university used in this study. Since the university was
originally a university designed for Native American Indians, it would be interesting to find
different results at a Historically Black College/University. When speaking about conducting
studies at other universities, the university used in this study was a public university; future
research at a private university might be interesting to find out if there are differences between
public and private universities towards the sexualization of female athletes. Also, since this
institution was a Division II university, future research could be conducted at other division
schools (Division I, III, NAIA) to see if there is a connection between the three NCAA division
levels and NAIA schools. One last thing future researchers can experiment with is, when using
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three different conditions (e.g. performance athletes, sexualized athletes, sexualized models),
having all three conditions in the same version of the survey. This way each participant will be
exposed to all three conditions. This could result in more varied responses.
Actions that should be taken if future research were to be done on this topic are in
keeping with the recommendation of Daniels and Wartena (2011) that the pictures of sexualized
athletes and performance athletes feature the same athletes in both conditions. This might give
more accurate responses because both conditions have the same athletes, just different
conditions. If more time is allotted than two semesters, future researchers should conduct a chi-
square (χ 2 ) analysis as well on the positive/negative/neutral responses. This will help connect the
theme occurrences and positive/negative/neutral responses together. Another action that should
be taken is when future researchers want to find out if age can be a significant difference
between respondents, to have participants fill out their age rather than choosing from categories
(e.g. between the age of 18-24, 25-34, 35-44 etc.). When the ages of participants are more
specific, there might be a difference between ages on the perceptions of sexualized athletes. The
last recommendation the researcher suggest is to have hypotheses between male and female
students in all three conditions instead of only sexualized athletes.
Running Head: Sexualization of Female Athletes
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Appendix A
Survey Version A
Welcome to the survey Perceptions of College Students on the Sexualization of Female Athletes.
This will help to expand the current research on the sexualization of female athletes. The survey
will be conducted and administered by Elke Groothuis as part of the requirements for the
completion of the graduate program in physical education, exercise sports administration at the
University of North Carolina at Pembroke. The survey is available on Qualtrics, which is an
online survey tool that makes sure your responses will be anonymous. The survey should take
less than 15 minutes to complete, but more time is allotted if you need it. All you need to
complete the survey is a laptop, tablet, smartphone, or another electronic device that can connect
to the internet. If you don’t have one of those, a device will be given to you to complete the
survey. Remember, you can stop the survey at any time if you don’t want to participate anymore.
Directions:
The survey contains 10 questions. The very first question will ask you if you are under the age of
18 years. If you are, you are not permitted to take the survey. The second question asks to click
yes if you agree with the informed consent and want to continue take the survey. The third
question will ask you to click on the version of the study. There will be only one answer, so click
that answer choice (A, B, or C depending on what version you have). The next five questions are
demographic questions where you can select answers that apply to you. Then one question will
ask about your sports background. The last two questions will ask you to share your thoughts
about the woman in the picture and explain how the photograph makes you feel. Make sure to
describe the woman’s appearance rather than write about what she is doing. Some examples of
sentences describing the woman could be, “She looks very athletic,” or “She looks sexy.”
Another example could be, “She is skinny,” or “She is very attractive.” An example of how the
photograph makes you feel can be, “She makes me proud because …,” or, “This photograph
makes me happy because….” Another example could be “This photograph makes me upset
because …” You can write whatever is on your mind while looking at the photograph. All
questions have to be answered in order to submit the survey. Please answer all the questions as
honestly as possible, since your responses will be anonymous. Thank you again for participating
in this study! If you would like to know the results after the study is completed, feel free to
contact me at [email protected].
Are you under the age of 18 years?
Yes (1)
No (2)
Sexualization of Female Athletes
165
By clicking YES, I agree with the Informed Consent.
Yes (1)
No (2)
Q1 Version (please click A to proceed).
A (1)
Q2 What is your sex?
Male (1)
Female (2)
Q3 How old are you?
18-24 years old (1)
25-34 years old (2)
35-44 years old (3)
45-54 years old (4)
55 years or older (5)
Q4 What is your academic level?
Freshman (1)
Sophomore (2)
Junior (3)
Senior (4)
Graduate student (5)
Q5 What is your ethnic background? Please choose the response with which you identify.
Asian American/ Pacific Islander/Chicano/Latino (1)
Black/African American (2)
Native American (American Indian) (3)
White/ European American (4)
Other (5)
Sexualization of Female Athletes
166
Q6 Do you belong to an organized sports team?
No (1)
College Varsity Team (2)
Intramural team (3)
Religious organization team (4)
Parks and Recreation Department team (5)
Other (6)
Sexualization of Female Athletes
167
Q7 Directions: After looking at this photograph. Please write one paragraph (at least 3
sentences), describing the woman in the photograph and discussing how this photograph makes
you feel.
Photograph 1 Paragraph:
Sexualization of Female Athletes
168
Q8 Directions: After looking at this photograph. Please write one paragraph (at least 3
sentences), describing the woman in the photograph and discussing how this photograph makes
you feel.
Photograph 2 Paragraph:
Sexualization of Female Athletes
169
Appendix B
Survey Version B
Welcome to the survey Perceptions of College Students on the Sexualization of Female Athletes.
This will help to expand the current research on the sexualization of female athletes. The survey
will be conducted and administered by Elke Groothuis as part of the requirements for the
completion of the graduate program in physical education, exercise sports administration at the
University of North Carolina at Pembroke. The survey is available on Qualtrics, which is an
online survey tool that makes sure your responses will be anonymous. The survey should take
less than 15 minutes to complete, but more time is allotted if you need it. All you need to
complete the survey is a laptop, tablet, smartphone, or another electronic device that can connect
to the Internet. If you don’t have one of those, a device will be given to you to complete the
survey. Remember, you can stop the survey at any time if you don’t want to participate anymore.
Directions:
The survey contains 10 questions. The very first question will ask you if you are under the age of
18 years. If you are, you are not permitted to take the survey. The second question asks to click
yes if you agree with the informed consent and want to continue take the survey. The third
question will ask you to click on the version of the study. There will be only one answer, so click
that answer choice (A, B, or C depending on what version you have). The next five questions are
demographic questions where you can select answers that apply to you. Then one question will
ask about your sports background. The last two questions will ask you to share your thoughts
about the woman in the picture and explain how the photograph makes you feel. Make sure to
describe the woman’s appearance rather than write about what she is doing. Some examples of
sentences describing the woman could be, “She looks very athletic,” or “She looks sexy.”
Another example could be, “She is skinny,” or “She is very attractive.” An example of how the
photograph makes you feel can be, “She makes me proud because …,” or, “This photograph
makes me happy because….” Another example could be “This photograph makes me upset
because …” You can write whatever is on your mind while looking at the photograph. All
questions have to be answered in order to submit the survey. Please answer all the questions as
honestly as possible, since your responses will be anonymous. Thank you again for participating
in this study! If you would like to know the results after the study is completed, feel free to
contact me at [email protected].
Are you under the age of 18 years?
Yes (1)
No (2)
Sexualization of Female Athletes
170
By clicking YES, I agree with the Informed Consent.
Yes (1)
No (2)
Q1 Version (please click B to proceed).
B (1)
Q2 What is your sex?
Male (1)
Female (2)
Q3 How old are you?
18-24 years old (1)
25-34 years old (2)
35-44 years old (3)
45-54 years old (4)
55 years or older (5)
Q6 What is your academic level?
Freshman (1)
Sophomore (2)
Junior (3)
Senior (4)
Graduate student (5)
Q7 What is your ethnic background? Please choose the response with which you identify.
Asian American/ Pacific Islander/Chicano/Latino (1)
Black/African American (2)
Native American (American Indian) (3)
White/ European American (4)
Other (5)
Sexualization of Female Athletes
171
Q8 Do you belong to an organized sports team?
No (1)
College Varsity Team (2)
Intramural team (3)
Religious organization team (4)
Parks and Recreation Department team (5)
Other (6)
Sexualization of Female Athletes
172
Q9 Directions: After looking at this photograph. Please write one paragraph (at least 3
sentences), describing the woman in the photograph and discussing how this photograph makes
you feel.
Photograph 1 Paragraph:
Sexualization of Female Athletes
173
Q10 Directions: After looking at this photograph. Please write one paragraph (at least 3
sentences), describing the woman in the photograph and discussing how this photograph makes
you feel.
Photograph 2 Paragraph:
Sexualization of Female Athletes
174
Appendix C
Survey Version C
Welcome to the survey Perceptions of College Students on the Sexualization of Female Athletes.
This will help to expand the current research on the sexualization of female athletes. The survey
will be conducted and administered by Elke Groothuis as part of the requirements for the
completion of the graduate program in physical education, exercise sports administration at the
University of North Carolina at Pembroke. The survey is available on Qualtrics, which is an
online survey tool that makes sure your responses will be anonymous. The survey should take
less than 15 minutes to complete, but more time is allotted if you need it. All you need to
complete the survey is a laptop, tablet, smartphone, or another electronic device that can connect
to the Internet. If you don’t have one of those, a device will be given to you to complete the
survey. Remember, you can stop the survey at any time if you don’t want to participate anymore.
Directions:
The survey contains 10 questions. The very first question will ask you if you are under the age of
18 years. If you are, you are not permitted to take the survey. The second question asks to click
yes if you agree with the informed consent and want to continue take the survey. The third
question will ask you to click on the version of the study. There will be only one answer, so click
that answer choice (A, B, or C depending on what version you have). The next five questions are
demographic questions where you can select answers that apply to you. Then one question will
ask about your sports background. The last two questions will ask you to share your thoughts
about the woman in the picture and explain how the photograph makes you feel. Make sure to
describe the woman’s appearance rather than write about what she is doing. Some examples of
sentences describing the woman could be, “She looks very athletic,” or “She looks sexy.”
Another example could be, “She is skinny,” or “She is very attractive.” An example of how the
photograph makes you feel can be, “She makes me proud because …,” or, “This photograph
makes me happy because….” Another example could be “This photograph makes me upset
because …” You can write whatever is on your mind while looking at the photograph. All
questions have to be answered in order to submit the survey. Please answer all the questions as
honestly as possible, since your responses will be anonymous. Thank you again for participating
in this study! If you would like to know the results after the study is completed, feel free to
contact me at [email protected].
Are you under the age of 18 years?
Yes (1)
No (2)
Sexualization of Female Athletes
175
By clicking YES, I agree with the Informed Consent.
Yes (1)
No (2)
Q1 Version (please click C to proceed).
C (1)
Q2 What is your sex?
Male (1)
Female (2)
Q3 How old are you?
18-24 years old (1)
25-34 years old (2)
35-44 years old (3)
45-54 years old (4)
55 years or older (5)
Q4 What is your academic level?
Freshman (1)
Sophomore (2)
Junior (3)
Senior (4)
Graduate student (5)
Q5 What is your ethnic background? Please choose the response with which you identify.
Asian American/ Pacific Islander/Chicano/Latino (1)
Black/African American (2)
Native American (American Indian) (3)
White/ European American (4)
Other (5)
Sexualization of Female Athletes
176
Q6 Do you belong to an organized sports team?
No (1)
College Varsity Team (2)
Intramural team (3)
Religious organization team (4)
Parks and Recreation Department team (5)
Other (6)
Sexualization of Female Athletes
177
Q7 Directions: After looking at this photograph. Please write one paragraph (at least 3
sentences), describing the woman in the photograph and discussing how this photograph makes
you feel.
Photograph 1 Paragraph:
Sexualization of Female Athletes
178
Q8 Directions: After looking at this photograph. Please write one paragraph (at least 3
sentences), describing the woman in the photograph and discussing how this photograph makes
you feel.
Photograph 2 Paragraph:
Sexualization of Female Athletes
179
Appendix D
Permission E-mail to Coaches/Professors
Dear Coach/Professor,
My name is Elke Groothuis, and I am a graduate student in the Physical Education,
Exercise/Sports Administration program at the University of North Carolina at Pembroke. In
order to complete my master’s degree, I have to conduct a capstone research study. The study is
named Perceptions of College Students on the Sexualization of Female Athletes. The study will
investigate the difference in how select subgroups of college students perceive images of female
athletes and female media models.
I am asking for permission to invite your athletes/students to participate in the study by
completing an online survey. The survey should take less than 15 minutes to complete and will
be administered in a full group classroom setting. I would like to identify a convenient date and
time to meet with the athletes/students during one of your study halls/meetings/classes.
An informed consent form along with directions for the survey are attached to this e-mail for
your consideration. If you agree to allow your students/athletes to participate in the study, I will
send a follow up email to them with an active link to the online survey. Participation is
voluntary and the survey is anonymous.
My faculty mentor is Dr. Marian Wooten, an associate professor in the HPER department at
UNC Pembroke. She will supervise and assist me with my research. The results of this study
may contribute to the existing literature regarding the sexualization of female athletes.
Please let me know if you agree to allow your athletes/students to participate in this study by
email response. If you agree, a follow up e-mail will be sent to you shortly to schedule an
appointment date and time to administer the 15-minute survey in your class/meeting time.
Thank you so much for your time, and I hope to hear from you soon.
Sincerely,
Elke Groothuis
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Appendix E
Informed Consent
If you are under the age of 18 years, you will NOT be permitted to participate in this study,
as parental consent is required for minors.
Informed Consent – 15-11-008
What is the purpose of this study?
The purpose of the study is to examine the perceptions of college students regarding the
sexualization of female athletes. Many studies have shown that female athletes are often seen as
sex objects rather than athletes. This means that the appearance of female athletes is considered
more important than their athleticism.
Why have I been asked to participate in this study?
You have been selected to participate in this study because you are a college student who can
provide insight into this research topic.
How do I take the survey and how long will it take?
The survey will be available for completion online only, which means it is necessary for you to
bring an electronic device with you. If you do not have an electronic device (smartphone, tablet,
laptop), there will be extra devices available for use. The survey should take less than 15 minutes
to complete. The lead researcher will not leave until everyone has completed the survey.
By agreeing to take this survey, will my name/information be made public?
No, your name and information will NEVER be made public. In fact, the lead researcher will not
even know who specifically took the survey. To ensure your privacy even more, the lead
researcher will not view any data until all responses have been collected.
Are there any risks of getting hurt while taking this survey?
There are three versions of this survey, and you will be randomly assigned a version. In two of
these versions, you will view images of women in bikinis. While all women are clothed, you
may see some excessive skin in the images. The lead researcher and a member of the research
team have attempted to select photos that are no more offensive than images seen in a PG movie.
If you feel uncomfortable at any point while taking the survey, you may stop and exit the survey.
There will be no adverse consequences for ceasing to take the survey. If after taking the survey
you feel the need to speak with someone about your experience, you can contact UNC
Pembroke’s Counseling and Psychological Services at (910) 521-6202.
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Will I get paid for taking this survey?
No, you will not be paid for taking this survey.
What are the benefits of me taking this survey?
There are no direct benefits for you, but you will be contributing to the research currently
available on this topic, which will greatly benefit the research community.
How will my private information be protected?
Your name and private information will NEVER be made public or associated with your
responses in any way, before, during, or after the study’s completion. Your responses will be
collected along with the responses of all other participants, but NONE of your identifying
information will be collected.
Do I have rights as a participant?
Absolutely! Your participation in this study is completely voluntary, which means you don’t
have to take the survey if you don’t want to. Also, during the survey you can stop and exit at any
time. The Institutional Review Board (IRB) at UNC Pembroke protects you and your rights as a
participant. If you ever have questions about any of your rights as a participant, you can contact
the chair of the IRB at (910) 775-4273.
If you have any more questions about the study or survey itself, you can always contact Elke
Groothuis at [email protected], or you can contact Dr. Wooten at
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Appendix F
Reminder Permission E-mail to Coaches/Professors
Dear Coach/Professor,
This is just a friendly reminder that I would like to include your athletes/students in my capstone
study. I understand you must be very busy, but your response will only take a moment of your
time.
My name is Elke Groothuis, and I am a graduate student in the Physical Education,
Exercise/Sports Administration program at the University of North Carolina at Pembroke. In
order to complete my master’s degree, I have to conduct a capstone research study. The study is
named Perceptions of College Students on the Sexualization of Female Athletes. The study will
investigate the difference in how select subgroups of college students perceive images of female
athletes and female media models.
I am asking for permission to invite your athletes/students to participate in the study by
completing an online survey. The survey should take less than 15 minutes to complete and can
will be administered in a full group classroom setting. I would like to identify a convenient date
and time to meet with the athletes/students during one of your study halls/meetings/classes.
An informed consent form along with directions for the survey are attached to this e-mail for
your consideration. If you agree to allow your students/athletes to participate in the study, I will
send a follow up email to them with an active link to the online survey. Participation is
voluntary and the survey is anonymous.
My faculty mentor is Dr. Marian Wooten, an associate professor in the HPER department at
UNC Pembroke. She will supervise and assist me with my research. The results of this study
may contribute to the existing literature regarding the sexualization of female athletes.
Please let me know if you agree to allow your athletes/students to participate in this study by
email response. If you agree, a follow up e-mail will be sent to you shortly to schedule an
appointment date and time to administer the 15-minute survey in your class/meeting time.
Thank you so much for your time, and I hope to hear from you soon.
Sincerely,
Elke Groothuis
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Appendix G
Appointment E-mail
Dear Coach/Professor,
Thank you so much for allowing me to invite your athletes/students to participate in my study. I
assume that you have already read the informed consent and directions to see what your students
will be doing. If not, I have attached a copy of both documents to this e-mail.
I would like to schedule a convenient date and time to meet with your full class or team to
administer the survey.
Two to three days before the scheduled meeting, I will send you an e-mail with the information
that is necessary for your athletes/students. It will include an informed consent form and
directions to the survey. Would you be so kind to forward that e-mail to all of your
athletes/students? Please ask them to read this before we meet. This will speed up the process of
the day of our scheduled appointment.
The e-mail will also inform the students that they need to bring an electronic device (laptop,
tablet, or smartphone) to the meeting/study hall/classroom. If they don’t have an electronic
device available, one will be provided. I would appreciate it if you remind your athletes/students
as well.
A few minutes before our scheduled appointment, I will send you an email with a link to the
survey. I would like for you to forward that e-mail to your athletes/students as soon as you will
get the e-mail.
Thanks again and I hope to hear from you soon!
Sincerely,
Elke Groothuis
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Appendix H
E-mail to Coaches/Professors
Dear Coach/Professor,
Our scheduled appointment is this week (date and time). As promised, in the attachments of this
e-mail is all the information your athletes/students need (informed consent materials and survey
directions).
Please copy and paste the introduction below and forward this e-mail with the attachments
included to all your athletes/students with the introduction pasted.
Also, be sure to remind your athletes that they need to bring an electronic device (laptop, tablet,
smartphone) to the appointment. If they don't have an electronic device, I will have a laptop and
phone available.
I will e-mail/text you the link of the survey on (date and time).
Thanks again for your time!
Sincerely,
Elke Groothuis
______________________________________________________
Dear student/student-athlete,
You are invited to participate in a research study and share your thoughts in response to viewing
images of female athletes and female media models. I have been granted permission from your
coach/professor to contact you and invite you to participate in the study.
You don’t have to do anything now. This is just an e-mail to inform you that I will be attending
one of your meetings/study halls/classes where I will be administering the survey.
My name is Elke Groothuis, and I am a graduate student in the Physical Education,
Exercise/Sports Administration program at the University of North Carolina at Pembroke. In
order to complete my master’s degree, I have to conduct a capstone research study. The study is
named Perceptions of College Students on the Sexualization of Female Athletes. The study will
investigate how different groups of college students think about the sexualization of female
athletes. I would love for you to participate and take my survey!
Your participation in this survey is completely voluntary, meaning you don’t have to participate
if you don’t want to. Appointment times for taking the survey will be arranged with your
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185
coach/professor to occur during your regularly scheduled class meeting/study hall and will
take less than 15 minutes to complete.
You will need an electronic device (laptop, tablet, smartphone) in order to complete the
survey.
Attached to this e-mail, you will find an informed consent document and the directions to the
survey. In this document, you will find more information about the how the study will be
conducted.
Thank you for your time.
Sincerely,
Elke Groothuis
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Appendix I
Survey Link E-mail
Dear Coach/Professor,
Here is the link to the survey:
(survey link)
Please forward this e-mail to all your athletes/students at the start of our scheduled appointment.
Sincerely,
Elke Groothuis
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Appendix J
Survey Directions
Welcome to the survey Perceptions of College Students on the Sexualization of Female Athletes.
This will help to expand the current research on the sexualization of female athletes. The survey
will be conducted and administered by Elke Groothuis as part of the requirements for the
completion of the graduate program in physical education, exercise sports administration at the
University of North Carolina at Pembroke. The survey is available on Qualtrics, which is an
online survey tool that makes sure your responses will be completely anonymous.
The survey should take less than 15 minutes to complete, but more time is allotted if you need it.
All you need to complete the survey is a laptop, tablet, smartphone, or another electronic device
that can connect to the Internet. If you don’t have one of those, a device will be given to you to
complete the survey. Remember, you can stop the survey at any time if you don’t want to
participate anymore.
Directions:
The survey contains 11 questions. The very first question will ask you if you are under the age of
18 years. If you are, you are not permitted to take the survey. The second question asks to click
yes if you agree with the informed consent and want to continue take the survey. The third
question will ask you to click on the version of the study. There will be only one answer, so click
that answer choice (A, B, or C depending on what version you have). The next five questions are
demographic questions where you can select answers that apply to you. Then one question will
ask about your sports background. The last two questions will ask you to share your thoughts
about the woman in the picture and explain how the photograph makes you feel. Make sure to
describe the woman’s appearance rather than write about what she is doing.
Some examples of sentences describing the woman could be, “She looks very athletic,” or “She
looks sexy.” Another example could be, “She is too skinny,” or “She is very attractive.” An
example of how the photograph makes you feel can be, “She makes me proud because …,” or,
“This photograph makes me happy because….” Another example could be “This photograph
makes me upset because …” You can write whatever is on your mind while looking at the
photograph.
All questions have to be answered in order to submit the survey.
Please answer all the questions as honestly as possible, since your responses will be anonymous.
Thank you again for participating in this study!
If you would like to know the results after the study is completed, feel free to contact me at
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Appendix K
NIH Certification
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Appendix L
IRB Approval Letter
One University Drive P.O. Box 1510
Pembroke, NC 28372
Institutional Review
Board FWA 00005281
WWW.UNCP.EDU • AN EQUAL OPPORTUNITY EMPLOYER
November 20, 2015
Elke Groothuis
Department of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation
UNCP Campus
IRB Protocol #: 15-11-008
Dear Ms. Groothuis,
The IRB has completed an expedited review of your protocol titled: “Perceptions of College Students on the Sexualization
of Female Athletes” and granted approval.
Please note that if significant changes are made to the protocol, you must submit these changes to the IRB prior to their
implementation in your study, as they may change the status of your review. Also, if any unanticipated or adverse events
occur during this research, please notify me immediately.
Please include your protocol number (15-11-008) on your final consent forms and in future correspondence
regarding this protocol.
Sincerely,
(consider attachment to email as my e-signature)
Roger Guy, Ph.D.
Professor of Sociology and Criminal Justice
Chair, UNCP Institutional Review Board
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Appendix M
Approval E-mail Template Survey Directions
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Appendix N
Approval E-mail Template Informed Consent
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Appendix O
Pilot Test
In order to determine whether or not the survey will produce successful responses, the
lead researcher organized and administered a pilot test at the same university the study will be
conducted at. This is because the lead researcher had no transportation to administer the survey
at another university. A negative aspect of the pilot test being done at the same university is that
if student-athletes take the pilot test, they will no longer be eligible to participate in the study.
Table 1.1
Frequencies of Participants per Group
Group Frequency Percent Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
A 12 35.3 35.3 35.3
B 12 35.3 35.3 70.6
C 10 29.4 29.4 100.0
Total 34 100.0 100.0
Table 1.2
Male/Female Frequencies
Group Frequency Percent Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Male 20 58.8 58.8 58.8
Female 14 41.2 41.2 100.0
Total 34 100.0 100.0
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Table 1.3
Varsity Athlete Frequencies
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
Non-Athlete 28 82.4 82.4 82.4
Varsity Athlete 6 17.6 17.6 100.0
Total 34 100.0 100.0
Thirty-four students participated in the pilot test (N=34), all of which were administered
in a classroom setting just as it will be in the proposed study. Twelve participants (35.3%) were
randomly assigned to the performance athletes (version A), 12 participants (35.3%) were
randomly assigned to the sexualized athletes (version B), and 10 participants (29.4%) were
randomly assigned to the sexualized models (version C). Of the 34 participants, 20 were male
students (58.8%) and 14 were female students (41.2%). Only six of the 34 participants were
student-athletes, which is only 17.6%.
Out of the 34 responses, the lead researcher and a member of the research team coded all
the responses of both photographs and divided them into 10 pre-determined themes (appearance,
body shape/size, weight, sexy, female ideal/male gaze, physicality, play-by-play/at the game,
gender marking, emotional reaction, and advertisement/marketing tactic) developed by Daniels
& Wartena (2011). An eleventh theme (describing emotions/motivation) was created by the lead
researcher and a member of the research team after observing the responses. When a response
from a participant did not fit in a theme, a 0 was assigned for absent, when a response from a
participant of one picture fit in a theme, a 1 was assigned for present, and when a response from
a participant of both pictures fit in one theme, a 2 was assigned for both present.
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Results of the Pilot Test
Thirteen hypotheses were tested in this pilot test. Significance was tested by using chi-
square (χ 2)
analysis.
H1: There will be no difference between student-status category responses regarding perceptions
of sexualized female athletes.
Table 2.1
Frequencies of Themes in Participants’ Responses by Student-Status (Sexualized Athletes)
Student-Status Absent
(0)
Present (1) Both
Present (2)
Total
Appearance a
Non-Athlete 7 2 1 10
Varsity Athlete 0 1 1 2
Total 7 3 2 12
Body
Shape/Size b
Non-Athlete 6 4 0 10
Varsity Athlete 1 1 0 2
Total 7 5 0 12
Weight c
Non-Athlete 10 0 0 10
Varsity Athlete 2 0 0 2
Total 12 0 0 12
Sexy d
Non-Athlete 6 4 0 10
Varsity Athlete 2 0 0 2
Total 8 4 0 12
Female Ideal/
Male Gaze e
Non-Athlete 9 1 0 10
Varsity Athlete 2 0 0 2
Total 11 1 0 12
Physicality f
Non-Athlete 5 4 1 10
Varsity Athlete 1 1 0 2
Total 6 5 1 12
Play-by-Play/
at the Game g
Non-Athlete 10 0 0 10
Varsity Athlete 2 0 0 2
Total 12 0 0 12
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Table 2.1 (continued)
Student-Status Absent
(0)
Present (1) Both
Present
(2)
Total
Gender
Marking h
Non-Athlete 9 1 0 10
Varsity Athlete 2 0 0 2
Total 11 1 0 12
Emotional
Reaction i
Non-Athlete 6 1 3 10
Varsity Athlete 1 1 0 2
Total 7 2 3 12
Advertisement/
Marketing
Tactic j
Non-Athlete 7 2 1 10
Varsity Athlete 2 0 0 2
Total 9 2 1 12
Describing
Emotions/
Motivation k
Non-Athlete 9 1 0 10
Varsity Athlete 2 0 0 2
Total 11 1 0 12
a The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (2, n=12) = 3.600, p= 0.165
b The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (1, n=12) = 0.069, p= 0.793
c The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=12)
d The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (1, n=12) = 1.200, p= 0.273
e The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (1, n=12) = 0.218, p= 0.640
f The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (2, n=12) = 0.240, p= 0.887
g The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=12)
h The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (1, n=12) = 0.218, p= 0.640
i The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (2, n=12) = 2.229, p= 0.328
j The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (2, n=12) = 0.800, p= 0.670
k The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (1, n=12) = 0.218, p= 0.640
Table 2.1 displays the coded narrative responses divided in each of the 11 themes of the
participants (n=12) who took the sexualized athletes survey. The 12 participants are displayed as
either a varsity athlete or non-athlete. Looking at the table, there were 10 non-athletes and two
varsity athletes who took the survey. After doing a chi-square (χ 2)
analysis on each of the 11
themes (as shown below table 2.1), there was no significant difference (every theme was > p=
Sexualization of Female Athletes
197
0.05) found throughout all of the themes. This means that being a varsity athlete does not
influence the responses on the two photographs. H1: There will be no difference between
student-status category responses regarding perceptions of sexualized female athletes, failed to
reject.
H2: There will be no difference between female student status category responses (athlete vs.
non-athlete) regarding the perceptions of sexualized female athletes.
Table 2.2
Frequencies of Themes in Participants’ Responses by Female Student-Status (Sexualized
Athletes)
Student-Status Absent
(0)
Present (1) Both Present
(2)
Total
Appearance a
Non-Athlete 4 0 0 4
Varsity Athlete 0 1 0 1
Total 4 1 0 5
Body
Shape/Size b
Non-Athlete 3 1 0 4
Varsity Athlete 0 1 0 1
Total 3 2 0 5
Weight c
Non-Athlete 4 0 0 4
Varsity Athlete 1 0 0 1
Total 5 0 0 5
Sexy d
Non-Athlete 2 2 0 4
Varsity Athlete 1 0 0 1
Total 3 2 0 5
Female Ideal/
Male Gaze e
Non-Athlete 4 0 0 4
Varsity Athlete 1 0 0 1
Total 5 0 0 5
Table 2.2 (continued)
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198
Student-Status Absent
(0)
Present (1) Both Present
(2)
Total
Physicality f
Non-Athlete 0 4 0 4
Varsity Athlete 0 1 0 1
Total 0 5 0 5
Play-by-Play/
at the Game g
Non-Athlete 4 0 0 4
Varsity Athlete 1 0 0 1
Total 5 0 0 5
Gender Marking h
Non-Athlete 4 0 0 4
Varsity Athlete 1 0 0 1
Total 5 0 0 5
Emotional Reaction i
Non-Athlete 2 1 1 4
Varsity Athlete 0 1 0 1
Total 2 2 1 5
Advertisement/
Marketing Tactic j
Non-Athlete 3 1 0 4
Varsity Athlete 1 0 0 1
Total 4 1 0 5
Describing Emotions/
Motivation k
Non-Athlete 4 0 0 4
Varsity Athlete 1 0 0 1
Total 5 0 0 5
a The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (1, n=5) = 5.000, p= 0.025
b The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (1, n=5) = 1.875, p= 0.171
c The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=5)
d The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (1, n=5) = 0.833, p= 0.361
e The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=5)
f The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=5)
g The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=5)
h The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=5)
i The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (2, n=5) = 1.875, p= 0.392
j The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (2, n=5) = 0.313, p= 0.576
k The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=5)
Table 2.2 displays the coded narrative responses divided in each of the 11 themes of the
female participants (n=5) who took the sexualized athletes survey. The five female participants
are displayed as either a varsity athlete or non-athlete. Looking at the table, there were four non-
athletes and one varsity athlete who took the survey. After doing a chi-square (χ 2)
analysis on
each of the 11 themes (as shown below table 2.2), there was no significant difference found in 10
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of the themes (> p= 0.05). Only the theme appearance found significant difference. This means
that for appearance, being a varsity athlete does influence the responses for the two photographs.
The one varsity athlete was the only participant who described the appearance of the female
performance athletes in one of the photographs. In all the other 10 themes, being a female varsity
athlete does not influence the responses on the sexualized athletes photographs. H2: There will
be no difference between female student status category responses (athlete vs. non-athlete)
regarding the perceptions of sexualized female athletes, failed to reject on 10 of the themes, but
was rejected on the appearance theme.
H3: There will be no difference between female student status category responses (athlete vs.
non-athlete) regarding the perceptions of performance female athletes. A chi-square (χ 2)
analysis
could not be performed because none of the female college students (n=6) that took the
performance athletes survey were varsity athletes.
H4: There will be no difference between female student status category responses (athlete vs.
non-athlete) regarding the perceptions of sexualized models. A chi-square (χ 2)
analysis could not
be performed because none of the female college students (n=3) that took the sexualized models
survey were varsity athletes
H5: There will be no difference between male student status category responses (athlete vs. non-
athlete) regarding the perceptions of sexualized female athletes.
Table 2.3
Frequencies of Themes in Participants’ Responses by Male Student-Status (Sexualized Athletes)
Student-Status Absent Present (1) Both Total
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200
(0) Present (2)
Appearance a
Non-Athlete 3 2 1 6
Varsity Athlete 0 0 1 1
Total 3 2 2 7
Body
Shape/Size b
Non-Athlete 3 3 0 6
Varsity Athlete 1 0 0 1
Total 4 3 0 7
Weight c
Non-Athlete 6 0 0 6
Varsity Athlete 1 0 0 1
Total 7 0 0 7
Sexy d
Non-Athlete 4 2 0 6
Varsity Athlete 1 0 0 1
Total 5 2 0 7
Female Ideal/
Male Gaze e
Non-Athlete 5 1 0 6
Varsity Athlete 1 0 0 1
Total 6 1 0 7
Physicality f
Non-Athlete 5 0 1 6
Varsity Athlete 1 0 0 1
Total 6 0 1 7
Play-by-Play/
at the Game g
Non-Athlete 6 0 0 6
Varsity Athlete 1 0 0 1
Total 7 0 0 7
Gender
Marking h
Non-Athlete 5 1 0 6
Varsity Athlete 1 0 0 1
Total 6 1 0 7
Emotional
Reaction i
Non-Athlete 3 0 2 6
Varsity Athlete 1 0 0 1
Total 5 0 2 7
Table 2.3 (continued)
Student-Status Absent
(0)
Present (1) Both Present
(2)
Total
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201
Gender Marking h
Non-Athlete 5 1 0 6
Varsity Athlete 1 0 0 1
Total 6 1 0 7
Emotional Reaction i
Non-Athlete 3 0 2 6
Varsity Athlete 1 0 0 1
Total 5 0 2 7
Advertisement/
Marketing Tactic j
Non-Athlete 4 1 1 6
Varsity Athlete 1 0 0 1
Total 5 1 1 7
Describing
Emotions/Motivation k
Non-Athlete 5 1 0 6
Varsity Athlete 1 0 0 1
Total 6 1 0 7
a The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (2, n=7) = 2.917, p= 0.233
b The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (1, n=7) = 0.875, p= 0.350
c The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=7)
d The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (1, n=7) = 0.467, p= 0.495
e The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (1, n=7) = 0.194, p= 0.659
f The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (1, n=7) = 0.194, p= 0.659
g The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=7)
h The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (1, n=7) = 0.194, p= 0.659
i The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (1, n=7) = 0.467, p= 0.495
j The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (2, n=7) = 0.467, p= 0.792
k The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (1, n=7) = 0.194, p= 0.659
Table 2.3 displays the coded narrative responses divided in each of the 11 themes of the
male participants (n=7) who took the sexualized athletes survey. The seven participants are
displayed as either a varsity athlete or non-athlete. Looking at the table, there were six non-
athletes and one varsity athlete who took the survey. After conducting a chi-square (χ 2)
analysis
on each of the 11 themes (as shown below table 2.3), there was no significant difference (every
theme was > p= 0.05) found throughout all of the themes. This means that being a male varsity
athlete does not influence the responses on the sexualized athletes photographs.
H5: There will be no difference between male student status category responses (athlete vs. non-
athlete) regarding the perceptions of sexualized female athletes, failed to reject.
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H6: There will be no difference between male student status category responses (athlete vs. non-
athlete) regarding the perceptions of performance female athletes.
Table 2.4
Frequencies of Themes in Participants’ Responses by Male Student-Status (Performance
Athletes)
Student-Status Absent
(0)
Present (1) Both Present
(2)
Total
Appearance a
Non-Athlete 3 0 1 4
Varsity Athlete 1 1 0 2
Total 4 1 1 6
Body
Shape/Size b
Non-Athlete 3 1 0 4
Varsity Athlete 2 0 0 2
Total 5 1 0 6
Weight c
Non-Athlete 4 0 0 4
Varsity Athlete 2 0 0 2
Total 6 0 0 6
Sexy d
Non-Athlete 4 0 0 4
Varsity Athlete 2 0 0 2
Total 6 0 0 6
Female Ideal/
Male Gaze e
Non-Athlete 4 0 0 4
Varsity Athlete 2 0 0 2
Total 6 0 0 6
Physicality f
Non-Athlete 1 0 3 4
Varsity Athlete 1 1 0 2
Total 2 1 3 6
Play-by-Play/
at the Game g
Non-Athlete 1 2 1 4
Varsity Athlete 1 1 0 2
Total 2 3 1 6
Table 2.4 (continued)
Student-Status Absent
(0)
Present (1) Both Present
(2)
Total
Sexualization of Female Athletes
203
Gender Marking h
Non-Athlete 3 1 0 4
Varsity Athlete 0 1 1 2
Total 3 2 1 6
Emotional
Reaction i
Non-Athlete 4 0 0 4
Varsity Athlete 2 0 0 2
Total 6 0 0 6
Advertisement/
Marketing Tactic j
Non-Athlete 4 0 0 4
Varsity Athlete 2 0 0 2
Total 6 0 0 6
Describing
Emotions/
Motivation k
Non-Athlete 2 2 0 4
Varsity Athlete 1 0 1 2
Total 3 2 1 6
a The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (2, n=6) = 2.625, p= 0.269
b The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (1, n=6) = 0.600, p= 0.439
c The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=6)
d The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=6)
e The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=6)
f The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (2, n=6) = 3.750, p= 0.153
g The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (2, n=6) = 0.750, p= 0.687
h The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (2, n=6) = 3.750, p= 0.153
i The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=6)
j The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=6)
k The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (2, n=6) = 3.000, p= 0.223
Table 2.4 displays the coded narrative responses divided in each of the 11 themes of the
male participants (n=6) who took the performance athletes survey. The six participants are
displayed as either a varsity athlete or non-athlete. Looking at the table, there were four non-
athletes and two varsity athletes who took the survey. After conducting a chi-square (χ 2)
analysis
on each of the 11 themes (as shown below table 2.4), there was no significant difference (every
theme was > p= 0.05) found throughout all of the themes. This means that being a male varsity
athlete does not influence the responses on the two performance athletes photographs.
Sexualization of Female Athletes
204
H6: There will be no difference between male student status category responses (athlete vs. non-
athlete) regarding the perceptions of performance female athletes, failed to reject.
H7: There will be no difference between male student status category responses (athlete vs. non-
athlete) regarding the perceptions of sexualized models.
Table 2.5
Frequencies of Themes in Participants’ Responses by Male Student-Status (Sexualized Models)
Student-Status Absent
(0)
Present (1) Both Present
(2)
Total
Appearance a
Non-Athlete 1 1 3 5
Varsity Athlete 0 0 2 2
Total 1 1 5 7
Body Shape/Size b
Non-Athlete 4 1 0 5
Varsity Athlete 2 0 0 2
Total 6 1 0 7
Weight c
Non-Athlete 3 1 1 5
Varsity Athlete 1 1 0 2
Total 4 2 1 7
Sexy d
Non-Athlete 3 2 0 5
Varsity Athlete 0 1 1 2
Total 3 3 1 7
Female Ideal/
Male Gaze e
Non-Athlete 5 0 0 5
Varsity Athlete 2 0 0 2
Total 7 0 0 7
Physicality f
Non-Athlete 4 0 1 5
Varsity Athlete 1 1 0 2
Total 5 1 1 7
Play-by-Play/
at the Game g
Non-Athlete 5 0 0 5
Varsity Athlete 2 0 0 2
Total 7 0 0 7
Table 2.5 (continued)
Student-Status Absent
(0)
Present (1) Both Present
(2)
Total
Sexualization of Female Athletes
205
Gender Marking h
Non-Athlete 5 0 0 5
Varsity Athlete 2 0 0 2
Total 7 0 0 7
Emotional Reaction i
Non-Athlete 3 1 1 5
Varsity Athlete 1 1 0 2
Total 4 2 1 7
Advertisement/
Marketing Tactic j
Non-Athlete 5 0 0 5
Varsity Athlete 2 0 0 2
Total 7 0 0 7
Describing
Emotions/Motivation k
Non-Athlete 5 0 0 5
Varsity Athlete 2 0 0 2
Total 7 0 0 7
a The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (2, n=7) = 1.120, p= 0.571
b The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (1, n=7) = 0.467, p= 0.495
c The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (1, n=7) = 0.875, p= 0.646
d The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (2, n=7) = 3.733, p= 0.155
e The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=7)
f The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (2, n=7) = 3.080, p= 0.214
g The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=7)
h The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=7)
i The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (2, n=7) = 0.875, p= 0.646
j The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=7)
k The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=7)
Table 2.5 displays the coded narrative responses divided in each of the 11 themes of the
male participants (n=7) who took the sexualized models survey. The seven participants are
displayed as either a varsity athlete or non-athlete. Looking at the table, there were five non-
athletes and two varsity athletes who took the survey. After conducting a chi-square (χ 2)
analysis
on each of the 11 themes (as shown below table 2.5), there was no significant difference (every
theme was > p= 0.05) found throughout all of the themes. This means that being a male varsity
athlete does not influence the responses on the two sexualized models photographs. H7: There
will be no difference between male student status category responses (athlete vs. non-athlete)
regarding the perceptions of sexualized models, failed to reject.
Sexualization of Female Athletes
206
H8: There will be no difference between academic major category responses on the perceptions
of sexualized female athletes.
Table 2.6
Frequencies of Themes in Participants’ Responses by Academic Major (Sexualized Athletes)
Major Absent
(0)
Present (1) Both
Present (2)
Total
Appearance a
Exercise & Sports
Science
3 1 1 5
Mass Communication 0 1 0 1
Music 1 0 0 1
Physical Education 1 1 1 3
Physical Education
(Grad Program)
2 0 0 2
Total 7 3 2 12
Body Shape/Size b
Exercise & Sports
Science
3 2 0 5
Mass Communication 0 1 0 1
Music 1 0 0 1
Physical Education 1 2 0 3
Physical Education
(Grad Program)
2 0 0 2
Total 7 5 0 12
Weight c
Exercise & Sports
Science
5 0 0 5
Mass Communication 1 0 0 1
Music 1 0 0 1
Physical Education 3 0 0 3
Physical Education
(Grad Program)
2 0 0 2
Total 12 0 0 12
Table 2.6 (continued)
Major Absent Present (1) Both Total
Sexualization of Female Athletes
207
(0) Present
(2)
Sexy d
Exercise & Sports
Science
3 2 0 10
Mass
Communication
1 0 0 2
Music 0 1 0 12
Physical Education 2 1 0 3
Physical Education
(Grad Program)
2 0 0 2
Total 8 4 0 12
Female Ideal/
Male Gaze e
Exercise & Sports
Science
5 0 0 5
Mass
Communication
1 0 0 1
Music 1 0 0 1
Physical Education 2 1 3
Physical Education
(Grad Program)
2 0 2
Total 11 1 0 12
Physicality f
Exercise & Sports
Science
3 3 0 5
Mass
Communication
0 1 0 1
Music 0 2 0 1
Physical Education 2 0 1 3
Physical Education
(Grad Program)
1 1 0 2
Total 6 5 1 12
Play-by-Play/
at the Game g
Exercise & Sports
Science
5 0 0 5
Mass
Communication
1 0 0 1
Music 1 0 0 1
Physical Education 3 0 0 3
Physical Education
(Grad Program)
2 0 0 2
Total 12 0 0 12
Gender Marking h
Exercise & Sports
Science
5 0 0 5
Mass
Communication
1 0 0 1
Music 1 0 0 1
Physical Education 3 0 0 3
Physical Education
(Grad Program)
1 1 0 2
Total 11 1 0 12
Table 2.6 (continued)
Major Absent Present (1) Both Present Total
Sexualization of Female Athletes
208
(0) (2) Emotional Reaction
i Exercise &
Sports Science 3 1 1 5
Mass
Communication 0 1 0 1
Music 0 0 1 1 Physical
Education 3 0 0 3
Physical
Education
(Grad Program)
1 0 1 2
Total 7 2 3 12 Advertisement/
Marketing Tactic j
Exercise &
Sports Science 3 1 1 5
Mass
Communication 1 0 0 1
Music 1 0 0 1 Physical
Education 2 1 0 3
Physical
Education
(Grad Program)
2 0 0 2
Total 9 2 1 12 Describing
Emotions/Motivation k
Exercise and
Sports Science 5 0 0 5
Mass
Communication 1 0 0 1
Music 1 0 0 1 Physical
Education 2 1 0 3
Physical
Education
(Grad Program)
2 0 0 2
Total 11 1 0 12
a The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (8, n=12) = 6.133, p= 0.632
b The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (4, n=12) = 4.320, p= 0.364
c The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=12)
d The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (4, n=12) = 3.600, p= 0.463
e The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (4, n=12) = 3.273, p= 0.513
f The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (8, n=12) = 7.187, p= 0.517
g The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=12)
h The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (4, n=12) = 5.455, p= 0.244
i The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (8, n=12) = 11.086, p= 0.197
j The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (8, n=12) = 3.111, p= 0.927
k The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (4, n=12) = 3.273, p= 0.513
Table 2.6 displays the coded narrative responses divided in each of the 11 themes of the
participants (n=12) who took the sexualized athletes survey. The participant’s majors are
Sexualization of Female Athletes
209
displayed and were tested for significance. Looking at the table, the participants were divided in
five different academic majors. After conducting a chi-square (χ 2)
analysis on each of the 11
themes (as shown below table 2.6), there was no significant difference (every theme was > p=
0.05) found throughout all of the themes. This means that academic major does not influence the
responses on the two sexualized athletes photographs. H8: There will be no difference between
academic major category responses on the perceptions of sexualized female athletes, failed to
reject.
H9: There will be no difference between academic major category responses on the perceptions
of performance female athletes.
Table 2.7
Frequencies of Themes in Participants’ Responses by Academic Major (Performance Athletes)
Major Absent
(0)
Present (1) Both
Present
(2)
Total
Appearance a
Accounting 1 0 0 1
Athletic Training 1 0 0 1
Exercise & Sports
Science
5 1 1 7
Mass Communication 1 0 0 1
Nursing 1 0 0 1
Physical Education
(Grad Program)
1 0 0 1
Total 10 1 1 12
Table 2.7 (continued)
Major Absent
(0)
Present (1) Both
Present
Total
Sexualization of Female Athletes
210
(2)
Body Shape/Size b
Accounting 1 0 0 1
Athletic Training 1 0 0 1
Exercise & Sports
Science
5 2 0 7
Mass
Communication
1 0 0 1
Nursing 1 0 0 1
Physical Education
(Grad Program)
0 1 1
Total 9 3 0 12
Weight c
Accounting 1 0 0 1
Athletic Training 1 0 0 1
Exercise & Sports
Science
7 0 0 7
Mass
Communication
1 0 0 1
Nursing 1 0 0 1
Physical Education
(Grad Program)
1 0 0 1
Total 12 0 0 12
Sexy d
Accounting 1 2 0 1
Athletic Training 1 0 0 1
Exercise & Sports
Science
7 1 0 7
Mass
Communication
1 1 0 1
Nursing 1 0 0 1
Physical Education
(Grad Program)
1 0 0 1
Total 12 0 0 12
Female Ideal/
Male Gaze e
Accounting 1 0 0 1
Athletic Training 1 0 0 1
Exercise & Sports
Science
5 1 1 7
Mass
Communication
1 0 0 1
Nursing 0 1 0 1
Physical Education
(Grad Program)
1 0 0 1
Total 9 2 1 12
Table 2.7 (continued)
Major Absent Present (1) Both Total
Sexualization of Female Athletes
211
(0) Present
(2)
Physicality f
Accounting 0 0 1 1
Athletic Training 0 0 1 1
Exercise & Sports
Science
2 3 2 7
Mass
Communication
0 1 0 1
Nursing 0 1 0 1
Physical Education
(Grad Program)
0 0 0 1
Total 1 5 5 12
Play-by-Play/
at the Game g
Accounting 0 1 0 1
Athletic Training 0 0 1 1
Exercise & Sports
Science
3 2 2 7
Mass
Communication
1 0 0 1
Nursing 1 0 0 1
Physical Education
(Grad Program)
1 0 0 1
Total 6 3 3 12
Gender Marking h
Accounting 1 0 0 1
Athletic Training 1 0 0 1
Exercise & Sports
Science
3 3 1 7
Mass
Communication
0 1 0 1
Nursing 1 0 0 1
Physical Education
(Grad Program)
1 0 0 1
Total 7 4 1 12
Emotional Reaction i
Accounting 1 0 0 1
Athletic Training 1 0 0 1
Exercise & Sports
Science
7 0 0 7
Mass
Communication
1 0 0 1
Nursing 0 1 0 1
Physical Education
(Grad Program)
1 0 0 1
Total 12 1 0 12
Table 2.7 (continued)
Major Absent Present (1) Both Total
Sexualization of Female Athletes
212
(0) Present
(2)
Advertisement/
Marketing Tactic j
Accounting 1 0 0 1
Athletic Training 1 0 0 1
Exercise & Sports
Science
7 0 0 7
Mass
Communication
1 0 0 1
Nursing 1 0 0 1
Physical Education
(Grad Program)
1 0 0 1
Total 12 0 0 12
Describing
Emotions/Motivation k
Accounting 0 1 0 1
Athletic Training 1 0 0 1
Exercise & Sports
Science
5 1 1 7
Mass
Communication
1 0 0 1
Nursing 0 1 0 1
Physical Education
(Grad Program)
1 0 0 1
Total 8 3 1 12
a The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (10, n=12) = 1.714, p= 0.998
b The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (5, n=12) = 4.381, p= 0.496
c The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=12)
d The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=12)
e The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (10, n=12) = 6.667, p= 0.756
f The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (10, n=12) = 7.886, p= 0.640
g The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (10, n=12) = 9.143, p= 0.519
h The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (10, n=12) = 5.633, p= 0.845
i The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (5, n=12) = 12.000, p= 0.035
j The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=12)
k The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (10, n=12) = 8.143, p= 0.615
Table 2.7 displays the coded narrative responses divided in each of the 11 themes of the
participants (n=12) who took the performance athletes survey. The participant’s majors are
displayed and were tested for significance. Looking at the table, the participants were divided in
six different academic majors. After conducting a chi-square (χ 2)
analysis on each of the 11
themes (as shown below table 2.7), there was no significant difference (every theme was > p=
Sexualization of Female Athletes
213
0.05) found throughout all of the themes. This means that academic major does not influence the
responses on the two performance athletes photographs. H9: There will be no difference between
academic major category responses on the perceptions of performance female athletes, failed to
reject.
H10: There will be no difference between academic major category responses on the perceptions
of sexualized models.
Table 2.8
Frequencies of Themes in Participants’ Responses by Academic Major (Sexualized Models)
Major Absent
(0)
Present (1) Both
Present
(2)
Total
Appearance a
Business Admin. 0 0 1 1
Exercise & Sports
Science
0 0 5 5
Nursing 0 1 0 1
Nursing (registered) 0 1 0 1
MA in Teaching 1 0 0 1
Physical Education
(Grad Program)
0 1 0 1
Total 1 3 6 10
Body Shape/Size b
Business Admin. 1 0 0 1
Exercise & Sports
Science
5 0 0 5
Nursing 1 0 0 1
Nursing (registered) 0 1 0 1
MA in Teaching 1 0 0 1
Physical Education
(Grad Program)
0 1 1
Total 8 2 0 10
Table 2.8 (continued)
Sexualization of Female Athletes
214
Major Absent
(0)
Present (1) Both
Present
(2)
Total
Business Admin. 1 0 0 1
Exercise & Sports
Science
3 2 0 5
Nursing 1 0 0 1
Nursing (registered) 0 1 0 1
MA in Teaching 0 0 1 1
Physical Education
(Grad Program)
1 0 0 1
Total 12 0 0 10
Sexy d
Business Admin. 0 1 0 1
Exercise & Sports
Science
3 1 1 5
Nursing 0 0 1 1
Nursing (registered) 1 0 0 1
MA in Teaching 1 0 0 1
Physical Education
(Grad Program)
0 1 0 1
Total 5 3 2 10
Female Ideal/
Male Gaze e
Business Admin. 1 0 0 1
Exercise & Sports
Science
5 0 0 5
Nursing 1 0 0 1
Nursing (registered) 1 0 0 1
MA in Teaching 1 0 0 1
Physical Education
(Grad Program)
1 0 0 1
Total 10 0 0 10
Physicality f
Business Admin. 1 0 0 1
Exercise & Sports
Science
3 1 1 5
Nursing 1 0 0 1
Nursing (registered) 0 1 0 1
MA in Teaching 1 0 0 1
Physical Education
(Grad Program)
1 0 0 1
Total 7 2 1 10
Table 2.8 (continued)
Sexualization of Female Athletes
215
Major Absent
(0)
Present (1) Both
Present
(2)
Total
Play-by-Play/
at the Game g
Business Admin. 1 0 0 1
Exercise & Sports
Science
5 0 0 5
Nursing 1 0 0 1
Nursing (registered) 1 0 0 1
MA in Teaching 1 0 0 1
Physical Education
(Grad Program)
1 0 0 1
Total 10 0 0 10
Gender Marking h
Business Admin. 1 0 0 1
Exercise & Sports
Science
5 0 0 5
Nursing 1 0 0 1
Nursing (registered) 1 0 0 1
MA in Teaching 1 0 0 1
Physical Education
(Grad Program)
1 0 0 1
Total 10 0 0 10
Emotional Reaction i
Business Admin. 1 0 0 1
Exercise & Sports
Science
2 2 1 5
Nursing 0 1 0 1
Nursing (registered) 1 0 0 1
MA in Teaching 0 1 1 1
Physical Education
(Grad Program)
1 0 0 1
Total 5 3 2 10
Advertisement/
Marketing Tactic j
Business Admin. 1 0 0 1
Exercise & Sports
Science
1 0 0 5
Nursing 5 0 0 1
Nursing (registered) 1 0 0 1
MA in Teaching 1 0 0 1
Physical Education
(Grad Program)
1 0 0 1
Total 10 0 0 10
Table 2.8 (continued)
Sexualization of Female Athletes
216
Major Absent
(0)
Present (1) Both
Present
(2)
Total
Describing
Emotions/Motivation k
Business Admin. 1 0 0 1
Exercise & Sports
Science
5 0 0 5
Nursing 1 0 0 1
Nursing (registered) 1 0 0 1
MA in Teaching 1 0 0 1
Physical Education
(Grad Program)
1 0 0 1
Total 10 0 0 10
a The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (10, n=10) = 20.000, p= 0.029
b The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (5, n=10) = 10.000, p= 0.075
c The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (10, n=10) = 14.000, p= 0.173
d The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (10, n=10) = 10.933, p= 0.363
e The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=10)
f The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (10, n=10) = 6.286, p= 0.791
g The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=10)
h The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=10)
i The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (10, n=10) = 9.600, p= 0.476
j The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=10)
k The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=10)
Table 2.8 displays the coded narrative responses divided in each of the 11 themes of the
participants (n=10) who took the sexualized models survey. The participant’s majors are
displayed and were tested for significance. Looking at the table, the participants were divided in
six different academic majors. After conducting a chi-square (χ 2)
analysis on each of the 11
themes (as shown below table 2.8), there was no significant difference found in 10 of the themes
(> p= 0.05). Only the theme appearance found significant difference. This means that for
appearance, academic major does influence the responses of the two sexualized models
photographs. In all the other 10 themes, academic major does not influence the responses on the
sexualized athletes photographs. H10: There will be no difference between academic major
Sexualization of Female Athletes
217
category responses on the perceptions of sexualized models, failed to reject on 10 of the themes,
but was rejected on the appearance theme.
H11: There will be no difference between academic level category responses on the perceptions
of sexualized female athletes.
Table 2.9
Frequencies of Themes in Participants’ Responses by Academic Level (Sexualized Athletes)
Academic Level Absent
(0)
Present (1) Both
Present
(2)
Total
Appearance a
Sophomore 1 0 0 1
Junior 2 1 2 5
Senior 3 0 0 3
Graduate Student 1 2 0 3
Total 7 3 2 12
Body Shape/Size b
Sophomore 1 0 0 1
Junior 1 4 0 5
Senior 2 1 0 3
Graduate Student 3 0 0 3
Total 7 5 0 12
Weight c
Sophomore 1 0 0 1
Junior 5 0 0 5
Senior 3 0 0 3
Graduate Student 3 0 0 3
Total 12 0 0 12
Sexy d
Sophomore 1 0 0 1
Junior 4 1 0 5
Senior 2 1 0 3
Graduate Student 1 2 0 3
Total 8 4 0 12
Sexualization of Female Athletes
218
Table 2.9 (continued)
Academic Level Absent
(0)
Present (1) Both
Present
(2)
Total
Female Ideal/
Male Gaze e
Sophomore 1 0 0 1
Junior 5 0 0 5
Senior 3 0 0 3
Graduate Student 2 1 0 3
Total 11 0 0 12
Physicality f
Sophomore 0 1 0 1
Junior 2 2 1 5
Senior 2 1 0 3
Graduate Student 2 1 0 3
Total 6 5 1 12
Play-by-Play/
at the Game g
Sophomore 1 0 0 1
Junior 5 0 0 5
Senior 3 0 0 3
Graduate Student 3 0 0 3
Total 12 0 0 12
Academic Level Absent
(0)
Present (1) Both
Present
(2)
Total
Gender Marking h
Sophomore 1 0 0 1
Junior 5 0 0 5
Senior 2 1 0 3
Graduate Student 3 0 0 3
Total 11 0 0 12
Emotional Reaction i
Sophomore 0 1 0 1
Junior 4 1 0 5
Senior 0 0 3 3
Graduate Student 3 0 0 3
Total 7 2 3 12
Advertisement/
Marketing Tactic j
Sophomore 1 0 0 1
Junior 4 1 0 5
Senior 2 0 1 3
Graduate Student 2 1 0 3
Total 9 2 1 10
Sexualization of Female Athletes
219
Table 2.9 (continued)
Academic Level Absent
(0)
Present (1) Both
Present
(2)
Total
Describing
Emotions/Motivation k
Sophomore 1 0 0 1
Junior 4 1 0 5
Senior 3 0 0 3
Graduate Student 3 0 0 3
Total 11 1 0 12
a The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (6, n=12) = 7.733, p= 0.258
b The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (3, n=12) = 5.966, p= 0.113
c The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=12)
d The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (3, n=12) = 2.400, p= 0.494
e The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (3, n=12) = 3.273, p= 0.351
f The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (6, n=12) = 3.253, p= 0.776
g The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=12)
h The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (3, n=12) = 3.273, p= 0.351
i The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (6, n=12) = 17.829, p= 0.007
j The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (6, n=12) = 4.356, p= 0.629
k The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (3, n=12) = 1.527, p= 0.676
Table 2.9 displays the coded narrative responses divided in each of the 11 themes of the
participants (n=12) who took the sexualized athletes survey. The participants’ academic levels
are displayed and were tested for significance. Looking at the table, the participants were divided
in four different academic levels. After conducting a chi-square (χ 2)
analysis on each of the 11
themes (as shown below table 2.9), there was no significant difference found in 10 of the themes
(> p= 0.05). Only the theme emotional reaction found significant difference. This means that for
emotional reaction, academic level does influence the responses of the two sexualized athletes
photographs. In all the other 10 themes, academic level does not influence the responses on the
sexualized athletes photographs. H11: There will be no difference between academic level
category responses on the perceptions of sexualized female athletes, failed to reject on 10 of the
themes, but was rejected on the emotional reaction theme.
Sexualization of Female Athletes
220
H12: There will be no difference between academic level category responses on the perceptions
of performance female athletes.
Table 2.10
Frequencies of Themes in Participants’ Responses by Academic Level (Performance Athletes)
Academic Level Absent
(0)
Present (1) Both
Present
(2)
Total
Appearance a
Freshman 1 0 0 1
Sophomore 1 0 0 1
Junior 3 0 0 3
Senior 3 1 1 5
Graduate Student 2 0 0 2
Total 10 1 1 12
Body Shape/Size b
Freshman 1 0 0 1
Sophomore 1 0 0 1
Junior 1 2 0 3
Senior 5 0 0 5
Graduate Student 1 1 0 2
Total 9 3 0 12
Weight c
Freshman 1 0 0 1
Sophomore 1 0 0 1
Junior 3 0 0 3
Senior 5 0 0 5
Graduate Student 2 0 0 2
Total 12 0 0 12
Sexy d
Freshman 1 0 0 1
Sophomore 1 0 0 1
Junior 3 0 0 3
Senior 5 0 0 5
Graduate Student 2 0 0 2
Total 12 0 0 12
Sexualization of Female Athletes
221
Table 2.10 (continued)
Academic Level Absent
(0)
Present (1) Both
Present
(2)
Total
Female Ideal/
Male Gaze e
Freshman 1 0 0 1
Sophomore 0 0 1 1
Junior 3 0 0 3
Senior 3 2 0 5
Graduate Student 2 0 0 2
Total 9 0 0 12
Physicality f
Freshman 0 0 1 1
Sophomore 0 1 0 1
Junior 2 0 1 3
Senior 0 4 1 5
Graduate Student 0 0 2 2
Total 2 5 5 12
Play-by-Play/
at the Game g
Freshman 0 1 0 1
Sophomore 1 0 0 1
Junior 0 2 1 3
Senior 4 0 1 5
Graduate Student 1 0 1 2
Total 6 3 3 12
Academic Level Absent
(0)
Present (1) Both
Present
(2)
Total
Gender Marking h
Freshman 1 0 0 1
Sophomore 1 0 0 1
Junior 2 1 0 3
Senior 1 3 1 5
Graduate Student 2 0 0 2
Total 7 4 1 12
Emotional Reaction i
Freshman 1 0 0 1
Sophomore 1 0 0 1
Junior 3 0 0 3
Senior 4 1 0 5
Graduate Student 2 0 0 2
Total 1 1 0 12
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Table 2.10 (continued)
Academic Level Absent
(0)
Present (1) Both
Present
(2)
Total
Advertisement/
Marketing Tactic j
Freshman 1 0 0 1
Sophomore 1 0 0 1
Junior 3 0 0 3
Senior 5 0 0 5
Graduate Student 2 0 0 2
Total 12 0 0 12
Describing
Emotions/Motivation k
Freshman 0 1 0 1
Sophomore 1 0 0 1
Junior 1 1 1 3
Senior 4 1 0 5
Graduate Student 2 0 0 2
Total 8 3 1 12
a The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (8, n=12) = 3.360, p= 0.910
b The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (4, n=12) = 5.788, p= 0.216
c The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=12)
d The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=12)
e The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (8, n=12) = 15.200, p= 0.055
f The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (8, n=12) = 14.560, p= 0.068
g The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (8, n=12) = 10.867, p= 0.209
h The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (8, n=12) = 6.286, p= 0.615
i The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (4, n=12) = 1.527, p= 0.822
j The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=12)
k The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (8, n=12) = 7.933, p= 0.440
Table 2.10 displays the coded narrative responses divided in each of the 11 themes of the
participants (n=12) who took the performance athletes survey. The participants’ academic levels
are displayed and were tested for significance. Looking at the table, the participants were divided
in five different academic levels. After doing a chi-square (χ 2)
analysis on each of the 11 themes
(as shown below table 2.7), there was no significant difference (every theme was > p= 0.05)
found throughout all of the themes. This means that academic level does not influence the
responses on the two performance athletes photographs. H12: There will be no difference
Sexualization of Female Athletes
223
between academic level category responses on the perceptions of performance female athletes,
failed to reject.
H13: There will be no difference between academic level category responses on the perceptions
of sexualized models.
Table 2.11
Frequencies of Themes in Participants’ Responses by Academic Level (Sexualized Models)
Academic Level Absent
(0)
Present (1) Both
Present
(2)
Total
Appearance a
Junior 0 2 0 2
Senior 0 0 5 5
Graduate Student 1 1 1 3
Total 1 3 6 10
Body Shape/Size b
Junior 1 1 1 2
Senior 5 0 0 5
Graduate Student 2 1 1 3
Total 8 2 2 10
Weight c
Junior 1 1 0 2
Senior 3 2 0 5
Graduate Student 2 0 1 3
Total 6 3 1 10
Sexy d
Junior 1 0 1 2
Senior 3 1 1 5
Graduate Student 1 2 0 3
Total 5 3 2 10
Female Ideal/
Male Gaze e
Junior 2 0 0 2
Senior 5 0 0 5
Graduate Student 3 0 0 3
Total 10 0 0 10
Sexualization of Female Athletes
224
Table 2.11 (continued)
Academic Level Absent
(0)
Present (1) Both
Present
(2)
Total
Physicality f
Junior 1 1 0 2
Senior 3 1 1 5
Graduate Student 3 0 0 3
Total 7 2 1 10
Play-by-Play/
at the Game g
Junior 2 0 0 2
Senior 5 0 0 5
Graduate Student 3 0 0 3
Total 10 0 0 10
Academic Level Absent
(0)
Present (1) Both
Present
(2)
Total
Gender Marking h
Junior 2 0 0 2
Senior 5 0 0 5
Graduate Student 3 0 0 3
Total 10 0 0 10
Emotional Reaction i
Junior 1 1 0 2
Senior 2 2 1 5
Graduate Student 2 0 1 3
Total 5 3 2 10
Advertisement/
Marketing Tactic j
Junior 2 0 0 2
Senior 5 0 0 5
Graduate Student 3 0 0 3
Total 10 0 0 10
Describing
Emotions/Motivation k
Junior 2 0 0 2
Senior 5 0 0 5
Graduate Student 3 0 0 3
Total 10 0 0 10
Sexualization of Female Athletes
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a The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (4, n=10) = 10.000, p= 0.040
b The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (2, n=10) = 2.708, p= 0.258
c The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (4, n=10) = 3.722, p= 0.445
d The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (4, n=10) = 3.878, p= 0.423
e The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=10)
f The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (4, n=10) = 3.071, p= 0.546
g The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=10)
h The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=10)
i The overall chi-square for this comparison is: χ
2 (4, n=10) = 2.267, p= 0.687
j The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=10)
k The overall chi-square could not be computed because this theme is a constant (n=10)
Table 2.11 displays the coded narrative responses divided in each of the 11 themes of the
participants (n=10) who took the sexualized models survey. The participant’s academic majors
are displayed and were tested for significance. Looking at the table, the participants were divided
in three different academic levels. After doing a chi-square (χ 2)
analysis on each of the 11 themes
(as shown below table 2.11), there was no significant difference found in 10 of the themes (> p=
0.05). Only the theme appearance found significant difference. This means that for appearance,
academic level does influence the responses of the two sexualized models photographs. In all the
other 10 themes, academic level does not influence the responses on the sexualized athletes
photographs. H13: There will be no difference between academic level category responses on the
perceptions of sexualized models, failed to reject on 10 of the themes, but was rejected on the
appearance theme.
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Appendix P
Original Survey before Pilot Test
Welcome to the survey Perceptions of College Students on the Sexualization of Female Athletes.
This will help to expand the current research on the sexualization of female athletes. The survey
will be conducted and administered by Elke Groothuis as part of the requirements for the
completion of the graduate program in physical education, exercise sports administration at the
University of North Carolina at Pembroke. The survey is available on Qualtrics, which is an
online survey tool that makes sure your responses will be anonymous. The survey should take
less than 15 minutes to complete, but more time is allotted if you need it. All you need to
complete the survey is a laptop, tablet, smartphone, or another electronic device that can connect
to the internet. If you don’t have one of those, a device will be given to you to complete the
survey. Remember, you can stop the survey at any time if you don’t want to participate anymore.
Directions:
The survey contains 10 questions. The very first question will ask you if you are under the age of
18 years. If you are, you are not permitted to take the survey. The second question asks to click
yes if you agree with the informed consent and want to continue take the survey. The third
question will ask you to click on the version of the study. There will be only one answer, so click
that answer choice (A, B, or C depending on what version you have). The next five questions are
demographic questions where you can select answers that apply to you. Then one question will
ask about your sports background. The last two questions will ask you to share your thoughts
about the woman in the picture and explain how the photograph makes you feel. Make sure to
describe the woman’s appearance rather than write about what she is doing. Some examples of
sentences describing the woman could be, “She looks very athletic,” or “She looks sexy.”
Another example could be, “She is skinny,” or “She is very attractive.” An example of how the
photograph makes you feel can be, “She makes me proud because …,” or, “This photograph
makes me happy because….” Another example could be “This photograph makes me upset
because …” You can write whatever is on your mind while looking at the photograph. All
questions have to be answered in order to submit the survey. Please answer all the questions as
honestly as possible, since your responses will be anonymous. Thank you again for participating
in this study! If you would like to know the results after the study is completed, feel free to
contact me at [email protected].
Are you under the age of 18 years?
Yes (1)
No (2)
Sexualization of Female Athletes
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By clicking YES, I agree with the Informed Consent.
Yes (1)
No (2)
Q1 Version (please click A to proceed).
A (1)
Q2 What is your sex?
Male (1)
Female (2)
Q3 How old are you?
18-24 years old (1)
25-34 years old (2)
35-44 years old (3)
45-54 years old (4)
55 years or older (5)
Q4 What is your major?
UNDERGRADUATE (1)
------------------------- (2)
Accounting (3)
American Indian Studies (4)
Applied Physics (5)
Art (6)
Art Education (K-12) (7)
Athletic Training (8)
Biology (9)
Biotechnology Research and Training Center (10)
Birth-Kindergarten Education (11)
Business Administration (12)
Chemistry (13)
Computer Science (14)
Criminal Justice (15)
Elementary Education (K-6) (16)
English (17)
English, Theatre & Foreign Languages (18)
Sexualization of Female Athletes
228
Environmental Science (19)
Exercise and Sports Science (20)
History (21)
Information Technology (22)
Interdisciplinary Studies (23)
Mass Communication (24)
Mathematics (25)
Mathematics Education (6-9, 9-12) (26)
Music (27)
Music (with Licensure K-12) (28)
Music with Elective Studies in Business (29)
Nursing (30)
Nursing (for registered Nurses) (31)
Philosophy and Religion (32)
Physical Education (33)
Political Science (34)
Psychology (35)
Science Education (36)
Social Work (37)
Sociology (38)
Sociology and Criminal Justice (39)
Spanish (40)
Special Education (41)
Theatre (42)
--------------- (43)
GRADUATE (44)
--------------- (45)
Art Education (46)
Art Education: Thesis Concentration (Non-Licensure) (47)
Business Administration (48)
Clinical Mental Health Counseling (49)
Elementary Education (50)
English as a Second Language (Licensure Add-on) (51)
English Education (52)
English Education: Thesis Concentration (Non-Licensure) (53)
Master of Arts in Teaching (54)
Mathematics Education (55)
Middle Grades Education (56)
Physical Education (57)
Professional School Counseling (58)
Sexualization of Female Athletes
229
Professional School Counseling Add-on (59)
Public Administration (60)
Reading Education (61)
School Administration (62)
School Administration (Licensure Add-on) (63)
Science Education: Non Licensure Concentration in Biology (64)
Social Studies Education (65)
Social Studies Education: History/Social Science Concentration (Non-Licensure) (66)
Social Work (67)
Social Work: Advanced Standing (68)
Q5 What is your academic level?
Freshman (1)
Sophomore (2)
Junior (3)
Senior (4)
Graduate student (5)
Q6 What is your ethnic background? Please choose the response with which you identify.
Asian American/ Pacific Islander/Chicano/Latino (1)
Black/African American (2)
Native American (American Indian) (3)
White/ European American (4)
Other (5)
Q7 Do you belong to an organized sports team?
No (1)
College Varsity Team (2)
Intramural team (3)
Religious organization team (4)
Parks and Recreation Department team (5)
Other (6)
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Q8 Directions: After looking at this photograph. Please write one paragraph (at least 3
sentences), describing the woman in the photograph and discussing how this photograph makes
you feel.
Photograph 1 Paragraph:
Sexualization of Female Athletes
231
Q9 Directions: After looking at this photograph. Please write one paragraph (at least 3
sentences), describing the woman in the photograph and discussing how this photograph makes
you feel.
Photograph 2 Paragraph:
Sexualization of Female Athletes
232
Appendix Q
Classes Schedule/Team Meetings Schedule
Class Date and Time Professor Enrollment
ENG 1050
ENG 1060
12/01/2015 – 9:30am
12/02/2015 – 10:10am
11:15am
Miecznikowski 20
20
20
PED 4030 12/01/2014 – 11:00am Wooten 24
PED 3120 12/01/2015 – 12:30pm
12/03/2015 – 11:00am
Andersson 21
20
UNV 1000 12/01/2015 – 2:00pm Moore-Lopez 22
HLTH 4100 12/02/2015 – 10:10am Bolles 35
SOC 1020 12/07/2015 – 10:45am
12/11/2015 – 8:00am
Kelly 47
48
EXER 5100 12/08/2015 – 6:30pm Davis 16
EXER 5060 12/09/2015 – 6:30pm Davis 20
PED 4030 01/14/2016 – 11:00am Wooten 25
BIO 1060 01/15/2016 – 9:05am
10:10am
Norman 41
41
BIO 1000 01/15/2016 – 1:25pm Norman 37
PED 1950 01/19/2016 – 4:30pm
5:30pm
Blank, R. 35
24
ATH 1040 01/20/2016 – 9:30am Bussey 26
HLTH 3060 01/21/2016 – 11:00am Langley 41
PED 4120 01/22/2016 – 1:30pm Justice 29
HST 1020 01/22/2016 – 10:10am Frederick 20
HLTH 3070 01/22/2016 – 12:20pm Langley 36
MCM 4360 01/26/2016 – 9:00am Litty 21
BRD 1600 01/26/2016 – 11:00am Dollard 12
BIO 1000 01/27/2016 – 11:15am
12:20pm
Young 14
35
Team Date and Time Head Coach
Women’s Soccer 11/23/2015 – 3:00pm Andersson
Wrestling 11/29/2015 – 7:00pm Johnson, O.T.
Spirit Squad* 12/03/2015 – 2:30pm Johnson, C.
Women’s Basketball 12/14/2015 – 1:45pm Haskins
Softball 01/12/2016 – 7:30pm Bennett
Track & Field 01/13/2016 – 3:30pm Ormsby
Volleyball 01/14/2016 – 4:00pm McGill
Baseball 01/14/2016 – 7:15pm O’Neil
Golf 01/17/2016 – 6:30pm Synan
Men’s Basketball 01/19/2016 – 3:30pm Miller
Sexualization of Female Athletes
233
Football 01/21/2016 – 3:00pm Richardson
Men’s Soccer 01/25/2016 – 3:00pm Brennan
Cross Country 01/19/2016 – 7:45am Ormsby *Classified by the university and thus
this study as non-student-athletes.
However, because this is an organization
run by the athletic department, not a
class, the Spirit Squad is categorized as a
team for reporting purposes, although
they were instructed to select non-
student-athlete as response within the
questionnaire.
Sexualization of Female Athletes
234
Appendix R
Codebook
1 Appearance Unrelated to physicality;
can relate to attire
Blonde, tan, pretty, nice hair,
unattractive, ugly, nice smile,
skin tone
2 Body shape/size No muscle descriptions Tall, good/perfect body, takes
care of her body, body isn’t that
great
3 Weight Too skinny, thin, skinny, not a
stick, too big for an athlete, slim
4 Sexy Hot, desirable, sexy, seductive,
turns me on, showing too much
for _____, slutty
5 Female ideal/male gaze Playing on stereotypes Meant to appeal the men/male
audience, she looks exactly like a
stereotypical girl should look,
what most people strive for, what
girls are supposed to look like,
anorexic look, fake Barbie type,
manly
6 Physicality Controlled by the
athlete/model
Physically fit, in shape, athletic,
sporty, strong, muscular, doesn’t
look/seem like an athlete
7 Play-by-play/at the game Describing a play or
athleticism (not related to
discussion of athletic
looking body)
Very skilled, she just got past
another player, I want her to
make the shot, it looks like she’s
going to head the ball, great
athlete, talented athlete
8 Gender marking Sport/profession and gender
mentioned
Mia Hamm is an awesome soccer
player, Mia Hamm is the greatest
female athlete, she is a good
player, she is a college athlete
9 Emotional reaction Makes me feel happy, makes me
feel good, makes me feel excited,
doesn’t make me feel good,
makes me uncomfortable, makes
me want to barf, kind of
sickening, intimidates me
10 Advertisement/marketing
tactic
Seems like she’s selling
something, looks like an ad,
selling sex for a profit
11 Describing
emotions/motivation
She looks mad, she looks intense,
focused, confident, aggressive
