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Chapter 2

Chapter 2 Beginnings of English America, 1607–1660

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• England and the New World

• The Coming of the English

• Settling the Chesapeake

• The New England Way

• New Englanders Divided

• Religion, Politics, and Freedom

Armada Portrait of Queen Elizabeth I

Give Me Liberty!: An American History, 4th Edition

Queen Elizabeth I was queen of England from 1558 to 1603, the period now

referred to as the Elizabethan period. It is believed this painting was done in

1588. This painting was clearly intended to convey power, authority, and

England’s interest in exploring and colonizing other parts of the world. There

are ships in the background and a globe under her hand. Placing the globe

under her hand suggests her nation, under her rule, is dominant over other

European powers.

England and the New

World: History

• Unifying the English

Nation

• England and Ireland

In the sixteenth century, England was a second-rate power in Europe

weakened by internal divisions, especially those between Catholics and

Protestants once King Henry VIII launched the Protestant Reformation in

England by severing the nation from the Catholic Church and establishing the

Church of England, or Anglican Church, with himself at its head. Queen

Elizabeth I, who ruled from 1558 to 1603, finally secured the power of the

Anglican Church and successfully defended England from its Catholic enemies

on the continent, notably the Spanish, whose attempt in 1588 to invade by a

massive armada was repulsed.

Well into the 1600s, the English also attempted to subdue Ireland and its

Catholic population, in part through military conquest and colonization. The

English expelled Irish Catholics from land to make room for Protestant

settlements, called “plantations.” The cultural practices and ideas that defined

England’s colonization of Ireland shaped its conquest of North America.

Portrait of Mary Tudor

Mary Tudor, the queen who tried to restore Catholicism in England.

Give Me Liberty!: An American History, 4th Edition

Queen Mary Tudor was the first ruling queen of England. She was the ruling

queen from 1553 until her death in 1558. She was the only surviving child of

King Henry VIII and Queen Catherine. After taking power, she wanted

England to once again become a Catholic nation. She instituted policies that

persecuted Protestants and ultimately, over 300 Protestants were burned alive

for heresy, which is how she came to be known as “bloody Mary.”

England and the New World: North

America: Spreading Protestantism

Only under Queen Elizabeth’s reign did the English look to North America,

although at first they were more interested in raiding Spanish cities and

treasure fleets than colonization. Their first two colonies in Newfoundland and

what became North Carolina were small efforts that quickly failed.

Like the Spanish, however, national glory, profit, and religious mission defined

English interest in the New World. The Reformation and Protestant England’s

increasing rivalry with and enmity toward the Catholic Spanish empire helped

the English see their presence in North America as a way to liberate the New

World and its Indians from what many in England believed was a uniquely evil

and tyrannical Spanish Catholic empire. The English saw their empire as a

very different empire of freedom.

England and the New

World: Social Problems

• The Social Crisis

• Masterless Men

Other advocates of colonization argued that North America would absorb

England’s “surplus” population in a period of economic crisis and population

growth. Colonization would drain away the urban poor and peasants who had

been evicted from their own lands and the commons by the “enclosures” of

large landlords, and who seemed to English elites to threaten social order and

stability. Under Henry VIII and Queen Elizabeth I, the unemployed could be

whipped, branded, hanged, or even forced to labor. Voluntary or involuntary

emigration to the New World seemed an alternative that would simultaneously

benefit the poor and the English nation.

In turn, images of America such as that which appeared in Thomas More’s

Utopia promoted the New World as a place of wealth and opportunity where

men could escape the hierarchies and inequalities of Europe, gain economic

independence by owning land, and rule themselves. These images appealed

to ordinary Englishmen and encouraged them to risk migration to America.

Colonists Hunting and

fishing

An engraving by Theodor de Bry depicts colonists hunting and fishing in Virginia. Give Me Liberty!: An American History, 4th Edition

Engraving of Gin Lane

William Hogarth’s well-known engraving Gin Lane Give Me Liberty!: An American History, 4th Edition

This illustration is one of many aimed at highlighting the dangers of drinking

gin. The goal of such illustrations was to get laws passed regulating the

production and sale of gin and later other forms of alcohol. Notice the woman

on the steps, with a child falling down. The implication is that alcohol leads to

neglect and inappropriate behavior. There are several examples in this

illustration of how this artist believes gin leads to poor health, bad behavior and

dangerous situations.

The Coming of

the English:

Emigration

*English Emigrants

*Indentured Servants

*Land and Liberty

Emigration was risky. Diseases, internal religious, political, and economic tensions, and

imperial wars and conflicts with Indians all threatened harm or death. Dependent on England

for protection and economic aid, most settlements would have collapsed without such support

and further emigration. Because economic conditions in England were so bad, more migrants

in the seventeenth century—more than half a million—left England than in France or Spain.

Most of the English who came to North America were young, single men from the lower ranks

of English society, and they settled in the tobacco-producing colonies of Virginia and Maryland,

where labor demand was high, while the rest settled in New England and the middle colonies

of New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania.

Settlers who could afford their own passage arrived as free persons, and soon acquired land.

In the 1600s, however, most Englishmen arrived as indentured servants, who voluntarily

surrendered their freedom for a period of time (often five to seven years) in exchange for

passage to America. Servants were as unfree as slaves in some ways: they could be bought

and sold, could not marry without their owner’s permission, were subject to physical

punishments, and could not refuse to work. Unlike slaves, however, servants, at least those

who survived their term of labor (not many, for most of the seventeenth century), eventually

became free and received “freedom dues,” sometimes including land.

Land for the English was the basis of liberty, allowing men control over their own labor and, in

most colonies, the vote. The English crown also awarded land grants, sometimes quite

extensive, to relatives and allies. Because land was so plentiful and so many English migrants,

both free and servant, came to America to gain land and the independence that came with it,

property owners soon turned to African slaves as a labor force. Liberty and slavery moved

together in early English America.

Pamphlet of Emigration to

Virginia

A pamphlet published in 1609 promoting emigration to Virginia

Give Me Liberty!: An American History, 4th Edition

Indenture signed by James

Mahoney

An indenture (a contract for labor for a period of years) signed by James Mahoney.

Give Me Liberty!: An American History, 4th Edition

The Coming of the English:

Indians

• Englishmen and

Indians

• The Transformation of

Indian Life

• Changes in the Land

Unlike the Spanish, English colonists did not want to rule over or assimilate the

Indians they found; they wanted the Indians’ land. Although English colonial

authorities insisted that the Indians had no real claim to the land because they

did not farm or improve it, most authorities in practice recognized Indians’ title

to land based on their occupancy. English colonists acquired Indian land by

purchase, often through treaties forced on the natives after they had defeated

them in the recurrent warfare that wracked the English colonies, a process that

thoroughly displaced the Indians from their original territories.

Though many eastern Indians initially welcomed English settlers, particularly

for the goods they introduced to native culture, such as cloth, metal tools, and

guns, many Indians gradually came to resent the changes English colonization

wrought in Indian life. Men turned more to hunting beaver and fur trading, older

skills fell into disuse with the appearance of English technologies, and alcohol

became common and disruptive. As the colonists developed a military

advantage over the Indians, profits from the fur trade flowed mostly to colonial

and European merchants. English colonists also introduced diseases that led

to devastating epidemics. English settlement transformed the land and its

uses, threatening Indians’ way of life through fencing, new crops, livestock like

pigs and cattle, which trampled Indian crops, and the depletion of forests to

supply wood for the English domestic market.

Portrait of New

England Indian

The only known contemporary portrait of a New England Indian.

Give Me Liberty!: An American History, 4th Edition

Settling the Chesapeake:

Jamestown

The

Jamestown

Colony

From

Company to

Society

The first permanent English settlement in the New World was the Jamestown

colony, founded in 1607 by the private Virginia Company in 1607. At first, the

colony, intended as a means to discover gold or other precious minerals, was

plagued by internal divisions, a high death rate, and few supplies from

England. While colonists’ hopes for quick riches were soon dashed, few had

any experience with agriculture, leading to starvation which, when

compounded by disease and illness, led to a high death rate. Few initial

settlers survived the first year, and only military discipline imposed by a former

soldier, John Smith, saved the colony.

To become viable and attract settlers, the Virginia Company stopped looking

for gold, started to grow its own food and a marketable commodity, and

created an elected representative assembly. The company awarded land to

those who paid their own or others’ passage, and issued a “charter of grants

and liberties,” which included a House of Burgesses, the first elected assembly

in colonial America (though only landowners could vote). The arrival in 1619 of

the first twenty blacks in Virginia marked, along with the meeting of the House

of Burgesses that year, the conjoined development of freedom and slavery in

English America.

Map of Settlements in Chesapeake Bay

Map 2.1 English settlement in the Chesapeake, ca. 1650. Give Me Liberty!: An American History, 4th Edition

Portrait of John Smith

Give Me Liberty!: An American History, 4th Edition

Settling the

Chesapeake:

Indians

Powhatan and

Pocahontas

The Uprising of

1622

Native Americans ruled by Powhatan already lived in the area of Virginia

colonized by the Jamestown settlers. At first, the English, dependent on the

Indians for food, tried to maintain friendly relations. When John Smith was

captured by the Indians, Powhatan’s daughter Pocahontas, probably playing

out her role in an elaborate ceremony, intervened to save Smith from

execution. Pocahontas gradually became an intermediary between the

Jamestown colony and Powhatan’s people.

Sporadic fighting lasted between the Indians and the Jamestown colonists until

1614. But the peace declared that year was broken in 1622 by Powhatan’s

successor, whose surprise attack nearly wiped out one-quarter of Virginia’s

small settler population. Jamestown’s survivors retaliated by massacring

scores of Indians and destroying their villages. The English now held the

balance of power in the colony, and Virginia, which soon became the first royal

colony of England, began to stabilize and slowly increase its population, in part

by turning to the cultivation of tobacco.

Engraving of Indian

Uprising

Theodor de Bry’s engraving of the 1622 Indian uprising in Virginia.

Give Me Liberty!: An American History, 4th Edition

Settling the

Chesapeake: economics

• Tobacco Brides

• A Tobacco Colony

• Women and the Family

With more Europeans smoking tobacco, the crop became a lucrative basis for the Virginia colony’s

survival and growth. Soon a plantation elite with large estates emerged that ruled Virginia’s society

and politics, and they soon turned from unreliable and temporary white servant labor to black slave

labor. Virginia’s white society came to resemble that of England, with a landed gentry at top, small

farmers in the middle, and an army of poor laborers—indentured servants and former servants

without land—at the bottom.

Given the demand for male servant labor in the tobacco fields, men at first vastly outnumbered

women in the colony, and various factors contributed to late marriage and a low rate of family

formation. Although women in Virginia, as in England, had few legal rights, conditions in the

colonies gave women roles they could not assume in the mother country. Widows and unmarried

women embraced their right to conduct business, make contracts, and even sometimes administer

estates. But most white women arrived in Virginia as indentured servants, often subject to hard

labor and even sexual abuse from their masters. Single women were had the legal status of

Femme Sole, which enabled them to own property and conduct business. Once married, women

were considered Femme Covert, which translates to “covered woman.” Married women were

“covered” by their husbands. They took his name and all property a wife brought into the marriage

was considered the husband’s property once they were married. Under the status of Femme

Covert, a wife was not allowed to enter into any sort of contract without the approval of her

husband. If she was bold enough to leave the marriage, she lost everything, perhaps even her

children. Women had virtually no rights, especially a married woman. Legally, a married woman

was the property of her husband.

Englishmen Smoking

Tobacco

Give Me Liberty!: An American History, 4th Edition

Slaves and indentured

servants processing tobacco

Processing tobacco was as labor-intensive as caring for the plant in the fields.

Give Me Liberty!: An American History, 4th Edition

Settling the

Chesapeake: Maryland

• The Maryland Experiment

• Religion in Maryland

While Maryland, like Virginia, was a tobacco colony, it was established later, in

1632, by King Charles I as the proprietary colony of Cecilius Calvert. Calvert

ruled Maryland like a feudal domain, controlling its trade and the decisions of

its elected assembly, despite the charter’s guarantee giving ordinary Maryland

colonists all the rights and privileges of Englishmen.

Calvert, a Catholic, also saw Maryland as a refuge for persecuted fellow

Catholics in England, and at first he hoped Catholics and Protestants could

live there in harmony. But Protestants, mostly indentured or former servants,

soon outnumbered Catholics, and their frustration mounted as they faced

diminishing opportunities for land ownership in the latter half of the

seventeenth century.

The New England Way: Puritans

*The Rise of

Puritanism

*Moral Liberty

Whereas Virginia and Maryland quickly became societies dominated by a small aristocracy

ruling over many bound laborers, New England colonial society evolved differently. Early New

England was decisively shaped by the Puritans, a diverse group of English Protestants united

by their belief that the Anglican Church retained too many of the practices and doctrines of the

old Catholic Church. They mainly were “Congregationalists,” who rejected Catholic structures

of religious authority retained in the Anglican Church, such as archbishops, bishops, and

priests, and instead embraced independent local congregations that chose their own clergy,

determined their mode of worship, and often listened to sermons and personally studied the

bible. Like many English and Anglicans, however, Puritans shared a hatred of Catholicism and

celebrated England’s greatness and devotion to liberty. As followers of John Calvin’s theology,

the Puritans believed God had predestined different groups of people, the “elect,” to be saved

from damnation; no amount of good deeds or good works could save those not among the

elect.

When a minority of Puritans in England separated from the Church of England, some Puritans

decided to emigrate to America in order to fully practice their Protestant faith away from the

influence and control of the Anglican Church and the English government that enforced its

rules. One leader of the Puritan emigrants who settled in the Massachusetts Bay, John

Winthrop, hoped to found “a city set upon a hill,” where Puritans would reject “natural” liberty,

or action without restraints he believed typically practiced by the Irish, Indians, and bad

Christians, for a “moral” liberty to do “that only which is good,” in which Puritans became free

by accepting severe restraints on speech, religion, and personal behavior.

The New England Way:

Pilgrims

• The Pilgrims at

Plymouth

• The Great Migration

The first Puritan settlers to America, the Pilgrims, left the Netherlands in 1620, financed by

private investors interested in establishing a trading base in North America. The Pilgrims

wanted to settle in Virginia, but their ship, the Mayflower, was blown off course and landed on

Cape Cod. Before the survivors of the journey established the Plymouth Colony there, they

drew up the Mayflower Compact, in which all adult male colonists agreed to obey “just and

equal laws” enacted by representatives of their own choosing. This was the first written frame

of government in what became the United States. Resting on the consent of all members of the

colony, their government did not restrict voting to church members, and all land was held in

common until divided up in 1627. In 1691, this independent colony became an official crown

colony of England.

Although earlier visits by Europeans had brought diseases that devastated the local Indian

population, local Indians helped the Puritans at Plymouth survive their first winter by offering

them food, a relationship celebrated at the first Thanksgiving in 1621.

Chartered in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Company was formed by London merchants

hoping to further the Puritan cause and profit by trade with the Indians, and that year sent

emigrants who settled in the Massachusetts Bay, north of Plymouth. By 1642, a “Great

Migration” of 21,000 Puritans had flowed to Massachusetts Bay, though migration to New

England soon thereafter ceased altogether. Compared to colonists in the Chesapeake, settlers

in New England were older, more prosperous, and more religious. Fewer New England

colonists were servants, and here women were just as numerous as men, leading to more

families than in the southern colonies.

Sketch of plymouth

harbor

Samuel de Champlain’s 1605 sketch of Plymouth Harbor. Give Me Liberty!: An American History, 4th Edition

The New England Way:

society

• The Puritan Family

• Government and Society in

Massachusetts

• Church and State in Puritan

Massachusetts

In New England, families and the patriarchal authority of the Puritan husband and father defined colonial society. These adult men controlled the labor of women and children in a farming society without large numbers of slaves or indentured servants. Though women were held to be spiritual equals to men, and could become full members of the church, women were legally subservient to male authority in the home. The average New England woman married young, gave birth seven times, and spent most of her life bearing and raising children.

Puritans feared excessive individualism and social disorder, and organized themselves in small and compact, self-governing towns, centered on a Congregational Church and eventually a school (mostly for reading the Bible), surrounded by small house and farming lots for individual families. The colony’s government reflected this religious and social vision. The Massachusetts Bay’ Company’s shareholders transformed their commercial charter into a government document, first choosing the colony’s rulers, but in 1634 deputies elected by freemen (landowning church members) constituted a single legislature, the General Court. Ten years later, company officers and elected deputies were divided into two legislative houses, and unlike in Virginia or Maryland, freemen were able to elect their governor. The principle of consent was central to all of Puritan life, including church and state, but Puritan democracy, especially voting in colony-wide elections, was limited to members of the church, an ever- smaller number as the colony grew over time.

New Englanders

Divided: Religion

• Roger Williams

• Rhode Island and Connecticut

• The Trials of Anne Hutchinson

Although New England’s Puritans respected individual judgment, they disdained individualism

and considered too much emphasis on the self as dangerous to social harmony and stability.

In the region’s compact towns, residents monitored each other and punished or ostracized

those who violated communal norms. Dissenters were not so much free to dissent as they

were free to leave the Puritan community if they transgressed Puritan social and religious

norms.

Dissenter Roger Williams suggested that Massachusetts Bay should separate church and

state, argued that its congregations should withdraw from the Anglican Church, and also

rejected the conviction that Puritans were an elect people on a divine mission to spread the

true Protestant faith. When banished from the colony, Williams and his followers founded

Rhode Island, which became a beacon of religious freedom, with no established church or

religious qualifications for voting. Other religious dissenters went on to found the colonies of

Hartford and New Haven, which in 1662 united as the colony of Connecticut.

The Puritan establishment found one dissenter, Anne Hutchinson, particularly threatening, for

her gender and influence with other colonists. She argued that inner grace, not just church

attendance and moral behavior, determined who could be a member of the saved Puritan

elect. Denounced by church and state authorities for “Antinomianism” (putting one’s own

judgment or faith above human law and Church teachings), Hutchinson was put on trial and

banished from the colony.

Portrait of roger Williams

Give Me Liberty!: An American History, 4th Edition

Map of new england

settlements

Map 2.2 English Settlement in New England, ca. 1640. Give Me Liberty!: An American History, 4th Edition

New Englanders

Divided: indians

• Puritans and

Indians

• The Pequot War

The Puritans, who recognized Indians’ claim to the land and sought to acquire

it through purchase, also tended to see the Indians as savages and heathens,

similar to Catholics in their deceptive rituals and worship of false gods. Afraid

that undisciplined Indian life might attract some colonists, Puritan New

Englanders hoped to prevent their fellow Englishmen from joining native tribes

by passing punitive laws and publishing narratives of captivity promoting

Christian life in the colony. Although the Puritans rhetorically advocated the

conversion of Indians to Christianity, they initially made few efforts to do so.

As the white population of New England increased, so did tensions with the

region’s Indians. In 1637, colonists responded to the murder of a fur trader by

a few members of the Pequots, a powerful tribe in southern New England that

controlled the fur trade, by destroying a Pequot village at Mystic, Connecticut,

massacring more than 500 men, women, and children. The Pequots’ defeat

led to further white settlement in western New England and intimidated local

Indians into quiescence for nearly four decades.

New Englanders

Divided: Economics

• The New England Economy

• The Merchant Elite

• The Half-Way Covenant

Although Puritan leaders celebrated religion as their primary motive for emigrating to America,

profit and prosperity were always central to many Puritans’ decisions to go to New England.

Many were well-off in England but lived in economically depressed areas, and sought

opportunity in the New World, especially in the form of landownership or a craft. While many

New Englanders made a living by exporting fish and timber to Europe, most survived on

subsistence family farming and the small surpluses this produced. Compared to the southern

colonies, in New England there were few slaves and fewer indentured servants.

Although New Englanders were not as wealthy as colonists in the Chesapeake region, wealth

was distributed more equally than in Virginia or Maryland. But economic development was

accompanied by social inequality, with a growing number of wage earners and a merchant

elite profiting from an expansive trade in goods between the West Indies, Europe, and Africa.

This economic growth and increasing commercialization worried some Puritan leaders, with

fewer members of the Massachusetts colony being eligible for church membership. The Half-

Way Covenant of 1662 was designed to solve this problem by enabling third-generation

Puritans, those least likely to have met the “conversion” standard of church membership, to

become church members merely because they were descend ants of original Puritan settlers.

By the late seventeenth century, ministers were excoriating colonists for violations such as

selfishness, pride, and violation of the Sabbath in lengthy sermons called “jeremiads.”

Religion,

Politics, and

Freedom:

rights

• The Rights of

Englishmen

By 1600, the traditional view of English “liberties” as a set of privileges limited

to certain social groups was competing with a notion that certain “rights of

Englishmen” applied to everyone in the kingdom. This tradition rested on the

Magna Carta of 1215, in which the king had given rights to all “free men” in

England, including protection against arbitrary imprisonment and the seizure of

property without due process of law. Over time, this document came to signify

a particularly “English freedom,” where the king was subject to the rule of law

and all persons enjoyed security of person and property, and which was

embodied in common law rights like habeas corpus and trial by jury. As the

serfdom characteristic of feudalism receded, more and more Englishmen were

considered “freeborn” and entitled to these rights.

Painting the court of

common pleas

Give Me Liberty!: An American History, 4th Edition

Religion, Politics, and

Freedom: england

• The English Civil War

• England’s Debate over Freedom

• English Liberty

Political and religious divisions within seventeenth-century England heightened the meaning

and importance of “freedom” there and in the colonies. The struggle for political supremacy

between Parliament and Stuart monarchs James I and Charles I culminated in the 1640s in the

English Civil War. Disputes over how and to what degree the Church of England should

distance itself from Catholicism, and struggles over the respective powers of Parliament and

the king, including the king’s power to impose taxes without Parliament’s consent, provoked a

military conflict that ended in a victory for pro-parliamentary forces and the abolition of the

monarchy and the execution of King Charles I. The victors established a “Commonwealth and

Free State” ruled by Oliver Cromwell that lasted almost a decade. In 1660, the monarchy was

restored, and Charles II assumed the throne.

Political strife and upheaval in England in these years produced a rigorous debate about liberty

that expanded the boundaries and definitions of freedom. The writer John Milton called for

freedom of speech and of the press. A movement called the Levellers proposed a written

constitution abolishing both the monarchy and House of Lords, and extending the franchise to

those without much property. A more radical group, the Diggers, advocated the common

ownership of land. Though the Levellers and Diggers were quickly suppressed, some of their

ideas were carried to America by English emigrants.

Out of these struggles, “English liberty,” defining freedom as grounded in the common rights of

all individuals in the English realm, became central to Anglo-American political culture. Thus,

the English proudly distinguished their country, where individual rights and parliament limited

the king’s power and authority, from the autocratic monarchies, such as Spain, France, and

Russia.

Painting of execution

of Charles i

The execution of Charles I in 1649. Give Me Liberty!: An American History, 4th Edition

Portrait of john Milton

A 1629 portrait by John Aubrey depicts John

Milton.

Give Me Liberty!: An American History, 4th Edition

Religion, Politics, and

Freedom: English civil

war • The Civil War and English America

• The Crisis in Maryland

• Cromwell and the Empire

While most New Englanders sided with the Parliament in the 1640s, many Puritan leaders in the colonies were leery of the revolutionaries’, and the commonwealth’s, tolerance for religious dissent. When followers of Anne Hutchinson became Quakers, a radical and spiritually egalitarian Protestant sect in England that defied Puritan doctrines, Massachusetts leaders tried to suppress them by banishment, whipping, and hanging.

During the English Civil War, Virginia sided with Charles I and fell under Cromwell’s control. In Maryland, the Civil War exacerbated preexisting conflict between Catholic and Protestant settlers and anti-proprietary sentiment, feeding a civil war within that colony. Calvert stabilized Maryland and attracted more settlers by empowering Protestants in the colony’s government and guaranteeing religious toleration for all Christians.

Under Cromwell and the Commonwealth, England adopted aggressive policies to expand its colonies, promote Protestantism, and empower commerce in the British Isles and New World. Cromwell’s army extended English control in Ireland, in the process massacring civilians, banning Catholicism, and seizing Catholics’ lands. England also seized the valuable sugar island of Jamaica and passed the Navigation Acts in 1651, intended to challenge the commercial supremacy of the Dutch by limiting England’s colonial trade to English ships and ports.

Portrait of Oliver

Cromwell

Give Me Liberty!: An American History, 4th Edition

MEDIA LINKS

—— Chapter 2 —— Title Media link

Eric Foner on 17th-century society http://wwnorton.com/common/mplay/6.7/?p=/college/history/foner4/

&f=17th_century_society

Eric Foner on the origin of slavery

in North America

http://wwnorton.com/common/mplay/6.7/?p=/college/history/foner4/

mp4/&f=question018

Eric Foner on the origin of

religious freedom

http://wwnorton.com/common/mplay/6.7/?p=/college/history/foner4/

mp4/&f=question019

Eric Foner on religious freedom in

Maryland in 1649

http://wwnorton.com/common/mplay/6.7/?p=/college/history/foner4/

mp4/&f=question020

Eric Foner on religion and

American life

http://wwnorton.com/common/mplay/6.7/?p=/college/history/foner4/

&f=religious_life

Table description: The title of media and their corresponding web link.