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Chapter 7: Language

Donna M. Gollnick and Philip C. Chinn

Multicultural Education in a Pluralistic Society,

9th Edition

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Language

Language is a system of vocal sounds and/or nonverbal systems by which individuals communicate.

It is a critical tool in the development of identity, self-awareness, and intellectual and psychological growth.

Students with limited English proficiency may suffer institutional discrimination.

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Language as a Socializing Agent

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Language Diversity

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Nature of Language

There is no good language or bad language from a linguistic view; languages are simply different.

Society places different social values on different language and dialect groups.

Status judgments are based not on linguistic grounds but on social grounds.

All languages are equal in that they meet the social and psychological needs of their speakers.

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Cultural Influences

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There are 6,909 living languages in the world today.

Social variables contribute to language differences.

Both class and ethnicity reflect differences in language.

Language Differences

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Bilingualism

Language diversity is maintained primarily because of continuing immigration from non-English speaking countries.

Bilingualism, the ability to speak two languages, is often difficult for students to maintain without support structures.

Bilingualism can be subtractive (second language replaces the first) or additive (development of second language with no determine to the first)

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Accents

Accent generally refers to how an individual pronounces words.

Accents sound different from standard English only in how the words are pronounced.

A person may have a strong accent, yet speak in standard English.

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Dialects

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Regional Dialects

Differences in the pronunciation of vowels are a primary means of distinguishing regional differences.

Regional and social dialects cannot be divorced from one another because an individual’s dialect may be a blend of both.

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Social Class Dialects

Social dialects tend to differ primarily in the use of consonants.

While Americans and those from other English-speaking countries have many different dialects, they can usually understand one another.

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Grammatical Differences

Among dialects, differences in various aspects of grammatical usage can also be found.

Nonstandard grammar tends to carry with it a greater social stigma than nonstandard pronunciation.

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Other Differences

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Bidialecticism

The ability of individuals to speak in two or more dialects, depending on language context.

Bidialectal individuals may have some distinct advantages and may be able to function and gain acceptance in multiple cultural contexts.

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Perspectives on Standard English

No single dialect is identified as Standard English.

Norms vary with communities, and there are two norms:

The informal standard, which is considered proper in a community
The formal standard, which is the acceptable written language

Determination of what is standard is usually made by people with the power and status to make the judgment.

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Perspectives on Black English

Black English is one of the best-known dialects spoken in the United States.

Teachers can take one of several approaches to handling dialects:

Accommodate all dialects on the basis that they are all equal.
Insist that only a standard dialect be allowed in the schools.
Allow native dialects for certain uses, but encourage or insist Standard English is used in other circumstances.

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Sign Language

Some languages are neither spoken nor written.

Individuals who are deaf and unable to hear the sounds used in oral language may use sign language.

American Sign Language (ASL) is used by the majority of individuals with deafness in the United States and Canada.

ASL has its own complex grammar and syntax and is recognized by linguists as a language.

Signed English is another system that translates English oral or written word into sign language.

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Non-Verbal Communication

The total meaning of communication goes beyond the surface message that is stated.

The undercurrent message includes the emotions or feelings associated with the surface or content message and the personality of the speaker.

Meaning is often sent nonverbally through body language.

It may augment or contradict verbal communication.
It is culturally influenced.

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Second Language Acquisition

In 2009, there were 5,346,673 ELL students in schools in the U.S.

School districts with the largest ELL enrollments include Los Angeles Unified, New York, and Chicago.

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English Language Learner Characteristics

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The Role of First Language in Second Language Acquisition

Most children acquire their first language naturally through constant interaction with their parents or significant others.

Knowledge of first language plays an important role in the process of acquiring and learning a second language.

ELL children should be allowed to develop a firm grasp of basic concepts in their home language prior to instruction of academic concepts in an English-only environment.

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Language Proficiency

Students generally need two years to acquire basic interpersonal communicative skills.

An additional five to seven years of school training is essential to develop cognitive academic language proficiency.

Power and status relationships between majority and minority groups may influence school performance of ELL students.

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Official English Controversy

Official English is a lobbying organization with a goal to make English the official language of the United States.

Their policies support very limited use of bilingual education.

Official English is a polarizing issue in many communities.

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Differentiating Instruction

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Language and Educational Assessment

Assessment bias against nonwhite students results in disproportionate representation in special education programs.

Many tests rely heavily on language skill and understanding, yet language proficiency levels of a student being tested are not always taken into account in test decisions or results.

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Bilingual Education

Bilingual Education is the use of two languages by students and/or teachers for instructional purposes.

The purpose of bilingual education is to help students who cannot understand lessons, instruction, and material in Standard English.

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Lau v. Nichols

In a unanimous decision, the Court stated:

“Under state-imposed standards, there was no equality of treatment...students who do not understand English are effectively foreclosed from any meaningful education.”

While not mandating bilingual education, the Supreme Court stipulated that special language programs were necessary if schools were to provide an equal educational opportunity to these students.

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Transitional Programs

Most bilingual programs are transitional, or a means of moving from the language most commonly used for communication in the home to mainstream U.S. language and culture.

The native language is gradually phased out as the student becomes more proficient in English.

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Dual-Language Immersion Programs

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English as a Second Language

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California Proposition 227

Proposition 227 was a state ballot initiative that voters passed in 1998, 61% to 39%.

The initiative was intended by its supporters to end bilingual education.

Proposition 227 requires all English Language Learners (ELL) to be educated in sheltered English immersion programs, normally not to exceed one year.