Review
Trueblue
Goldiamond1965.pdf
t employing specific ty of personality in- n. It may also be Ie forced-choice for-
ity inventoty. ]. appl.
on Personal Inventory.
utvey of Interpersonal
ication and eXtension.
: Harcourt, Brace &
:e personality test un. /Chol., 1956, 40, 258.
,I. Psychol., 1956,40,
Psychological Reports, 1965, 17, 851·868. © Southern Universities Press 1965 Monograph Supplement 3·V17
SELF·CONTROL PROCEDURES IN PERSONAL BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS 1
ISRAEL GOLDIAMOND2
Institute for Behavioral Research, Silver Spring, Md"
CONTENTS Mariral Case 1 . . .. .. .. .. . . .__...._. . ._______ 856 Marital Case 2 -0 -0 -0 .. • 859 Study Case 1: Handwriting . -0. ._______________________________________ 860 Smdy Case 2: Smdy Problem . . __ 863 References _. . . .. .. -0__ 868
Summary.-A rationale for the use of self·control procedures in counseling is presented, along with illustrative material from several case studies. Self· control, as used here, involves specification of rhe behavioral deficit or desired behaviors which are lacking, and having S himself set up or program the co~, tions which may produce the desired behavioral modification. The proced~ selected are extensions from laboratory research in operant modification of be· havior, and the counseling sessions may include training S in behavior analysis, with his own behaviors as the experimental data.
The present discussion is concerned with the application of self-control procedures to the solution of certain limited behavioral problems.
Often one person comes for help from another because he cannot cope with problems that face him. The appropriate behaviors are not available. The means by which the behavioral deficit can be overcome are varied. Simple instrtlctions often suffice, as when S cannot study because he does not have the assignment. On the other hand, S may not be able to study because he cannot allocate his time appropriately, because he daydreams at his desk, or because he engages in other behaviors ,,:l11ch come under the general heading of lack of self-contro!' In these cases, simple instructions will not remedy the deficit since S himself knows what it is. He has often tried to instruct himself to behave appropriately but with little success. Indeed, the numerous jokes surrounding New Year's resolutions indicate both the prevalence of the problem and the ineffectiveness of its instructional solution, whether imposed by others or by one's self in self- ,instruction.
The specific behavioral deficit, or presenting problem, is often parr of a larger context of deficits. Rather than trying to overcome the presenting deficit
'Paper presented at Eastern Psychological Association, April 23, 1965. Written under contract between the Office of the Surgeon General and the Washington School of Psychi· atry, DA-49·193·MD·2448. The views expressed herein are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect rhe views of either contracting agency. 2Research Career Development Award, 1963·1968, at the Institute for Behavioral Research. Also on appointment as Professor of Psychology, Arizona Srare University, Tempe. "Address for reprints: 2426 Linden Lane, Silver Spring, Maryland.
directly, the therapist may turn his attention to other, "deeper" behaviors or be- havioral deficits. In this case, the presenting problem is considered a symptom, by exactly the same defining operations that make a skin rash a symptom. Here, the dermatologist states that to get rid of the rash he will treat in addition some- thing else, possibly a blood imbalance, rather than only treating the rash itself (Goldiamond, Dyrud, & Miller, 1965). For example, we know of a woman who assumed a fetal posture for three days after an argument with her husband. She was restored to mobility by direct modification of this behavior. It can be argued that a woman who maintains control over her husband by such extreme behaviors is so lacking in more appropriate behaviors that her treatment will require considerably more than the two hours which restored her mobility. This case may be an example of treating a symptom, since behaviors other than the presenting complaint may also require modification. Ho~ng'.,-, problem can still be considered as a behavioral one: in this case, the absence of thos~behavlOrs whereby wives normally comror-melr1iu~ba:nds:---Yef this gen- eral deficit also~ treated directly, as in our research on stuttering wh~~ew-~ have, withm the labora:rory-;-repia:mt stuttering by fluent and rapid speech in 30 of 30 cases run thus far (Goldiamond, 1965b). Indeed, one of our stuttering patients, who had been suicidal, became able to read bedtime stories to her chil- dren at home, and certain other personal problems at home cleared up because her stuttering cleared up. Some of her other behaviors were accordingJx--symp- tomatic of stuttering (Goldiamond, 1965a), as w~ have defin~[ "symptom."
If there is a danger in premature assignment of behavioral deficits as symp- tomatic, there is also a danger in premature assumption that' the alteration of the presenting problem is the final solution. Further analysis in light of current knowledge will undoubtedly both modify and confirm practice in this area.
Classification of behavior as a problem for treatment or as a symptom may also be an economic or contractual matter. For example, in a marital problem, the presenting complaint may be cleared up in a shaft period of time, but other problems are sometimes uncovered which may require extensive treatment. At what point is the implicit contract between patient and therapist (d. Sulzer, 1962) to treat the marital behaviors extended to behaviors in other areas? The answer to this question must depend on the extent to which S can afford the treatment or can afford not to get it, that is, can do without it. It would be nice to have a new car when the present one seems to require extensive repairs, but there may be other considerations such as a piano or a child's education. For going to and from work, minor adjustments may be sufficient. The economy may also be behavioral: is it worth the upset?
The present discussion will be limited to cases where the concern was with a specified behavioral problem. These cases should be interpreted in the con- text of the foregoing discussion: namely, that the procedures used are not in-
852 I. GOLDIAMOND
tend othe
pro( the pro twe eov une cor ula wil wh St sel /)
;/ yo
'r!r cl(
I "j< --)
IX........ IS
m
a pi (
SI
tl t<
I(
a
c
eeper" behaviors or be- considered a symptom,
rash a symptom. Here, treat in addition some- treating the rash itself we know of a woman nent with her husband. lis behavior. It can be lsband by such extreme :hat her treatment will ,red her mobility. This ~haviors other than the i'{ever, the "underlyi~ :lis case, -the absence of rsbands. YeT this gen-_ on stuttering where we and rapid speech in 30 , one of our stuttering ime stories to her chil- me cleared up because "ere accordingly-symp_ tineH "symptom." "iotal deficits as symp- at' the alteration of the sis in light of current lcrice in this area. or as a symptom may
. in a marital problem, :iod of time, but other tensive treatment. At therapist (ct. Sulzer,
s in other areas? The hich S Can afford the t it. It would be nice extensive repairs, but hild's education. For icienr. The eCOnomy
the conCern was with Iterpreted in the con. ures useg are not in-
SELF·CONTROL PROCEDURES IN PERSONAL BEHAVIOR 853
tended to question other more extensive procedures, which may be necessary~o!-.., other kinds of behavioral deficits. \
The discussion will be concerned with self-control .(Skinner, 1953) and..-l.- procedures for its establishment. The procedures to be discussed cent~r around \ the position that behavior is not an emergent property of an organism or a property solely of its environment but is described by a f~mctional relatio~ ~e tween the two. More technically, given a specified behaVIOr B and a speCIfIed environmental variable x, a lawful relation can be found, such that B = f(x), under certain empirical constraining conditions c. This implies that when the constraints c are set up, and x is set at a stipulated value, then B will have a stip- ulated value, given by the value of B = f (x). When E sets x at that value, he will get the B stipulated. This defines the experimental control of behavior which has been demonstrated repeatedly in operant and other laboratories. When S himself sets x at that value, he will get his own B, as stipulated. This defines
. self-control.
V If you want a s~ecified behavior from yoJltself, set up tb~~7'~!J -you ~LcontroL.it.Jor example, if you cannot get up 1fi the mormng by ~ly resolving to do so and telling yourself that you must, buy and set an alarm
clock. Within this context, the Greek maxim, "Know thyself," ttaos!llli;,S-.IDJO
. -J.", "Know thy behaviors, know thy environme!!~nd kn9~~f1ctig~~L~<:1~~ism / ~ween the two:7Jt1iougntnereTat1on~tween an alarm clock and waking up
'is a simple andfu;;;iliar one, other relations are neither this simple nor this fa- miliar. There have, however, been'developed in laboratories of operant behavior a body of known functivnal relations between behavior, and programs and other procedures which can alter even more complex behavior systematically. Self- control derived from such research can take at least two forms. -One is to in- struct S to set up the procedures which change his environment and which thereby bring his behavior under different control. I shall present some cases to this effect. ~Another form is to train him in the functional analysis of behav- ior and have him try co determine for himself the procedures which he should apply. This approach will also appear in the following cases.
Inherent in both types of self-control is the problem posed by the tremen- dous gap between theory and practice. The same theory may dictate numerous alternative methods or solutions, but all may not be equally available, practical, or applicable. The operant EYadjgm. suggests that there are at least 12 different ways to maintain or attenuate behavior (d. Holz & Azrin, 1963). Which are appropriate to the problem?
One way for selecting effective practical measures is to have S report back to E every week with his results. This hour becomes a session for analysis of data and discussion of changes in procedure. In the laboratory, operant procedures are so arranged that relations between ongoing behavior and its conditions are con- tinuously observed and recorded. Through successes and failures, Es may learn
to analyze behavior and conditions and may develop a "feel" for their data, as do other behavioral practitioners in interaction with their subject matter, for exam- ple, skilled psychiatrists. Hopefully, such a program of systematic trial and anal- ysis will sensitize S to his own behavior and his own conditions. By training S in control procedures to the extent that these exist and are applicable, we are providing for self-enhancement and self-actualization (Rogers, 1951). Of the individuals who can apply control pro<;ed.!!res, S is the one most concerned with his behavior and is most in contact with it, its conditions, and its consequences. Initially E is the consultant, and eventually S becomes his own E. The procedures may be limited to Ss who are intellectually capable of such analysis or who are not otherwise incapacitated. Our Ss were mainly college students. Where sys- tematic training in behavior analysis was used, the sessions started with indi- vidual tutorials in behavior analysis, homework assignments from standard texts (Holland & Skinner, 1961), and readings. Given this intellectual base, we could move on to discussions of the problem in question.
Our first cases were referrals from clinical psychologists who felt that we should work on some of the simpler overt problems, while they tackled their deeper meanings. One of these was a young man who was overweight, and an- Otller was a girl who had difficulty studying.
{j/ These two problems yielded, for these Ss, to procedures involving !!.irnuluJ _ ;J1ltrol. The program with the young lady started with human engineering of fier (fe;k. Since she felt sleepy when she studied, she was told to replace a 40-w lamp with a good one and to turn her desk away from her bed. It was also de- cided that her desk was to control study behavior. If she wished to write a letter, she should do so but in the dining room; if she wished to read comic books, she should do so but in the kitchen; if she wished to daydream, she should do so but was to go to another room; at her desk she was to engage in her school work and her school work only.
This girl had previously had a course in behavioral analysis and said, "I know what you're up to. You want that desk to assume stimulus control over me. I'm not going to let any piece of wood run my life for me."
"On the contrary," I said, "you want that desk to run you. It is you who de- cides when to put yourself under the control of your desk. It is like having a sharpened knife in a drawer. You decide when to use it; but when you want it, it is ready."
After the first week of the regimen, she came to me and gleefully said, "1 spent only ten minutes at my desk last week."
"Did you study there," 1 asked. "Yes, I did," she said. "Good," I said, "let's try to double that next week." For the next few weeks we did not meet, but she subsequently reported that
854 1. GOLDIAMOND SELF-CON1
during the last month her desk for four wed When she sat at her c desk. The variable f- to an end was apparen
With regard to t withdrawal of reinfor, ----".. .-------- ~ood (Ferster, Le\ hidden; it is kept in ; the interests of the m
The initial strate havior under the cant stimulus. He was in: desire. He was, howe eari~while he watd to eating when he at plate and sit down ar sequences such as wa engaged in the beha\ span ding to the refrig sequences, as did gain studying, and other ~ behaviors and conditi man CUt out all eatin! to me. We then wo attending sessions. 1 slimmer and remarke' solve his problems. I
No claim is mad the Ss had no other p started out with the si have tried others. Se
An interesting a very short time Ss ran In some cases, 1 waul how clinical psycholo I attributed the tenur zade effect. Scheher, killed each bedmate : vious wife to all wom was not completed b) the rest of the story, a
)p a "feel" for their data, as do their subject matter, for exam- 1m of systematic trial and anal- lwn conditions. By training 5 ist and are applicable, we are tion (Rogers, 1951). Of the ; the one most concerned with nditions, and its consequences. 1es his own E. The procedures Ie of such analysis or who are college students. Where sys-
:he sessions started with indi- signments from standard texts this intellectual base, we could
lsychologists who felt that we 1ems, while they tackled their who was overweight, and an-
procedures involving stimulus----d with human engineering of ,he was told to replace a 40-w from her bed. It was also de- Jr. If she wished to write a if she wished to read comic
she wished to daydream, she desk she was to engage in her
,havioral analysis and said, "I assume stimulus control Over
1y life for me." to run you. It is you who de- our desk. It is like having a use it; but when you want it,
e to me and gleefully said, "I
k "e . ;he subsequently reported that
SELF-CONTROL PROCEDURES IN PERSONAL BEHAVIOR 855
during the last month of the semester she was able to spend three hours a day at her desk for four weeks in a row, something she had been unable to do previously. When she sat at her desk she studied, and when she did other things she left her desk. The variable maintaining this increase in behavior as the semester drew to an end was apparently the forthcoming final examinations.
With regard to the young man,,~l!9,Qyer;lt~,gi111,1lIusC:(Jn~r91,,chaining, apd withdr~walof reinforcement were used. The stimulus for overeating isnorlI)glly ~od7F~l"~rer, Levitt:ii·Yurnb;;r, 196i):-'I~'~;~~~it~re, food is normally hidden; 'it is kept in a refrigerator or cupboard. In the cafeteria, where it is in the interests of the management to get people to eat, food is exposed.
The ~iti~s,t!ategyfor~limming the I()tlflgl1la[l\V3ls.t(),~£i[}g.~is eating,be- havior under the c~~tl"oCof food'i[O'ne,sincefood is normallynot a"ailable as a sti~~'-H-;;-~~isOolnstructea to ~~t-toliisheart;s~conte~~-an{rn()tto '~~p~~~.th~ ~~i;~: ~He w~:ho;~~~;: ~~-;~e~;-f~~d~~ith-~h~~dig~itY i<deserved., ,~~!h~!_!I:~l1 eatingwhile he watchedtcle;ision.o~'WhHihe-st~dred,~h~-wa;to devote himself to'eai:lngwhen he at~.. If he-~ished-to'eat a sandwich, he was to put it on a pfare-andslt'aownand devote himself exclusively to it. ThllS, ,r~i.l1.forciflg con- seque[lces such as watchiIlg television or reading would be ;'ithd~~;~-when he e;;g~ged-'in the behaviors of pr~p~~i;g'-th~-food:eatIng~-;;d'-deanillg'up. lte-
~ponding to the r~frigerator in between meals resulted in withdrawal of such con- sequences, as did going to the refrigerator while watching television. Television, studying, and other stimuli would lose their control of initiating the chain of behaviors and conditions that terminated in eating. Within one week, the young man cue oue all eating between meals. "You've taken the fun out of it," he said to me. We then worked on the contents of the meals as well, and he stopped attending sessions. I met him about three months later; he was considerably slimmer and remarked that he needed neither me nor the clinical psychologist to solve his problems. He could handle them himself.
No claim is made that all problems should be treated in this manner, or that the 5s had no other problems. The aim was to alter the specified behavior. We started Out with the simplest procedures. Had these not been effective, we would have tried others. Some more complex cases will be presented next.
An interesting aspect of these and other cases as well was the fact that in a very short time 5s ran off by themselves to apply the procedures they had learned. In some cases, I would have preferred more extensive interchange and wondered how c1inica:I psychologists were able to keep 5s coming week after week. Finally, I attributed the tenure of the relationship to what might be called the Schehera- zade effect. Scheherazade, as you will recall, became the consort of a king who killed each bedmate after one night, having generalized the infidelity of a pre- vious wife to all women. Scheherazade told him a story on the first night, which was not completed by dawn. The king paroled her for the second night to hear the rest of the story, and having been reinforced, she repeated her behavior, The
schedule maintained such behavior for 1001 nights, and the result is known as the Arabian Nights.
Few things are more interesting and will Sustain behavior better than slip- part for talking about one's self; one is never finished in 50 minutes. Hence, such discussions may maintain therapy sessions and allow the therapist to interact with the patient Over an extended period of time. An individual tutorial may serve the same function.
1.5 0 u.J ~
-' :::J Vl
1.0 Vl D:: :::J 0 :I:
0.5
2.0
SELF·CONTR
F S S
we discussed a progran Tuesday, and another or
"Oh," he said, "YOll "On the concrary,"
environment where civ bowling alley."
I also asked if th would maintain itself. farming. He was then and to attach a $20 bill on Thursday, at which fully would continue in
Stimulus Control
Since in the absen was designed to reduce instructed to sulk to hi~ ever he felt like sulkin stool, and sulk and mu When he was through wife. He was instruct( each session. The graF as 7 hours on the preo
1. GOLDIAMOND856
MARITAL CASE 1 The husband in this case was a young man, 29, who was working on his
master's degree. His wife was taking my course in behavioral analysis, and they both decided that he should come to see me about their marriage, which both wanted to maintain. The issue, as S told me, was that his wife had committed the "ultimate betrayal" two years ago with S's best friend. Even worse, it was S who had suggested that the friend keep his wife company while he was in the library at night. Since that time, whenever he saw his wife, S screamed at her for hours on end or else was ashamed of himself for having done so and spent hours sulk- ing and brooding. Since the events that led to the "betrayal" were an occasion for bringing home the first lesson on the consequences of behavior, we started from there.
Relation of Behavior to Its Comequences
Early discussions concerned the analysis of behavior in terms of its conse- quences. S's behavior provided stimuli for his wife's behavior. If he wished his wife to behave differently to him, then he should provide other stimuli than the ones which produced the behaviors he did not like. There was considerable analysis of such interactions. This conceptualization of behavior was apparently new to S, who took detailed notes; I have discovered it to be new to many other Ss as well.
Stimulus Change
Altering the consequences of operant behavior will alter the behavior itself. However, this process may take a considerable amOunt of time. One o(the..m.ost rapid waysto change behavior is by altering the conditions under whicbiu,lsually ()c:c~lrs. This is calle(Lst~nlttlttLcJ:L4nge or the effects of novel stimuli. If the novel stimuli are then combined with new behavioral COntingencies designed to produce different behavior, these contingencies are apt to generate the new be. havior much more rapidly than they would in the presence of the old stimuli.
As part of the program of establishing new stimuli, S was instructed to reo arrange the use of rooms and furniture in his house to make it appear considerably different. His wife wenc one step further and took the occasion to buy herself a new outfit.
Establishment of New Behavi01"
Since it was impossible for S to converse in a civilized manner with his wife,
SELF·CONTROL PROCEDURES IN PERSONAL BEHAVIOR 857
F SSMTWTF SSMTWT FMTWT
1.5 0 L.W ~
-' ::::J V>
1.0 V> 0:: ::::J 0 :r:
O. 5
FIG. 1. Graph kept of sulking behavior
2.0
we discussed a program of going to one evening spot on Monday, another on Tuesday, and another on Wednesday.
"Oh," he said, "you want us to be together. We'll go bowling on Thursday." "On the contrary," I said, "I am interested in your subjecting yourself to an
environment where civilized chit-chat is maintained. Such is not the case at a bowling alley."---
I also asked if there were any topic of conversation which once started would maintain itself. He commented on his mother-in-law's crazy ideas about farming. He was then given an index card and instructed to write "farm" on it and to attach a $20 bill to that catd. The $20 was to be used to pay the waitress on Thursday, at which point he was to start the "farm" discussion which hope- fully would continue into the taxi and home.
Stimulus Control
Since in the absence of yelling at his wife S sulked and since the program was designed to reduce yelling, S's sulking was in danger of increasing. S was instructed to sulk to his heart's content but to do so in a specified place. When- ever he felt like sulking, he was to go into the garage, sit on a special sulking stool, and sulk and mutter over the indignities of life for as long as he wished. When he was through with his sulking, he could leave the garage and join his wife. He was instructed to keep a daily record of such behavior and bring it to each session. The graph is presented in Fig. 1. Sulking time had been reported as 7 hours on the preceding day, and, with occasional lapses, it was reported as
behavior better than sup- d in 50 minutes. Hence, IW the therapist to interact .n individual tutorial may
or in terms of its Conse- behavior. If he wished rovide other stimuli than
There was considerable behavior was apparently
to be new to many other
I the result is known as the
who was working on his lavioral analysis, and they eir marriage, which both is wife had committed the Even worse, it was S who hile he was in the library screamed at her for hours so and spent hours sulk-
etrayal" were an occasion s of behavior, we started
d manner with his wife,
alter the behavior itself. f time. QQ~_2bhe.J.:ggst lS.l.11ldeLwhich it :usually If novel stimuli. If the Jntingencies designed to to generate the new be- ence of the old stimuli. , S was instructed to re- (e it appear considerably occasion to buy herself
dropping to less than 30 minutes before disappearing entirely. The reported re- versals and drops were occasions for discussions.
Since the bedroom had been the scene of both bickering and occasional lapses, the problem was presented of changing its stimulus value when conjugality was involved. If this could be done consistently, eventually the special stimuli might come to control such behavior. The problem was to find a stimulus which could alter the room entirely and would be easy to apply and withdraw. Finally, a yellow night light was put in, was turned on when both felt amorous, and was kept turned off otherwise. This light markedly altered the perceptual configura- tion of the room.
Records Daily notes of events were kept in a notebook, as was the graph. S took
notes of the discussions with E. These notes were discussed at each weekly session.
One of the notions which S held very strongly was that his wife's behavior stemmed from some inaccessible source within her, and that many of his own behaviors likewise poured out from himself. In this context, the final sharp rise in the sulking curve was discussed. "The whole procedure won't work," he said, "my wife doesn't need me as much as I need her." The psychiatric message was that he had no control over his wife, but I chose to ignore this message in favor of a didactic one on the behavioral definition of needs. He was asked how he knew what his wife's needs were. Was he an amoeba slithering into her tissues and observing tissue needs? Was he a mind reader? After my repeated rejec- tion of subjective definitions of needs, he redefined the problem behaviorally, namely, that his wife behaved a certain way less than he did. He said that stated this way it sounded silly, but I said, "No, it's a problem to you and not silly."
What were these behaviors? They apparently included such dependency behaviors as asking him to do things for her. "When was the last time she asked you to do something for her?" I asked. He replied that the previous day she had asked him to replace a light bulb in the kitchen. Had he done so, I asked. "No," he said. He was then asked to consider the extinction of pigeon behavior and took notes to the effect that, if he wished his wife to act helpless, he should reinforce dependency by doing what she asked.
A discussion on needs and personality ensued. "If by personality all that is meant is my behavior," he said, "then my personality changes from one moment to the next, because my behavior changes," he stated.
"1 should hope so," 1 said. "Well, what is my true personality, what is the true me?" he asked. "Do you have a true behavior?" 1 asked. He reported this as a viewpoint he had never considered; his previous train-
ing had been in terms of being consistent to his self, and of searching for "thine own self (to which he could) be true." He took extensive notes.
858 1. GOLDIAMOND SELF·CC
The next we( have never done 1: manage my studen allow myself to be I went to the gara one-year's guarant' scrapper. She can should I have to 1: tradespeople I don
These weekI: After the initial 1 was taking the cc tered around beha
During the ( hood and was SUIT
"Shouldn't I of the things thai
"Look," I sai next day, a farmt in 1963. What c
"The farmer "Wrong," I
day. Had they 1 Let's discuss the
At the end ners were able to
This case cc their sexual relat a year. Both hu were professiona their friends an< to maintain the marital relatiom might carry itst
Husband a Both were instrl each other, sinct
Various pr was repulsed. husband fell asl. "I am at my wil
ltirely. The reported re-
bickering and occasional 1S value when conjugality tually the special stimuli to find a stimulus which
1 and withdraw. Finally, ,th felt amorous, and was the perceptual configura-
was the graph. 5 took !iscussed at each weekly
; that his wife's behavior d that many of his own Hext, the final sharp rise lre won't work," he said, psychiatric message was
)re this message in favor He was asked how he
lithering into her tissues After my repeated rejec- Ie problem behaviorally, did. He said that stated ) you and not silly." :luded such dependency 1 was the last time she ~d that the previous day en. Had he done so, 1 :he extinction of pigeon his wife to act helpless,
I. by personality all that is lUges from one moment
me?" he asked.
ered; his previous train- t of searching for "thine nsive notes.
SELF-CONTROL PROCEDURES IN PERSONAL BEHAVIOR 859
The next week he came in and stated: "1 did something last week that I have never done before in my life. When I teach in classrooms I am able to manage my students, but when 1 talk to tradespeople 1 find I am very timid and allow myself to be cheated. Well, last week my carburetor gave out. I knew if I went to the garage they would make me buy a new one even though I have a one-year's guarantee. I sent my wife down to the garage instead~ She is a real scrapper. She came back with a new carburetor. It didn't COSt us a cent. Why should I have to be all things to all men? In school I control things, but with tradespeople I don't. So what?"
These weekly sessions continued during ten weeks of the summer term. After the initial training, 5 was assigned homework along with his wife who was taking the course in behavior analysis. The weekly discussions were cen- tered around behavioral analysis and how it might apply to his problems.
During the course of one of the sessions, 5 started to talk about his child- hood and was summarily cut off.
"Shouldn't I talk about this with a psychologist?" he asked. "Isn't this one of the things that interests you? Doesn't it affect me now?"
"Look," I said, "a bridge with a load limit of three tons opens in 1903. The next day, a farmer drives eighteen tons over it; it cracks. The bridge collapses in 1963. What caused the collapse?"
"The farmer in 1903," he said. "Wrong," I said. "The bridge collapses in 1963 because of the cracks that
day. Had they been filled in the preceding day, it would not have collapsed. Let's discuss the cracks in your marriage."
At the end of the period, there was no sulking in the garage and the part- ners were able to commune.
MARITAL CASE 2
This case concerned a young couple who had been married almost 10 years; their sexual relations throughout marriage had been limited to about two contacts a year. Both husband and wife ascribed the difficulty to the husband. Both 5s were professionals, intelligent, were socially well at ease, and highly regarded by their friends and the community. They were Roman Catholic and determined to maintain the marriage, but the wife thought she might be driven into extra- marital relations. Both felt that, if only they could get started, the behavior might carry itself.
Husband and wife were seen separately every week, for one hour each. Both were instructed to discuss with me only that which they could discuss with each other, since 1 woUld make constant cross reference between the two sessions.
Various procedures were assayed by 5s, but proved ineffective. Fondling was repulsed. Playboy was recommended to initiate amorous activity, but the husband fell asleep reading it. During the lesson on deprivation, the wife stated: "I am at my wit's end as to how to shape his behavior. I don't know what rein-
forcements I have. The charaCteristic of good reinforcement is that it can be applied immediately and is immediately consumed. I could withhold supper, but that is not a good reinforcer because I can't turn it off and on. I can't apply deprivation, because that's my problem. I don't know what to do."
The husband was a rising business execlltive who took evening courses and whose time was so tight that he had to schedule almost every minllte of his day. We discussed the possibility of his scheduling his wife in the appointment book for two evenings a week. He thought this might work, but his wife was a bit more dubious. These appointments were kept two weeks in a row, but then lost their control. We then discussed the nature of the control over behavior exerted by discriminative stimuli, of which instructions are one example (Goldiamond, in press). There were differential consequences attached to keeping and not keeping the business appointments, but no differential consequences had been attached to meeting or not meeting appointments with his wife. Hence, the in- structions lost their control (Ayllon & Azrin, 1964).
Both 5s were extremely well-groomed. Their clothing was always in best array. The wife visited the beautician once a week and the husband went to the barber every other week. In the session following the failure of control by the appointment book, the husband suggested that they might attach the opportunity to visit the beautician or barber as consequences to keeping the appointments. In the event that the appointments were not kept, the visits would not be allowed and could be resumed only when the appointments had been kept. His wife also felt that this would be extremely effective.
The next week, both showed up somewhat bedraggled. Thereafter, they were not bedraggled and the appointments were kept for the rest of that semes- ter, at least.
As an incidental effect of the sessions, 5s attempted to apply behavioral anal- ysis to other problems as well. They mentioned a staff party which had been held at their home. The behavior of an inefficient secretary was being discussed.
"But you're using aversive control," one of the participants said. "Well, she has no behaviors that I can reinforce her for," was the answer.
STUDY CASE 1: HANDWRITING -5 was a seventeen-year-old high school senior of normal intelligence, who
was 28th in a class of 28 and whose handwriting waS illegible. He was a re- ferral from a school psychologist.
An example of his early handwriting is given in Fig. 2. Lettered lines of translation alternate with cursive lines of handwriting. During the first session, I asked 5 to sit at my desk and write from diCtation. He leaned forward to write but no part of his hand or arm tOuched paper or desk; the entire force of his shoulder and arm was transmitted to the pencil point, making fine comrol im- possible. Since the primary grades, no one had ever observed his writing behav-
860 1. GOLDIAMOND SELl
FIG. 2
ior; they had, h on the table an simple physics \ carbon paper, a: he would go th was instructed t(
At a later familiar, "Now paper is lined, a The writing bel
FIG. 3. Slin as preceding letter
:ement is that it can be uld withhold supper, but = and on. I can't apply what to do." oak evening courses and every minute of his day. n the appointment book , but his wife was a bit :s in a row, but then lost 01 over behavior exerted example (Goldiamond,
Jed to keeping and not consequences had been
lis wife. Hence, the in-
ling was always in best :he husband went to the ailure of control by the t attach the opportunity ping the appointments. ts would not be allowed ~en kept. His wife also
~gled. Thereafter, they . the rest of that semes-
o apply behavioral anal- party which had been
lry was being discussed. :ipants said. r for," was the answer.
)rmal intelligence, who [legible. He was a re~
g. 2. Lettered lines of )uring the first session, .eaned forward to write the entire force of his aking fine COntrol im- 'ved his writing behav-
SELF-CONTROL PROCEDURES IN PERSONAL BEHAVIOR 861
FIG. 2. Sample of initial handwriting; translation appears above line
ior; they had, however, criticized its product. I instructed him to keep his arm on the table and to "manipulate his pencil from the wrist and fingers. Some simple physics were explained to him. Sheets of onion skin were interlaced with carbon paper, and he was given exercises requiring modulation of force so that he would go through five sheets, four sheets, three sheets, and twO sheets. He was instructed to print.
At a later session, his letter' size being erratic, he was asked to letter the familiar, "Now is the time ..." phrase. Fig. 3 presents that initial attempt. The paper is lined, and the writing starts out filling up the space between the lines. The writing becomes smaller and smaller. This tendency can be traced to the
n() W IS TA ~Jj'm ~ ALL. Cd 00 d m e,,-ro c..oY\""\e"To
the 0. de or:: ,ho.tr ParTy. FIG. 3. Stimulus control of ensuing letter size by writing T as capital of same size
as preceding letter
FIG. 4. Reversal of effect by writing T above line
letter T. In all cases, T is the same size as the preceding letters, and is also a capital. Since capital letters are followed by small letters, these Ts control the size of the small letters that follow them. The first T in the second line pro- duces a row of smaller letters following it, and the first T in the third line takes off from this size and again cutS down the size of the following letters until the final T produces a tinier Y. S was instructed to write his Ts so that they were larger than the preceding letters. Fig. 4 reiterates the control this letter had over the following letters. The letters which follow T are smaller than T, but since T is above the line they stay within the line. The effect has been reversed, dem- onstrating a causal relation. Incidentally, since T is the second most frequently used letter in English, it is a powerful source of control. In the later session, S was instructed to differentiate between capital and small T.
The passage presented is the same as that in Fig. 2. The change in legibility is evident. The numerous spelling errors are of interest. As long as the writing is undecipherable, spelling errors cannot be noted and corrected.
Many letters contain similar forms. For example, the letters a, b, d, 0, p, and q all contain a complete circle of the same size. These circles are modified in letters such as c and e. S was instructed to bring an assortment of buttons to the
were not ev( curves for t 'I wish to ex! ogy major, wI
session and ; buttons for He practice, tering, S wa
His ha 28th in his, home paid used, S' s hal pay was drc was'now Cal not have pr. upon a pro! and may res sistently obI can be appli requirement at home. I-
Several of the beha\ end product the behavioJ that merely sequences w consequence Penalizing I- that behavic
This G his academi< for advice. himself und parents wer, ties. S was
Shad studying wa earlier. A c each course ;
At that
1. GOlDIAMOND862
eceding letters, and is also a . letters, these Ts control the st T in the second line pro- first T in the third line takes he following letters until the rite his Ts so that they were Ie control this letter had over e smaller than T, but since T feet has been reversed, dem- ; the second most frequently urol. In the later session, S ;mall T. . 2. The change in legibility rest. As long as the writing lOd corrected. e, the letters a, b, d, 0, p, and hese circles are modified in assortment of buttons to the
above line
SELF·CONTROL PROCEDURES IN PERSONAL BEHAVIOR 863
session and a suitable burton was found for him to use for these letters, with other buttons for other letters. He was also instructed in other principles of writing. He practiced at home and brought his material in weekly. After a period of let- tering, S was instructed to link his letters in an effort to produce cursive writing.
His handwriting improved markedly during this period, and he rose from 28th in his class to 13th. The undergraduate assistant4 who worked with him at home paid him money for lines completed and, as long as this procedure was used, S's handwriting was legible and showed evidence of training. When this pay was dropped, the handwriting deteriorated. Although legible handwriting was'now contingent upon reinforceme~, differential reinforcement alone would not have produced the new behavior. Indeed, without making them contingent upon a program to alter behavior, differential consequences may be ineffective and may result in aversive control, as did theflaggiag and the poor grades he con- sistently obtained. Now that S has the new behavior, differential consequences can be applied to maintain it; hopefully, these will be provided by society. The requirement of extrinsic consequences was probably related to difficult conditions at home. He had no desk or work place, and he lived alone with his mother.
Several conclusions can be drawn from this case. One is that observation of the behavior itself mayan occasion be far more useful than observation of its end product. Another is that behavior may be controlled by the very stimuli that the behavior itself produces, as in the size of the letters following T. A third is t!:lat merely establishing a behavior will not necessarily maintain it. The con- sequences which maintain it must be considered, bur as a fourth conclusion, these consequences should often be related to a program of behavioral modification. Penalizing his poor writing behavior, as his teachers had done, did not eliminate that behavior. It did, however, bring him in for treatment.
STUDY CASE 2: STUDY PROBLEM This case involved a junior in college who was being expelled because of
his academic record. Inasmuch as I had given him one of his Ds, he came to me for advice. I told him that I would try to get him reinstated, providing he put himself under my control. He agreed and was given a conditional year. S's parents were professionals. Two siblings were at prominent Eastern universi- ties. S was alert, and his IQ tests were within the range of college populations.
S had never actually studied. Accordingly, a self-control regimen for studying was introduced following some of the procedures which were discussed earlier. A daily record was kept of the total number of hours spent in study, for each course and for the total day.
At that time, S studied for an average of six hours a day, but his study hours were not evenly distributed among the various classes. Fig. 5 presents the study curves for two different courses. The upper curve depicts minimal studying, 'I wish to express my appreciation to Mr. Richard David, then an undergraduate psychol- ogy major, who brought S to and from sessions and assisted in them.
FIG. S. Daily study charts for class with one examination (upper), and class with daily recitations (lower)
This m~ Many behavi· maintenance.
At the er three Es of thl an improveme this much sruc tailed analysis
S was tak raphy is requi~ to draw a mal extends from nated Lake Mi
I asked S at it confident 20 per cent. with history, I of map-readir which have to
\
SEL1. GOLDIAMOND 864
except for one peak. [Guess when the test was given!] This fixed interval curve characterizes the behavior of pigeons as well. The lower patt of the curve repre- sents the studying pattern for a language class which involved a daily recitation. S studied at regular intervals. These curves so impressed me that I instituted daily quizzes in my classes and was gratified to see the averages rise.
Every week S brought his notebooks, his examinations, and his weekly rec- ords for inspection and discussion. Different procedures for keeping notes were developed for each course. In the foreign language, for example, a separate sheet was kept for masculine and feminine nouns and for each verb class. Grammati- cal classes represent similar ways of treating a word. By putting words of the same grammatical class together, there may be generalization from the changes learned for one word to the changes learned for another. Flash cards which are uniform may not lend themselves to such generalization.
S was taught to outline social science texts. He was asked to be a detective and resurrect the author's outline (where he had one). Red and black ink were used for headings and entries. The outlines were topical rather than sentence outlines. This required restating the sentences in his words, rather than copy- ing them from the book.
In English, we were both at a loss. Several novels were required, and neither one of us knew what should be considered. We used the conventional pro- cedure to find our, namely, the first exam. This told us what the instructor con- sidered to be the terminal behaviors.
FIG. 6. Map of South America drawn from memory by college junior tak- ing a course in international trade
SELF.CONTROL PROCEDURES IN PERSONAL BEHAVIOR 865
j:c. This map may be used to exemplify a behavioral definition of stupidity.
Many behaviors require other behaviors as prerequisites for their acquisition and maintenance. It is possible that, in one form of stupidity, the prerequisites to
At the end of the first semester, 5's grades changed from the two Ds and three Es of the preceding semester to two CS and twO Ds. Although this was an improvement, one class was dropped. I was disturbed since I felt that, with this much study and careful outlining, 5 should have obtained As. A more de-
tailed analysis was then undertaken. 5 was taking a course in international trade, for which a knowledge of geog-
raphy is requisite. He said that he knew his geography quite well and was asked to draw a map of South America. Fig. 6 represents the map he drew. Brazil extends from sea to shining sea. The body of water above Venezuela is desig- nated Lake Maracaibo, and Bolivia is north of Peru and abuts on Venezuela.
I asked 5 what grade he would assign himself for this map, and he looked at it confidently and said, "Oh, 75 per cem or a c." I said that I would give him 20 per cent. Incidentally, in work with other 5s since then who have trouble with history, I have often found that they lack knowledge of geography, and even of map-reading. Accordingly, historical movements become disconnected facts which have to be learned for each case.
!] This fixed interval curve wer part of the curve repre· involved a daily recitation.
lressed me that I instituted he averages rise.
.arion (upper), and class with
lations, and his weekly rec· ues for keeping notes were )r example, a separate sheet 'ach verb class. Grammati·
By putting words of the 'alization from the changes iler. Flash cards which are n. was asked to be a detective I . Red and black ink were )pical rather than sentence .s words, rather than copy·
; were required, and neither lsed the conventional pro- us what the instructor con·
the attempted behavior are absent, as well as those discriminative behaviors which differentiate the presence of adequate behaviors from their absence. Stated other- wise, the person we call stupid is lacking certain behaviors but behaves as if he is not so lacking. He does not know to ask. He confidently undertakes assign- ments and often starts out successfully. However, where the new behaviors re- quire older ones and these are missing, we may obtain the egregious blunders we call stupid. The blunders may be unpredictable to us simply because, in a long sequence, there are too many places in which deficits can occur for us to have come across everyone.
These behavioral deficiencies were found in one area after another. Since 5 was taking courses which had as prerequisites other courses, which he had passed with Ds, he was being required to acquire new behaviors when the pre- requisite foundation for them was rather shaky. Accordingly, we "regressed" to the freshman texts in those courses in which he had obtained a D.
But there were deficiencies here, as well. In the economics texts, Humpty- Dumpty was quoted to the the effect that words meant what he intended them to mean. The point here was that the economist's use of words might differ from their common usage. Humpty-Dumpty appeared in red in 5's notes. S knew that Humpty-Dumpty was an egg who fell. I asked why the egg led his paragraph and could obtain no answer. It turned our that 5 had not read Alice in W onderlatzd, nor any of the childhood classics, nor for that matter Tom-Swifl, nor even comic books. He simply did no home reading as a child.
I had obtained excellent control over 5's behavior, but this was like success- fully getting someone to work six hours a day copying Chinese letters with a brush, without his ever having learned how to hold a brush or what the signifi- cant calligraphic nuances were. I suggested a program of visiting the art gal- leries, listening to concerts, reading the classics, and otherwise acquiring the be- haviors relevant to our cultural heritage.
There are two types of behavioral sequences. In one type of sequencc, called the chaining sequence, a chain of behavior is maintained by the consc- quences attached to the last element in the chain. Thus, Lundin (1961) reports a rat who went through various behavioral gyrations, then up five stories and down an elevator. All of these behaviors were maintained by the food he [c- ceived at the end. In this type of sequence, the order of training is the reVeni' of the chronological order in which the sequence of behavior is performed. The pressing of the lever for food was established first. This was made contingent upon manipulation of the elevator. Then the ride in the elevator was made COll- tingent upon the preceding step and so on. The emire chain was maintained by the food. Thus, if the product of education is not reinforcing, the behav- iors which lead to it may not be maintained. Chaining was also exemplified in the weight reduction case, when watching television no longer served as a COll- sequence of going to open the refrigerator.
866 1. GOLDIAMOND
Anod exemplifie, to a course upon the 1 depends UI algebra, w( of socializ. subjects bu sible, for e: the existen the existen.
Stated
~~i;~~a~ consider se ~h. ~
,§ion of chil The c
though the functional similar. T marital or : differences these are c pecking ar, quences wI- fering beh, It is upon t environmer tory to the for research
The G control pre earlier, the) cedures (fo we are curt ing that tht and describ other form~
'Research be 2448 betweel and the Was tion between
riminative behaviors which heir absence. Stated other- 'iors but behaves as if he is fidently undertakes assign- Jere the new behaviors re- lin the egregious blunders to us simply because, in a eficits can occur for us to
area after another. Since ler courses, which he had If behaviors when the pre- )rdingly, we "regressed" to btained a D. economics texts, Humpty-
nt what he intended them use of words might differ 'ed in red in S's notes. S asked why the egg led his : that S had not read Alice for that matter To.JJLSwift, ling as a child. " but this was like success- tng Chinese letters with a brush or what the signifi-
lm of visiting the art gal- therwise acquiring the be-
In one type of sequence, maintained by the conse-
LIS, Lundin (961) reports , then up five stories and ttained by the food he re- : of training is the rev~rse :havior is performed. The This was made contingent :he elevator was made con- tire chain was maintained ot reinforcing, the behav- ling was also exemplified no longer served as a can-
SELF-CONTROL PROCEDURES IN PERSONAL BEHAVIOR 867
Another type of sequence, which we shall call the systematic sequence, is exemplified in the case of this student. A systematic sequence can be compared to a course or an educational curriculum; the acquisition of one behavior depends upon the prior existence of another, just as the acquisition of new knowledge depends upon a grasp of other presupposed knowledge. Thus, in order to learn algebra, we must know how to read. In order to learn to read, a certain degree of socialization must first occur. Such curricula exist not only in academic subjects but are implicit in other types of behavior as well. It is entirely pos- sible, for example, that certain behaviors necessary for marital success presuppose the existence of other interpersonal behaviors, whose acgpisition depends upon the existence of yet other behaviors.
Stated otherwtse;there ~behl1yioral curricula involved in almost all be-
~viors ....W.. h...e.re the present-beh~vioral deficitexists-b~t~;~~~~I;;~:havior:J W!S not acqmr~,_aErocedu.t:ewh1Ch attempts to correct the ongoms defiCit must consider some of the earlier deficits of which the present one may be an out- ~:--wheV this is true, in contrast to the first marital case presented,~ '»pn of childhood may be necessary.
The cases presented here have involved different behavioral deficits. Al- though the content or the topography of these and other behaviors differs, the functional relations of such differing behaviors to their environment may be similar. This may be true not only when the differences are in such categories as marital or academic, both of which involve human behavior, but also where the differences categorize species. Pigeons peck and people talk. Topographically these are different behaviors. However, if the consequences which maintain pecking are sched~led in a 'certain manner and the (quite different) conse- quences which maintain speech are scheduled in the same manner, then the dif- fering behaviors of pecking and speech will undergo similar changes in rate. It is upon this functional, or dynamic, similarity in the relation of behavior to its environment that the possibility of the extension of procedures from the labora- tory to the clinic rests. It also suggests that problems in the clinic may be used for research in the laboratory.
The cases presented here demonstrate a simple application of certain self- control procedures derived from the laboratory. As was explicitly indicated earlier, they are not intended to supplant or question other more complex pro- cedures (for a more extended analysis see Goldiamond, et al., 1965). However, we are currently examining some of these complex procedures and are discover- ing that the explicit language of the laboratory may be very useful in analyzing and describing some of the behavioral transactions and changes that go on in other forms of psychotherapy (Goldiamond, Dyrud, & Miller, 1965).5 Devel-
'Research being performed under Contracts DA-49-193-MD-2628 and DA-49-193-MD- 2448 between the Office of the Surgeon General and the Institute for Behavioral Research and the Washington School of Psychiatry, respectively. These projects involve collabora- tion between Jad Dyrud, M.D., Miles Miller, M.D., and the author.
"1 am indebted to Jar! Dyrud for this observation.
REFERENCES AYLLON, T., & AZRIN, N. H. Reinforcement and instructions with mental patients.
expo Anal. Behav., 1964,7,327-331. FERSTER, C B., NURNBERGER, ].1., & LEVITT, E. B. The control of eating. ]. Matheli(l.
1962,1,87-109. GOLDIAMOND, 1. Justified and unjustified alarm over behavioral control. In O. Milton
(Ed.), Behavior disorders: perspectives and trends. Philadelphia: Lippincott. 1965. Pp.237-262. (a)
GOLDIAMOND, 1. Stuttering and fluency as manipulable operant response classes. In 1. Krasner and 1. P. Ulmann (Eds.), Research in behavior modification. Nt"" York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston, 1965. Pp.106-156. (b)
GOLDIAMOND, 1. Perception, language, and conceptualization rules. In B. Kleinmtll1l1 (Ed.), Cognition symposium: problem solving. New York: Wiley, in press.
GOLDIAMOND, 1., DYRUD, ]., & MILLER, M. Practice as research in professional psych,,1 og;y. Canad. Psychologist, 1965, Ga, 11 0-128.
HOLLAND, ]. G., & SKINNER, B. F. The analysis of behavior. New York: McGr,,,,
~ '1 --~ -
C=~W..C, & ~. H. ~ comparison of several procedures for eliminating I", ---~Behat., 1963,6,399-406.
LUNDIN, R. W. Personality: an experimental approach. New York: Macmillan, ]<)1>1 ROGERS, C B. Client-centered therapy. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1951.
·).;KINNER, B. F. Scj§1l--'.Lf!!lj,~--beb-avi-or. New York: Macmillan, 1953. SULZER, E. S. Reinforcement and the therapeutic contract. ]. consult. Psychol., 1')I •.',
9,271-276.
Accepted October 27, 1965.
opments in other areas where explicit analysis is utilized may be considered for their relevance to psychotherapy, and psychotherapy, by a reverse lend-lease, may suggest areas for study under more controlled procedures (Goldiamond, in press) .
LaboratOry research has necessarily been characterized by a simplicity of pro- cedures and concepts, and their extension to the solution of complex human problems requires considerable precaution and careful examination. Neverthe- less, these procedures and concepts may provide methods for the analysis and re- statement of complex problems in observable and manipulable terms and may thereby assist in the explicit assessment of behavioral change and effectiveness.
The cases presented here involve behavioral problems which could be an- alyzed by 5s themselves. This training of 5 to become his own therapist is one of the goals of most branches of psychotherapy. The method used to accomplish this will depend on the state of the art, the nature of the problem, S's past history, and social and other constraints upon 5's behavior. In some cases, these factors may dictate a strategy of not instructing S, or not having him define the problem or discover its solution immediately, since such a procedure may disrup! other behaviors and the consequences currently maintaining themY The course of treatment might then be considerably different from any of those discussed here. Other problems and possible procedures could be cited as well. But the cases presented here suggest that, in some areas at least, simple procedures call lead to complex changes.
Rl 23-hr. j tion sel ules to fort & adjust 1 howevf water f prived veals nt to have Es fail water r schedul· ditions. water d of time.
Th were id gether. the basi schedull For Gre during t Measun P.M., at
All riod for
ROBEl
aff 5s 30
'This res College. "Now at 1
Psy.
AD]l SeRE]
1. GOLDIAMOND868
