Peer Review Assignment

Abstract

Cybercrime is one of the current issues facing law enforcement not only in the United States but also across the world. Cybercrime is borderless by nature. This makes criminal investigations to be more complicated for law enforcement. Furthermore, increasing global corporate losses indicates that there is a high rate of cybercriminal activities. The scale of the problem creates a significant threat to the response capability of law enforcement agencies. The research project has been divided into three parts to help understand cybercrime as an issue to law enforcement. The first part addresses cybercrime as a technological issue affecting the public and law enforcement as well. The second part analyzes the problem. This part helps to investigate whether cybercrime is an issue or a symptom. In addition, it discusses how the issue developed and also how it sustains itself. The last part of this section address how cybercrime relates to public safety core concepts. The third part of the project provides the recommended solutions to the problem. It is challenging to eliminate cybercrime, but the implementation of the recommendations will help to reduce cybercriminal activities.

Cybercrime as an Issue in Law Enforcement

The cyber-world ensures global connections that influence how people interact with one another. In addition, it bridges barriers and makes it easier for people to gain access to information, connections, and a wide range of goods and services offered through the internet. However, the cyber-world also promotes the spread of illegitimate products and services, which encourages criminals to conduct their activities across national boundaries (Hughes et al., 2015). This is an example of cybercrime. Generally, cybercrime is a broad term that describes activities that are facilitated or conducted through the use of computer technology. Usually, the perpetrator has advanced and special knowledge about the internet to be able to commit the crime, while in some cases, computer programs are designed to commit the crime. The use of technology is considered by public safety agencies to be one of the biggest challenges. According to Peha (2007), law enforcement agencies in the United States report a high number of cybercrimes than physical crimes. The paper will, therefore, analyze the challenges faced by law enforcement agencies in dealing with cybercrimes and also provide the recommended solutions to the problem.

PART 1

Technological Issues in Public Safety Administration

Technological issues such as cybercrime surfaced several decades ago when traditional criminal organizations such as the Mafia moved on to the internet. This led to other internet-savvy criminal gangs to spring up. Criminals had an easy time since law enforcement agencies did not have adequate resources to deal with internet crimes. Several websites were set up, such as CardersMarket and DarkMarket, that established new organized crime groups (Schneier). The law enforcement agencies did not have the organizational fluidity to adapt to the changes in the digital environment. Police departments continued to use their old-school detectives who had little knowledge of internet crimes. As technology continues to advance, criminal gangs also come up with new approaches to conducting their illegal activities.

The history of cybercrime date back in the 1980s. Real cybercrime began in the 1980s when one individual hacked another person's computer to access personal data and information. In 1981, Ian Murphy, also known as Captain Zap, was the first person to be charged for cybercrime. He hacked the American telephone company and manipulated its internal clock so that the users could continue making free calls during peak hours. With time, hackers developed new ways of conducting internet crimes (Balan et al., 2017). Initially, telephone companies were the immediate target. Currently, banks, webshops, and private individuals also targeted by internet criminals. For instance, online banking, which is very common, has been a major target by most internet criminals.

Public safety administrators ca analyze the issues of cybercrime in various ways. The first approach can be through examining previous benchmark studies of US companies. For instance, a study by the Ponemon Institute using a sample of fifty large-sized organizations in different industries shows that despite the high level of awareness about cyber threats, the number of cybercrimes continues to increase with both private and government institutions being victims (Paganini, 2012). Another way of analyzing cybercrimes can be through investigating its impact on both small and large businesses. In most cases, small businesses that fail to focus on cybersecurity encounter devastating damages and massive loss of data and information.

Moreover, other fields affected cybercrimes include the healthcare and finance industry. Recently, cyber-attacks on healthcare facilities have been increasing at an alarming rate. In 2016, there were about ninety-three major cybercrimes on healthcare institutions in the United States (Giandomenico, 2019). Globally, healthcare is among the most frequently targeted industries for cybercrimes. As the demands from the aged population continue to increase, the reliance on technological solutions that are capable of improving the efficiency and accuracy of patient care continues to grow. This entails the use of electronic health records and remote monitoring devices that help in managing chronic health conditions. As a result, due to the insufficient improvement in the security systems that are designed to protect the patient data, the industry becomes an easy target for cybercrimes. The same concept also applies to the financial sector. There has been a growing trend in cyber-attacks targeting online banking and mobile apps (Giandomenico, 2019). When a mobile device is compromised, attackers not only steal the data on that device but also use a phishing app to collect personal banking information, access data send to the online bank, and also monitor financial transactions when purchasing products online.

PART 2

Analysis of Cybercrime in Law Enforcement

Cybercrimes bring a new issue that complicates the violent threats and illegality that law enforcement officers and policymakers work hard to address. Most of the cybercrimes are worrisome because they are asymmetrical in the sense that an individual or a group of criminals can cause massive damage that used to be done by an entire army. The worst thing about cybercrimes is that the offender does not have to be in physical contact with the victim (Hughes et al., 2015). The criminals can conduct the crime when they are thousands of miles away, which makes it difficult for law enforcement agencies to track them down. Some cybercrimes are advanced traditional forms of committing crimes, for example, theft and fraud, where people use computers to steal personal details such as passwords, personal identification, and credit card information. In other sophisticated forms of cybercrimes, computers may be sabotaged or even turned into agents of espionage. Viruses and other harmful malware are sometimes hidden in legitimate emails or advertisements on the internet, which install themselves once the user clicks on the link or email. The virus or malware then infects the computer, and the user is denied access to crucial sites or documents. Similarly, in Trojan horse attacks, the hacker is in a position to gain remote access to the computer and take control of the activities taking place on the computer. This approach is mainly used by hackers to access federal computer systems, government agencies databases, and other large organizations to obtain information that can be used for criminal purposes.

Issue or Symptom

Cases of cybercrime are not only experienced in the United States but also across the world. Cases of call center data leaks and fraud have also been reported in different countries such as India and Scotland. The Economic Times recently conducted a vendor survey in various sectors in India that involved about 208 C-level security and IT experts. The survey indicated that about sixty-nine percent of the respondents encountered attempted data theft by corporate insiders in twelve months. In the United Kingdom, the National Crime Agency (NCA) published a Cyber Crime Assessment that outlined the current threats facing businesses in THE UK. According to the assessment, there has been an increase in cybercrimes in the UK that are facilitated by the massive distributed denial of service (DDoS) and ransomware attacks. The breach of data due to the attacks affects most of the businesses, which in turn costs the UK billions of pounds (The Guardian, 2019). The NCA encourages law enforcement agencies to consider cybercrimes as broad level issues and not just a technical one. In addition, businesses should partner with law enforcement in ensuring that crime prevention and disaster recovery planning are given a top priority.

Similarly, in the United States, a report by the RT news indicated that "America is in the midst of a revolution of the cyber threat." A White House counterterrorism advisor made a comparison of cyber-attacks to terrorism cases and stated that the White House would be planning to launch new sanctions for potential cyber incidents. As a result, various federal agencies, such as the FBI and Homeland Security, will be tasked to deal with cybercrimes and its aftermath. Ransomware attacks are the most common cybercrimes in the United States and the United Kingdom and have had severe impacts on the economy. A study carried out by Merrill Research indicated that about eighty-four percent of US and UK government officials get a ransomware attack every year (Johnson, 2018). A report by the Radware research reveals that future cyber threats will focus on various categories of devices such as wearables and the internet of things (IoT). The fears of the executives and managers to encounter losses in their businesses will be felt in numerous ways, including productivity, reputation, revenue, operations, and share price value. Therefore, cybercrime threats are universal issues that affect businesses and law enforcement agencies irrespective of location.

According to Johnson (2018), thousands of US citizens are victims of cyber-attacks every year. However, it is only about fifteen percent of cybercrime victims that report crimes to police or law enforcement agencies. According to the FBI, most of the victims who lost thousands of dollars feel that they cannot get any assistance from the law enforcement agencies; hence, they do not report their cases. To some extent, this might be true because most of the local and state law enforcement agencies are not well-equipped to investigate or track down cybercriminals. According to a Texas police detective and information security consultant, local law enforcement is not able to deal with cybercrimes due to the lack of adequate training. Most international cybercriminals attack US citizens by hacking into their laptops to gain access to their credit card and Social Security numbers (Johnson, 2018). The information obtained is used to defraud their bank accounts and retail outlets. Local and state law enforcement agencies do not have the necessary resources to investigate cybercrimes that take place across states or outside the country. Sometimes prosecutors are usually reluctant to take on complicated cases that have low conviction rates. A rise in cybercrime cases tends to overwhelm the FBI, which is the lead federal agency on cyber-attacks and crimes.

According to the head of the technology policy program at the Center for Strategic Studies, local police departments are usually equipped with at most two cyber specialists, and the judges and prosecutors may not have sufficient expertise to deal with cybercrime cases. Additionally, due to the numerous cases, police departments have set a million-dollar threshold, and anything below $1 million is not investigated. However, police departments take a serious interest if a cyber-attack involves human trafficking, terrorism, or child pornography (Fell, 2017). Cases of identity theft may also not be taken seriously. This is because there are chiefs of police who are in their 60s and may consider investigating such cases as a waste of time and resources. The local police departments, together with the FBI, work together to alert citizens and create awareness about criminals sending emails with embedded viruses.

Furthermore, law enforcement agencies face challenges when investigating obscenity, exploitation, and cyberstalking. The biggest challenge with these investigations is associated with evidence and detection. For instance, data on the computer which can act as evidence can be easily modified, deleted, or even destroyed. During a crime, the evidence must be collected, preserved, and examined to provide leads on the case (Fell, 2017). However, in cases of cybercrime, twenty-four hours may be too late to retrieve non-tampered evidence. For instance, some computers may have automatic wiping programs installed in them that delete files in case a new person presses the wrong key. Therefore, experts in the law enforcement agencies such as the cyber forensics may need special tools that will be able to retrieve any data available on the mass storage including deleted information and files in unallocated disk sections. Even though time is of the essence during such situations, it is crucial for law enforcement agencies to follow the search and seizure laws (Woollacott, 2019). The law enforcement agencies must be issued a warrant before they can search, gather, or review any evidence. In addition, the issue of overlapping jurisdiction creates a challenge for law enforcement agencies. For example, a cybercriminal can be in a different state or even country than the victim. This makes it difficult for one agency to conduct the entire investigation. Therefore, seeking assistance from another state may be necessary, which is, however, sometimes difficult, depending on the magnitude of the case. Thus, from the numerous cases encountered by law enforcement agencies in the United States and also other parts of the world, clearly indicates that cybercrime is an issue and not a symptom.

How the Issue Developed

Nowadays, computer systems have become an essential part of the daily operations of businesses, governments, organizations, and individuals. As a result, people and organizations tend to put a tremendous amount of trust on these technological devices. People store most of their valuable information on computers. Criminals always target valuable items, which also applies to cybercrime. As people continue to flood their computers and personal gadgets with sensitive information, they make the data to be a target for the criminals (Woollacott, 2019). In the past, criminals would access an individual’s data by conducting some form of robbery. For instance, in a scenario of data theft, the criminal would have to break into the house of the victim in order to access the data of the greatest value. However, in the current world, the criminal and the victim do not have to be in physical contact, and due to the nature of the technology used, the criminal most likely does not get punished.

In the 1970s, criminals used to compromise the tone systems used on-call networks. This form of attack was referred to as phreaking. The criminals would reverse-engineer the tones used by telephone companies so that they could make long-distance calls. In 1988, the first computer worm was developed that made massive destruction to various organizations. The worm was known as Morris worm; however, it was not initially designed to be malicious. According to the US Government Accountability Office (GAO), the worm caused estimated damage of about $10 million. In 1989, the first ransomware made its way into the internet, and its main target was healthcare facilities (Fell, 2017). Basically, ransomware is malicious software that prevents user's access to specific data on the computer until a ransom is paid. Over the years, ransomware attacks have continued to develop, with the healthcare industry still being the primary target.

In the 1990s, technology advanced to the level of web browsers and emails. This meant new ways for cybercriminals to exercise their attacks. Initially, cybercriminals needed to have a physical interaction with the victim, such as offering a floppy disk with a malware. With the introduction of web browsers and emails, cybercriminals could easily transmit viruses without initiating physical contact. As technology advanced, cybercriminals also improved their criminal approaches. Through phishing attacks, cybercriminals were able to reach out and con individuals without engaging with them physically. They could trick millions of people at the same time (Fell, 2017). Even though a small number took the bait, the cybercriminals stood a chance of making a lot of money. In the 2000s, the introduction of social media brought about new forms of cybercrime, such as identity theft. In the United States, a Social Security number has been used for a long time as a de facto identification number. Taxes are usually collected based on the Social Security number of the citizens, and most private organizations use the number to track their students, employees, or patients. Therefore, when cybercriminals access an individual’s Social Security number, they can be able to reconstruct the identity of the victim.

Today, as computers become faster and more complicated, cybercriminals get more complex and advanced, making it difficult for law enforcement agencies to deal with. In addition, there is the development of botnets, which are a network of private computers that are infected with malware and controlled without the knowledge of the user. As a result, private organizations experience constant ransomware attacks, and people are forced to be on the lookout for identity theft and financial fraud (Poushter, 2016). A report by the GAO indicates that the challenges faced by the law enforcement agencies in combating cybercrimes include:

a. Ensuring sufficient analytical and technical capabilities of law enforcement

b. Ensuring cybercrime is reported.

c. Working in a borderless environment with laws of multiple jurisdictions

d. Implementing information security practices and raising awareness.

How the Issue Sustains Itself

Overreliance on computers is one of the ways in which cybercrime sustains itself. Currently, most communications depend on information technology and internet-based services such as email and VoIP calls. Information technology plays a significant role in managing and controlling functions in cars, buildings, and aviation centers. In addition, the supply of water, energy, and communication services rely on information technology. The technology continues to be integrated into every aspect of people's lives. The growing reliance on computers and information technology makes the services and systems to be more vulnerable to cybercrimes (Poushter, 2016). Small interruptions to systems can lead to substantial financial losses to e-commerce businesses. Apart from public communications, dependence on information technology can pose severe risks to military communications as well. Most people around the world use the operating system developed by Microsoft on their devices. Therefore, cybercriminals can easily create effective attacks that focus on this specific target.

Moreover, the use of the internet and its services is growing at a much faster rate. In 2010, the number of internet users was estimated to be about two billion. Currently, the number is expected to have doubled. Large computer companies and ISPs continue to put more focus on developing countries which have great potential for quick growth. According to Poushter (2016), in 2015, the percentage of internet users in developing nations was higher than in industrial countries. With the development of cheap wireless access and hardware, more people will be able to access the internet. As the number of people connected to the internet continues to grow, the number of potential targets and cybercriminals also continues to increase. However, it is difficult to approximate the number of people using the internet illegally. In developing countries, the rates for using the internet are very low, which attracts more people. As a result, ensuring cybersecurity becomes a challenge for law enforcement agencies. Additionally, the high number of internet users continues to sustain cybercrime, making it a challenge to law enforcement agencies since it is challenging to automate investigation processes.

Cybercriminals require basic equipment to commit crimes. For instance, hardware, software, and internet access are essential requirements. Therefore, the availability of devices and access are critical in sustaining cybercrimes. As the power of computers continues to grow worldwide, developing countries put more effort into enabling people to use information technology. Criminals can commit a crime with the use of second-hand or cheap computer technology: in such a case, it is the knowledge that counts more than equipment. However, through special software tools, cybercrimes can be made easier. Offenders can easily locate open ports or even break protected passwords. As a result of peer-to-peer exchange and development of the mirroring technique, it becomes difficult to control the widespread of such devices. Also, offenders prefer internet access where they use the services without verifying their registration as a way of ensuring that they are not identified. In most cases, cybercriminals access the internet through "wardriving.” This term describes a situation where offenders drive around to search for available wireless connections (Oberman, 2014). Additionally, criminals can access the internet through open networks, public internet terminals, hacked networks, and also prepaid services. Law enforcement agencies face the challenge of restricting free access to internet services.

Furthermore, automation of processes is one of the biggest advances in technology. It has several advantages, such as increasing the speed of processes and eliminating human involvement. These advantages can be used by cybercriminals to scale up their processes. For instance, millions of unsolicited spam messages can be sent to different people by automation (Oberman, 2014). Hacking activities can also be automated by using software tools that can attack more than a thousand computers in an hour. The high number of cybercrimes committed as a result of automation creates a big challenge for law enforcement agencies.

How the Issue Relates to Public Safety Core Concepts

Leadership is one of the key concepts in public safety administration. Today, the escalating rates of cybercrimes call for a new form of leadership that will promote cyber-safe culture. Leaders in different jurisdictions should collaborate during cybercrime investigations. In addition, leaders in law enforcement agencies have to develop awareness programs that will help people to protect their private data. Also, the programs should help the citizens to be able to detect cybercrimes and report incidents to local law enforcement agencies.

Moreover, communication is another core concept of public safety. Excellent communication skills are essential in law enforcement agencies, as police officers can efficiently serve the public. Poor listening and communication skills could lead to misunderstanding. Therefore, communication plays a vital role in law enforcement agencies (Oberman, 2014). In relation to cybercrime, communication allows police officers to be able to manage evidence, interrogate victims, and cybercriminal suspects, and also gather information. This helps law enforcement agencies to make informed decisions on how to approach the cyber-attack. Additionally, police officers can succeed both socially and professionally by improving their communication skills so that they can be comfortable when dealing with the public.

Furthermore, training is also an important aspect of public safety. Most law enforcement agencies in the United States have established a trained cybercrime unit in every police department (Woollacott, 2019). The officers in the cybercrime unit are well trained and equipped to investigate and pursue offenders, assist businesses to protect themselves from cyber-attacks, and also collaborate with other units in preventing vulnerable individuals from committing cybercrimes.

PART 3

Recommendation for Cybercrime

Currently, cybercrime is treated in a different approach as compared to traditional crimes. Due to the lack of adequate resources and training, police departments are not able to deal with cybercrimes sufficiently. For instance, if an individual calls the police to inform them that his PC has a virus and he cannot access his sensitive files, the police officer will probably tell him to take it back to the store. However, in a scenario where a person breaks into a residential home and steal crucial financial information and other documents, there would be an investigation. Major cyber-attacks on big companies such as SONY and Equifax get an extensive investigation by law enforcement agencies, but what about individuals and small businesses that are victims of cybercrimes (Bernard et al., 2017)? Who investigates such crimes? Therefore, the paper will address some of the important recommendations that can assist law enforcement agencies in combating cybercrimes in the United States.

Engaging Law Enforcement Agencies

Law enforcement agencies should develop a system where victims can easily report cybercrimes, and more importantly, share the evidence with law enforcement in a trustworthy manner. For instance, the FBI has created the Internet Crime Complaint Center (IC3) that collects cybercrime complaints (Raytheon, 2018). According to the system theory, the agency should automate this system in such a way that it will help victims to understand what has happened to their data, direct them to assistance, and also facilitate sharing of cybercrime information with other law enforcement agencies.

Increasing Resources

Cybercrimes can result in the shutdown of numerous big companies, lock-up of crucial medical equipment in health facilities, and failure in the electrical power grid. The combat this, the broken window theory can be applied in developing the possible solutions. According to this criminology theory, law enforcement should focus on small cases such as vandalism to eliminate the trend before serious crimes are committed. This also applies to cybercrime. Police officers should track minor criminal cases and bring perpetrators to justice (Raytheon, 2018). This will discourage people from committing small cybercrimes. Therefore, to accomplish this, it is recommended that law enforcement should be provided with new resources and support. For instance, cyber units need to be created and also ensure that the officers have the tools and resources required to fight crime online.

Digital Safe Zones

As technology continues to advance, the dependence on the internet also continues to grow. Therefore, the security requirements for the internet need to increase as the internet grows. It is recommended that law enforcement agencies should restructure the internet as a way of enhancing security (Raytheon, 2018). This can be achieved by applying segmentation where slices of the internet are created to serve different functions. When a user is online, his or her computer can be attacked by anyone from anywhere around the world. Not every user can be able to defend himself against the entire world. Law enforcement should, therefore, establish digital safe zones for different online engagements since the security requirements for financial information differ from the security required when playing videogames, reading news, or streaming movies. Technology such as Software Defined Networking can be essential in creating the slices for digital safe zones (Kalember, 2017). The participants in those zones are known, and the software can also help in mitigating internet noise. Additionally, the slices can be interconnected securely through Cross-Domain Solutions, which is a military application that facilitates a high level of trust and introspection.

Working with Invested Partners

It is recommended that law enforcement can mitigate, detect, and prevent cybercrimes by creating a joint and integrated public-private partnership that encourages information sharing, analysis, and collaboration. In order to build a strong operational capability, law enforcement agencies can learn from how the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the National Weather Service uses technology and data analytics to determine patterns and issue early warnings (Dix, 2017). Analyzing the global community to address the gaps and coordinate investigations and prosecutions of cybercriminals will be essential in dealing with issues of anonymity in cyber activity. Global agreements between law enforcement and invested partners will be beneficial to the national and economic security, and public health safety.

Implementing a Response Plan

Law enforcement agencies should implement a National Cyber Incident Response Plan that will be essential in promoting both economic and national security. The response plan should be able to recognize the uniqueness and nature of the cyber event and provide clarity in the roles of the various stakeholders (Dix, 2017). A strategic framework should be developed and also accompanied by an agile operational approach that focuses on critical infrastructures. By implementing a response plan, law enforcement agencies will be prepared to respond to cyber-attacks.

Raising Awareness

It is recommended that law enforcement should implement a comprehensive cybersecurity education campaign that will help make the public aware of the risks and effects of cyber activities. This will initiate the need to use effective protective measures on laptops, desktops, phones, tablets, and other technological devices. Technology has advanced to the level of smart refrigerators, heating systems, lighting, air conditioning, and automobiles, which creates the need for protection of individuals and organizations against cybercrimes (Dix, 2017). The education campaign implemented by law enforcement should focus on the following:

Use of full-service internet security suite

The public should be educated about the full-service internet security suite such as Norton Security that offers real-time protection against current and emerging malware such as malware and viruses (Kalember, 2017). Additionally, this will help users to secure their private and financial data when they are online hence reducing the number of cyber-attacks that are reported.

Use of strong passwords

The public should be educated on the importance of using strong passwords to secure their private information. Also, using different passwords on different websites and changing them is important (Paul & Aithal, 2018).

Keeping software updated

The public needs to understand the importance of keeping operating systems and internet security software updated. In most cases, cybercriminals use the flaws in the software to attack the system (Paul & Aithal, 2018).

Managing social media setting

Currently, there have been numerous cases of hacked social media accounts. When users post the names of their pets or their mother’s maiden, they might be exposing the answers to the security questions unknowingly. Therefore, it is better when people share less on social media, the better (Paul & Aithal, 2018).

In conclusion, despite the numerous benefits brought about by the cyber world, such as global connections that influence how people interact, it has promoted the spread of illegitimate products and services, which encourage criminals to conduct their activities across national boundaries. Cybercriminals have special knowledge about computers and the internet; therefore, they can initiate criminal activities. Cybercrime can be considered to be an issue because of the numerous cases encountered by law enforcement agencies in the United States and also other parts of the world. The advancement in technology is a big challenge for public safety agencies as cases of cybercrime continue to increase in the United States at an alarming rate. As a way of reducing cybercrime-attacks, it is recommended that law enforcement agencies should develop a system that makes it easier for people to report cybercrimes. For instance, the IC3 system developed by the FBI should be modified to make it easier for people to share cybercrime evidence with law enforcement. Other recommended approaches to fighting cybercrimes are for law enforcement to partner with private organizations, develop a response plan, create digital safe zones, and also raise awareness in the community.

References

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