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GeorgeM.Graham_MelissaA.Parker_ShirleyAnnHale-ChildrenMoving_AReflectiveApproachtoTeachingPhysicalEducation-McGraw-HillHigherEducation201014textbook1.pdf
Children Moving
EIGHTH EDITION
Children Moving A REFLECTIVE APPROACH TO TEACHING PHYSICAL EDUCATION
George Graham The Pennsylvania State University
Shirley Ann Holt /Hale Linden Elementary School, Oak Ridge, Tennessee
Melissa Parker University of Northern Colorado
CHILDREN MOVING: A REFLECTIVE APPROACH TO TEACHING PHYSICAL EDUCATION
Published by McGraw-Hill, an imprint of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the
Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2010 , 2008 , 2006 , 2004 , 2002 , 2000 , 1997 , 1994
by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system,
without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited
to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 CCI/CCI 0 9
ISBN: 978-0-07-337645-5
MHID: 0-07-337645-0
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Graham, George, 1943 –
Children moving : a refl ective approach to teaching physical education /George
Graham, Shirley Ann Holt/Hale, Melissa Parker.— 8th ed.
p. cm.
ISBN 978-0-07-337645-5 (alk. paper)
1. Physical education for children — Study and teaching —United States. 2. Physical
education for children — Curricula —United States. 3. Movement education —United
States. I. Holt/Hale, Shirley Ann. II. Parker, Melissa. III. Title.
GV443.G73 2009
372.86’044 — dc22
2008040029
www.mhhe.com
In Honor of Our Mothers
Gona D. Holt
Lela Payne Parker
For my mother, Regina (Peggy) Graham, and all of
the other women who have been so infl uential and
inspirational in my life
B R I E F C O N T E N T S
Preface xxiii
PART ONE
Introduction and Content Overview 1 CHAPTER 1 The Value and Purpose of Physical Education
for Children 3
CHAPTER 2 The Skill Theme Approach 14
CHAPTER 3 Skill Themes, Movement Concepts, and the
National Standards 27
CHAPTER 4 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and
Wellness for Children 40
CHAPTER 5 Refl ective Teaching 63
CHAPTER 6 Teaching Diverse Learners 71
PART TWO
Teaching Skills 99 CHAPTER 7 Determining Generic Levels of Skill
Profi ciency 101
CHAPTER 8 Planning 110
CHAPTER 9 Establishing an Environment for Learning 125
CHAPTER 10 Maintaining Appropriate Behavior 146
CHAPTER 11 Developing the Content 164
CHAPTER 12 Observing Student Responses 174
CHAPTER 13 Instructional Approaches 186
CHAPTER 14 Assessing Student Learning 201
CHAPTER 15 Understanding Your Teaching 232
PART THREE
Movement Concepts Defi ned 249 CHAPTER 16 Space Awareness 251
CHAPTER 17 Effort 268
CHAPTER 18 Relationships 283
PART FOUR
Skill Theme Development 303 CHAPTER 19 Traveling 305
CHAPTER 20 Chasing, Fleeing, and Dodging 332
CHAPTER 21 Jumping and Landing 349
CHAPTER 22 Balancing 374
CHAPTER 23 Transferring Weight and Rolling 400
CHAPTER 24 Kicking and Punting 438
CHAPTER 25 Throwing and Catching 470
CHAPTER 26 Volleying and Dribbling 502
CHAPTER 27 Striking with Rackets and Paddles 537
CHAPTER 28 Striking with Long-Handled
Implements 563
PART FIVE
Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas 599 CHAPTER 29 Skill Themes in Dance 601
CHAPTER 30 Skill Themes in Gymnastics 622
CHAPTER 31 Skill Themes in Games 635
CHAPTER 32 Integrating the Skill Theme Approach across
the Curriculum 653
PART SIX
The Future 669 CHAPTER 33 Building Support for Your Program 671
CHAPTER 34 Physical Education for Tomorrow’s
Children 681
Appendix Sample School-Year Overviews A-1
Index I-1
vii
ix
C O N T E N T S
Preface xxiii
PART ONE
Introduction and Content Overview 1
CHAPTER 1
The Value and Purpose of Physical Education
for Children 3
Why Children Need Physical Education 5
Health Benefi ts Associated with a Lifetime of
Physical Activity 6
Characteristics of a Quality Physical Education
Program 8
Summary 12
Reading Comprehension Questions 12
References /Suggested Readings 12
CHAPTER 2
The Skill Theme Approach 14
What Is Developmentally Appropriate Physical
Education? 15
Children Develop at Different Rates 15
Age Does Not Predict Motor Ability 15
Children Develop Motor Skills Naturally through Play 15
The Myth of the Natural Athlete 16
Difference in Physical Abilities between Boys and Girls 16
Why Don’t You Describe Such Activities as Duck, Duck,
Goose and Kick Ball? 16
What Are Skill Themes? 17
What Is the Curriculum Diamond? 17
Building a Foundation (Preschool through Grade 5) 17
Exploring Possibilities (Grades 6 – 8) 18
Developing Expertise (Grades 9 –12) 18
What Are the Characteristics of the Skill Theme
Approach? 18
Characteristic 1 18
Characteristic 2 20
Characteristic 3 21
Characteristic 4 22
Is It Diffi cult to Maintain Youngsters’ Interest in a Program
That Emphasizes the Fundamentals? 22
What Does “Adjusting the Activities” Mean? 22
Where Is Physical Fitness in the Skill Theme
Approach? 22
Where Does the Cognitive Domain Fit into the Skill
Theme Approach? 23
Where Does the Affective Domain Fit into the Skill Theme
Approach? 23
What about Dance and Gymnastics? 24
How Do Classroom Teachers Feel about the Skill Theme
Approach? 24
How Do Middle (Junior) and High School Physical Education
Teachers Feel about the Skill Theme Approach? 24
Summary 25
Reading Comprehension Questions 24
References /Suggested Readings 26
CHAPTER 3
Skill Themes, Movement Concepts, and the
National Standards 27
Characteristics of Themes 28
Skill Themes and Movement Concepts 30
The Wheel (Movement Analysis Framework) 33
Progression Spiral 34
The National Standards and the Skill Theme Approach 34
Background of National Standards Development 34
Skill Themes and the Content Standards 36
Summary 38
Reading Comprehension Questions 39
References /Suggested Readings 39
CHAPTER 4
Physical Fitness, Physical Activity and Wellness
for Children 40
Wellness for Children 41
Mental and Emotional Health 41
Personal and Social Responsibility 42
Nutrition 43
The Good Health Balance 43
Physical Activity 44
Physical Inactivity 45
Guidelines for Physical Activity 46
Physical Activity in and beyond the School Day 47
In-School Activities 47
Out-of-School Activities 48
Physical Activity Director 49
Active Schools 50
Physical Fitness for Children 50
History of Physical Fitness 50
Physical Fitness: A Defi nition 51
Concepts of Physical Fitness 51
Fitness in the Physical Education Curriculum 52
The Teaching of Fitness Concepts 52
Assessing Physical Fitness 53
After the Assessment 54
A Final Thought on Fitness 56
Summary 57
Reading Comprehension Questions 58
References /Suggested Readings 58
Appendix 4A: Family Fitness Activities 60
Appendix 4B: Prescriptions for Fitness 61
CHAPTER 5
Refl ective Teaching 63
What Is Refl ective Teaching? 65
The Need for Refl ective Teaching 66
Values of the Teacher 66
Class Size 67
Number of Class Sessions per Week 67
Facilities and Equipment 68
Student Behavior 68
Context of the School 68
How Do I Become a Refl ective Teacher? 69
Summary 69
Reading Comprehension Questions 70
References /Suggested Readings 70
CHAPTER 6
Teaching Diverse Learners 71
Inclusion Expanded 72
Overweight Children 74
Cultural Differences 75
Gender Equity 76
Religious Differences 76
Children of Poverty 77
Children with Special Needs 77
Physical Activity and Fitness 78
Disabilities, Impairments, and Disorders 79
Visual Impairments 79
Hearing Impairments 81
Physical Disabilities 82
Health-Related Disorders 86
Intellectual Disabilities 87
Emotional Disturbance and Behavior
Disorders 88
Social Interaction Disorders /Autism
Spectrum Disorder 88
Learning Disabilities 89
Remedial Physical Education 89
Creating Conditions for Inclusion 90
Change 90
Challenge 90
Choice 92
Meeting the Needs of Children with
Disabilities 93
The Multidisciplinary Team 93
Individualized Education Program 93
Least Restrictive Environment 93
The Ecological Model of Inclusion 94
Implementing Inclusion 95
A Final Thought 95
Summary 96
Reading Comprehension Questions 97
References /Suggested Readings 97
PART TWO
Teaching Skills 99
CHAPTER 7
Determining Generic Levels of
Skill Profi ciency 101
Identifying Generic Levels of Skill Profi ciency 103
Precontrol Level 103
Control Level 103
Utilization Level 104
Profi ciency Level 104
One Child, More Than One Level 104
Using the Generic Levels of Skill Profi ciency in
Teaching 105
Which Task? 105
How to Know If a Task Works 105
Insights about the Generic Levels of Skill
Profi ciency 106
Multiple Skill Levels in a Class 106
Control Level in Two Days a Week 107
Profi ciency Level Is Rare 107
Assessment Using the GLSP? 107
Summary 108
Reading Comprehension Questions 108
References /Suggested Readings 109
x Contents
CHAPTER 8
Planning 110
Refl ective Planning 111
A Four-Step Planning Process 112
Step 1: Developing the Scope and
Sequence 113
Step 2: Devising a Yearly Overview 114
Step 3: Determining Benchmarks (Performance Indicators
or Checkpoints) 116
Step 4: Detailing Daily Lesson Plans 118
Making Planning Enjoyable 122
Recording Progress 122
Lesson Design 122
Interesting Lessons 123
Appropriate Lessons 123
Maximum Participation 123
Parting Thought 123
Summary 123
Reading Comprehension Questions 124
References /Suggested Readings 124
CHAPTER 9
Establishing an Environment for
Learning 126
Gymnasium Atmosphere 127
The Managerial Component 130
Developing Protocols 130
Establishing Rules and Expectations That Refl ect a
Positive Environment 130
Establishing Gymnasium Routines 132
Getting Off to a Good Start 135
Teaching Skills for Establishing a Learning
Environment 138
Teaching Protocols 138
The Instructional Component 139
Safety 140
Elements of Negligence 140
Areas in Which Negligence Might
Occur 141
Summary 142
Reading Comprehension Questions 143
References /Suggested Readings 144
CHAPTER 10
Maintaining Appropriate Behavior 146
Increasing Appropriate Behavior 149
Proactive Strategies 149
Reactive Approaches 150
Decreasing Inappropriate Behavior 152
Positive Practice 152
Desists 152
Time-outs 152
Planning Time 154
Behavior Contracts 154
Letters to Parents 155
Involving the Principal 155
Maintaining Appropriate Behavior in Entire
Classes 156
Reward Systems 158
Developing Personal and Social Responsibility 159
Corporal Punishment 160
Teaching Skills to Maintain a Productive Learning
Environment 160
Summary 161
Reading Comprehension Questions 163
References /Suggested Readings 163
CHAPTER 11
Developing the Content 164
Overview of Content Development 165
Informing 166
Tasks (Extensions) 167
Cues (Refi nements) 167
Challenges (Applications) 169
Assessing Your Content Development 170
Planning Format 170
Accommodating Individual Differences 171
Teaching by Invitation 171
Intratask Variation 171
Summary 172
Reading Comprehension Questions 172
References /Suggested Readings 172
CHAPTER 12
Observing Student Responses 174
What to Observe 178
Safety 178
On-Task Behavior 177
Class Movement Patterns 177
Individual Movement Patterns 179
How to Observe 180
Positioning 180
Knowing What to Work For 181
Strategies 184
Summary 184
Reading Comprehension Questions 185
References /Suggested Readings 185
Contents xi
CHAPTER 13
Instructional Approaches 186
Interactive Teaching 188
Task Teaching 190
Peer Teaching 192
Guided Discovery 193
Convergent Inquiry 193
Divergent Inquiry 194
Cooperative Learning 195
Child-Designed Instruction 196
A Final Thought 199
Summary 199
Reading Comprehension Questions 199
References /Suggested Readings 200
CHAPTER 14
Assessing Student Learning 201
Understanding Assessment 202
Linking of Assessment and Instruction 203
Student as Primary Client 203
Ongoing Process 203
Meaningful Tasks 203
Distribution of Criteria 204
Making It Work 204
What Has Been Learned? Selecting Assessment
Options 205
Teacher Observation 207
Exit (or Entrance) Slips 207
Student Journals 210
Homework 212
Peer Observation 213
Self-Assessment 213
Event Tasks 215
Videotape /Digital Pictures 216
Student Drawings 218
Student Displays 218
Portfolios 218
Assessing How Well Something Was Learned 219
Writing Rubrics 219
Assessing All Three Domains 221
Fitness Assessment 222
A Word about Assessing Movement
Concepts 223
Assessment of Students with Disabilities 223
What to Do with the Results of Assessment, or
Summarizing and Reporting Progress 225
Two Practical Systems 225
Grading 228
Finding the Time for Assessment 229
Summary 230
Reading Comprehension Questions 230
References /Suggested Readings 231
CHAPTER 15
Understanding Your Teaching 232
Self-Refl ection 234
Systematic Observation 234
Getting Started 234
Unassisted Techniques 235
Student-Assisted Techniques 237
Peer-Assisted Techniques 239
Combining and Adapting Techniques 244
Being Observed 244
Written Instruments 245
Linking and Finding Out More 246
Support Groups 247
Summary 247
Reading Comprehension Questions 248
References /Suggested Readings 248
PART THREE
Movement Concepts Defi ned 249
CHAPTER 16
Space Awareness 251
Developing the Concept of Self-Space 254
Teaching the Concept of Self-Space 254
Learning Experiences Leading to Movement Concept
Understanding 254
Exploring Self-Space 254
Curling, Stretching, and Twisting in Self-Space 255
Moving the Whole Body in Self-Space 256
Developing the Concept of General Space 256
Teaching the Concept of General Space 256
Learning Experiences Leading to Movement Concept
Understanding 256
Exploring General Space 256
Open Spaces 257
Reducing the Size of the General Space 257
City Streets, Crowded Spaces 257
Dodging in General Space 257
Traveling Over, Under, and Around Obstacles in
General Space 258
Obstacle Course 258
Developing the Concept of Directions 258
Teaching the Concept of Directions 258
Learning Experiences Leading to Movement Concept
Understanding 258
Traveling in Different Directions 258
xii Contents
Moving Clockwise and Counterclockwise 259
Exploring Directions 259
Changing Directions on Signal 259
Turning While Moving in Different Directions 260
Developing the Concept of Levels 260
Teaching the Concept of Levels 260
Learning Experiences Leading to Movement Concept
Understanding 260
Traveling and Freezing at Different Levels 260
Traveling with Body Parts at Different Levels 261
Rising and Sinking to Create Different Levels 261
Traveling While Rising and Sinking 261
Developing the Concept of Pathways 261
Teaching the Concept of Pathways 261
Learning Experiences Leading to Movement Concept
Understanding 261
Exploring Pathways 261
Using Pathway Maps 262
Designing Pathways 262
Creating Follow-the-Leader Pathways 263
Traveling Pathways and Obstacles 263
Following-the-Dots Pathways 264
Combining Pathways, Levels, and Directions 264
Developing the Concept of Extensions in Space 265
Teaching the Concept of Extensions in Space 265
Learning Experiences Leading to Movement Concept
Understanding 265
Exploring Extensions 265
Traveling and Extensions 265
Changing from One Extension to Another 265
Using Extensions and Imagery 265
Applying the Concept of Space Awareness 266
Reading Comprehension Questions 266
References /Suggested Readings 267
CHAPTER 17
Effort 268
Developing the Concept of Time 270
Teaching the Concept of Time 271
Learning Experiences Leading to Movement Concept
Understanding 271
Exploring Time 271
Using Different Speeds in Self-Space 271
Moving at Different Speeds 272
Traveling and Freezing by Using Changes in Time 273
Combining Imagery and Time 273
Differentiating among Time Words 274
Combining Sport Skills and Time 274
Continually Changing in Time While Traveling 274
Developing the Concept of Force 276
Teaching the Concept of Force 276
Learning Experiences Leading to Movement Concept
Understanding 276
Exploring Force 276
Traveling and Changing Force Qualities 276
Using Imagery and Force 276
Showing Contrasts of Force 277
Developing the Concept of Flow 278
Teaching the Concept of Flow 278
Learning Experiences Leading to Movement Concept
Understanding 278
Traveling and Flow 278
Eliciting Flow Qualities 279
Following Flow Sentences 279
Practicing Flow Sequences 279
Using Flow Conversations 280
Combining Time, Force, and Flow 280
Applying the Effort Concepts 280
Reading Comprehension Questions 281
References /Suggested Readings 282
CHAPTER 18
Relationships 283
Developing the Concept of the Relationships of
Body Parts 285
Teaching the Concept of the Relationships of Body Parts 285
Learning Experiences Leading to Movement Concept
Understanding 285
Identifying Body Parts 285
Balancing While Using Different Body Parts 286
Freezing on Different Body Parts 287
Traveling on Different Body Parts 287
Balancing on Matching and Nonmatching Parts 287
Round, Narrow, Wide, and Twisted Body Shapes 288
Changing from One Body Shape to Another 289
Traveling and Freezing in Different Body Shapes 289
Making Symmetrical and Nonsymmetrical Shapes 290
Creating Postcard Sculptures 290
Creating Body Shapes in the Air 291
Developing the Concept of the Relationships with
Objects 291
Teaching the Concept of the Relationships with Objects 291
Learning Experiences Leading to Movement Concept
Understanding 292
Traveling Over, Close To, Far Away, Inside 292
Traveling Over, Under, Close To, and Far Away from
Equipment 292
Onto/Off Concepts 293
Over, Under, Around, In Front of, and Behind Concepts 294
Traveling Along Equipment 294
Traveling Through Obstacles 294
Going Over and Under the Obstacle Course 295
Using Partners as Obstacles 295
Developing the Concept of the Relationships with
People 298
Alone in a Mass 298
Solo 297
Partners 297
Groups 297
Contents xiii
Between Groups 298
Teaching the Concept of the Relationships with People 298
Learning Experiences Leading to Movement Concept
Understanding 298
Matching 298
Traveling and Matching 298
Mirroring 298
Matching and Mirroring 298
Traveling Alongside /Following 299
Following with a Group 299
Meeting/Parting 300
Forming Cooperative and Collaborative Relationships 300
Meeting and Parting in a Cooperative Group 301
Performing Solo 301
Applying the Concept of Relationships 301
Competition 302
Reading Comprehension Questions 302
References /Suggested Readings 302
PART FOUR
Skill Theme Development 303
CHAPTER 19
Traveling 305
Fundamental Locomotor Skills 306
Walking 306
Running 307
Hopping 307
Leaping 307
Sliding 307
Galloping 310
Skipping 310
Levels of Skill Profi ciency 310
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration 311
Traveling in General Space 311
Traveling with Different Locomotor Movements 312
Traveling in Different Ways 312
Traveling with Imagery 313
Traveling Through Rope Pathways 313
Traveling Among the Large and Tall 313
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development 314
Traveling with Different Locomotor Patterns 314
Sliding 314
Galloping 315
Hopping 315
Skipping 315
Leaping 315
Running 315
Traveling to Open Spaces 316
Performing Locomotor Sequences 316
Moving to Rhythms 317
Traveling in Confi ned Spaces 317
Traveling with Music 318
Traveling an Obstacle Course 318
Traveling in Different Directions 319
Slidestepping 319
Traveling in Different Pathways 319
The Locomotors Dance 320
The Follow-Me Dance 320
Traveling at Different Speeds 321
Traveling Using Different Directions, Levels, Pathways, and
Locations 321
Changing Speeds to Music 321
A Dance of Water, Steam, and Ice 321
Slow-Motion Replay: The Sports Dance 322
Combination Locomotors 322
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development 323
Traveling with a Partner: Matching Pathways 323
The Copy Cat Dance 324
Traveling with a Partner: Changing Speed and
Direction 324
Shadowing 324
Meeting and Parting While Traveling with a Partner 325
Performing Rhythmical Patterns 326
Traveling to Express Age: The Fountain of
Youth Dance 326
Traveling in Bound and Free Flow 326
Traveling to Tom Foolery Rhymes 327
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development 327
Depicting Primitive Tribes through Travel 327
Traveling to Show Tradition versus Change 328
Performing Rhythmical Patterns: Tinikling 328
Traveling in Games and Sports 330
Traveling in Gymnastics 330
Reading Comprehension Questions 330
References /Suggested Readings 330
CHAPTER 20
Chasing, Fleeing, and Dodging 332
Chasing 333
Fleeing 333
Dodging 333
Levels of Skill Profi ciency 333
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration 335
Moving Obstacles 335
Traveling to Flee 336
Traveling to Dodge 336
Make-Believe Chase 336
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development 336
Dodging in Response to a Signal 336
Fleeing from a Partner 337
Dodging the Obstacles 337
Dodging with Quick Changes of Direction 337
xiv Contents
Overtaking a Fleeing Person 337
Fleeing a Chaser 338
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development 339
Dodging Stationary Obstacles 339
Dodging and Faking Moves to Avoid a Chaser 339
Dodging Semistationary Obstacles 340
Dodging and Chasing One Person in a Mass 340
Dodging in a Dynamic Situation 341
Dodging While Manipulating an Object 341
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to
Skill Development 342
Continual Fleeing and Chasing with a Large Group 342
Dodging While Maintaining Possession of an Object 343
Chasing and Dodging Simultaneously 343
Chasing and Fleeing in an Invasion Game –Like
Situation 344
Dodging in a Game-Like Situation 344
Dodging in a Target Game-Like Situation 345
Using Team Strategy for Chasing, Fleeing, and Dodging in
an Invasion Game-Like Situation 346
Dodging While Manipulating an Object in an Invasion
Game – like Situation 346
Self-Designed Chasing, Fleeing, and Dodging Game 347
Reading Comprehension Questions 347
References /Suggested Readings 348
CHAPTER 21
Jumping and Landing 349
Fundamental Jumping Patterns 350
Levels of Skill Profi ciency 350
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration 355
Jumping and Landing: Different Patterns 355
Jumping for Distance 356
Jumping for Height 356
Jumping over a Swinging Rope 357
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development 357
Jumping and Landing: Basic Patterns 357
Standing Long Jump 358
Jumping for Height 358
Jumping over Low Obstacles: Hoops 359
Jumping over Low Obstacles: Hurdles 359
Jumping Rhythmically 360
Jumping in Rhythmical Sequences 360
Jumping a Turned Rope 361
Jumping a Self-Turned Rope 361
Jumping Using Buoyant and Yielding Landings 362
Jumping to Form a Body Shape During Flight 363
Traveling, Jumping, and Body Shapes 364
Performing Jumping Sequences and Making
Body Shapes 364
Jumping over Equipment Using Buoyant Landings 364
Jumping on and off Equipment Using Buoyant and Yielding
Landings 365
Jump, Squash, TaDa 366
Jumping and Landing Task Sheet 366
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to
Skill Development 367
Jumping to Catch 367
Jumping to Throw 368
Jumping on a Bench 368
Throwing and Catching While Jumping 369
Jumping to an Accented Beat 370
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to
Skill Development 370
Jumping with a Partner to Mirror Actions 370
Jumping with a Partner to Match Actions 371
Jumping with a Springboard 371
Jumping as Part of a Dance Creation 371
Jumping, Dancing, and Imagery 372
Hurdling Jumps 372
Reading Comprehension Questions 372
References /Suggested Readings 373
CHAPTER 22
Balancing 374
Levels of Skill Profi ciency 376
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration 376
Balancing on Different Bases of Support 376
Balancing on a Wide Base of Support 377
Balancing in Different Body Shapes 377
Traveling and Stopping in Balanced Positions 377
Traveling on Low Gymnastics Equipment 378
Balancing on Boards 378
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development 379
Balancing on Different Bases of Support 379
Tightening the Gymnastics Muscles 379
Counterbalance 379
Balancing Symmetrically and Nonsymmetrically 380
Balancing in Different Body Shapes 380
The Gymnastics Dance 382
Performing Inverted Balances 382
Alignment of Body Parts 383
Doing Kickups 384
Traveling and Stopping in Balanced
Positions 385
Stationary Balances on Equipment 385
Traveling on Large Apparatus 387
Traveling While Balanced 388
Balancing Sequence 388
Balancing on Stilts 389
Balance Boards 390
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development 391
Balancing on Crates 391
Moving out of and into Balances by Stretching, Curling,
and Twisting 392
Traveling into and out of Balances by Rolling 393
Contents xv
Performing Inverted Balances on Equipment 394
Performing Sequences That Combine Stationary Balances
and Traveling on Mats 394
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development 395
Balancing While Supporting the Weight of a Partner 396
Balancing on Hanging Ropes 396
Transferring off Equipment with Weight on Hands 397
Performing Apparatus Sequences That Combine
Stationary Balances and Traveling with
Movement Concepts 398
Reading Comprehension Questions 398
References 399
CHAPTER 23
Transferring Weight and Rolling 400
Levels of Skill Profi ciency in Transferring Weight 401
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration of
Weight Transfer 401
Locomotor Actions 402
Transferring Weight from Feet to Back 402
Transferring Weight from Feet to Hands 402
Transferring Weight onto and off Equipment 403
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development in Weight Transfer 403
Transferring Weight to Hands across Mats 403
Transferring Weight with a Rolling Action 403
Transferring Weight from Foot to Combinations of
Body Parts 404
Stretching, Curling, and Twisting into Transfers 404
Performing Spring/Step Takeoffs 404
Performing Spring/Step Takeoffs onto Crates and /or
Benches 405
Transferring Off Low Apparatus (Bench, Crate, or
Low Table) 406
Making Spring/Step Takeoffs with Sequences 406
Traveling over Low Apparatus 407
Transferring onto Low Apparatus 407
Transferring Weight from Foot to Hands 408
Transferring Weight to Hands by Stepping: Cartwheels 408
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development in Weight Transfer 409
Transferring Weight to Hands: Walking 409
Transferring Weight to Hands and Twisting 409
Transferring Weight to Hands and Forming a Bridge 410
Transferring Weight onto Large Apparatus 409
Transferring Weight to Head and Hands on Apparatus (Box,
Beam, Table) 410
Transferring Weight onto Bars (Parallel Bars, Climbing
Frame) 411
Transferring Weight over Apparatus (Vaulting Box) 412
Transferring Weight along Apparatus 413
Transferring Weight by Rolling (Bench, Box, or Table) 413
Transferring Weight to Hands on Low Apparatus 414
Transferring Weight on Bars 414
Combining Skills on Mats 414
Combining Weight Transfer and Balances into Sequences on
Mats and Apparatus 414
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development in Weight Transfer 416
Levels of Skill Profi ciency in Rolling 416
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration of
Rolling 418
Making Curing Shapes 418
Rocking on Different Body Parts 418
Rolling Sideways 418
Curling to Roll 420
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development in Rolling 420
Rocking to Match a Partner 420
Rolling in a Long, Narrow Position (Log Roll) 420
Rolling Sideways on Different Body Parts 420
Rolling Sideways over a Shoulder 421
Rocking Backward 421
Rolling Forward 422
Rocking Backward over the Shoulders 423
Rolling from Different Positions 424
Rolling at Different Speeds 424
Back Shoulder Roll 424
Handclasp Backward Roll 425
Rolling Backward 425
Rolling in Different Directions 426
Rolling from Different Directions and Positions 427
Linking Rolls 427
Rolling Using Different Directions and Speeds 427
Rolling after Jumping off Equipment and Landing 428
Rolling after Jumping for Height and Landing 428
Rolling after Jumping from Different Heights 429
Rolling after Jumping over Equipment and Landing 429
Rolling, Levels, Directions, and Jumping 430
Rolling While Traveling, Jumping, and Landing 431
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development in Rolling 431
Rolling and Traveling Quickly 431
Rolling, Jumping, and Traveling in Relationship to
Others 432
Rolling over Low Hurdles 432
Rolling on Low Equipment 432
Rolling off Low Equipment 433
Traveling and Rolling between Pieces of
Equipment 433
Rolling, Balancing, and Rolling 434
Rolling to Express an Idea 434
Rolling While Throwing and Catching 434
Rolling onto Low Equipment 435
Rolling and Balancing on Equipment 435
Rolling to Meet and Part 436
Rolling and Striking 436
Catching, Throwing, and Rolling 436
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development in Rolling 436
xvi Contents
Reading Comprehension Questions 437
References 437
CHAPTER 24
Kicking and Punting 438
Levels of Skill Profi ciency in Kicking 439
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration of Kicking 443
Kicking a Stationary Ball from a Stationary Position 443
Kicking at Large Targets 443
Approaching a Stationary Ball and Kicking 443
Tapping the Ball 444
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development in Kicking 445
Kicking on the Ground 445
Kicking in the Air 445
Kicking for Distance 446
Kicking to a Distance Zone 446
Kicking to Targets 447
Kicking a Rolling Ball from a Stationary Position 448
Kicking to a Partner 449
Tapping the Ball along the Ground (Soccer Dribble) 449
Starting and Stopping 449
Traveling in Pathways 450
Dribbling around Stationary Obstacles 450
Keeping It Perfect: Zero, Zero 451
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development in Kicking 451
Changing Directions: Tap /Dribble 451
Performing a Continuous Tap /Dribble and Change of
Direction 452
Traveling and Kicking for a Goal 452
Playing One-on-One Soccer 453
Playing Soccer Golf 453
Kicking to a Partner from Various Angles 454
Kicking to a Traveling Partner 454
Passing to a Partner in General Space 455
Playing Two-on-One Soccer 455
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development in Kicking 455
Kicking at Small Stationary Targets 456
Kicking at a Moving Target 456
Playing Mini Soccer 456
Playing Soccer Keep-Away 457
Playing Alley Soccer 457
Playing Cone Soccer 458
Levels of Skill Profi ciency in Punting 458
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration of Punting 459
Dropping, Bouncing, and Kicking Lightweight Balls 459
Dropping and Punting 459
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development in Punting 459
Punting for Consistency 462
Punting over Low Ropes 462
Punting with an Approach 462
Punting Different Types of Balls 463
Punting for Distance 463
Using Punting Zones 463
Punting for Accuracy 464
Punting for Height 464
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development in Punting 465
Punting at Angles 465
Punting to a Partner 465
Receiving a Pass, Then Punting 466
Punting within a Limited Time 466
Playing Rush the Circle 467
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development in Punting 467
Receiving and Punting against Opponents 467
Punting While Traveling 468
Playing Punt-Over 468
Reading Comprehension Questions 469
References 469
CHAPTER 25
Throwing and Catching 470
Levels of Skill Profi ciency in Throwing 471
Levels of Skill Profi ciency in Catching 475
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration 477
Throwing a Yarn Ball against the Wall 477
Throwing at a Large Target 478
Catching a Rolling Ball 478
Catching from a Skilled Thrower 478
Drop —Catch 478
Tossing to Self and Catching 479
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development 479
Throwing Underhand 479
Throwing Overhand 480
Throwing Sidearm 480
Overs, Unders, and Sides 482
Bouncing a Ball to Self and Catching It 481
Throwing an Object to Different Levels and Catching It 481
Catching in Different Places around the Body 481
Throwing Overhand at a High Stationary Target 482
Throwing Overhand at a Low Stationary Target 483
Throwing Underhand to Targets: Jugs 483
Throwing Underhand to Targets: Hoops 483
Throwing to High Targets 484
Throwing Backhand to a Target 484
Throwing a Flying Disc 484
Catching with a Scoop 485
Catching off the Fly 486
Throwing a Ball against a Wall and Catching the Rebound 486
Throwing for Distance 487
Throwing and Catching with a Partner 487
Throwing and Catching over a Net with a Partner 488
Catching off a Bounce 489
Contents xvii
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development 489
Moving to Catch 489
Throwing and Catching While Traveling 490
Throwing on the Move 490
Throwing to Make a Partner Move to Catch 491
Throwing to a Moving Target 491
Throwing for Distance and Accuracy 492
Target Backaway 493
Throwing Discs at Targets 493
Catching to Throw Quickly to a Partner 494
Catching to Throw Quickly to a Target 494
Throwing While in the Air 494
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development 495
Throwing and Catching a Flying Disc in Different Places
around the Body with a Partner 495
Throwing and Catching in a Field, Run, and Score Game-Like
Situation 495
Throwing to Avoid a Defender 496
Throwing and Catching in a Small-Sided Invasion Game 497
Throwing at a Stationary Object While Being Defended 497
Throwing and Catching in a Small-Sided Basketball-Type
Game 498
Throwing and Catching with a Flying Disc in a Small-Sided
Invasion Game 498
Throwing and Catching with a Football in a Small-Sided
Invasion Game 499
Throwing and Catching with a Team Handball in a Small-Sided
Invasion Game 499
Throwing and Catching While Using Simple Offense and
Defense in a Small-Sided Invasion Game 500
Reading Comprehension Questions 501
References /Suggested Readings 501
CHAPTER 26
Volleying and Dribbling 502
Volleying 503
Levels of Skill Profi ciency in Volleying 503
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration 504
Striking Balloons in the Air 504
Striking a Balloon Forward 504
Striking with Different Body Parts 505
Striking Lightweight Objects 505
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development 505
Striking a Ball Noncontinuously with Different Body Parts 506
Striking a Ball Upward (Underhand Pattern) 506
Striking a Ball Upward with the Forearms ( The Bump) 507
Striking a Ball to the Wall (Underhand Pattern) 507
Striking a Ball over a Line (Underhand Pattern) 508
Playing Hoop Volley (Underhand Pattern) 508
Playing Four Square, Two Square (Underhand Pattern) 508
Striking over a Low Net (Underhand Pattern) 509
Volleying to the Wall (Overhead Pattern) 509
Volleying a Ball Upward (Overhead Pattern) 510
Volleying to a Partner (Overhead Pattern) 510
Playing Keep It Up 510
Playing One-Bounce Volleyball 511
Obstacle-Course Volley 511
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to
Skill Development 511
Volleying Game: Child-Designed 511
Striking a Ball Continuously with Different Body
Parts 513
Volleying with the Foot 514
Playing Aerial Soccer 514
Volleying with a Volleybird 514
Striking to the Wall—Varying Levels, Force, and
Body Position 515
Volleying over a Net 516
Volleying Continuously to a Partner 516
Volleying Three-on-Three 516
Serving Underhand over the Net 517
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to
Skill Development 517
Striking with Different Body Parts While Traveling 517
Serving Overhand over the Net 518
Striking Downward with Force 519
Spiking 519
Volleying in a Line Formation 520
Playing Modifi ed Volleyball 520
Dribbling 520
Levels of Skill Profi ciency in Dribbling 520
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration 522
Bouncing a Ball Down and Catching It 522
Bouncing a Ball Down (Dribbling) Continuously 522
Dribbling and Walking 522
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development 522
All-the-Time Dribble 522
Dribble Like a Basketball Player 523
Dribbling at Different Levels 523
Dribbling and Looking 524
Switches 524
Dribbling with the Body in Different Positions 525
Dribbling in Different Places around the Body While
Stationary 525
Dribbling While Changing Directions in
Self-Space 526
Dribbling and Traveling 526
Moving Switches 527
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to
Skill Development 527
Dribbling and Changing Speed of Travel 527
Dribbling While Changing
Directions 527
Dribbling in Different Pathways 528
Dribbling While Stopping, Starting, and Turning
(Pivots and Fakes) 529
Dribbling around Stationary Obstacles 530
xviii Contents
Mirroring and Matching While Dribbling 531
Dribbling and Passing with a Partner 531
Dribbling against an Opponent: One-on-One 532
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development 532
Dribbling against Opponents: Group Situations 532
Now You’ve Got It, Now You Don’t 533
Dribble Tag 533
Dribbling While Dodging 534
Dribbling and Passing in Game Situations 534
Making Up Fancy Dribbling/Passing Routines 534
Dribbling and Throwing at a Target 534
Dribble /Pass Keep-Away 535
Small-Group Basketball-Type Game 535
Reading Comprehension Questions 536
References /Suggested Readings 536
CHAPTER 27
Striking with Rackets and Paddles 537
Levels of Skill Profi ciency 538
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration 539
Paddle Balance 539
Balloon Strike (Lightweight Paddle) 541
Striking a Suspended Ball 542
Hit the Wall 543
Upward Bound 544
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development 544
Downs 544
Ups 545
Ups and Downs 545
Up against the Wall (Striking Forward) 546
Ups, Downs, and Forwards 546
Both Sides (of the Paddle) Now 547
Striking to Wall Targets 547
Striking for Distance ( Varying the Force) 548
Striking for Hoops ( Varying the Distance) 548
To the Wall— Sideways (Sidearm Forehand Pattern) 549
To the Wall Again — Sideways (Sidearm Backhand
Pattern) 549
Striking at High and Low Targets 550
Striking to Different Places 551
Striking through a Target 552
Striking an Object to Send It over a Net 552
Striking a Ball Rebounding from a Wall 553
Striking Continuously over and through a Target 553
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development 554
Hitting from Different Places 554
Hitting Cooperatively and Continuously with a
Partner 554
Striking to Different Places around a Partner 555
Striking Overhead 555
Striking Overhead over a Net 556
Striking Continuously Upward with a Group 556
Striking in Various Aerial Pathways in Dynamic Situations 557
Striking Upward in a Dynamic Situation 558
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to
Skill Development 558
Striking to One Wall with a Partner 559
Striking at Angles to Two Walls with a Partner 559
Striking To and From Different Places 560
Partner Striking across a Net 560
Aerial Striking over a Net 560
Team Striking across a Net 561
Group Striking across a Net 561
Self-Designed Racket Games 562
Reading Comprehension Questions 562
Reference /Suggested Readings 562
CHAPTER 28
Striking with Long-Handled Implements 563
Levels of Skill Profi ciency 564
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration 569
Striking a Stationary Ball—Golf or Hockey 571
Striking to Large Targets —Golf or Hockey 571
Striking (Dribbling) a Ball in Self-Space —Hockey 571
Traveling Slowly While Striking a Ball—Hockey 572
Striking Off a Batting Tee —Bats 572
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to
Skill Development 573
Striking a Stationary Ball on the Ground—Golf and Hockey 573
Striking for Distance —Golf and Hockey 574
Striking in the Air —Golf 575
Striking to Varying Distances —Golf 575
Striking to Targets —Hockey 576
Striking to a Target (Around the World)—Hockey 576
Striking to a Stationary Partner —Hockey 577
Traveling Slowly While Striking a Ball—Hockey 577
Traveling, Stopping, and Controlling the Ball—Hockey 578
Traveling and Changing Speeds —Hockey 578
Traveling and Striking While Changing Pathways—Hockey 579
Striking to Targets —Hockey 579
Striking While Dodging Stationary Obstacles —Hockey 580
Striking a Stationary Ball—Bats 580
Level Swings —Bats 581
Striking a Stationary Ball for Distance —Bats 582
Striking Suspended Objects —Bats 583
Hitting a Stationary Ball from Different Places —Bats 583
Hit and Run —Bats 584
Throwing a Ball in the Air and Striking it —Bats 584
Striking a Self-Tossed Ball to Different Distances —Bats 584
Striking a Pitched Ball—Bats 585
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development 585
Striking to Targets at Various Distances —Golf 586
Playing Hoop Golf —Golf 586
Directing the Air Pathway of the Struck Object —Golf 586
Playing Hockey Bowl (Small Targets)—Hockey 586
Dribbling and Changing Directions Backward —Hockey 587
Contents xix
Performing a Continuous Dribble and Change of
Direction —Hockey 587
Pathways, Speeds, and Directions —Hockey 587
Traveling and Striking for a Goal—Hockey 588
One-on-One Hockey —Hockey 589
Striking from a Stationary Position to a Moving
Target —Hockey 589
Passing and Receiving on the Move —Hockey 590
Keeping It Moving —Hockey 590
Two-on-One Hockey —Hockey 590
Grounders and Flies —Bats 591
Directing the Placement of an Object —Bats 591
Hitting to Open Spaces —Bats 592
Striking a Pitched Object Varying the Distance —Bats 592
Batting, Combining Distance and Placement —Bats 592
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to
Skill Development 593
Directing the Pathway, Distance, and Speed of an
Object —Golf 593
Whiffl e Ball Golf 593
Striking to Dodge an Opponent —Hockey 594
Keep-Away —Hockey 595
Small Sided Hockey Invasion Game —Hockey 595
Directing the Pathway, Distance, and Speed of an
Object —Bats 596
Six-Player Striking and Fielding in a Gamelike
Situation —Bats 596
One-Base Baseball—Bats 597
Reading Comprehension Questions 597
References /Suggested Readings 598
PART FIVE
Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas 599
CHAPTER 29
Skill Themes in Dance 601
The Purpose of Dance in Elementary School 602
Dance Experiences 603
Rhythmic Experiences 603
Folk /Cultural and Ethnic Dances 606
Creative Experiences 608
Design of Dance 609
Evaluation of Dance Making 610
The Content of Expressive Dance 611
The Process of Teaching Dance 611
Don’t Call It Dance! 612
Begin Gradually 612
Start with a Cooperative Class 612
Use Props 612
Imagery 612
Start with Exciting Movement Experiences 614
Dance to the Music 614
A Final Thought 614
Summary 614
Reading Comprehension Questions 615
References /Suggested Readings 615
Appendix 29A: Teacher-Designed Group Routines 617
Lummi Sticks 617
Chinese Ribbons 617
Musical Parachute 618
Jump Rope 619
Appendix 29B: Children Designing Their Own Dance: A
Description of a Process 620
Background 620
An Outline of the Dance 620
Creation of the Dance 620
Slavery 621
Freedom 621
Gathering Together: Strength as a People 621
Dispersing: Strength as Individuals 621
Gathering Again: Strength, Pride, Confi dence 621
Respect and Thankfulness to God 621
Conclusion: We Are Strong and Proud 621
CHAPTER 30
Skill Themes in Gymnastics 622
The Nature of Gymnastics 623
The Purpose of Gymnastics 624
The Content of Educational Gymnastics 625
Floor Experiences 626
Apparatus Experiences 627
Recording Sequences 628
Outdoor Play Equipment as Gymnastics Apparatus 628
The Process of Teaching Educational Gymnastics 629
The Learning Environment 629
Gymnastics Equipment 630
Stations 630
Varying the Task 631
Club Gymnasts 631
Demonstrating 632
A Final Thought 633
Summary 633
Reading Comprehension Questions 633
References /Suggested Readings 633
CHAPTER 31
Skill Themes in Games 635
The Nature of Games 636
The Purpose of Games in Elementary School 637
The Content of Elementary School Games 638
xx Contents
Games Experiences 639
Invariant Game Skill Experiences 640
Dynamic Gamelike Skill Experiences 640
Games-Playing Experiences 642
The Process of Teaching Games-Playing
Experiences 644
Selecting a Games-Playing Experience 644
Other Considerations 647
The Learning Environment 649
After-School Sport Programs 649
Child Development and Games 649
A Final Thought 650
Summary 650
Reading Comprehension Questions 651
References /Suggested Readings 651
CHAPTER 32
Integrating the Skill Theme Approach across
the Curriculum 653
Connecting Physical Education and the Classroom
Curriculum through Interdisciplinary Learning 654
Defi ning Interdisciplinary Learning 654
Interdisciplinary Learning and Quality Physical
Education 654
Integrating Physical Education 655
Benefi ts of Integration 656
Important Considerations 657
The Process of Teaching Using an Interdisciplinary
Learning Approach 658
Content Linkage Approach 658
Shared Integration Approach 659
Developing an Integrated Learning Experience 659
Thematic Unit Approach 659
Understanding the Scope and Sequence of Subject
Area Content 664
The Connection between Physical Activity and
Academic Performance 664
What the Research Suggests: Physical Activity, Fitness, and
Physical Education 665
What the Research Suggests: Brain-Based Learning 666
A Final Thought 666
Summary 667
Reading Comprehension Questions 667
References /Suggested Readings 667
PART SIX
The Future 669
CHAPTER 33
Building Support for Your Program 671
The Principal 672
Teachers in the School 674
Parents 675
The School Board 678
The Community at Large 678
Legislators 679
Children as Advocates 679
Summary 679
Reading Comprehension Questions 680
References /Suggested Readings 680
CHAPTER 34
Physical Education for Tomorrow’s
Children 681
Appendix: Sample School Year Overviews A-1
Index I-1
Contents xxi
xxiii
P R E F A C E
T hirty years ago, authors George Graham, Missy
Parker, and Shirley Holt/Hale, along with Tim
McEwen, dreamed of a physical education curric-
ulum for children that would focus on skill development;
of gymnasiums and playgrounds fi lled with children
engaged in developmentally appropriate activities; of
children with a love of movement and a desire to be
physically active for a lifetime. That dream resulted in
the fi rst edition of Children Moving and is evident today
in the eighth edition of the text. In Children Moving, the
pedagogy (teaching process) and content (what is taught)
are woven together into a unifi ed “system” that has come
to be known as the skill theme approach.
When the fi rst edition of Children Moving was pub-
lished in 1980, the skill theme approach was new to
many in our profession. Today, an increasing number of
teachers follow the developmentally appropriate guide-
lines and practices outlined in this book. We have
blended the literature on effective teaching with re-
search on physical activity and teacher preparation into
a practical format designed to help you understand, and
successfully implement, the skill theme approach with
children . . . an approach that provides a program of
physical education appropriate for all children, not just
the athletically gifted or physically fi t youngsters.
When the fi rst edition of Children Moving was pub-
lished, the research documenting the benefi ts of physical
activity and the importance of physical education in the
school curricula was nonexistent, as was the universal
lack of understanding about the importance of physical
activity for children. Today, with the increasing epidemic
of obesity and the associated health problems, there is
little need to convince parents, administrators, and the
medical community of the importance of regular physi-
cal activity for children.
Children Moving describes a process designed to ensure
that the love of physical activity children are born with
remains alive throughout adolescence and adulthood.
As you read throughout the 34 chapters in the eighth
edition, you will discover that we view the purpose of
physical education as “guiding youngsters in the pro-
cess of becoming physically active for a lifetime.” The
pages that follow describe in detail how we go about at-
tempting to do so.
It has now been more than a decade since the Surgeon
General’s report on physical activity and the fi rst edi-
tion of the National Standards for Physical Education were
published. Today they have become landmark docu-
ments, and a second edition of the National Standards
(2004) has been published. It is clear that our task is no
longer to simply understand the intent of standards, but
also to show how to align programs so that they meet
the guidelines suggested in these documents. Physical
educators can no longer justify programs that simply
keep youngsters “busy, happy, and good,” thereby pro-
viding classroom teachers a planning period. In this era
of increased accountability and testing, state legislatures
and school districts are mandating that teachers docu-
ment what students have and have not learned, often
through high-stakes testing with highly publicized re-
sults. Physical education programs that do not have
sound educational goals and practices guiding their in-
struction are now more vulnerable than ever before.
This edition frequently references several national
documents that have provided direction, guidance,
and support for physical education in schools by trans-
lating research and consensus reports into meaningful
and worthwhile experiences for children. The Surgeon
General’s report on physical activity and the consensus
report on physical activity sponsored by the National
Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Pro-
motion, both published in 1996, clearly documented
the value of physical activity. They also recommended
that more time be allocated for physical education pro-
grams designed to build the foundation for youngsters
to become physically active for a lifetime.
The National Standards for Physical Education, fi rst
published by the National Association for Sport and
Physical Education (NASPE) in 1995, with a second edi-
tion in 2004, provides guidance for the content and goals
of physical education programs. NASPE’s Developmentally
Appropriate Physical Education Practices for Children (1992)
and Appropriate Practices for Elementary School Physical
Education (third edition, 2009) offer counsel for the
structure of quality physical education programs along
with suggested content.
The authors of Children Moving have been involved
with these and other national, regional, and state proj-
ects in various ways. Our involvement is one of the key
reasons for the match between Children Moving and the
recent national and state advances substantiating the
importance of physical activity. This edition includes
literally hundreds of practical learning experiences and
assessments for reaching the goals and objectives outlined
in the combined editions of the National Standards and
various state standards.
While we have expanded and clarifi ed the informa-
tion from the documents of the mid-1990s, much re-
mains from previous editions, especially our goal to
keep the text both informal and practical. What we
wrote in the preface to the fi rst edition remains true:
“We are teachers of children fi rst. And writers second.
Individual insights gained during years of teaching ex-
perience and ideas to enhance teacher success are
sprinkled throughout the text. We hope that by shar-
ing these experiences we can help others to enrich the
lives of children.”
We begin the eighth edition of Children Moving by
describing the value and purpose of physical educa-
tion. Part 1, “Introduction and Content Overview”
(Chapters 1– 6) provides an overview of the skill theme
approach, the name by which the program suggested
in Children Moving has come to be known, and ties it to
our beliefs and values in regard to children’s physical
education.
Chapter 1 highlights the benefi ts of physical activ-
ity for children as well as the components of a quality
physical education program for children. It also links
the skill theme approach not only to NASPE’s physical
activity guidelines, but also to the U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services’ School Health Index and
Dietary Guidelines.
Chapters 2 and 3 defi ne the skill theme approach.
Chapter 2 includes an overview of motor development
principles as they apply to the skill theme approach.
Chapter 4 describes the importance of physical fi t-
ness and physical activity for children, how fi tness is
interwoven into the skill theme approach, and appro-
priate fi tness practices for elementary school children.
It also includes examples of linking wellness into phys-
ical education lessons.
Chapter 5 includes a much expanded defi nition of
refl ective teaching as well as insights into how one
develops into a refl ective teacher.
An updated Chapter 6, “Teaching Diverse Learn-
ers,” provides multiple strategies that allow teachers
to meaningfully engage all children in physical edu-
cation. Inclusion becomes a proactive concept, not
limited to children with disabilities, but addressing the
needs of every child regardless of skill, fi tness, language,
gender, religion, socioeconomic status, or physical
characteristics.
Part 2, “Teaching Skills” (Chapters 7–15) focuses on
the process, or pedagogy, of teaching. Chapter 7 de-
scribes our system for determining the content children
are ready to learn based on their developmental needs
and interests (generic levels of skill profi ciency), as op-
posed to their age or grade level. Chapter 8 outlines
planning in a four-step process with examples of how
lessons can be linked to national or state standards.
Taken together, Chapters 9, 10, and 11 illustrate how
to develop a classroom environment in which student
learning is most likely to occur. Chapter 9 describes the
process of creating a positive atmosphere conducive to
learning and includes sections on safety and legal lia-
bility. In this chapter we introduce the safety icon as
an alert for a strong emphasis on safety in a given situ-
ation. Chapter 10 addresses strategies for youngsters
who may need extra help in learning how to function
appropriately in a physical education environment.
Chapter 11 describes how teachers organize content
into meaningful experiences by developing a logical
progression of tasks (learning experiences), cues (critical
elements), and challenges designed to make physical
education classes a true learning experience. These
ideas are presented in a user-friendly manner designed
for easy understanding, and they link directly to the
planning chapter (Chapter 8).
Because Children Moving describes a child-centered
rather than a subject-centered approach to teaching, it is
important that teachers constantly observe children to
determine the progress they are making so that lessons
can be adjusted for individual differences. Chapter 12
provides examples of ways teachers can observe student
responses to determine the potential for learning.
Chapter 13, which describes a variety of instructional
approaches used by teachers to heighten children’s en-
joyment and understanding of the lessons, includes a
section on cooperative learning and provides an analy-
sis of when each approach may be appropriate based on
the needs of the students and the pedagogical skills of
the teacher. New to this chapter is the linking of vari-
ous instructional approaches to specifi c learning tasks
in the skill theme chapters.
Chapter 14, on assessment, describes current assess-
ment trends. It contains a variety of assessment ex-
amples based on our teaching experiences as well as on
the fi rst edition of the National Standards. Assessment
icons are then used throughout the text to indicate
performance assessments that are explained in detail
in Chapter 14. In addition, the assessment tool of checks
for cognitive understanding is indicated with the icon
. Additionally, assessment items are aligned with the
National Standards . Chapter 15 includes a variety of
practical ways that teachers can assess their own teach-
ing to determine if, and how, they are using the tech-
niques employed by effective teachers of children’s
physical education.
Part 3, “Movement Concepts Defi ned,” and Part 4,
“Skill Theme Development,” focus on the content of
the skill theme approach. The movement concept
chapters (Chapters 16 –18) describe how the concepts
xxiv Preface
of space awareness, effort, and relationships are taught
in the skill theme approach and include references to
both editions of the National Standards for content
and assessment ideas. They are followed by the skill
theme chapters (Chapters 19 – 28), which contain
hundreds of learning experiences designed to help
children develop the motor skills necessary for suc-
cessful participation in and enjoyment of a variety of
physical activities and sports.
Each skill theme chapter begins with an overview of
the content followed by a description of a series of tasks,
the critical elements or cues necessary to succeed at
these tasks, and challenges designed to maintain chil-
dren’s interest in learning the tasks. The tasks are orga-
nized according to the generic levels of skill profi ciency
in a spiral progression from beginning to advanced.
Assessment options for the skill theme chapters are
keyed to the assessment chapter (Chapter 15).
Part 5, “Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in
Content Areas” (Chapters 29 – 32), includes chapters on
dance, gymnastics, and games in the skill theme ap-
proach and a chapter on interdisciplinary learning.
Chapter 29 links the teaching of dance to the skill theme
and movement concept chapters. It describes various
types of dance for children and provides information
about how ethnic /folk dance can be incorporated with
skill themes. Chapter 30 links the skill theme and move-
ment concept chapters to gymnastics and provides ex-
amples of developmentally appropriate gymnastics for
children. It also includes a renewed emphasis on safety
and self-responsibility in children. Chapter 31, on games,
provides examples of how educational games are used
in the skill theme approach. It contains ideas for de-
signing appropriate game and gamelike experiences
for children and clarifi es the competition /cooperation
aspect of children’s games.
Chapter 32 has been completely revised to describe
how the skill theme approach can be integrated with
topics typically taught in the classroom, such as math-
ematics and reading. It provides examples of ways
classroom teachers can use movement to enhance stu-
dent learning in the classroom and also ways that
physical education teachers and classroom teachers
can work together to create interesting and relevant
learning experiences for youngsters.
Chapters 33 and 34 make up the fi nal part, “The
Future,” in this eighth edition of Children Moving. The
fi rst describes some of the strategies teachers have
successfully used to build support for their programs
and includes references to research that can be used to
support physical education programs. Chapter 34 is
our favorite and includes our continued dreams for
children’s physical education as we approach the sec-
ond decade of the new millennium.
New to This Edition
Updated Content
A key feature of this new edition is updated content,
which is refl ected in the text discussions and in the
references and readings. Of special note is the updated
information from the second edition of the National
Standards for Physical Education. Another example is
the emphasis on teaching diverse learners and the ex-
panded concept of diversity. The idea of observing stu-
dent responses (Chapter 12) is clearly linked with the
notion of student learning in physical education, and
the notion of analyzing our teaching (Chapter 15) is
linked with those teacher practices known to facilitate
student learning.
New Research
This new edition highlights many examples of the lat-
est research in the fi eld, such as fi ndings that suggest a
connection between ongoing physical activity and
obesity, and between movement and learning; the use
of heart-rate monitors and pedometers in learning
more about movement; the creation of a learning en-
vironment and motivation in physical education; and
safety and liability issues that need to be addressed.
Successful Features
The Skill Theme Approach
The skill theme focus of this book guides teachers in
helping children develop their motor skills with develop-
mentally appropriate activities that are directed toward
their skill level rather than their grade level. Designed for
both classroom teachers and physical education teach-
ers, the skill theme approach highlights practical ways of
teaching physical education to children.
Basic Teaching Skills
This book emphasizes the foundation for teaching skills
with topics such as planning, organizing, assessing,
and evaluating. It offers a strong background in educa-
tionally sound theory and explains how to apply that
knowledge to become an effective teacher. The focus is
on refl ective teaching, which involves adjusting one’s
teaching style to match the needs of students.
Classroom Conversations
The scripted format of the skill theme chapters offers
new teachers examples of real conversations that take
Preface xxv
place in the classroom or gymnasium. In this way teach-
ers can learn how to participate in the different dialogues
that are instrumental to child-centered education.
Advocacy of Physical Education
This text focuses on physical education and its relation
to physical fi tness. Recognizing the value of physical
education as a part of total fi tness, this book incorpo-
rates the concepts of fi tness and wellness throughout
all chapters.
Promotion of Inclusion
The idea of inclusion is central to Children Moving. Ex-
amples of how all individuals can be included in high-
quality physical education are found throughout this
text.
Small-Sided Games
Demonstrating the value of small-sided games in phys-
ical education, this book offers examples of how to
design such games and make them a valuable part of
any physical education program. It discusses ideas
about developing versatile game players who under-
stand strategies and skills for playing well.
Pedagogical Aids
Key Concepts Each chapter begins with a list of Key Concepts to help students focus their attention on the
main topics as they begin studying the chapter. This
learning tool also offers an accessible and practical
method of review.
Cautions Throughout the text discussions, the symbol indicates a safety alert for a particular situa-
tion. This tool keeps the new teacher attuned to making
safety a basic element in physical education activities
and helps avoid accidents.
Tasks The skill theme and movement concept chap- ters feature a suggested progression of tasks, or exten-
sions, for children. Highlighted by the symbol T , each
task is worded in a conversational style that can be
used to give instructions to the children about how to
perform the task.
Cues Cues, or refi nements, can be used to help the children perform a skill more effi ciently. A selection of
cues — such as “Heads Up” or “Light on Your Feet — is
presented at the beginning of each series of tasks for
skill themes and movement concepts. The teacher can
choose a cue that is appropriate for the children to
make the task easier for them to perform.
Challenges Challenges, or applications, are indi- cated by the symbol C in the skill theme and move-
ment concept chapters. They are designed to maintain
the children’s interest in a particular task. Teachers can
either use the challenges listed along with the tasks or
create ones that seem appropriate for the children with
whom they are working.
Assessment Ideas Assessment tools are designed to see what students have learned in relation to the goals
set by the teacher. The symbol identifi es suggested as-
sessments that can be used as part of daily teaching rather
than as a separate entity at the end of the unit. These as-
sessment ideas include an array of options, from exit (or
entrance) slips that can be used to quickly assess cogni-
tive and affective learning to teacher observation check-
lists and digital analysis to verify psychomotor skills.
Summaries The chapter summaries highlight the major topics and concepts discussed in the chapter.
They can be used for clarifi cation or for review for
examinations.
Reading Comprehension Questions A set of questions appears at the end of each chapter to allow
students to test their understanding of the content.
This tool offers a means of reviewing and analyzing
the material.
References /Suggested Readings This list at the end of each chapter includes references that support
the text discussion and additional sources for study
and exploration.
Appendix The appendix to this book offers four sample school-year overviews based on the material in
Children Moving. It includes (1) a two-day-a-week pro-
gram for an inexperienced class; (2) a fi ve-day-a-week
program for an inexperienced class; (3) a two-day-a-
week program for an experienced class; and (4) a fi ve-
day-a-week program for an experienced class. These
overviews can be followed exactly as presented or used
as a model for developing individualized programs.
Supplements
Instructor’s Resource DVD
This DVD contains key teaching points for each chap-
ter, along with learning activities for the classroom
and the gym.
xxvi Preface
Computerized Test Bank
The test bank is available on the Instructor’s Re-
source DVD as Word fi les and is designed for use with
McGraw-Hill’s EZ Test computerized testing software.
EZ Test is a fl exible and easy-to-use electronic testing
program that allows instructors to create tests from
book-specifi c items. It accommodates a wide range of
question types, and instructors may add their own
questions. Multiple versions of the test can be cre-
ated, and any test can be exported for use with course
management systems such as WebCT, BlackBoard, or
PageOut. EZ Test Online is a new service and gives
you a place to easily administer your EZ Test – created
exams and quizzes online. The program is available
for Windows and Macintosh environments. The EZ
Test CD is packaged with a Quick Start Guide; once
the program is installed, users have access to the
complete user’s manual, including multiple Flash
tutorials. Additional help is available at www.mhhe.
com /eztest.
On the Move: Lesson Plans to Accompany
Children Moving, Eighth Edition, by
Shirley Ann Holt /Hale
This text is designed to offer learning experiences for
children that assist them in developing a broad base
of movement skills coupled with an enjoyment of
physical activity that will translate into a physically
active, healthy lifestyle for a lifetime. Some of the
highlights are (1) instructional objectives that are
attainable within a single lesson; (2) content develop-
ment with a focus on a skill rather than on broad
exploration; (3) maximum practice of the focus skill;
(4) concentration on one cue at a time; (5) challenges
throughout the lessons; and (6) both cognitive and
performance assessments.
Special features include a series of physical fi tness
concept lesson plans; sample lessons for integrated dis-
cipline activities; and a separate section devoted to
Children Moving challenges written for the classroom
teacher and designed for the recess or playground en-
vironment, with a focus on physical activities with
minimum instruction and maximum participation for
all students. Also included is a discussion of curricu-
lum mapping with a skill theme approach and a sam-
ple curriculum plan to assist teachers in the process of
planning by mapping. New to the eighth edition: Tasks
within the lesson plan book that are directly from Chil-
dren Moving are highlighted by a different font to pro-
vide an easy reference to Children Moving and to show
how a single task or series of tasks is developed into a
lesson for children.
Classroom Performance Systems (CPS)
The Classroom Performance System (CPS) is a revolu-
tionary system that brings ultimate interactivity to the
lecture hall or classroom. CPS is a wireless response
system that gives you immediate feedback from every
student in the class. CPS units include easy-to-use
software for creating and delivering questions and
assessments to your class. With CPS, you can ask sub-
jective and objective questions. Students respond
with their individual wireless response pads, providing
instant results. CPS is the perfect tool for engaging
students while gathering important assessment data.
Benefi ts include:
• Better interactivity — teachers can receive instant
feedback on what students have learned
• Increased class discussion — anonymous opinion
pools can be used to generate debate
• Improved attendance by “alert” students
• Automatically graded testing
• Simple installation, setup, and use
• Low cost
• Reliable technical support
Online Learning Center
www.mhhe.com/graham8e
The Online Learning Center to accompany this text
offers a number of additional resources for both stu-
dents and instructors. Visit this Web site to fi nd useful
materials such as:
For the Instructor
• Instructor’s Manual
• Sample syllabus
• State curriculum guide
• The Wheel and activities
• Downloadable PowerPoint presentations
• Lesson plan Web sites
• Lecture outlines
• Links to professional resources
For the Student
• State Curriculum Guide
• NASPE Curriculum Standards
• Sample Lesson Plan
• National Organizations
• Student Success Strategies
• Lesson Plan Web sites
• On the Move
• eWheel
• Quizzes
Preface xxvii
• Self-scoring chapter quizzes
• On the Mov e lesson plans
• Lesson plan template
• Fitness and nutrition journal
• Videos
Classroom Performance Systems
These fi les are formatted for use with Classroom Per-
formance System, a wireless response system used to
increase student engagement in the classroom. The
fi les are questions that can be used to create class quiz-
zes, or as impromptu questions during lecture.
Primis Online
www.mhhe.com/primis /online
Primis Online is a database-driven publishing system
that allows instructors to create content-rich textbooks,
lab manuals, or readers for their courses directly from the
Primis Web site. The customized text can be delivered
in print or electronic (eBook) form. A Primis eBook is a
digital version of the customized text (sold directly to
students as a fi le downloadable to their computer or
accessed online by a password).
Acknowledgments
Children Moving continues to be a work in progress.
Over the past 30 years we have been fortunate to work
with a number of dedicated professionals who have
assisted and inspired us to continue to improve each
edition. We would like to acknowledge many of the
people who assisted us with this edition and previous
ones. We are grateful for their efforts to work with us to
continue to improve Children Moving.
• Eloise Elliott, Concord University, Athens, West
Virginia, for writing Chapter 32, “Integrating the
Skill Theme Approach across the Curriculum,” for
the sixth edition and for revising it for the eighth
edition, as well as for developing the instructor
materials for the third through the sixth editions.
• Christina Sinclair and Jim Stiehl, University of
Northern Colorado, for expanding our understand-
ing of the notion of teaching diverse populations,
Chapter 6, “Teaching Diverse Learners.”
• Martin Block, University of Virginia, for his inspira-
tion and shared philosophy concerning children
with special needs.
• Laura Matney, Johnson City Schools, Johnson City,
Tennessee, for her assistance with Chapter 4,
“Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness
for Children.”
• Kevin Patton, California State University, Chico, for
developing the instructor materials for the eighth
edition and the PowerPoints presentation accomp-
anying the seventh and eighth editions of Children
Moving.
• Linda Sharp, J.D., of the University of Northern Col-
orado, for her ongoing expert advice related to the
legal aspects of teaching physical education.
• Pat Petrie, research assistant for her countless hours
of assistance and attention to details.
• Rosa Edwards, Shawn Fortner, Liz Harkrader, Sharn
Nicholson, John Pomeroy, Andy Lloyd, Larry Satch-
well, and so many other children’s physical educa-
tion teachers — for your inspiration, dedication
to children, and example in serving as role mod-
els for countless other teachers and thousands of
children.
• The children at St. Mary’s Elementary School, Grand
Forks, North Dakota; Bluff Elementary School, Bluff,
Utah; The Accelerated School, Los Angeles, California;
and Madison Elementary School, Greeley, Colorado,
who continually added to our understanding of link-
ing skill themes with the development of personal
and social responsibility.
• The children at Linden Elementary School in Oak
Ridge, Tennessee, who create as well as follow our
dreams of physical education for children.
• Barbara Adamcik, for her ability to capture children’s
movement through photography.
• Lans Hayes of Mayfi eld Publishing Company, who,
in 1977, took a huge risk on four unknown authors
with a radical idea.
• Jill Eccher, our freelance developmental editor for
the seventh and eighth editions, as well as produc-
tion editor for the eighth edition, for her guidance,
patience, and gentle nagging.
• Mary Anne Stewart, our copyeditor for this edition,
for her attention to detail, her patience with us as
authors, and her love of children’s physical educa-
tion and movement.
• The entire McGraw-Hill book team who worked
on this edition: Chris Johnson, Kate Engelberg, Julia
Ersery, Pam Cooper, Michele Borrelli, Melissa
Williams, Gretchen Otto, Rich DeVitto, Kim
Menning, and Kate Boylan.
• We would like to offer special thanks to the count-
less teachers and students who have made so many
positive and helpful comments since the fi rst edi-
tion of Children Moving was published. Your sup-
port and encouragement continue to be much
appreciated.
xxviii Preface
• Finally, we would like to thank the reviewers of this
edition for their valuable insights:
David Campbell
Concord University
Connie Collier
Kent State University
William Collman
William Penn University
Carol Conkell
St. Cloud State University
Rip Marston
University of Northern Iowa
Arthur Miller
University of Montana
Virginia L. Trummer
University of Texas at San Antonio
Preface xxix
xxx
635
C H A P T E R
31
Skill Themes in Games
The game is not sacred; children are.
— JIM STIEHL
Students, are you looking for practical teaching
techniques? Working hard to develop the skill
theme approach with children? Trying to improve
your grade? The features in Children Moving will
help you do this and more! Take a look.
Key Concepts
Each chapter, or each part in the skills theme
chapters, begins with a list of key concepts to help
you focus your attention on the main topics as
you begin studying each chapter. This learning
tool also offers an accessible and practical method
of review.
Online Learning Center Resources
Want a better grade? This address appears through-
out to remind you about the study aids and other
resources available at our Online Learning Center.
4 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
C hildren, especially young children, love to move.
They enjoy squirming, wriggling, crawling, run-
ning, chasing, jumping, rolling, balancing, kick-
ing, throwing, and many other activities. For parents
and teachers the challenge is getting the children to
stop moving—for just a few minutes. And then, about
10 or 12 years of age, this torrent of physical activity
becomes a trickle for far too many children. Why? What
can be done to encourage children, all children, to con-
tinue this enjoyment of movement into their teen and
adult years? In short, what can we do to encourage chil-
dren to continue moving throughout their lifetime?
Children Moving attempts to provide answers to
many of these questions. The goal of this book is to
describe both a curriculum and the companion teach-
ing skills that are designed to guide youngsters in the
process of becoming physically active for a lifetime.
There is general agreement that skillfulness, the abil-
ity to perform fundamental and sports-related motor
skills, is an important prerequisite for adopting a
physically active lifestyle. Our goal is also to teach
children to value physical activity for all the benefi ts
that are described later in this chapter—as well as the
pure enjoyment and satisfaction that comes from
successful and enjoyable participation in sports and
physical activity.
Why are some adults physically active and others
not? We don’t have the research to answer this question.
We have limited evidence suggesting that physically
active children become physically active adults (Malina
2001). And we have a solid evidence base that physi-
cally active children, as well as adults, derive substantial
benefi ts from being physically active (USDHHS 1996).
Children Moving is based on the premise that to truly
enjoy many of the physical activities and sports par-
ticipated in by adults one needs a certain level of skillful-
ness. The ideal time to learn these foundational motor
skills is when children are young and they so enjoy
moving in any form. One of the important character-
istics of motor skills is that once they are learned, they
are retained for a lifetime. For example, swimming and
riding a bike are motor skills that are remembered for a
lifetime. While we may not be as adept at these skills if
we have not done them for 20 years or so, our bodies
(kinesthetic memory) don’t forget. Thus the goal of
Children Moving is to describe effective techniques and
strategies to assist children in acquiring many of the
foundational motor skills that are used in sports and
physical activities by children and adults.
Positive physical education programs emphasize
enjoyable participation in physical activity and “help
students develop the knowledge, attitudes, motor skills,
behavioral skills, and confi dence needed to adopt and
maintain physically active lifestyles” (NCCDPHP 1997,
p. 205). Our goal is to keep the love of movement (exer-
cise) alive in youngsters so that they associate exercise
with enjoyment and fun!
The importance of physical activity in the lives of
children and adults is becoming more and more evident.
The 2005 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend
that “children and adolescents engage in at least 60 min-
utes of physical activity on most, preferably all, days of
the week” ( www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2005/
document ). In fact, the 2005 revision of the food pyra-
mid includes a fi gure climbing stairs to visually represent
the importance of physical activity in our lives ( www.
pyramid.gov ). You will also fi nd information on this
Web site designed specifi cally for children ages 6 to 11 in
the “for kids” section.
• The purpose of a quality program of physical education
is to guide youngsters in the process of becoming physi-
cally active for a lifetime.
• Regular physical activity helps prevent obesity, promotes
motor skill development and physical fi tness, and pro-
vides opportunities for setting goals, making new friends,
and reducing stress.
• The health benefi ts associated with being physically
active include a reduction in premature mortality, heart
disease, colon cancer, diabetes mellitus, and drug and
alcohol addiction.
• Positive, or quality, physical education programs have
reasonable class sizes, a developmental and sequential
curriculum, plenty of practice and movement opportuni-
ties, and adequate facilities and equipment.
• Positive physical education programs emphasize learn-
ing in all three domains: psychomotor, cognitive, and
affective.
Key Concepts
▲
▲
A G U I D E D T O U R O F C H I L D R E N M O V I N G
xxxi
CHAPTER 18 Relationships 299
Children try to match their partner as they make “one-part,
non- symmetrical balances.” Children try to match each other’s rocking motion.
practice and ask to see at least one of your combi-
nations, so be sure you know the difference. If you
have questions, ask now.
T This time, the activity will be harder. Instead of
copying a still statue your partner makes, you’re
going to mirror your partner’s movements. It
will be just like looking in a mirror when you brush
your hair. Remember that this is still in your own
space and that there’s no traveling. So if your part-
ner moves his or her left arm down, you move your
right arm down. Make four moves and change
leaders. This is hard. Think about it.
T This time, try to tell a story with your mirroring
actions, such as a baby fi rst seeing herself in the
mirror, your mother putting on her makeup, or
your father shaving. Practice your story until you
can do it the same way three times in a row.
Then we’ll have the class try to guess what you’re
saying.
Traveling Alongside /Following
Setting: Traveling in general space with a partner
Tasks /Challenges:
T Though we haven’t really discussed it, often you were
practicing another type of relationship when you
followed your partner around the space: leading and
following. So far, you’ve always followed from behind
the other person. Let’s try it differently this time,
with you traveling alongside (next to) your partner
as you follow. One person is still the leader and the
other the follower, but you both move as if you were
a team of horses: beside each other. Switch leaders
when I give the signal. This activity is harder, so you
have to watch very closely what your partner does.
Start out with slow traveling, and you can get faster
gradually. Try to fi nd fun, different ways to travel.
T Now try to speed it up a little. Watch carefully. Try
to follow exactly.
The leader must be aware of the follower’s capabilities so
that the leader challenges the partner but doesn’t frustrate
the partner with movements that are too diffi cult.
Following with a Group
Setting: Traveling in general space with a group
▲ Illustration Program Instructional full-color illustrations and photo-
graphs throughout the book enhance learning
with an exciting visual appeal.
162 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Principal Letters
Atmosphere
Managerial Instructional
Establishing a learning environment
Development and teaching of protocols
Rules Routines
Post Start/ stop
Etc. Minimum positive
Consequences
Clear directions
Target No dangles
Beginning of year
Teaching skills
Overlap No flip-flops Timing See and
hear
Separate organization and content
With-it-ness
Vary movement
patterns Scan
Bathroom
Increase appropriate
(soft)
Decrease inappropriate
(hard)
Entire class
Proactive
Desists
Time- outs
Reactive
Dialogue
Eliminate differential treatment
Prompt
Positive interaction
Ignore Nonverbal
Positive practice
Behavior contracts
Planning time
Teaching responsibility
Rewards
Maintaining a learning environment
Figure 10.6 Conceptual map of establishing and maintaining the class environment.
four characteristics of a mature throw. You select a se-
ries of tasks from Chapter 25. You also decide that your
major focus for this lesson will be the use of opposition —
that is, that the children learn to step with the foot
opposite their throwing arm. Once you’ve defi ned the
task and explained the cue (“Throw the ball as hard as
you can against the wall. Remember to step with the
foot on the other side of your body from your throw-
ing arm”), observe to see which children are using op-
position and which ones aren’t. If you observe that
most of the children aren’t using opposition, stop the
class and remind them to use opposition (or remind
children individually). You may also demonstrate the
correct performance yourself or pinpoint as models
several children who are using opposition. Then the
children can return to their practice. Be sure to observe
the responses of the children to determine whether
they are performing as the cue indicates. Remember
that the cue (opposition) is what you actually expect
the children to learn in this lesson. This cycle of teacher
task /student response /teacher observation and deci-
sion about subsequent task is the heart of teaching for
student learning in physical education (Rink 2006).
Without the ability to observe astutely, it is impossible
to teach for student learning.
Individual Movement Patterns
After observing for safety, on-task behavior, and class
movement patterns, it is time to look at the movement
patterns of individuals. Observing individual movement
When we work with individuals, we use essentially
the same process we use for the entire class. We vary
the task for different children, or we provide challenges
(intratask variation). If you ever have an opportunity
to watch a master teacher, you’ll see that this teacher is
constantly using intratask variation as he or she travels
from child to child while remaining conscious of the
entire class, safety, and on-task behavior. Now you can
better understand why it’s so important to spend time
we certainly should and do. But teachers must make
sure that they don’t become so involved with one child
that they forget to concentrate on the whole class. As
Locke’s vignette at the beginning of the chapter sug-
gests, doing so is a real challenge.
Recently I observed a teacher attempting to teach a
child how to run and kick a stationary ball. The child
was unable to adjust her run to enable herself to
arrive at the ball in a proper kicking position. After
each unsuccessful attempt (the ball barely moved;
the child appeared almost to step on the ball rather
than kick it), the teacher would say to the child, “No,
that’s not it!” The child knew she had failed as she
watched the ball erratically dribble away from her
foot, and yet the teacher offered no prescription for
improvement. Rather than stating results the student
can readily observe, the successful instructor offers
a prescription for practice — that is, a cue.
▲
▲
Vignettes and Quotations
The authors and seasoned teachers provide real
examples of experiences with students that relate
to the topics discussed, for more insight into the
dynamics of teaching.
xxxii
Skill Theme Development Sequence
Throwing and Catching Profi ciency Level
Throwing and catching while using simple offense and defense in a small-sided invasion game
Throwing and catching with a team handball in a small-sided invasion game
Throwing and catching with a football in a small-sided invasion game
Throwing and catching with a fl ying disc in a small-sided invasion game
Throwing and catching in a small-sided basketball-type invasion game
Throwing at a stationary object while being defended
Throwing and catching in a small-sided invasion game
Throwing to avoid a defender
Throwing and catching in a fi eld, run, and score game – like situation
Throwing and catching a fl ying disc in different places around the body with a partner
Utilization Level
Throwing while in the air
Catching to throw quickly to a target
Catching to throw quickly to a partner
Throwing discs at targets
Target backaway
Throwing for distance and accuracy
Throwing to a moving target
Throwing to make a partner move to catch
Throwing on the move
Throwing and catching while traveling
Moving to catch
Control Level
Catching off a bounce
Throwing and catching over a net with a partner
Throwing and catching with a partner
Throwing for distance
Throwing a ball against a wall and catching the rebound
Catching off the fl y
Catching with a scoop
Throwing a fl ying disc
Throwing backhand to a target
Throwing to high targets
Throwing underhand to targets: hoops
Throwing underhand to targets: jugs
Throwing overhand at a low stationary target
Throwing overhand at a high stationary target
Catching in different places around the body
Throwing an object to different levels and catching it
Bouncing a ball to self and catching it
Overs, Unders, and Sides
Throwing sidearm
Throwing overhand
Throwing underhand
Precontrol Level
Tossing to self and catching
Drop —Catch
Catching from a skilled thrower
Catching a rolling ball
Throwing at a large target
Throwing a yarn ball against the wall
▲
Skill Theme Development Sequences
The skill theme chapters contain hundreds of
learning experiences designed to help children
learn. Motor skills are organized according to the
generic levels of skill profi ciency in a spiral pro-
gression from beginning to advanced.
Tasks /Challenges
The skill theme and movement concept chap-
ters feature a suggested progression of tasks, or
extensions, for children. Each task is worded in
a conversational style that can be used to give
instructions to the children about how to perform
the task. Challenges are designed to maintain the
children’s interest in a particular task. Teachers can
either use the challenges listed along with the
tasks or create ones that seem appropriate for the
children with whom they are working.
Assessment Ideas
Assessment tools are designed to see what students have
learned in relation to the goals set by the teacher. These
assessment ideas include an array of options from exit
(or entrance) slips that can be used to quickly assess
cognitive and affective learning to teacher observation
checklists and digital analysis to verify psychomotor
skills.
Cues
Cues can be used to help children perform a skill more
effi ciently. A selection of cues is presented at the begin-
ning of each series of tasks. The teacher can choose a
cue that is appropriate for a particular child to make
the task easier for that child to perform.
CHAPTER 25 Throwing and Catching 487
C We’ll make a game out of it this time. I’ll time you
for one minute. Count to yourself how many times
you can hit the wall above the line and catch the
ball in the air on the rebound. Remember the
number, because we’ll do it again so you can try to
improve your score.
Assessment Example
From the National Standards for Physical Education
Peer Observation
Have partners observe the preparatory phase of a des-
ignated skill in an attempt to ascertain the correct use
of critical elements. For example, student A will throw
a ball toward a target 5 times using the overhand
pattern while student B observes the performance,
focusing on a single critical element during the prepa-
ratory phase (e.g., opposite foot forward, side to target,
arm pulled way back). The observing student gives a
thumbs-up if the critical element is correct; if incor-
rect, the observing student tells what is needed to
improve the movement.
Criteria for Assessment
a. Thrower displays the critical element that is the
focus of the observation.
b. Observer makes an accurate judgment on the
performance.
NASPE (1995, p. 33)
Throwing for Distance
Setting: Partners in a large outdoor fi eld, each pair with
a bucket of about 10 tennis balls; beanbags to mark
where the balls land (often you can get old tennis balls
from parents who play tennis. Send parents a note at
the beginning of the year asking tennis players to save
old tennis balls; collect them regularly. It doesn’t take
long to accumulate more balls than you need.)
Cues
Side to Target (Turn your hips and upper body
toward your throwing hand
when you pull it back in
preparation to throw.)
Arm Way Back (Pull your throwing arm way
back before you begin the
throw.)
Step (Step forward on the foot
opposite the hand that is
throwing the ball.)
Follow Through (Follow through toward the
target, ending at your knees.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T You’re going to practice throwing long distances —
like playing the outfi eld in baseball. Throw each
tennis ball as far as you can. With markers, your
partner will mark your farthest throw and collect
the balls. Each time, try to beat your last throw.
After you’ve thrown all the balls you have, trade
places with your partner.
Baseball Gloves
A baseball glove is an implement that can be used to catch
an object, but generally we prefer not to use gloves in our
program. When children bring their own gloves to school,
there are problems. Many children prefer to not share their
gloves with children who don’t have gloves. We also have a
hard time justifying the expense of purchasing gloves for a
physical education program. In the schools we’ve taught in,
we’ve always wanted other equipment that needs to be
purchased and is more important than baseball gloves.
Throwing and Catching with a Partner
Setting: Partners about 10 feet apart; one ball (varying
the object used to throw and catch increases or decreases
the complexity of this task) per pair
Cues
Throwing
Eyes on Target (Your eyes should be on
the target all the time.)
Face, Arm, Step, Follow (Don’t forget the cues
for throwing — always
use them.)
Catching
Watch, Reach, Pull (Watch the ball, reach
for it, and pull it in.)
Get Behind (As the ball comes
toward you, position
your body so that you’re
behind the ball, not to
the side of it.)
Thumbs/ Little Fingers (When you catch over
your head, make sure
your thumbs are to-
gether; if the catch is
low, make sure your lit-
tle fi ngers are together.)
▲
▲
▲
xxxiii
APPENDIX Sample School-Year Overviews A-3
Two-Day-a-Week Program for an Inexperienced Class (72 Days a Year)
Week Chapter Day
1 9 1 Establishing an Environment for Learning (p. •••)
9 2 Establishing an Environment for Learning (cont.) (p. •••)
2 16 1 Exploring Self-Space (p. •••)
16 2 Exploring General Space (p. •••)
3 16 1 Traveling in Different Directions (p. •••)
16 2 Traveling and Freezing at Different Levels (p. •••)
4 4 1 Physical Fitness and Wellness for Children (p. •••)
25 2 Throwing at a Large Target (p. •••)
5 25 1 Catching a Rolling Ball; Catching from a Skilled Thrower (p. •••)
19 2 Traveling with Different Locomotor Patterns: Sliding; Galloping; Hopping; Skipping (pp. •••, •••)
6 19 1 Performing Locomotor Sequences (p. •••)
20 2 Traveling to Flee; Fleeing from a Partner (pp. •••, •••)
7 20 1 Traveling to Dodge; Dodging the Obstacles (pp. •••, •••)
24 2 Kicking a Stationary Ball from a Stationary Position (p. •••)
8 24 1 Approaching a Stationary Ball and Kicking; Kicking in the Air (pp. •••, •••)
24 2 Dropping, Bouncing, and Kicking Lightweight Balls; Dropping and Punting (p. •••)
9 21 1 Jumping and Landing: Basic Patterns (p. •••)
4 2 Physical Fitness and Wellness for Children (p. •••)
10 26 1 Striking Balloons in the Air (p. •••)
26 2 Striking a Ball Upward (Underhand Pattern) (p. •••)
11 26 1 Bouncing a Ball Down (Dribbling) Continuously (p. •••)
26 2 Dribbling and Walking (p. •••)
12 17 1 Exploring Time (p. •••)
17 2 Exploring Force (p. •••)
13 17 1 Traveling and Changing Force Qualities (p. •••)
9 2 Establishing an Environment for Learning (p. •••)
14 16 1 Exploring Pathways (p. •••)
16 2 Exploring Extensions (p. •••)
15 19 1 Moving to Rhythms (p. •••)
4 2 Physical Fitness and Wellness for Children (p. •••)
16 27 1 Downs; Ups (pp. •••, •••)
27 2 Ups and Downs (p. •••)
17 21 1 Jumping over Low Obstacles: Hoops; Jumping over Low Obstacles: Hurdles (p. •••)
21 2 Jumping a Turned Rope; Jumping a Self-Turned Rope (p. •••)
18 18 1 Identifying Body Parts; Balancing on Matching and Nonmatching Parts (pp. •••, •••)
18 2 Traveling and Freezing in Different Body Shapes (p. •••)
19 4 1 Physical Fitness and Wellness for Children (p. •••)
19 2 Leaping (p. •••)
20 18 1 Over, Under, Around, In Front Of, and Behind Concepts (p. •••)
19 2 The Follow-Me Dance (p. •••)
21 23 1 Rocking on Different Body Parts; Rolling to Match a Partner (p. •••)
23 2 Rolling Sideways; Rolling Forward (pp. •••, •••)
22 1 Special Event
18 2 Matching; Mirroring; Matching and Mirroring (p. •••)
23 22 1 Balancing on Different Bases of Support (p. •••)
22 2 Balancing in Different Body Shapes (p. •••)
24 23 1 Rolling in a Long, Narrow Position (log roll) (p. •••)
23 2 Rocking Backwards; Rocking over the Shoulders (pp. •••, •••)
25 23 1 Transferring Weight from Feet to Back (pp. •••–•••)
23 2 Transferring Weight from Feet to Hands (pp. •••, •••, •••)
26 25 1 Throwing Overhand; Throwing Underhand; Throwing Sidearm (pp. •••, •••)
25 2 Throwing a Ball against a Wall and Catching the Rebound (p. •••)
27 22 1 Traveling on Low Gymnastics Equipment (pp. •••, •••)
22 2 Balancing Sequence (p. •••)
(continued)
Appendix
The appendix to this book offers four sample
school-year overviews based on the material in
Children Moving. These overviews can be followed
exactly as presented or used as a model for devel-
oping individualized programs.
▲
12 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Summary
Quality physical education programs for children
have never been more important than they are today.
The three overarching questions in this chapter pro-
vide an introduction to the program and teaching
process described in the text. The responses to the
questions taken from the recent literature (1) provide
reasons why children need quality physical education,
(2) summarize the health benefi ts that may accrue to
those who remain physically active for a lifetime, and
(3) defi ne a quality physical education program for
children as one that is developmentally and instruc-
tionally appropriate.
References /Suggested Readings
Bredekamp , S. 1992 . What is developmentally appropri- ate and why is it important? Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 63(6): 31– 32 .
[COPEC] Council on Physical Education for Children. 1992 . Developmentally appropriate physical education practices for children: A position statement of the Council on Physical Education for Children . Reston, VA: National Association for Sport and Physical Education .
[COPEC] Council on Physical Education for Children. 2000 . Appropriate practices for elementary school physical edu- cation: A position statement of the National Association for Sport and Physical Education developed by the Council on Physical Education for Children (COPEC) . Reston, VA: [NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Education . www.aahperd.org/naspe .
Furth , H. G. 1970 . Piaget for teachers . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall .
Holt/Hale , S. 2006 . On the move: Lesson plans to accompany Children Moving. 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill .
Jensen , E. 2000 . Brain-based learning: A reality check. Edu- cational Leadership 57(7): 76 –79 .
Kirkendall , D. 1985 . Effects of physical activity on intellec- tual development and academic performance. Intellectual Development 19: 49 – 63 .
Malina , R. M. 2001 . Adherence to physical activity from childhood to adulthood. Quest 53(3): 346 –55 .
[MASSPEC] Middle and Secondary School Physical Educa- tion Council. 2001 . Appropriate practices for middle school physical education: A position statement of the National
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. The introduction to Chapter 1 described the purpose
of a quality physical education program. Explain your
reasons for agreeing or disagreeing with the purpose.
2. Chapter 1 provides a list of reasons children need
quality physical education. Which of those reasons
do you think are most important? Least important?
Explain your reasons.
3. Categorize the reasons for a quality physical edu-
cation program into two categories. The fi rst cate-
gory (column) will consist of those reasons that
are predominantly the responsibility of the physi-
cal education program. In the second column, list
the reasons for which other programs may also
share responsibility (i.e., they are also goals for the
teachers in the classroom and not specifi cally those
of the physical education program).
4. The Physical Activity Hourglass suggests that oppor-
tunities for many youngsters are reduced once they
enter secondary school. Analyze the opportunities
for middle and high school youth to be physically
active in your community. Contrast the opportuni-
ties with those provided for young children. Describe
what your community might do to create more
environmental invitations to become physically
active, especially for the youngsters who are not on
athletic teams.
5. Chapter 1 describes the characteristics of a quality
physical education program. Make a three-column
table listing these characteristics in the left-hand
column. In the second column, grade your elemen-
tary school program on each of these characteristics
from A to F. In the third column, explain your reason
for each grade. If you did not have an elementary
school physical education program, analyze your
middle or high school physical education program.
6. Assume that someone asks you why youngsters
need physical education. Prepare an argument, us-
ing the information from this chapter, to convince
that person that physical education is as important
as many other subjects in school.
7. It is recommended that children be physically ac-
tive for 60 minutes, or more, most days of the week.
Physical education classes are often 30 minutes in
length. What would you recommend to a class of
third graders about how they could acquire the rec-
ommended physical activity minutes on days they
do not have physical education? Make fi ve recom-
mendations that are both fun and interesting.
Summaries
The chapter summaries highlight the major topics
and concepts discussed in the chapter. They can
be used for clarifi cation or for review for
examinations.
Reading Comprehension Questions
A set of questions appears at the end of each
chapter to allow you to test your understanding of
the content. This tool offers a means of reviewing
and analyzing the material.
References /Suggested Readings
At the end of each chapter are references that sup-
port the text discussion and additional sources for
study and exploration.
▲ ▲
▲
CHAPTER 16 Space Awareness xxxv
Children Moving
P A R T
1
A quality program of physical education for children is much more than
simply a bunch of activities that children enjoy for 30 minutes or so several
times a week. A quality program of physical education has a defi nite pur-
pose, has long-term goals, and is developmentally and instructionally ap-
propriate; in short, for children it makes a difference that lasts well beyond
elementary school.
Chapter 1 , “The Value and Purpose of Physical Education for Children,”
answers three important questions as an introduction and overview to the
book. The fi rst two answers respond to the need for, and the importance of,
physical education for children. The last answer provides insights into the
characteristics of a physical education program for children that is positive,
and that guides them in the process of becoming physically active for a
lifetime. As you will see, these responses are based on recent publications
written by some of the leading experts in physical activity for children. To-
gether they defi ne a clear and unifi ed direction (outcomes) for programs of
physical education while also suggesting a process (developmentally appro-
priate) that is consistent with contemporary approaches for teaching children.
Chapter 2, “The Skill Theme Approach,” answers many of the questions that teachers often
ask when they are fi rst exposed to the skill theme approach. Because the content is organized
by skills and concepts rather than by games, gymnastics, and dance, for example, some
teachers initially fi nd the approach confusing. In Chapter 2, we use a question-and-answer for-
mat to respond to these questions. Then, in Chapter 3, “Skill Themes, Movement Concepts,
and the National Standards,” we defi ne the skill themes and movement concepts. Chapter 3
also includes many of the reasons that support the use of a skill theme approach in children’s
physical education.
Chapter 4, “Physical Fitness and Wellness for Children,” complements Chapter 3 in describing
how physical fi tness concepts are interwoven throughout our lessons. It also provides numerous
examples of ways children can increase their physical activity and improve fi tness outside of
1
Introduction and Content
Overview
2
organized physical education classes. It’s important that
children learn to do so because most programs simply don’t
allow enough time to help children improve both their physical
abilities and their fitness.
If every school were exactly alike, we could now proceed to
provide examples of activities that would “work” in every situa-
tion. As you know, however, no two schools or programs of
physical education are exactly alike. Chapter 5, “Refl ective
Teaching,” describes how teachers adapt and adjust their
programs according to the particular characteristics of their
school (for example, the number of days per week they teach
physical education, the available facilities and equipment), and
their children (for example, background, experience, type of
community).
As the fi nal chapter in Part 1 , Chapter 6, “Teaching Diverse
Learners,” provides an overview of the philosophy of inclusion
and focuses on ways teachers can adapt both their teaching and
their curricular content to maximize learning and participation for
all children in physical education. The richness of diversity is
addressed through changes, challenges, and choices.
3
C H A P T E R
1
The Value and Purpose of Physical Education for Children As the old man walked the beach at dawn, he noticed a young man ahead of him picking up star-
fi sh and fl inging them into the sea. Finally catching up with the youth, he asked him why he was
doing this. The answer was that the stranded starfi sh would die if left until the morning sun.
“But the beach goes on for miles and there are millions of starfi sh,” countered the old man.
“How can your effort make any difference?”
The young man looked at the starfi sh in his hand and then threw it to the safety of the waves.
“It makes a difference to this one,” he said.
— DONALD QUIMBY
4 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
C hildren, especially young children, love to move.
They enjoy squirming, wriggling, crawling, run-
ning, chasing, jumping, rolling, balancing, kick-
ing, throwing, and many other activities. For parents
and teachers the challenge is getting the children to
stop moving—for just a few minutes. And then, about
10 or 12 years of age, this torrent of physical activity
becomes a trickle for far too many children. Why? What
can be done to encourage children, all children, to con-
tinue this enjoyment of movement into their teen and
adult years? In short, what can we do to encourage chil-
dren to continue moving throughout their lifetime?
Children Moving attempts to provide answers to
many of these questions. The goal of this book is to
describe both a curriculum and the companion teach-
ing skills that are designed to guide youngsters in the
process of becoming physically active for a lifetime.
There is general agreement that skillfulness, the abil-
ity to perform fundamental and sports-related motor
skills, is an important prerequisite for adopting a
physically active lifestyle. Our goal is also to teach
children to value physical activity for all the benefi ts
that are described later in this chapter—as well as the
pure enjoyment and satisfaction that comes from
successful and enjoyable participation in sports and
physical activity.
Why are some adults physically active and others
not? We don’t have the research to answer this question.
We have limited evidence suggesting that physically
active children become physically active adults (Malina
2001). And we have a solid evidence base that physi-
cally active children, as well as adults, derive substantial
benefi ts from being physically active (USDHHS 1996).
Children Moving is based on the premise that to truly
enjoy many of the physical activities and sports par-
ticipated in by adults one needs a certain level of skillful-
ness. The ideal time to learn these foundational motor
skills is when children are young and they so enjoy
moving in any form. One of the important character-
istics of motor skills is that once they are learned, they
are retained for a lifetime. For example, swimming and
riding a bike are motor skills that are remembered for a
lifetime. While we may not be as adept at these skills if
we have not done them for 20 years or so, our bodies
(kinesthetic memory) don’t forget. Thus the goal of
Children Moving is to describe effective techniques and
strategies to assist children in acquiring many of the
foundational motor skills that are used in sports and
physical activities by children and adults.
Positive physical education programs emphasize
enjoyable participation in physical activity and “help
students develop the knowledge, attitudes, motor skills,
behavioral skills, and confi dence needed to adopt and
maintain physically active lifestyles” (NCCDPHP 1997,
p. 205). Our goal is to keep the love of movement (exer-
cise) alive in youngsters so that they associate exercise
with enjoyment and fun!
The importance of physical activity in the lives of
children and adults is becoming more and more evident.
The 2005 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend
that “children and adolescents engage in at least 60 min-
utes of physical activity on most, preferably all, days of
the week” ( www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2005/
document ). In fact, the 2005 revision of the food pyra-
mid includes a fi gure climbing stairs to visually represent
the importance of physical activity in our lives ( www.
pyramid.gov ). You will also fi nd information on this
Web site designed specifi cally for children ages 6 to 11 in
the “for kids” section.
• The purpose of a quality program of physical education
is to guide youngsters in the process of becoming physi-
cally active for a lifetime.
• Regular physical activity helps prevent obesity, promotes
motor skill development and physical fi tness, and pro-
vides opportunities for setting goals, making new friends,
and reducing stress.
• The health benefi ts associated with being physically
active include a reduction in premature mortality, heart
disease, colon cancer, diabetes mellitus, and drug and
alcohol addiction.
• Positive, or quality, physical education programs have
reasonable class sizes, a developmental and sequential
curriculum, plenty of practice and movement opportuni-
ties, and adequate facilities and equipment.
• Positive physical education programs emphasize learn-
ing in all three domains: psychomotor, cognitive, and
affective.
Key Concepts
CHAPTER 1 The Value and Purpose of Physical Education for Children 5
Since 1996, when the Surgeon General of the United
States released his report documenting the important
contribution regular physical activity can make to good
health (USDHHS 1996), the importance of physical
activity has been recognized as never before. Quality
programs of physical education are believed to signifi -
cantly contribute to valuing and adopting a physically
active lifestyle.
At the outset of the book, it is important to make the
point that physical activity and physical education are
not synonymous. Physical activity is a behavior —
for example, walking or biking to school, playing a sport,
or swimming. Physical education is the school pro-
gram that is designed to lead youngsters to a lifetime of
physical activity. The goal, or purpose, of a quality physical
education program is to guide youngsters in the process of
becoming physically active for a lifetime.
This chapter answers three questions about physical
education and physical activity:
1. Why do children need quality programs of physical
education?
2. What health benefi ts are associated with a lifetime
of physical activity?
3. What components of a physical education program
encourage youngsters to maintain physically active
lifestyles?
Why Children Need Physical Education
Why do youngsters need a quality program of physi-
cal education? The simple answer is so that they un-
derstand the importance of physical activity for a
lifetime and reap the benefi ts of doing so, especially
the health benefi ts that are detailed in the next section.
Numerous other benefi ts have been summarized by
the National Association for Sport and Physical Edu-
cation (NASPE 2002, p. 7) and are adapted here.
They include:
Regular, healthful physical activity An in-
creasing number of youngsters are overweight and
obese. Regular physical activity, as well as an appro-
priate diet, is the best antidote to eliminate the cur-
rent obesity epidemic and also provide a positive
alternative to “screen time” (both television and
computers).
Skill development In a quality program of physical
education, children learn the fundamental motor
skills that enable them to develop the competence
that creates confi dence and leads to safe and suc-
cessful participation in a wide range of sports and
physical activities as adults (Chapters 16 –28).
Improved physical fi tness Children are encouraged
to improve their muscular and cardiovascular en-
durance, strength, and fl exibility (Chapter 4).
Reinforcement of other subjects Movement can
be used to reinforce the understanding of many
subjects taught in the classroom (e.g., mathematics
and reading). Movement is also associated with
enhanced brain functioning (Chapter 32).
Self-discipline Youngsters can learn valuable lessons
about accepting responsibility for their personal
motor skill and fi tness development (Chapter 9).
Goal setting Physical education classes are an ex-
cellent laboratory for helping youngsters under-
stand the process of setting and achieving goals,
especially physical fi tness.
Leadership and cooperation Many physical educa-
tion activities require youngsters to work in groups
to solve problems or as a team. These opportunities
become an excellent laboratory for developing both
leadership and cooperation skills.
Enhanced self-effi cacy The motor domain is espe-
cially important to young children who have yet to
fully develop their verbal communication skills.
Thus, confi dence in physical abilities may lead to
positive feelings of self-esteem.
Stress reduction A “good workout” helps ease stress,
tension, and anxiety and may result in better atten-
tion in the classroom.
Strengthened peer relationships Sports and physi-
cal activity are an excellent way to meet and make
new friends. Confi dence in one’s physical abilities
encourages youngsters, and later adults, to socialize
more easily and “fi t into” a variety of situations.
This list briefl y summarizes many of the benefi ts
that experts agree are outcomes that accrue to those
who are physically active. There are also serious conse-
quences related to not being physically active ( Box 1-1 ).
Before discussing the characteristics of a quality, or
positive, physical education program thought to pro-
mote a lifetime of physical activity, it is important to
outline the health benefi ts associated with remaining
physically active over a period of years.
Girls who do not participate in sports before the age
of 10 have less than a 10 percent chance of doing so
at age 25.
— DONNA LOPIANO, Women’s Sports Foundation
6 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Health Benefi ts Associated with a Lifetime of Physical Activity
The 1996 Surgeon General’s report concludes that people
of all ages, both male and female, who are physically
active derive many benefi ts. Here are some of the observa-
tions in the report (USDHHS 1996). These fi ndings have
also been supported in the recently released document
Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans (USDHHS 2000).
• Signifi cant health benefi ts can be obtained by in-
cluding a moderate amount of physical activity (e.g.,
30 minutes of brisk walking or raking leaves, 15 min-
utes of running, or 45 minutes of volleyball) on
most, if not all, days of the week. Through a modest
increase in daily activity, most Americans can im-
prove their health and quality of life (p. 4).
• Additional health benefi ts can be gained through
greater amounts of physical activity. People who
can maintain a regular regimen of activity that is of
longer duration or of more vigorous intensity are
likely to derive greater benefi t (p. 4).
• Physical activity reduces the risk of premature mor-
tality in general, and of coronary heart disease, hy-
pertension, colon cancer, and diabetes mellitus in
particular. Physical activity also improves mental
health and is important for the health of muscles,
bones, and joints (p. 4).
• Consistent infl uences on physical activity patterns
among adults and young people include confi dence
in one’s ability to engage in regular physical activity
(e.g., self-effi cacy), enjoyment of physical activity,
support from others, positive beliefs concerning the
benefi ts of physical activity, and lack of perceived
barriers to physical activity (p. 249).
• Physical activity appears to improve health-related
quality of life by enhancing psychological well-being
and by improving physical functioning in persons
compromised by poor health (p. 8).
Clearly, the accumulated evidence suggests that
youngsters who develop physically active lifestyles
stand to gain enormous health benefi ts. However, this
doesn’t happen automatically. Programs must be care-
fully designed and implemented if they are to guide
youngsters to become physically active for a lifetime.
As anyone who knows children will quickly acknow-
ledge, however, fears of heart disease, stress, or back pain
in later years are not major concerns for most 8- or 10-
year-olds. To them, 40 seems old! Fortunately children
enter school loving to move and be active. One of the
early tasks of primary-grade classroom teachers is to teach
children to listen and stay in their seats. Most youngsters
would prefer to be up and moving. The challenge of
The Physically Uneducated Adult
Adults who are physically uneducated often fi nd them-
selves in awkward and unpleasant situations. For example,
they may:
• Be overweight partly as a result of physical inactivity
• Have chronic lower back pain
• Have painful memories of being picked last when teams
were chosen
• Remember being laughed at because they couldn’t catch
a softball or were afraid of a volleyball
• Recall being last whenever they ran laps
• Dread the memory of never being able to do even one
pull-up on the physical fi tness test
• Be uncomfortable starting and maintaining an exercise
program
• Feel like a “klutz” and make excuses to avoid physical
activity
• Believe that athletes were born that way
• Not understand that there are virtually hundreds of
ways to exercise and that they would enjoy some
of them
Box 1-1
It is estimated that 65 percent of adults today are overweight or obese.
CHAPTER 1 The Value and Purpose of Physical Education for Children 7
Children enjoy seeing how they
can take their weight on their
hands on a beautiful sunny day
outside.
physical educators is not so much to instill a love of
movement as it is to keep alive and channel this inborn
urge to move so that as individuals enter their adult
years they will continue to enjoy being physically active
and will derive all the benefi ts — physical, emotional,
and social— that come to those who have been physi-
cally active throughout their lifetimes ( Box 1-2 ).
Children Moving introduces you to the skill theme
approach that’s designed for every child, from the least
skilled child in a class to the most athletic youngster.
The book explains the ways you can guide all children
in positive directions, enabling them to develop the
competence that leads to confi dence in their physical
abilities. This competence and this confi dence eventu-
ally culminate in a desire to participate regularly in
physical activity, because it has become an enjoyable
and important part of their lives as children, as teens,
and later as adults.
Box 1-2
Are Youngsters Today Physically Active?
The 1996 Surgeon General’s report, Physical Activity and
Health, cites a number of alarming statistics about physical ac-
tivity patterns in adolescents and physical education programs.
For example:
• Only about one-half of U.S. young people (ages 12 to
21 years) regularly participate in vigorous physical activity.
One-fourth report no vigorous physical activity.
• Approximately one-fourth of young people walk or bicycle
(i.e., engage in light to moderate activity) nearly every day.
• About 14 percent of young people report no recent vigor-
ous or light to moderate physical activity. This indicator of
inactivity is higher among females than males and among
black females than white females.
• Males are more likely than females to participate in vigorous
physical activity, strengthening activities, and walking or
bicycling.
• Participation in all types of physical activity declines strik-
ingly as age or grade in school increases.
• Among high school students, enrollment in physical educa-
tion remained unchanged during the fi rst half of the 1900s.
However, daily attendance in physical education declined
from approximately 42 to 25 percent.
• The percentage of high school students who were enrolled in
physical education and who reported being physically active
for at least 20 minutes in physical education classes declined
from approximately 81 to 70 percent during the fi rst half of
the 1990s.
• Only 19 percent of all high school students report being
physically active for 20 minutes or more in daily physical
education classes.
Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
Physical activity and health: A report of the Surgeon General
(Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health
Promotion, 1996), p. 8.
8 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
• Time Ideally children have physical education for at
least 150 minutes each week (USDHHS 2000). This
is especially important if children are to develop the
fundamental motor skills that are so necessary for
successful, and enjoyable, participation in sports
and physical activities in later years. NASPE recom-
mends 150 minutes per week in elementary school
and 225 minutes for middle and high school.
• Class size The number of children in a physical
education class should be the same number as in
the classroom.
• Sequential, developmental curriculum Teachers
follow a carefully planned curriculum scope and
sequence that progressively builds on past experiences
Characteristics of a Quality Physical Education Program
At this point in the chapter you may be asking how the
program described in Children Moving is different from the
program you had in elementary school. Hopefully most
of the characteristics described would apply to the
program you experienced in elementary school. Once
again we look to the National Association for Sport and
Physical Education (NASPE) for its defi nition of a qual-
ity physical education program (NASPE 2002, p. 7) and
guidelines developed by the United States Department
of Health and Human Services in its School Health Index
(USDHHS 2000, pp. 3 – 8). Some of the characteristics of
a positive, or quality, program of physical education are
straightforward and require little or no explanation. Oth-
ers are lengthier because they are not as obvious or easily
understood. The characteristics are bulleted, rather than
numbered, as they are all important parts of a positive
program of physical education that leads to the benefi ts
described in the fi rst two sections of this chapter.
Children derive lifetime benefits from becoming physically active.
The Physical Activity Hourglass
Opportunities to be physically active can be depicted as an
hourglass. Young children have plenty of opportunities to be
physically active. Playgrounds, parks, and an increasing num-
ber of fast-food chains have equipment for children to climb on,
over, around, and through. Young children also are encouraged
to run and chase their friends and siblings. Many communities
also have soccer, basketball, and softball or baseball leagues
for young children. There are also opportunities to be on a
swim team and take lessons in dance or martial arts. Unfortu-
nately, once a youngster enters middle school, many of these
opportunities are reduced, unless a youngster is athletic. Too
often if a middle school sponsors athletic teams, only a rela-
tively few “make the team.” The same is true at the high school
level, for athletics and intramurals. If intramurals are of-
fered, many are limited to team sports after school. Also, in
many schools it is not “cool” to play intramurals or have your
parents drive you to a dance lesson. After high school, how-
ever, there are once again a plethora of physical activities for
adults. They include weight and fi tness clubs, recreation pro-
grams, and simply walking, jogging, or biking activities that
were not “cool” in secondary school but are acceptable to an
adult, especially as one ages and/or puts on additional pounds.
Preschool and elementary Multitude of opportunities
Secondary school Limited to school sports and intramurals
Adults Multitude of opportunities
Physical Activity Hourglass
CHAPTER 1 The Value and Purpose of Physical Education for Children 9
and incorporates new experiences when chil dren
are developmentally ready. (The Appendix pro-
vides examples of curricular scopes and sequences
based on the content included in this book.) Les-
sons are not simply selected randomly with no
obvious connection to past and future lessons or
just as a way to keep children “busy, happy, or good”
for 30 minutes.
• Minimum of 50 percent MVPA Physical educa-
tion is a moving experience. In quality physical ed-
ucation programs, teachers fi nd ways to actively
engage all children in moderate to vigorous physi-
cal activity (MVPA) for the majority of every lesson
(USDHHS 2000).
• Plenty of practice opportunities In addition to being
actively engaged, children also need plenty of oppor-
tunities to practice the skill or concept being taught
that day. In a game of kickball, children average fewer
than two chances to throw, kick, and catch during an
entire game. And girls have fewer chances than boys
(Wilson 1976)! Quality programs provide many prac-
tice opportunities for children to practice their motor
skills, sometimes alone, sometimes with a partner,
and sometimes in small-sided games or with groups.
• High rates of success In addition to copious practice
opportunities, teachers also design lessons so that
youngsters of all abilities have high rates of success
(Chapter 12). When youngsters, especially the un-
skilled, experience success, they are more likely to
continue practicing and working to improve than
when they fail continually. This is especially impor-
tant in physical education because success and failure
are so readily observable. For this reason, many pro-
grams have switched from a curriculum consisting
predominantly of low-organized games and team
sports (e.g., kickball, basketball, dodgeball, and soccer)
to the skill theme approach as described in Children
Moving. Thus the athletic youngsters, all too often
boys, are no longer allowed to dominate (Portman
1995), and physical education is for every youngster,
especially the poorly coordinated, overweight, or awk-
ward children who stand to benefi t the most from a
quality program of physical education.
Developmentally and Instructionally
Appropriate Experiences
In the early 1990s the National Association for the Edu cation
of Young Children (NAEYC) published a series of articles and
documents describing developmentally appropriate educa-
tional experiences for young children (Bredekamp 1992).
The ideas in these documents were extremely popular with
educators and parents. Several years later the Council on
Physical Education for Children (COPEC 1992) used the
same format to describe developmentally and instructionally
appropriate elementary school physical education experi-
ences for children. This position statement was also highly
popular. Since 1992, similar documents have been pub-
lished by NASPE for preschool, middle school, high school,
and college physical education programs (COPEC 2000;
MASSPEC 2001, 2004; NASPE 2009). These documents
can be purchased from NASPE or downloaded from the
Internet by clicking on the publications section of the NASPE
Web site: www.naspe.info.org .
Quality physical education is both developmentally
and instructionally suitable for the specifi c children being
served. Developmentally appropriate practices in physical
edu cation are those that recognize children’s changing
capa cities to move and those that promote such change.
A developmentally appropriate physical education program
accommodates a variety of individual characteristics, such
as developmental status, previous movement experiences,
fi tness and skill levels, body size, and age. Instructionally
appropriate physical education incorporates the best
known practices, derived from both research and experi-
ences teaching children, into a program that maximizes
opportunities for learning and success for all children
(COPEC 1992, p. 3).
In addition to defi ning developmentally and instructionally
appropriate, these documents describe in easy-to-follow,
straightforward terms the tenets of the “new” physical edu-
cation that has been evolving over the past three decades.
They emphasize, for example, that:
• Children develop at different rates, and therefore educa-
tors should recognize these variances by designing expe-
riences that allow for individual differences in abilities.
• For learning to occur, youngsters need lots of opportunities
to practice a skill or movement at high rates of success.
• It is inappropriate to use exercise as punishment.
• The physical education curriculum should have a clear
scope and sequence, with observable outcomes that
can be assessed.
• Allowing captains to pick teams, overemphasizing com-
petition, and giving fi tness tests to one student at a time
while the rest of the class watches are inappropriate
educational practices.
These documents clearly make the point that physical
education curriculums that consist solely of large-group
games, often played with one ball, are both developmentally
and instructionally inappropriate. • Positive developmental environment Quality phy sical education classes, in addition to promoting success-
ful learning experiences, are also emotionally warm,
nurturing environments in which children are
10 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
encouraged to practice learning new motor skills
and to improve their physical fi tness without feel-
ing embarrassed or humiliated by the teacher or
their peers (Chapter 9).
• Teacher background The teacher has an extensive
background in both the content and pedagogy of
physical education for children, typically obtained as
a physical education major in college. There are also
classroom teachers who provide excellent movement
experiences for their youngsters despite their rela-
tively limited background. For this reason Children
Moving is written for both the physical education
major, or specialist, and the classroom teacher.
• Realistic expectations Teachers with an extensive
background in children’s physical education are able
forward to coming to physical education class. The
best teachers fi nd ways to make learning fun.
• Psychomotor, cognitive, and affective domains Al-
though the major emphasis in physical education
is on the psychomotor domain, quality programs
also take every opportunity to emphasize cognitive
concepts and to develop an environment that en-
courages positive social experiences and attitude
development. Chapters 9 and 10 focus on some of
the ways teachers encourage children to develop
positive attitudes toward themselves and physical
activity by creating safe and enjoyable learning
environments. Chapter 32 focuses on interdisci-
plinary learning and emphasizes the role physical
education can play in cognitive development. It
also briefl y summarizes some of the recent research
related to the importance of movement and research
on brain development ( Jensen 2000).
We hope this chapter has helped you to under-
stand why a quality physical education program can
be so important in a youngster’s life, especially for a
child who is inclined not to be a physically active
adolescent or adult. This chapter also provides an
overview of the components of a quality, or positive,
physical education (see Box 1-3 ). The next two chap-
ters describe in detail the components of the skill
theme approach designed to maintain the torrent of
physical activity and love of movement, which is so
characteristic of young children, into the middle and
high school years.
The 60-Second One-Ball Test
Typically, principals and parents do not have time to spend
hours observing a physical education class to determine if it is
a quality program. A rough estimate can be made in a short
amount of time, however, by using the 60-second one-ball
test. Here are the directions.
When you walk (or drive) by a physical education lesson,
observe how many balls are in use (obviously this applies only to
lessons in which balls are being used). If there is only one ball for
an entire class of 20 youngsters or more, make a mental note.
This typically takes less than 60 seconds, as the intent is not to
observe an entire lesson. As you notice more lessons, keep
track of the number of balls being used. After observing fi ve or
more lessons, you will have an idea of the amount of practice
opportunities children are getting in their physical education
classes. If all the lessons use only one ball, then you know the
amount of practice is severely limited, just as if a reading class
were using only one book for an entire class. In contrast, if every
child had a ball in the lessons you observed, then you know the
teacher is attempting to maximize practice opportunities for
children. Although this is hardly a scientifi c approach, it does pro-
vide one generalized indicator about the quality of a program.
Catching is a skill used in many sports and physical activities.
to develop realistic programs when their time is less
than the recommended 150 minutes per week. The
emphasis is on “developing basic motor skills that
allow participation in a variety of physical activities”
(NCCDPHP 1997, p. 209). • Adequate equipment and facilities Many excellent physical education programs have substandard facili-
ties and equipment. Ideally, however, every program
has both an indoor and outdoor facility, and a wide
variety of equipment so that children do not have to
wait for turns to use equipment.
• Enjoyability Quality physical education classes are
also fun classes. Children should enjoy and look
CHAPTER 1 The Value and Purpose of Physical Education for Children 11
PE Central www.pecentral.org
Throughout the eighth edition of Children Moving, we will be
referring to a variety of documents that can be accessed di-
rectly via the Internet. PE Central is the most comprehensive
Web site for K–12 physical educators in the world. Virtually
all the documents referred to in this edition can be located
through PE Central. In addition to links to the developmen-
tally appropriate documents, the Surgeon General’s report,
and the National Standards for Physical Education (NASPE
2004), numerous developmentally appropriate lessons and
assessment ideas are available for free on the Web site.
There are also descriptions of best practices, conference
and job announcements, kids’ quotes, and links to many
other Web sites. The Web address, or URL, for PE Central is
www.pecentral.org . You will also fi nd easy-to-use forms for
sharing your lesson and assessment ideas with other physi-
cal educators.
Mark Manross currently serves as the executive director,
and Dave Hinman and Jan Bierschbach are senior editors.
In addition, hundreds of other physical educators have pub-
lished their ideas on PE Central and /or work on it in an edit-
orial capacity. George Graham, a coauthor of this book, is
the chief executive offi cer for PE Central.
Box 1-3
National Standards for Physical Education
Physical activity is critical to the development and maintenance of
good health. The goal of physical education is to develop physi-
cally educated individuals who have the knowledge, skills, and
confi dence to enjoy a lifetime of physical activity.
A physically educated person:
Standard 1: Demonstrates competency in motor skills and
movement patterns needed to perform a variety
of physical activities.
Standard 2: Demonstrates understanding of movement con-
cepts, principles, strategies, and tactics as they
apply to the learning and performance of physical
activities.
Standard 3: Participates regularly in physical activity.
Standard 4: Achieves and maintains a health-enhancing level
of physical fi tness.
Standard 5: Exhibits responsible personal and social behavior
that respects self and others in physical activity
settings.
Standard 6: Values physical activity for health, enjoyment, chal-
lenge, self-expression, and /or social interaction.
Source: National Association for Sport and Physical Education,
Moving into the future: National standards for physical education,
2nd ed. (Reston, VA: NASPE, 2004), p.11. With permission
from the National Association for Sport and Physical Education
(NASPE), 1900 Association Drive, Reston VA 20191-1599.
12 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Summary
Quality physical education programs for children
have never been more important than they are today.
The three overarching questions in this chapter pro-
vide an introduction to the program and teaching
process described in the text. The responses to the
questions taken from the recent literature (1) provide
reasons why children need quality physical education,
(2) summarize the health benefi ts that may accrue to
those who remain physically active for a lifetime, and
(3) defi ne a quality physical education program for
children as one that is developmentally and instruc-
tionally appropriate.
References /Suggested Readings
Bredekamp , S. 1992 . What is developmentally appropri- ate and why is it important? Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 63(6): 31– 32 .
[COPEC] Council on Physical Education for Children. 1992 . Developmentally appropriate physical education practices for children: A position statement of the Council on Physical Education for Children . Reston, VA: National Association for Sport and Physical Education .
[COPEC] Council on Physical Education for Children. 2000 . Appropriate practices for elementary school physical edu- cation: A position statement of the National Association for Sport and Physical Education developed by the Council on Physical Education for Children (COPEC) . Reston, VA: [NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Education . www.aahperd.org/naspe .
Furth , H. G. 1970 . Piaget for teachers . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall .
Holt/Hale , S. 2006 . On the move: Lesson plans to accompany Children Moving. 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill .
Jensen , E. 2000 . Brain-based learning: A reality check. Edu- cational Leadership 57(7): 76 –79 .
Kirkendall , D. 1985 . Effects of physical activity on intellec- tual development and academic performance. Intellectual Development 19: 49 – 63 .
Malina , R. M. 2001 . Adherence to physical activity from childhood to adulthood. Quest 53(3): 346 –55 .
[MASSPEC] Middle and Secondary School Physical Educa- tion Council. 2001 . Appropriate practices for middle school physical education: A position statement of the National
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. The introduction to Chapter 1 described the purpose
of a quality physical education program. Explain your
reasons for agreeing or disagreeing with the purpose.
2. Chapter 1 provides a list of reasons children need
quality physical education. Which of those reasons
do you think are most important? Least important?
Explain your reasons.
3. Categorize the reasons for a quality physical edu-
cation program into two categories. The fi rst cate-
gory (column) will consist of those reasons that
are predominantly the responsibility of the physi-
cal education program. In the second column, list
the reasons for which other programs may also
share responsibility (i.e., they are also goals for the
teachers in the classroom and not specifi cally those
of the physical education program).
4. The Physical Activity Hourglass suggests that oppor-
tunities for many youngsters are reduced once they
enter secondary school. Analyze the opportunities
for middle and high school youth to be physically
active in your community. Contrast the opportuni-
ties with those provided for young children. Describe
what your community might do to create more
environmental invitations to become physically
active, especially for the youngsters who are not on
athletic teams.
5. Chapter 1 describes the characteristics of a quality
physical education program. Make a three-column
table listing these characteristics in the left-hand
column. In the second column, grade your elemen-
tary school program on each of these characteristics
from A to F. In the third column, explain your reason
for each grade. If you did not have an elementary
school physical education program, analyze your
middle or high school physical education program.
6. Assume that someone asks you why youngsters
need physical education. Prepare an argument, us-
ing the information from this chapter, to convince
that person that physical education is as important
as many other subjects in school.
7. It is recommended that children be physically ac-
tive for 60 minutes, or more, most days of the week.
Physical education classes are often 30 minutes in
length. What would you recommend to a class of
third graders about how they could acquire the rec-
ommended physical activity minutes on days they
do not have physical education? Make fi ve recom-
mendations that are both fun and interesting.
CHAPTER 1 The Value and Purpose of Physical Education for Children 13
Sanders , S. , and G. Graham . 1995 . Kindergarten children’s initial experiences in physical education: The relentless persistence for play clashes with the zone of acceptable responses. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 14(4): 372 – 83 .
Shephard , R. ( 1996) . Habitual physical activity and aca- demic performance. Nutrition Reviews 54(4): 32 – 35 .
Shephard , R. , M. Volle, H. Lavallee, R. LaBarre, J. Jequier, and M. Rajic 1982. Curricular time for physical education? A controlled experiment in French Canada asks how much curricular time should be spent on physical educa- tion . Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (November/December): 19 –29 .
[USDHHS] U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 1996 . Physical activity and health: A report of the Surgeon General . Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Pre- vention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion.
[USDHHS] U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2000 . School health index for physical activity and healthy eating: A self-assessment and planning guide for elementary school . Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Pre- vention. Available for free download from www.cdc.gov/ HealthyYouth .
[USDHHS] U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2008 . Physical activity guidelines for Americans . www. health.gov/paguidelines .
Wilson , N. 1976 . The frequency and patterns of selected motor skills by third and fourth grade girls and boys in the game of kickball. Unpublished master’s thesis, Univer- sity of Georgia, Athens .
Association for Sport and Physical Education developed by the Middle and Secondary School Physical Education Council (MASSPEC) . Reston, VA: National Association for Sport and Physical Education. www.aahperd.org /naspe . Middle and Secondary School Physical Education Coun- cil. 2004 . Appropriate practices for high school physical edu- cation: A position statement of the National Association for Sport and Physical Education developed by the Middle and Secondary School Physical Education Council (MASSPEC) . Reston, VA: National Association for Sport and Physical Education. www.aahperd.org /naspe .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Education. 2002 . 2001 Shape of the nation report . Reston, VA: National Association for Sport and Physical Education .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2004 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education . Reston, VA: National Association for Sport and Physical Education .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2009 . Appropriate practices for elementary school physical education. 3rd ed. Reston, VA: NASPE .
[NCCDPHP] National Center for Chronic Disease Preven- tion and Health Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1997 . Guidelines for school and community programs to promote lifelong physical activity among young people. Journal of School Health 76(6): 202 –19 .
Portman , P. A. 1995 . Who is having fun in physical educa- tion classes? Experiences of sixth grade students in ele- mentary and middle schools. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 14(4): 445 –53 .
Quimby , D. 1988 . The starfi sh. TEAM 2(6).
14
C H A P T E R
2
The Skill Theme Approach Physical fi tness, movement skills, concept and affective development should be emphasized
throughout the curriculum. The greatest emphasis during the preschool and early elementary grades
should be upon movement skill acquisition.
—COUNCIL ON PHYSICAL EDUCATION FOR CHILDREN, 1992
CHAPTER 2 The Skill Theme Approach 15
C hapter 1 provided important insights into why
physical education is so important in children’s
lives today, followed by an overview of the char-
acteristics of a quality, or positive, physical education
program. This chapter also answers a question: What is
the skill theme approach to children’s physical educa-
tion?
The skill theme approach describes both the con-
tent (what to teach) of children’s physical education
(the curriculum is detailed in Parts 3 and 4 of Chil-
dren Moving ) and the teaching process, or pedagogy
(how to teach) (described in Part 2). A question-and-
answer format will help you understand the charac-
teristics of the skill theme approach; how it differs
from more traditional programs; and how dance,
games, gymnastics, and physical fi tness are incorpo-
rated within the skill theme approach. The chapter
begins by explaining developmentally appropriate
physical education.
What Is Developmentally Appropriate Physical Education?
Motor development research studies the “process
of change in an individual’s movement behaviors”
(Barnett and Merriman 1992, p. 5). The skill theme
approach is developmentally appropriate because it
refl ects important motor development principles,
both in curriculum design and in the teaching pro-
cess. Some of the important motor development
principles upon which Children Moving is based are
briefl y explained below.
Children Develop at Different Rates
One critical premise of motor skill development is that
children develop at different rates. Some kindergarten
children can skip; others are not ready to skip. Some
are able to track a ball in motion; others are not visu-
ally ready yet. Developmentally appropriate physical
education recognizes this premise and therefore does
not expect all children to be able to perform the same
task identically. As you will see in subsequent chapters
detailing the skill theme approach, we work hard to
recognize and value the developmental differences in
children’s abilities, although it’s not easy with 25 or
more in a class.
Age Does Not Predict Motor Ability
If age were a predictor of motor ability, then all adults
would be skillful athletes. Although there are certain
advantages to aging (e.g., quicker refl exes, visual track-
ing ability), the only way individuals become skillful
in motor skills is to use, or practice, them. Thus most
adults are reasonably effi cient at walking. Many, how-
ever, are ineffi cient at catching a ball or striking an
object with a racket. They are ineffi cient not because
they do not have the potential to be skillful, but rather
because they have not used the skills regularly over a
period of years.
Children Develop Motor Skills
Naturally through Play
Children today have fewer and fewer opportunities to
develop motor skills on their own. Television viewing,
computer games, the Internet, and fear of playing out-
side in many communities combine to mean fewer
chances to be physically active. Although there is some
evidence that motor skills may develop through infor-
mal play (hours and hours of basketball or soccer, for
• The skill theme approach describes both the content and
pedagogy for physical education.
• The skill theme approach is based on developmentally
appropriate principles that recognize that children have
different interests, abilities, and motor skills.
• The development of fundamental motor skills and their
application to a variety of sports and physical activities
create the basis for the skill theme approach.
• The Curriculum Diamond suggests the content to be
taught in elementary, middle school, and high school
physical education programs.
• Children’s abilities and interests are used to guide the
selection of content in the skill theme approach, as
opposed to age or grade level.
• Skill themes are initially practiced in isolation; as young-
sters develop their motor skills, they are practiced in
sports, games, gymnastics, and dance contexts.
• Skill themes are revisited throughout the year rather than
in units of several weeks.
• Cognitive, affective, and physical concepts are inter-
woven throughout the skill theme approach rather than
taught as isolated units.
Key Concepts
16 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
example), this possibility is becoming less and less
probable in society today. The simple fact is that phys-
ical education is becoming increasingly important for
children because their playtime is severely limited.
This is especially true for overweight youngsters who
have little or no physical activity built into their lives.
The Myth of the Natural Athlete
One sports myth is that there are natural athletes.
Although some youngsters are physically (geneti-
cally) disposed to do better at some sports than others,
the fact is that highly skilled children have partici-
pated in one, or many, sports from very early ages.
Some children begin kindergarten with mature throw-
ing and catching patterns, for example. They were not
born this way. They played a lot of catch with par-
ents, siblings, or friends from a young age and thus
enter school more highly skilled than their peers. In
time, however, their less skilled peers can catch up if
they, too, practice and use the motor skill thousands
of times as they play with friends, on teams, or with
a parent.
Differences in Physical Abilities
between Boys and Girls
On average, boys are more physically active than girls
(USDHHS 1996). This may be one reason boys tend
to be more highly skilled than girls in certain sports.
Developmentally, however, girls have the potential to
be equally as skillful as boys. As more and more girls
play sports and become physically active, we can ex-
pect to see a decline in any gap that exists between
physical abilities. As teachers we emphasize this con-
tinually in our programs so that the girls in our classes
understand that skillfulness is a result of practice, not
heredity or gender.
Boys tend to be taller than girls and have wider
bones (AAOS 2005). As with motor skills, however,
girls can dramatically improve their strength. Just as
we are seeing an increasing number of girls playing
sports, so, too, we are seeing more girls and women
who have improved their strength through practice
and exercise.
In summary, developmentally appropriate physical
education recognizes that youngsters develop at differ-
ent rates and have different abilities, and that the envi-
ronment plays a critical role in the development of
motor skills. The chapter continues with a question-
and-answer format that answers many questions typi-
cally asked when folks are initially introduced to the
skill theme approach.
Why Don’t You Describe Such Activities as Duck, Duck, Goose and Kickball?
We don’t include many of the so-called traditional
activities for three major reasons. First, activities such
as these, in which children are singled out to per-
form solo with everyone watching them, can be both
embarrassing and discouraging when the less skilled
children are “on center stage.” Children (or adults,
for that matter) who are embarrassed or made to feel
inadequate are hardly motivated to participate. One
of our primary goals is to encourage children to de-
velop positive attitudes about themselves and about
physical activity so that they choose to be physically
active throughout their lives. Games such as the ones
named above are developmentally inappropriate in
that they do not take into account the varying skill
abilities of children within a class (NASPE 2009) and
thereby force some children into situations that
make them unhappy and may lead them to dislike
physical activity.
Second, these games emphasize “winning” more
than learning. Another of our primary goals is to help
children develop the movement competence that en-
ables them to participate in physical activity success-
fully and with enjoyment. While keeping score and
attempting to win are enjoyable for some children,
others prefer games and activities in which score is not
kept. When children are encouraged to design their
own games (Chapter 31), you will see that some keep
score, others do not.
Games like Duck, Duck Goose are fun for a few but most of the
children are inactive.
CHAPTER 2 The Skill Theme Approach 17
Ken Bell, and Catherine Himberg in 1996. The inten-
tion of this model is to help physical educators think
about and design curriculums that will guide young-
sters in the process of becoming physically active for a
lifetime. Grade levels are suggested in the model for
illustration purposes only. Clearly, decisions about
when to introduce different content will need to be
based on the progress made by the students in a given
program (e.g., number of days per week, length of
the classes, equipment, and facilities).
What Is the Curriculum Diamond?
The Curriculum Diamond suggests a curricular focus
corresponding to the grade-level structure of most
school districts across the United States — elementary,
middle, and high school. It follows the recommenda-
tions of the National Center for Chronic Disease Pre-
vention and Health Promotion (NCCDPHP 1997) and
the National Standards for Physical Education (NASPE
2004) by developing a broad foundation at the ele-
mentary and middle school levels and then focusing
on profi ciency in a few movement forms at the high
school level. It provides a brief, albeit oversimplifi ed,
answer to the question, How can elementary, middle,
and high school physical education programs work to-
gether to guide youngsters in the process of becoming
physically active for a lifetime?
Building a Foundation (Preschool
through Grade 5)
The bottom part of the diamond represents the earliest
ages at which children are introduced to skill themes
and movement concepts. The initial focus is on devel-
oping a functional (applied) understanding of the con-
cepts of space awareness, effort, and relationships
(Chapters 16 –18). As children develop, they are intro-
duced to skill themes designed to encourage and assist
them in beginning to acquire the fundamental compe-
tencies that will become the foundation skills for many
of the sports and physical activities they will pursue as
adolescents and adults (Chapters 19 –28). You will no-
tice that this section of the diamond widens as each
layer is laid upon the foundational layer that precedes
it. This is intended to represent how skill themes and
concepts are combined in the upper elementary grades.
(Some have suggested that a more appropriate geomet-
ric representation might be a trapezoid. This fi gure
would suggest that the skill themes and movement
concepts would be wider at the base, the broader foun-
dation, and gradually narrow toward the top. What do
you think?)
Finally, many of these traditional games encourage
only a few youngsters to be physically active. The less
skilled, overweight, or less physically fi t youngsters of-
ten fi nd ways to avoid actively participating in games
with one ball or tag games with one person who is “it.”
The skill theme approach was designed with the un-
derlying premise that children have different skill lev-
els and abilities.
What Are Skill Themes?
Skill themes are fundamental movements that form
the foundation for success in sports and physical ac-
tivities in later years. They are also adapted to match
the ability level of the students in a class. Initially we
focus on one skill at a time, and then in later grades
skills are combined with other skills and used in more
complex settings, such as those found in dance,
games, and gymnastics. The intent is to help children
learn a variety of locomotor, nonmanipulative, and
manipulative skills that provide the foundation to
enjoyably and confi dently play a sport, for example,
or perform a dance consisting of an intricate set
of movements.
The Curriculum Diamond ( Figure 2.1 ), created by
physical educators Dawn McCrumb and Wendy Mustain
in 1995, is intended to illustrate the concept of a motor
skill foundation leading to successful participation
in sports and physical activities. The model was ex-
panded and elaborated upon by George Graham,
Developing Expertise
(Grades 9 –12)
Exploring Possibilities
(Grades 6 – 8)
Building a Foundation (Grades Pre-K – 5)
Figure 2.1 The Curriculum Diamond.
18 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Exploring Possibilities (Grades 6 – 8)
In the middle school years, the focus shifts from build-
ing a foundation to using the skills and concepts in a
variety of movement forms. Skills continue to be devel-
oped and learned, but the focus is on exposing students
to wide variety of sports and physical activities designed
to stimulate interest in health-enhancing lifetime ac-
tivities. Ideally this is the age when adolescents begin
to discover the various sports and physical activities
that are, or are not, personally appealing. Some young-
sters, for example, like team sports, and others may
prefer individual sports. Others will enjoy yoga, dance,
martial arts, or mountain biking. The goal is to intro-
duce youngsters to many different movement forms
and then assist them to discover the types of activities
that are personally enjoyable and meaningful.
Developing Expertise (Grades 9 –12)
Ideally the exposure to many movement options in
middle school stimulates student interest in a handful
of health-enhancing lifetime activities. When students
enter high school, the diamond begins to narrow, sug-
gesting that students will begin to make decisions about
the activities they enjoy and desire to become profi -
cient in. At this point students choose electives based
on the possibilities they explored in middle school. As
students approach the peak, the focus narrows. This is
the time when students develop the expertise that en-
ables them to participate in several activities enjoyably
and with confi dence, thereby allowing them to accrue
the benefi ts that come to those who remain physically
active for a lifetime. This is the time when students re-
fi ne the skill themes and movement concepts they
learned in the early years for use in specifi c sports and
physical activities.
What Are the Characteristics of the Skill Theme Approach?
Four characteristics of the skill theme approach (con-
tent and pedagogy combined) clearly distinguish it
from the “primary use of dance, games, and gymnastic
activities . . . considered the traditional ‘activity’ ap-
proach” (Gabbard, LeBlanc, and Lowy 1987, p. 3).
Characteristic 1
Competence in performing a variety of locomotor,
nonmanipulative, and manipulative motor skills is
a major purpose of the skill theme approach.
Think of a sport or physical activity you know
well. If you were asked to write a progression (a series
of tasks) starting with novices (beginners) up to var-
sity athletes, you would be able to develop a series of
tasks or drills that would, over a period of years and
with a lot of practice, lead to the students (athletes)
becoming highly skilled in that sport. This is the ba-
sic idea behind the skill theme approach. Each skill
theme begins with the fundamental skills and con-
cepts, is gradually combined with other skills (e.g.,
dribbling while running), and eventually leads to
success and enjoyment in full-sided games (e.g., fi ve-
against-fi ve basketball).
The skill theme approach refl ects the growing
concern that some, perhaps many, children who partici-
pate in programs that emphasize game playing rather
than motor skill learning don’t necessarily improve
their motor ability (Graham 1987; Manross 2000). The
logical implication, of course, is that adults with inef-
fi cient motor skills tend to avoid physical activities
that require them to use these poorly learned skills and
as a consequence develop tendencies toward “couch
potatoism.” See Box 2-1 for one example of the differ-
ence in outcomes of the two approaches.
A basic assumption is that a curriculum that is
“scoped and sequenced” by skill themes introduces
students to the requisite skills for enjoyably participat-
ing in adult versions of sports, dance, and the myriad
other physical activities that are available today — and
those that will be invented tomorrow. As physical edu-
cators we’re able to help children learn these skills more
quickly and with less frustration than they would if
they attempted to learn the skills on their own.
The skill themes are generic, in the sense that they
are not tied to any single sport or activity. Rather, they
transcend, or cut across, structured sports. As shown in
Figure 2.2 , which illustrates a dribbling progression as
might be used in basketball, introductory or beginning
tasks for each skill theme start at the most basic level.
The children are asked to practice the motor skill—
with no defenders, for example — and the fundamen-
tal critical components or cues are emphasized, such as
throwing a ball hard against a wall while focusing on
opposition (stepping with the foot opposite the throw-
ing hand). As children demonstrate the ability to per-
form the skill using the critical components, the tasks
require children to combine the skill with other skills
and concepts, such as throwing while running to a
partner who is also running. When the children are
ready, the skill theme tasks may involve developing
dance and gymnastic routines with their classmates or
playing small-sided games.
Some skills (e.g., jumping and landing) are used in
games, dance, gymnastics, track and fi eld, and so on.
CHAPTER 2 The Skill Theme Approach 19
Other skills are more specifi c to games or sports, such
as dribbling.
Although some skill themes are typically associated
with a specifi c sport, most are used in a variety of sports
or physical activities. This is illustrated by using the
skill theme of dribbling with the hands (Chapter 26).
Dribbling is typically associated with the sport of bas-
ketball. The initial dribbling tasks focus on children
dribbling a ball in a self-space without traveling or
moving. As they gain in dribbling skill, children are
challenged to dribble and travel in different pathways,
at different speeds, and around stationary and eventu-
ally moving obstacles. If there is suffi cient time for
practice, eventually the children will be ready to drib-
ble in complex situations that might be small-sided
basketball games, but children may also be challenged
to create dribbling routines to music or to dribble in
keep-away or tag games. In some instances the teacher
designs the routine or game; in other instances the
children design their routine or invent their game. Fig-
ure 2.2 illustrates how the skill theme of dribbling is
developed with youngsters based on the tasks described
in Chapter 26.
Some skill theme chapters include rules for games
(e.g., Chapters 24, 25, and 26), but these rules are sug-
gested as part of the skill theme progression for children
at more advanced levels (e.g., utilization and profi -
ciency levels, as described in Chapter 7). To reach the
more advanced levels, the children will need to spend
considerable time on tasks devoted to learning these
skills — initially in rather static environments —before
using them successfully within the dynamic setting of
an organized game, for example. In this book, games
are carefully selected (or designed) to enhance skill
acquisition as part of a long-term progression rather
than simply as a way to keep children “busy, happy,
and good” for 30 minutes or so.
We also encourage teachers to explain to their
classes that skillfulness typically involves practicing
the skills taught in class outside of school. Unfortu-
nately, in many physical education programs there is
just not enough time to devote to the skill themes and
Box 2-1
Critical Elements in the Skill Theme Approach
One of the sample benchmarks for second graders in the
National Standards suggests that children be able to “identify
four characteristics of a mature throw” (NASPE 1995, p. 20). In
the skill theme approach, as you will see in later chapters, we
focus on children learning the critical elements. Manross (2000)
interviewed 25 children who had been taught using a skill
theme approach and 25 children whose curriculum consisted
primarily of low-organized games. As part of his study he
asked the children to identify the critical elements (cues) of the
overhand throw. It was clear that the children in the skill theme
approach (Pendleton Elementary School) could describe many
of the critical elements of a mature overhand throw, whereas
the children at the other school (Eckland) had not learned the
critical elements. The table contains their responses.
Answer Stated No. of Times
Pendleton (Skill Theme Approach)
Turn your side to the target 17
Step with the opposite foot 15
Arm way back 10
Aim at target 9
Follow through 3
Step through with other foot 2
Let elbow lead 1
Twist body at waist 1
Bring arm straight over, not sidearm 1
Eckland (Low-Organized Games)
Get straight in front of target 4
Hold ball with tight grip 3
Bring hand back behind shoulder 3
Follow through 2
Try your best 2
Don’t know 2
Practice 2
Don’t be scared of the ball 2
Take a forward step 2
Throw hard 2
Aim at target 2
Don’t strain arm 2
Try to throw sidearm 1
Hold your hand straight 1
Work on stance 1
Don’t throw hard 1
Pretend it is hot object 1
Don’t get nervous 1
Keep mind on throwing 1
Make sure they see good 1
Have a strong arm 1
Keep eye on ball 1
20 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
movement concepts to enable children to dramatically
improve their skill levels. It is important that children
understand this reality so they avoid developing unre-
alistic expectations about how much practice it takes
to become skillful.
In addition to including a progression (sequence)
of tasks for developing each skill theme from the be-
ginning through the advanced levels (Part 4), each
chapter includes information (written descriptions,
diagrams, and /or photos) to assist the teacher in the
process of observing children (this process is fi rst de-
scribed in Chapter 11) to help the youngsters develop
effi cient and biomechanically correct motor patterns
(see Chapter 12).
Characteristic 2
The skill theme approach is designed to provide
experiences appropriate to a child’s developmental
level, as opposed to age or grade level.
One of the many challenges of teaching is to match
the content of the lesson to the abilities of the students
(Chapter 12). Both grade level and age are unreliable
indices of ability. A second characteristic of the skill
theme approach is that it uses the students’ develop-
mental level as a guide for selecting the content to
be taught.
The generic levels of skill profi ciency (Chapter 7)
serve as guides for assessing the abilities of the children
and then selecting tasks that are matched to their abil-
ities. If the majority of children in a class, for example,
were unable to hit a ball against a wall continually us-
ing a paddle so that it returned on a single bounce, we
wouldn’t require them to participate in a game requiring
an even greater ability to strike the ball— for example,
a game that required them to hit a ball to a partner
(Chapter 27).
In the skill theme approach, the tasks are selected ac-
cording to the children’s abilities, not a predetermined
calendar that implies that all children of the same grade
develop at the same rate. This is especially important,
for example, when the skill development of children
may be limited because they have physical education
classes only one or two days a week (Graham, Metzler,
Games
Dribble Keep-Away Dribble Tag
Child-designed dribbling games
Small-Sided Basketball
Modified rules 2 or 3 per team
Dribbling Combined with Other Tasks/Concepts
Against a defender Around stationary/moving obstacles
Speeds Pathways Directions Traveling
Different places around the body At different levels
Dribbling as an Isolated Skill
In self-space Cues:
Look over the ball Waist high Finger pads
Push
Dribbling Routines
To music Rhythmic gymnastics
Figure 2.2 The skill theme of dribbling is ini-
tially studied as an isolated skill. As the children
become more skillful, it is combined with other
skills and concepts. Eventually, dribbling is used
in teacher- or child-designed routines, games,
or small-sided basketball games.
CHAPTER 2 The Skill Theme Approach 21
and Webster 1991). In practice, this means that if three
consecutive fourth-grade classes were taught by an ex-
perienced teacher using a skill theme approach, one
class might be challenged with a more diffi cult series of
tasks than another (Graham et al. 1993). And within
each of the three fourth-grade classes, students might be
challenged individually or in groups to undertake differ-
ent tasks (see Chapter 11).
We can use the skill of throwing (Chapter 25) to illus-
trate how a skill theme is developmentally sequenced.
At the most basic level (precontrol), children are en-
couraged to throw a ball hard or to throw it far. These
tasks lead to the development of greater trunk rotation
and foot–arm opposition, for example, which combine
with other critical components to form a mature (bio-
mechanically effi cient) throwing pattern. Throwing for
distance, however, is only one type of throwing. As the
children learn the components of an overhand throw
for distance, they are challenged by tasks that involve
throwing at targets, throwing to a partner, and throw-
ing while moving. At more advanced levels (utilization
and profi ciency), they might be invited to participate in
a game of keep-away involving throwing, such as two
against two or three against one (three throwers, one
defender). The teacher bases these decisions, however,
on the children’s readiness rather than on age or grade
level. Throwing effi ciently and effectively then becomes
a focus that is interwoven and revisited as variations of
throwing throughout the program.
Characteristic 3
The scope and sequence of the skill themes are de-
signed to refl ect the varying needs and interests of
students over a period of years.
Fitness is built into the skill theme
approach as children “hop in
general space.”
The third characteristic of the skill theme approach
can be found within the scope and sequence recom-
mendations (see Chapter 8 and the Appendix at the
end of the book). Rather than focusing on the same
skill theme for several weeks (in a three- or six-week
unit, for example), we focus on a skill theme for brief
periods and then revisit it at various times during the
year. At the beginning levels (precontrol and control),
we might spend only two or three days in a row on a
Kick the ball back and forth with your partner. Try to make it go
through the arch.
22 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
skill theme. In fact, we might not even spend an entire
class period on a single skill theme. As children gain
profi ciency, expanding their motor repertoire, they be-
come more interested in spending larger amounts of
time (three or four days) on the same skill theme be-
cause the tasks are more complex and involved and
their success rate is higher.
Revisiting the same skill theme several times during
a year, as depicted in the progression spiral in the next
chapter, also allows the teacher to teach virtually the
same lesson that was taught two or three months
before. This is often necessary when the skill of the chil-
dren doesn’t improve noticeably. A teacher who remains
on the same skill theme for many days in a row, how-
ever, is tempted to make the tasks harder (in an effort
to alleviate the boredom of both the children and the
teacher) than the children may be ready for.
Characteristic 4
The skill theme approach emphasizes instructional
alignment.
Teachers decide what students can learn in a lesson
(objectives) (Chapter 8); develop a series of tasks de-
signed to assist the children to accomplish the
objective(s) for the lesson (Chapters 16 –28); and then
assess the objective (Chapter 14) to determine if the
lesson objective(s) have been accomplished. The as-
sessment then serves as a guide for future lessons. Ac-
cording to Tannehill, a teacher “tells students what is
important for them to know and be able to do ( the ob-
jectives ), designs appropriate tasks that allow them to
practice what you taught them, and assesses them on
what they have been practicing” (Tannehill 2001, p. 19).
If a teacher wants her class to learn the grapevine step,
she would demonstrate and explain the grapevine
step, devise tasks that allow them to practice the grape-
vine, and then assess their ability to do the grapevine
to determine if they need more practice. This process is
referred to as instructional alignment and is empha-
sized throughout Children Moving.
Is It Diffi cult to Maintain Youngsters’ Interest in a Program That Emphasizes the Fundamentals?
Ideally, children begin this program in preschool.
When they do, this is really the only program they
know, so their interest is high. When we introduce this
program to children in the fourth and fi fth grades for
the fi rst time, some initially have a diffi cult time ad-
justing, particularly the highly skilled children who
enjoy playing games they dominate. In time, however,
children learn to enjoy this program because they’re
improving. We also attempt to adjust the activities to
the youngsters’ skill level, and this makes the lessons
more interesting. It is important to understand, how-
ever, that in the skill theme approach, students do play
games, albeit small sided, but only when they have the
necessary skills to do so.
What Does “Adjusting the Activities” Mean?
“Adjusting the activities” is the concept of refl ective
teaching (Chapter 5). If a boy can’t catch a ball, for
example, then he isn’t going to enjoy playing a game
of softball in which the score is kept and winning is
important. For this child we provide noncompetitive
activities in which he can succeed. In the same class,
however, a girl may have played softball on a team for
several years and be very good. We try to provide her
with gamelike activities related to softball in which she
and a group of classmates may choose to keep score.
For more effective learning in reading and math classes,
children are grouped by ability. Although it’s harder to
do this in physical education, we do provide different
tasks based on the youngsters’ ability. This “system”
for determining the skill level of the students is ex-
plained in Chapter 7. In addition, the tasks in each
skill theme chapter are organized into a logical pro-
gression or sequence.
Where Is Physical Fitness in the Skill Theme Approach?
Physical fi tness is an important part of the skill theme
approach. As we explain in Chapter 4, it is interwoven
throughout the program rather than confi ned to one
separate unit. Our emphasis is not on training children
so that they score well on a physical fi tness test battery.
Rather, we try to provide experiences that help them
to understand and value the importance of physical
fi tness. We also try to help children enjoy physical ac-
tivity so that they choose to make it a part of their
daily lives for a minimum of 60 minutes a day (NASPE
2004; www.pyramid.gov 2005). The success of the
physical fi tness component within the skill theme ap-
proach is measured not by the children’s scores on a
physical fi tness test battery, but by an assessment of
their understanding of, attitudes toward, and enjoy-
ment of physical activity.
Some of our lessons are devoted primarily to helping
children understand and apply the important fi tness
concepts. In virtually every lesson we teach, however,
CHAPTER 2 The Skill Theme Approach 23
we try to ensure that children are moderately to vigor-
ously active a minimum of 50 percent of the lesson
(USDHHS 2005), thereby enhancing their cardiovascu-
lar benefi ts. We also fi nd that running laps or doing
jumping jacks, for example, seems to be a waste of time
when children can obtain the same benefi ts while
learning and enjoying physical activity —by playing
tag games, learning new jump rope tricks, or perfecting
a sequence of jumping and landing and rolling.
Where Does the Cognitive Domain Fit into the Skill Theme Approach?
The cognitive domain is a critical aspect of the skill
theme approach for two reasons. The fi rst is the in-
creasing recognition of the important link between
physical activity and cognitive functioning (Ratey and
Hagerman 2008). As suggested in their book Spark,
there is an increasing body of evidence that physical
activity has a number of positive infl uences on brain
function, both in youth and adults.
The second related reason that the cognitive do-
main is an important part of the skill theme approach
is the correlation between physical activity and aca-
demic achievement (Carlson et al. 2008; Coe et al.
2006). “High amounts of physical education may be
associated with an academic benefi t” (Carlson et al.
2008, p. 721).
The skill theme approach, as you will see, encour-
ages children to think on their feet as they move. The
movement concepts, for example, which we introduce
in the early grades, teach them an important move-
ment vocabulary that they will use throughout their
lives. We expect the children to think as they move;
thus the skill theme approach focuses not only on the
physical movements of the children, but also on how
and why they move certain ways as well as the most
effi cient and effective ways to do so.
As with physical fi tness, we weave cognitive con-
cepts and principles into virtually every lesson we
teach. We do not teach separate lessons, or units, on
cognitive concepts, as we believe that it is far more ef-
fective to emphasize these concepts and principles in
every lesson we teach.
Many physical educators who use the skill theme
approach also work closely with the classroom teach-
ers at their schools. They try to incorporate concepts
being taught in the classroom into their physical edu-
cation lessons. Chapter 32 describe in detail how
teachers integrate the skill themes with many of the
subjects taught in the classroom (e.g., math, reading,
and science). This chapter also describes how class-
room teachers use physical activity as a way to teach
many of the subjects in their curriculum.
Where Does the Affective Domain Fit into the Skill Theme Approach?
Just as with the cognitive domain, the affective do-
main is emphasized in virtually every lesson we teach.
Children’s feelings, emotions, and self-concept cannot
ever be ignored. We attempt to design our lessons so
that they are developmentally appropriate and recog-
nize that children have different abilities, attitudes,
and feelings about being in our classes. We carefully
follow the appropriate practice guidelines developed
by the National Association for Physical Education
and Sport (NASPE 2009; www.naspeinfo.org ) to en-
sure that children are treated fairly, compassionately,
and equitably.
From years of teaching and observing children’s phy-
sical education classes, we are increasingly convinced
that lifelong attitudes and feelings toward physical
“Travel under the shape made by your partner.”
24 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
activity and exercise are developed during the elemen-
tary school years. We want children to enjoy and feel
good about their participation in physical education
because our goal is to do our part to lead them to adopt
and value a lifetime of physical activity. For this reason
the affective domain is something we are continually
aware of in every lesson we teach. We want children to
learn while they enjoy themselves in our classes. Thus
we focus on assisting children to be successful learners
while also recognizing that peer interactions are a crit-
ical part of every lesson we teach. Chapters 9 and 10
describe in detail how we create these positive learning
environments for children.
What about Dance and Gymnastics?
Initially our focus is on helping children develop and
learn the fundamental motor skills. As children learn
these skills, they are placed into the contexts of dance
and gymnastics (and games) ( Figure 2.3 ). It’s important
to understand that the purpose of dance, gymnastics,
and games extends beyond simply skill improvement.
Dance is a form of expression by moving to rhythm
alone or with others. Gymnastics is a series of acrobatic
skills combined into smooth, repeatable sequences
performed on the fl oor and /or apparatus to demon-
strate strength, balance, and body control. Games are
organized activities that use manipulative skills and
are played for the enjoyment and satisfaction of coop-
erating and competing with others.
Dance, gymnastics, and games require skills that are
best learned initially outside these contexts. It’s ineffec-
tive to always practice the skills outside these contexts,
however, so the contexts of dance, gymnastics, and
games are interwoven throughout the movement con-
cept and skill theme chapters (Parts 3 and 4). The chap-
ters on gymnastics, dance, and games (Chapters 29,
30, and 31, respectively) illustrate this technique.
An analogy with reading also illustrates this point.
Most children learn to read in elementary school; as
adults, they choose what they’ll read. In the skill theme
approach, we teach the fundamental motor skills that
are thought to provide the foundation for a lifetime of
enjoyable, hopefully regular, physical activity. The
children might tell us they aren’t interested in some
skills now. But 20 years from now, who knows?
How Do Classroom Teachers Feel about the Skill Theme Approach?
Classroom teachers are positive about the skill theme
approach because they can relate it directly to their
work in the classroom — in teaching children vocabu-
lary, for example. These teachers also appreciate the
fact that the program accommodates the variation in
abilities that is typical of any class of children. Many
teachers also consider the program’s deemphasis of
competition a welcome alternative to those programs
that constantly pit one team against another in games
in which the score is kept. They feel not only that this
is more consistent with the approaches they use in the
classroom but also that it makes their jobs easier; the
children don’t come angrily into their rooms after
Small sided games/sports Dance
Gymnastics
Combination of skills and concepts
Task practiced in isolation
Figure 2.3 Skill themes are practiced initially in isolation, then in
combination with other skills and concepts leading to their use in
games, dance, and gymnastics.
The fundamental motor skill of balancing has many applications.
CHAPTER 2 The Skill Theme Approach 25
physical education class, arguing about the scores or
who cheated, for example. As detailed in Chapter 32,
classroom teachers also are able to use movement to
teach reading, writing, and math, for example.
How Do Middle (Junior) and High School Physical Education Teachers Feel about the Skill Theme Approach?
Clearly there are many views. Some middle school
teachers are enthusiastically supportive, realizing
the importance of ensuring that children maintain
positive attitudes about physical activity. Their job is
much harder if their students have been “turned off”
to physical education. Interestingly, a number of
middle school teachers have actually started empha-
sizing skill themes in their programs in response to
their students’ poor motor skill development. These
teachers realize that it’s extremely diffi cult to excite
students about sports and lifetime physical activity if
they have yet to acquire the basic motor skills. The
skill theme approach has no age or grade limits. It
can be valuable for people of any age.
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. Why aren’t games such as basketball and duck,
duck, goose included in this book?
2. In your own words describe the skill theme ap-
proach. Use the Curriculum Diamond (Figure 2.1)
as part of your explanation.
3. Three characteristics of the skill theme approach are
listed in this chapter. Which provides the most
compelling reason, in your opinion, for using a skill
theme approach? Why?
4. The skill theme approach can be described as devel-
opmentally appropriate. How does this concept re-
late to the generic levels of skill profi ciency?
5. When are children ready for “organized” games?
Why wouldn’t it be correct to respond to this ques-
tion by suggesting an age or grade level?
6. This chapter suggests that children be taught that
becoming skillful will probably require practicing at
home. Write a brief explanation to the children that
you might use to explain why they need to practice
outside of physical education class if they want to
become “good” at a sport or physical activity.
7. Physical fi tness is an important part of the skill
theme approach, yet only one chapter addresses it.
How can this be explained?
8. Physical activity can be used to teach important
lessons about cooperating with others. How might
these lessons be taught within a skill theme
approach?
9. Do you think the skill theme approach should be
used in middle schools? Why, or why not?
Summary
The skill theme approach describes both the content
(what is taught) and the pedagogy (how it is taught)
that are used in a developmentally appropriate pro-
gram of physical education. This approach recognizes
that age or grade levels are inappropriate indicators of
physical ability; therefore lessons are designed to con-
sider different abilities and interests. The Curriculum
Diamond provides an overview of how content can be
sequentially developed so that elementary, middle
school, and high school programs work together to
provide a solid movement foundation for youngsters
to attain the competence and confi dence to remain
physically active throughout a lifetime.
Initially the skill theme approach emphasizes the
development of fundamental motor skills (e.g., throw-
ing, balancing, striking). As the children progress in
ability, the skill themes are taught in sports, games,
dance, and gymnastics contexts. Because of the rapid
changes in children’s development, skill themes are
revisited throughout the year rather than taught in
units of several weeks. Concepts related to physical fi t-
ness and the cognitive and affective domains are inter-
woven throughout the lessons.
26 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
References /Suggested Readings
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Barnett , B. E. , and W. J. Merriman. 1992 . Misconceptions in motor development. Strategies 5(3): 5 –7 .
Bernhardt , D. T., J. Gomez , B. M.D. Johnson , T. B. Martin , T. W. Rowland , E. Small , C. LeBlanc , et al. 2001 . Strength training by children and adolescents. Pediatrics 107(6): 1470 –72 .
Carlson , S. A., J. E. Fulton , S. M. Lee , L. M. Maynard , D. R. Brown , H. W. Kohl , and W. H. Dietz . 2008 . American Journal of Public Health 98(4): 721–27 .
Coe , D. P. , J. M. Pivarnik , C. J. Womack , M. J. Reeves , and R. M. Malina . 2006 . Effect of physical education and activ- ity levels on academic achievement. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 38: 1515 –19 .
[COPEC] Council on Physical Education for Children. 1992 . Developmentally appropriate physical education practices for children: A position statement of the Council on Physical Education for Children . Reston, VA: National Association for Sport and Physical Education .
[COPEC] Council on Physical Education for Children. 2000 . Appropriate practices for elementary school physical education . Reston, VA: American Alliance for Health, Phys- ical Education, Recreation and Dance .
[NCPEC] National Council on Physical Education for Children. 2004 . Physical activity for children: A statement of guidelines for children ages 5 –12. 2nd ed. Reston, VA: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recre- ation and Dance .
Gabbard , C. , E. LeBlanc , and S. Lowy. 1987 . Physical edu- cation for children . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall .
Graham , G. 1987 . Motor skill acquisition: An essential goal of physical education programs. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 58(8): 44–48 .
Graham , G. , C. Hopple , M. Manross , and T. Sitzman . 1993 . Novice and expert children’s physical education teachers: Insights into their situational decision-making. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 12(2): 197–214 .
Graham , G. , M. Metzler , and G. Webster. 1991 . Specialist and classroom teacher effectiveness in children’s physical education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 10(4): 321– 426 .
Manross , M. 2000 . Learning to throw in physical education class: What I learned from 4th and 5th graders: Part 3. Teaching Elementary Physical Education 11(3): 26 –29 .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 1995 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. Reston, VA: NASPE .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2004 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education . 2nd ed. Reston, VA: NASPE .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2009 . Appropriate practices for elementary school physical education. 3rd ed. Reston, VA: National Associa- tion for Sport and Physical Education .
[NCCDPHP/CDCP] National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1997 . Guidelines for school and community programs to promote lifelong physical activ- ity among young people. Journal of School Health 76(6): 202 –19 .
Ratey , J. J. , Hagerman E. 2008 . Spark: The revolutionary new science of exercise and the brain. New York, NY: Little, Brown & Co .
Tannehill , D. 2001 . Using the NASPE content standards. Journal of Teaching Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 72 (8): 19 .
[HHS] U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 1996 . Physical activity and health: A report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Pre- vention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion .
[HHS] U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2005 . School health index for physical activity and healthy eating: A self-assessment and planning guide for elementary school. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Pre- vention . Available for free download from: www.cdc.gov/ nccdphp/dash .
27
C H A P T E R
3
Skill Themes, Movement Concepts, and the National Standards A physical education program for children which begins with an organized sport is analogous to a
language arts program beginning with a Shakespearean sonnet.
— IRIS WELSH [STUDENT]
28 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
O ur primary goal is to provide children with a
degree of competence leading to the confi dence
that encourages them to become, and remain,
physically active for a lifetime. Our intent is to help
children gain enough skills and confi dence for them to
participate enjoyably in many activities, not just a few
traditional team sports, and to avoid the abysmal failure
and embarrassment that often result from a total lack of
skill. By focusing on learning and practicing skills rather
than on the rules or structure of a game or sport, we can
dramatically increase the amount of practice the children
actually receive, thereby heightening their opportunities
to learn the fundamental motor skills that form the foun-
dation for becoming a lifetime mover. We are also able to
do this in ways that children fi nd enjoyable.
objects of various sizes, shapes, heights, et cetera, the
student will have more effective “elements” for the per-
formance of the next jumping tasks (e.g., the running
long jump in high school).
— RICHARD SCHMIDT , “Schema Theory:
Implications for Movement Education”
• Children need to become suffi ciently competent in basic
motor skills if they are going to eventually enjoy playing
sports or games as teens and adults.
• In the elementary school, the emphasis is placed on
practicing motor skills rather than learning rules or the
structures of sports.
• Skill themes are analogous to verbs (i.e., they are action
words). They are subdivided into three categories: loco-
motor, nonmanipulative, and manipulative skills.
• Movement concepts are analogous to adverbs (i.e., they
describe how an action is performed). They are also sub-
divided into three categories: space awareness, effort,
and relationships.
• In the primary grades, movement concepts are taught
before the skill themes.
• The movement analysis framework “wheel” is based on an
analysis of human movement and describes how the skill
themes and movement concepts interact with one another.
• The “spirals” outline a developmentally appropriate pro-
gression for each of the skill themes.
• Children Moving directly addresses national and many
state physical education standards.
Key Concepts
Typically, children who are learning to read are
taught fi rst to recognize letters, then parts of words,
then complete words, and fi nally sentences. Children
who are studying mathematics learn to solve problems
after they’ve grasped the basic functions of numbers
and signs. Children learning to play a musical instru-
ment typically study the scale before attempting a
song. In physical education, however, all too often
children are taught games, dances, or complex gym-
nastic stunts before they’re able to adequately perform
fundamental motor skills. Too often, children know
the rules for a game or the formation of a dance but
don’t have the motor skills needed for successful and
enjoyable participation. Our way of teaching children
how to participate effectively in various activities is to
focus on the development of the necessary motor
skills. We call this approach teaching by skill themes.
One of the easiest ways to understand skill themes is
to think of a popular sport. Let’s pick softball. What
skills do people use when they play softball? The major
ones include throwing, catching, batting, and running.
Let’s pick another popular sport —basketball. Throw-
ing, catching, running, dribbling with hands, jumping
and landing, and chasing and fl eeing skills are used
frequently in basketball (Figure 2.2). Obviously we
could list a number of other sports. The point is that
some of the same skills — for example, throwing, catch-
ing, and running — are used in both sports, and in
many more sports that you know of. Thus if children
learn to throw and catch, for example, their odds of
playing and enjoying a sport such as softball or basket-
ball increase, because they have a reasonable chance to
succeed at that sport. We have termed these skill themes
because they apply to many different sports, although
the way they are used (the context) differs from one
sport to another. Table 3.1 lists various skill themes and
indicates which sports emphasize them.
Characteristics of Themes
In music, a theme recurs in different parts of a song, some-
times in exactly the same way, at other times in a slightly
different form. The Random House Dictionary of the English
Language defi nes theme as “a short melodic subject from
Essentially, the notion is that these elements (funda-
mental motor skills) are learned in early life through the
various activities performed (such as jumping, throwing,
striking, and the like), and then when a new act is to
be learned in later life, the student can piece together
these elements in a more effi cient way to achieve the
new motor goal. The assumption is that by jumping over
CHAPTER 3 Skill Themes, Movement Concepts, and the National Standards 29
which variations are developed.” In physical education,
various movements can be thought of as a theme.
By revisiting a movement—sometimes in the same
context as previously and sometimes in a radically differ-
ent context—we provide children with variations of a
skill theme. These variations lead to profi ciency as well as
diversity. Jumping can be presented as jumping from an
object—a box or a table—and landing softly. This move-
ment can be revisited with a slight variation: jumping
from an object and landing facing in a different direction
from the takeoff position. Jumping for distance or leap-
ing in synchronization with the leap of a partner would
be radically different, yet the theme would still be jump-
ing (Gallagher 1984). So, too, would the high jump and
the long jump for track and fi eld athletes as would jump-
ing to catch a ball in football, softball, or basketball.
Some movements, such as jumping, traveling, and
balancing, can be focused on in games, gymnastics,
and dance contexts. Other movements, such as throw-
ing and dribbling, are primarily used in games. When-
ever possible, we point out to students the similarities
in movements used in different contexts to enhance
students’ cognitive understanding of the principles
that underlie successful performance of a movement.
We’re not certain that this infl uences skill performance
(transfer of learning), but it doesn’t seem to have any
adverse effects.
The instructor who teaches by themes can focus on
helping children become skillful movers. Youngsters
will have plenty of opportunities as they grow older to
learn games, sports, dance, and gymnastics activities,
but fi rst they must learn the basic motor skills needed
for successful participation.
Table 3.1 Skill Themes Used in Sports*
Sports
Skill Themes
Traveling
Chasing, fl eeing, dodging
Jumping, landing
Balancing
Transferring weight
Rolling
Kicking
Punting
Throwing
Catching
Volleying
Dribbling
Striking with rackets
Striking with golf clubs
Striking with bats
Striking with hockey sticks
*This table is intended only to suggest how various skill themes are applied in sports contexts.
A e ro
b ic
s
B a s k e tb
a ll
F o
o tb
a ll
D a n
c e
G o
lf
H o
c k e y
M a rt
ia l A
rt s
R o
c k C
li m
b in
g
S o
c c e r
S o
ft b
a ll
T e n
n is
T ra
c k a
n d
F ie
ld
T u
m b
li n
g
U lt
im a te
F ri
s b
e e
V o
ll e y b
a ll
Many adults choose not to play tennis or swim or
dance. They don’t enjoy these activities because they
don’t possess the skills needed to participate success-
fully. An unskilled adult attempting to learn a complex
set of dance steps may be embarrassed and frustrated.
So will the adult who is trying to learn to play tennis
Fundamental activities such as running, jumping,
skipping, sliding, catching, kicking, and striking are the
basic components of the games, sports, and dances
of our society. Children who possess inadequate mo-
tor skills are often relegated to a life of exclusion from
the organized and free play experiences of their peers,
and subsequently, to a lifetime of inactivity because of
their frustrations in early movement behavior.
— VERN SEEFELDT , JOHN HAUBENSTRICKER ,
AND SAM REUSCHLEIN
30 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
forms that we typically identify as games, sports,
gymnastics, and dance. The key word, however, is
ready . We try to lead children to these experiences
gradually rather than forcing them into adult set-
tings prematurely. Let’s use the batting skill theme as
an example. In Chapter 28 we explain a variety of
enjoyable ways children can practice the skill of bat-
ting without placing them in an adult-rules nine-
against-nine softball game. Constantly striking out
in a softball game in front of your classmates is hardly
conducive to wanting to play softball as an adult.
Therefore we have developed a sequence of batting
tasks and activities that gradually progress into fun
batting-type games that also provide for plenty of
practice opportunities. We do the same for each of
the other skill themes (Part 4).
Skill Themes and Movement Concepts
We hope by now you understand why we have chosen
to develop our curriculum using skill themes. In this
section you will fi nd two tables and two fi gures that
are especially important to a thorough understanding
of the skill theme approach. The movement concepts
are listed in Table 3.2 and the skill themes in Table 3.3 .
These tables organize the content to be taught in
physical education, not by sports, but by an analysis
of movements that are used in most sports and physi-
cal activities. These tables also serve as a guide to be
certain that we teach all the important movements
and do not leave any out. The skill themes and move-
ment concepts are defi ned and thoroughly explained
in Parts 3 and 4.
but cannot even hit the ball into the opponent’s court.
Our goal in the skill theme approach is to lead young-
sters to become skillful adults who enjoy a variety of
physical activities and sports.
As children become ready, they begin to combine skill
themes and movement concepts into the movement
Try to bat the ball without hitting the cone.
Table 3.2 Movement Concepts*
Space Awareness Effort
(where the body moves) (how the body moves) Relationships
Location: Self-space and general space Time: Fast /slow Of body parts: Round (curved), narrow, wide,
Sudden /sustained twisted, symmetrical /nonsymmetrical
Directions: Up/down
Forward /backward Force: Strong /light With objects and /or people: Over/under, on /off,
Right /left near/far, in front /behind, along /through,
Clockwise /counterclockwise Flow: Bound /free meeting /parting, surrounding, around, alongside
Levels: Low/middle /high With people: Leading /following, mirroring /
Pathways: Straight /curved matching, unison /contrast, alone in a mass,
Zigzag solo, partners, groups, between groups
Extensions: Large /small
Far/near
* This table represents many of the movement concepts taught in elementary school physical education. It is not meant to be all-inclusive, but to provide examples of
movement concepts.
CHAPTER 3 Skill Themes, Movement Concepts, and the National Standards 31
Table 3.3 Skill Themes *
Locomotor Skills
Walking
Running
Hopping
Skipping
Galloping
Sliding
Chasing, fl eeing, and dodging
Nonmanipulative Skills
Turning
Twisting
Rolling
Balancing
Transferring weight
Jumping and landing
Stretching
Curling
Manipulative Skills
Throwing
Catching and collecting
Kicking
Punting
* This table represents many of the skill themes taught in physical education. It
is not meant to be all-inclusive, but to provide examples of skill themes.
The movement analysis framework , which has
been termed “the wheel” ( Figure 3.1 ), is intended to
show how the skill themes and movement concepts
interact with each other. The spiral ( Figure 3.2 ) is an
example of one of the developmentally appropriate
progressions that we have developed for each of the
skill themes in Part 4. Both the movement analysis
framework and the spiral are explained later in this
chapter. Obviously the movement content of our
program consists of more than just skill themes. In
fact, it’s diffi cult to focus on a skill theme for long
without introducing one or more movement concepts.
The two terms, skill themes and movement concepts , dif-
ferentiate the movements (skill themes) from the
ideas (movement concepts) used to modify or enrich
the range and effectiveness of skill employment.
Chapters 16 –18 are devoted specifi cally to ideas and
examples for teaching the movement concepts, while
Chapters 19 –28 do the same for skill themes. At this
point, however, it is important to understand the
differences between them.
The distinction between movement concepts (Ta-
ble 3.2) and skill themes (Table 3.3 * ) can be clarifi ed
by a comparison to grammar. Skill themes are always
verbs — they’re movements that can be performed.
Movement concepts are always modifi ers (adverbs)—
they describe how a skill is to be performed. This dis-
tinction also clarifi es how movement concepts are
employed to embellish, enhance, or expand the qual-
ity of a movement. A verb by itself — strike, travel,
roll — is typically less interesting than one that is
modifi ed by an adverb — strike hard, travel jerkily, roll
smoothly. Skills can stand by themselves. You can roll
or gallop or jump, but you can’t low or high or under.
Concepts modify skills.
Our initial focus with the primary-grade children is
on learning and understanding the movement con-
cept vocabulary (see Table 3.2) and Chapters 16 –19;
for this reason, the movement concepts are listed
Children enjoy learning the vocabu-
lary of the skill theme approach.
This teacher has posted her skill
themes on the gym wall.
* The major source for this explanation of skill themes and
movement concepts is Sheila Stanley, Physical education: A
movement orientation, 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1977).
32 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
S o lo
A lo
n e in
a m
a ss
Fa stSlo
wS tro
n gLig
ht
Bound
Self-space
General space
Up/down
Forward/ backward
Right /le ft
Cloc kwis
e /
cou nter
cloc kwis
e
Low
M id
dl e
H ig
h
St ra
ig h t
C u rv
ed
Z ig
za g
L a rg
e /s
m a ll
Fa r/
n e a r
R o u n
d (
c u rv
e d
)
R e la t io n s h ip s
Effort:How the
body m oves
S p a c e a w a re n e ss: W h e re th e b o d
y m oves
Of b ody
pa rts
W it h
o b
je c ts
a n
d /o
r p
e o p
le
Wi th
peo ple
Time
Force
Flow
Lo ca
tio n
D ire
c tio
n s
Levels Pathw
ays (floor/air)
Extensions
C u rlin
g
S tretch
in g
Ju m
p in
g an
d lan
d in
g
Transferring
weight
Balancing
Rolling
Twi stin
g
Tu rni
ng
D od
gi ng
Fl ee
in g
C h a si
n g
G a ll o p
in g
S k ip
p in
g
H o p p in
g
R u n n in
g
W al
ki n g
Str ikin
g
wit h l
on g-
ha nd
led
im ple
me nts
Striking
with rackets
Volleying
Dribbling
Punting
K icking
C o lle
c tin
g
C a tc
h in
g
T h
ro w
in g
P a rtn
e rs
G ro
u p s
B etw
een g
ro u p s
U n iso
n /co
n trast
M irroring
/
m atching
Leading/
follow ing
Alongside
Around
Surrounding
Meeting/parting
Along/th rough
In fr ont/
beh ind
Ne ar/
far
On /o
ff
O ve
r/ un
de r
Sy m
m et
ri ca
l/
no ns
ym m
et ri ca
l Tw
is te
d
W id
e
N a rr
o w
Locomotor
Manipulative Nonmanipulative
Free
Figure 3.1 Movement analysis framework (wheel) depicting the interaction of movement concepts and skill themes. An “interactive” wheel is
located inside the back cover of this book.
before the skill themes (see Table 3.3). We focus on
movement concepts before skill themes because
children in preschool and the primary grades spend
a great deal of time studying vocabulary (learning
new words), and many of the movement concepts
are part of this vocabulary. This is also the time
when children truly enjoy the challenge of learn-
ing and moving as they demonstrate their under-
standing of such words as symmetrical , zigzag , and
twisted .
It’s important to remember, however, that although
the children are focusing on learning the movement
concepts, they are also practicing the skill themes in
Chapters 19 –28. As soon as the children begin to
move, they are practicing one or more skill themes,
even though they may not be thinking about it at the
time. For example, if we ask children to skip in a curved
pathway, they may be thinking about the curve, but
they are also practicing skipping. If we ask them to
land in a low level (from a jump), they are also getting
CHAPTER 3 Skill Themes, Movement Concepts, and the National Standards 33
PUNTING
Proficiency Level Playing Punt-Over
Punting while traveling
Receiving and punting against
opponents
Utilization Level Playing rush the circle
Punting within a limited time
Receiving a pass, then punting
Punting to a partner
Punting at angles
Control Level Punting for height
Punting for accuracy
Using punting zones
Punting for distance
Punting different types of balls
Punting with an approach
Punting over low ropes
Punting for consistency
Precontrol Level Dropping and punting
Dropping, bouncing, and kicking
lightweight balls
Figure 3.2 Progression spiral illustrating the contextual variations
in which skill themes can be studied.
jumping and landing practice. In later grades, the
teacher’s focus will shift from the low level (movement
concept) to providing cues for soft, safe landings —
from the concept to the skill. In fact, however, this is
an artifi cial separation, because the skill themes and
movement concepts are constantly interacting.
The Wheel (Movement Analysis Framework)
The interaction between the movement concepts and
the skill themes listed in Tables 3.2 and 3.3 is represented
schematically by fi ve concentric circles (Figure 3.1). (For
easy reference, we call the movement analysis frame-
work “the wheel,” a term our students coined.) The two
inner circles represent the skill themes; the three outer
circles represent the movement concepts.
The fi rst inner circle contains the general categories
of the skill themes from Table 3.3: manipulative, non-
manipulative, and locomotor skills. The next inner
circle contains the breakdown of the skills in each cat-
egory, such as walking and running for locomotor
skills, balancing and rolling for nonmanipulative skills,
and throwing and kicking for manipulative skills.
The outer circle contains the three categories of the
movement concepts from Table 3.2: space awareness
(where the body moves), effort (how the body moves),
and relationships. * The second circle subdivides each of
The movement concept of “direc-
tions” is illustrated on the gym
wall.
* Some movement analysis frameworks include the concept of
space (direct and fl exible) as a quality of movement. In our
teaching, however, we use this concept so infrequently that we
don’t include it in our discussion of the qualities of movement.
34 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
the three movement concept categories. For example,
the subdivisions of space awareness (Chapter 16) include
location and directions; the subdivisions of effort (Chap-
ter 17) include time and force; and among the relation-
ship subdivisions (Chapter 18) are body parts and people.
Finally, in the third circle, the movement concepts are
subdivided even further.
In the wheel that is provided with your copy of Chil-
dren Moving, you will see that the two inner circles
representing the skill themes are stationary. The three
outer circles are connected to each other but are able to
rotate around the two inner circles. This rotation illus-
trates the idea that the same movement concept can be
used to enhance the development of different skills.
The concept of levels in space, for example, is useful for
refi ning such skills as catching, striking, volleying, and
balancing (e.g., catching at high level). The concept of
fast and slow can be applied to the study of such skills
as traveling, rolling, dribbling, transferring weight, and
dodging (e.g., rolling at a slow speed). At times, some
concepts blend with other concepts. For example, fast
or slow may modify pathways, and forward and back-
ward may modify over and under (e.g., galloping slowly
forward in a zigzag pathway).
Progression Spiral
Just learning the terminology for the movement concepts
(Table 3.2) and the skill themes (Table 3.3) is not enough
to begin actually teaching them. We have developed
thorough explanations for each of the movement con-
cepts and skill themes, along with a plethora of activities,
in subsequent chapters. Part 3 (Chapters 16 –18) contains
the defi nitions and suggested activities for teaching the
movement concepts. Part 4 (Chapters 19 –28) does the
same for the skill themes.
In each of these chapters we provide tasks and ac-
tivities in a progression from the easiest to the hardest,
and from less to more complex. The content in each of
the skill theme chapters is outlined in a fi gure that we
call a progression spiral (Figure 3.2). The spiral is in-
tended to be read from the bottom to the top — that is,
the easiest tasks are at the bottom, the hardest at the top.
It also suggests that tasks may need to be retaught when,
for example, it has been several months since the chil-
dren have practiced that skill or it is the beginning of a
school year.
The movement concepts that are emphasized de-
pend on the skill theme being studied. The concepts of
fast and slow, for example, can be used to make a task
more interesting or challenging. The skill theme of
rolling or transferring weight can be made more diffi -
cult by challenging the children to move more slowly.
But with a skill such as dribbling, which is easier to
perform at a slower rate, the challenge “dribble faster”
increases the complexity of the task. In short, there’s
no standard formula that can be used as a guide for
varying the contexts in which all skill themes are stud-
ied. Each skill theme is different as are the children.
The spirals do not suggest the length of time, or the
number of lessons, to be spent studying a particular
theme. In refl ective teaching, as explained in Chapter 8,
these decisions are based on the time allocated for phys-
ical education classes (e.g., two days a week versus daily)
and the children and their home backgrounds and the
opportunities available in the community.
Finally, the spiral represents a progression from the
precontrol (beginner or novice) level up to the profi -
ciency level (varsity athlete) (see Chapter 7). The move-
ment concept and skill theme progressions in Parts 3 and
4 are based on our knowledge of the pertinent literature
and on years of teaching experience. But you may fi nd
that a different ordering of the tasks (activities) is more
appropriate for a particular teaching situation. Each child,
each class, each teaching environment differs from all
others, and the refl ective teacher adapts to these differ-
ences. See Box 3-1 for an example of one school’s use of
skill themes in its physical education curriculum.
The National Standards and the Skill Theme Approach
In this eighth edition of Children Moving , we attempt
to show how our program fi ts with the content of the
National Association for Sport and Physical Education’s
Moving into the Future: National Standards for Physical
Education (NASPE 2004). We think this will be espe-
cially useful for those teachers who are interested in
revising their programs to refl ect the content suggested
in the National Standards . Before describing how Chil-
dren Moving might be used as a guide to developing a
program designed on the National Standards , it seems
important to provide a brief background of the process
that led to the development of those standards.
Background of National Standards Development
In the late 1980s, the National Association for Sport
and Physical Education formed a blue-ribbon task force
and asked its members to:
• Defi ne a person who is “physically educated”
• Defi ne “outcomes” and “benchmarks” that could
serve as guidelines for constructing physical educa-
tion program curriculums
The Outcomes Task Force worked on the project for more
than fi ve years, and each year, at NASPE’s national
CHAPTER 3 Skill Themes, Movement Concepts, and the National Standards 35
Box 3-1
Adapting the Skill Theme Approach
Since the fi rst edition of Children Moving was published in
1980, a number of school districts throughout the United
States have based their curriculums on skill themes. In
Gwinnett County (near Atlanta, Georgia), an overview of each
area of the curriculum is described on a poster that many
elementary schools in the county display on their walls. The
poster is prominently displayed alongside math, reading, and
science posters, an arrangement conveying the message
that the teachers of Gwinnett County are dedicated to edu-
cating the total child.
Physical Education K–5 Curriculum
The fundamental objective of the physical education program is to provide opportunities for the development of motor skills and physical fitness.
Skill Themes and Fitness Concepts Students in grades K–5 will experience a developmentally designed program of skill and fitness development, including educational games, educational dance, and educational gymnastics. The following motor skills and fitness concepts are included:
• body awareness • balancing • chasing, fleeing, dodging • kicking and punting • striking with implements (short and long handled) • rolling • throwing and catching • traveling • volleying and dribbling • transferring weight • jumping and landing • cardiorespiratory endurance • flexibility • muscular strength and endurance • fitness testing
Becoming physically educated is a developmental process that begins in early childhood and continues throughout life. The physical education program involves the total child and includes physical, mental, social, and emotional growth experiences. The physical education program provides instruction that will enable the pursuit of physical fitness and a lifetime of physical activity.
Gwinnett County Public Schools
36 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
conference, physical educators from throughout the
United States were invited to review and critique the
work. The task force then revised its work based on
these recommendations and presented it again the fol-
lowing year. Over several years, the work of the task
force was reviewed by hundreds of physical educators
and as a result refl ects the collective wisdom of much
of the profession. The result of this work, published in
1992, was a document entitled The Physically Educated
Person (NASPE 1992, p. v), which defi ned a physically
educated person as an individual who:
• HAS learned skills necessary to perform a variety of
physical activities
• IS physically fi t
• DOES participate regularly in physical activity
• KNOWS the implications of and the benefi ts from
involvement in physical activity
• VALUES physical activity and its contributions to a
healthful lifestyle
Outcome statements were also developed for each of
the fi ve parts of the defi nition, along with benchmarks
for kindergarten, second, fourth, sixth, eighth, tenth,
and twelfth grades.
Using the same process, NASPE built upon the foun-
dation of the “Outcomes Project” to develop national
content standards for physical education, including
examples for assessment. The standards were initially
published in 1995 (NASPE 1995) and were revised in
2004 (NASPE 2004). They were especially important
because they paralleled work that was also being done
in other disciplines, such as mathematics, science, and
geography. The skill theme approach, as defi ned in
Children Moving , is aligned with the National Standards
for Physical Education .
Skill Themes and the Content Standards
Box 1-3 (in Chapter 1) lists the six content standards
for physical education from the National Standards.
Children Moving addresses all the standards throughout
the text, but many readers will fi nd Parts 3 and 4 of the
book especially helpful for designing, delivering, and
assessing the fi rst two content standards. The fi rst two
content standards, and part of the general description
for each one, follow:
1. A physically educated person demonstrates compe-
tency in motor skills and movement patterns
needed to perform a variety of physical activities.
The intent of this standard is development of the phy-
sical skills needed to enjoy participation in physical
activities. Mastering movement fundamentals estab-
lishes a foundation to facilitate continued motor skill
acquisition and gives students the capacity for success-
ful and advanced levels of performance to further the
likelihood of participation on a daily basis. In the pri-
mary years, students develop maturity and versatility
in the use of fundamental motor skills (e.g., running,
skipping, throwing, striking) that are further refi ned,
combined, and varied during the middle school years.
These motor skills, now having evolved into specialized
skills (e.g., a specifi c dance step, chest pass, catching
with a glove, or the use of a specifi c tactic), are used in
increasingly complex movements . . . through the
middle school years (NASPE 2004, p. 12).
2. A physically educated person demonstrates under-
standing of movement concepts, principles, strate-
gies, and tactics as they apply to the learning and
performance of physical activities.
The intent of this standard is facilitation of learners’
ability to use cognitive information to understand and
enhance motor skill acquisition and performance. . . .
In the lower elementary grades, emphasis is placed on
establishing a movement vocabulary and applying in-
troductory concepts. Through the upper elementary and
middle school years, an emphasis is placed on applying
and generalizing these concepts to real-life physical
activity situations (NASPE 2004, p. 12).
In subsequent chapters you will fi nd many exam-
ples of how you can teach children the skills and con-
cepts suggested in the National Standards . It will also
help to refer to Boxes 3-2 and 3-3 , which contain sam-
ple performance outcomes from the National Standards ,
and Box 3-4 , which contains guidelines for promoting
lifelong physical activity from the National Center for
Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion.
After each sample benchmark you will see one or more
chapter references that indicate where you can learn
more about that specifi c benchmark and the activities
that teachers use to help children achieve the sug-
gested goal.
In many chapters we have also quoted sample per-
formance outcomes from the National Standards to
assist you in understanding how the content of the
Children Moving chapters can be developed to meet
these benchmarks. When appropriate, we have also
included assessment examples in those chapters to
assist you in determining how well your students are
progressing in regard to the benchmarks.
As we conclude this section on skill themes and
movement concepts and how they are described in
the National Standards, it is important to remember
that the standards are not intended as a prescribed set
of goals or outcomes to be achieved by all physical
education programs. The National Standards document
CHAPTER 3 Skill Themes, Movement Concepts, and the National Standards 37
Box 3-2
A more detailed description of each performance indicator,
along with activities to teach it, is included in the Children
Moving chapter(s) listed below at the end of each benchmark.
The critical elements (cues) of a mature form are also de-
scribed in these chapters.
Grades K– 2
• Skips (or hops, gallops, slides, etc.) using mature form
(Chapter 19)
• Performs a simple dance step in keeping with a specifi c
tempo (Chapter 29)
• Demonstrates clear contrasts between slow and fast
movements when skipping (hopping, galloping, sliding,
etc.) (Chapters 17, 19)
• Travels forward and sideways, changing directions quickly
in response to a signal or obstacle using a variety of motor
skills (Chapters 16, 17, 19)
• Demonstrates a smooth transition between locomotor skills
in time to music (Chapters 17, 19)
• Drops a ball and catches it at the peak of the bounce
(Chapter 25)
• Throws a ball underhand using mature form (Chapter 25)
• Discovers how to balance on different body parts, at differ-
ent levels, becoming “like” a statue while making symmetri-
cal and nonsymmetrical shapes (Chapters 16, 22)
Grades 3 – 5
• Balances with control on a variety of objects (e.g., balance
board, large apparatus, skates) (Chapter 22)
• Catches a fl y ball using a mature form (Chapter 25)
• Jumps vertically and lands using mature form (Chapter 21)
• Throws a ball overhand and hits a target on the wall (Chap-
ter 25)
• Develops and refi nes a gymnastics sequence (or creative
dance sequence) demonstrating smooth transitions. (Chap-
ters 29, 30)
• Dribbles, then passes a ball to a moving receiver (Chapter 26)
• Throws a ball to a partner 15 yards away using mature form
(Chapter 25)
Grades 6 – 8
• Serves a volleyball underhand using a mature form (Chapter 26)
• Dribbles a ball while preventing an opponent from stealing
the ball (Chapter 26)
• Places the ball away from an opponent during a tennis rally
(Chapter 27)
• Designs and performs gymnastics (or dance) sequences
that combine traveling, rolling, balancing, and weight trans-
fer into smooth, fl owing sequences with intentional changes
in direction, speed, and fl ow (Chapters 16 –19, 23)
Sample Performance Indicators for National Standard 1: Movement Forms
Box 3-3
A more detailed description of each performance indicator,
along with activities to teach it, is included in the Children
Moving chapter(s) listed below at the end of each perfor-
mance indicator.
Grades K– 2
• Identifi es correctly various body parts (e.g., knee, foot, arm,
palm) (Chapter 16)
Grades 3 – 5
• Identifi es four characteristics of a mature throw (Chapter 25)
• Uses concepts of space awareness and movement control
to run, hop, and skip in different ways in a large group with-
out bumping or falling (Chapters 16,19)
• Identifi es and demonstrates the major characteristics
of mature walking, running, hopping, and skipping
(Chapter 19)
Grades 6 – 8
• Transfers weight from feet to hands at fast and slow speeds
using large extensions (e.g., mule kick, handstand, cart-
wheel) (Chapter 23)
• Accurately recognizes the critical elements of a throw made
by a fellow student and provides feedback to that student
(Chapter 25)
• Consistently strikes a softly thrown ball with a bat or paddle,
demonstrating an appropriate grip (Chapters 27, 28)
Sample Performance Indicators for National Standard 2: Movement Concepts
38 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Box 3-4
Almost 30 years ago the National Center for Chronic Disease
Prevention and Health Promotion (NCCDPHP) made the fol-
lowing recommendations for “developing students’ mastery of
and confi dence in motor and behavioral skills for participating
in physical activity.” They still apply today:
• Students should become competent in many motor skills
and profi cient in a few to use in lifelong physical activities.
• Elementary school students should develop basic motor
skills that allow participation in a variety of physical
activities.
• Older students should become competent in a select
number of physical activities they enjoy and succeed in.
• Students’ mastery of and confi dence in motor skills occur
when these skills are broken down into components and
the tasks are ordered from easy to hard.
• Students need opportunities to observe others performing
the skills and receive encouragement, feedback, and re-
peated opportunities for practice during physical education
class.
• Active student involvement . . . that focuses on building
confi dence may increase the likelihood that children and
adolescents will enjoy and succeed in physical education
and physical activity.
Source: NCCDPHP 1977, p. 209.
Guidelines for Promoting Lifelong Physical Activity
is not a national curriculum! As detailed in Chapter 5,
“Refl ective Teaching,” teachers must determine the
goals of their program based on the specifi c charac-
teristics of the schedule, the children, and the com-
munity. The suggested grade levels, for example, are
only that — suggestions. The National Standards can
be immensely helpful, however, as they represent
the professional judgment of hundreds of physical
education teachers and professors about the content
of a quality physical education curriculum that pro-
vides the movement foundation for a lifetime of
physical activity.
It must be emphasized, however, that the National
Standards are designed for programs that have daily
physical education for grades K–12. Even then, how-
ever, the standards may represent optimistic goals. The
challenge for many schools and districts that have
physical education only one or two days a week is to
carefully select the standards that they can truly ac-
complish in the amount of time they have allocated
for their physical education programs. The standards
can also provide the foundation for a strong argument
for more time for physical education in the school day.
It always diffi cult to decide which of the standards a
school or district will ignore because of the lack of time
allocated for physical education.
Since the National Standards were fi rst published in
1995, a number of states have revised or developed
state standards, many of them based on the National
Standards . If you are interested in seeing if your state
has developed standards, go to PE Central ( www.
pecentral.org/professional/statestandards.html ). It might
be interesting also to see how your state standards
compare to the ones developed at the national level.
Summary
Teaching by skill themes focuses on developing chil-
dren’s competence in a variety of motor skills and
movement concepts that, if practiced frequently out-
side of the school setting, will eventually enable the
children to acquire confi dence and enjoy physical ac-
tivity throughout their lifetimes. Games, sports, gym-
nastics, and dance typically require children to use
combinations of motor skills and movement concepts
that are developed only after a substantial amount of
practice. Therefore the teacher places emphasis on
teaching children how to acquire the skills and confi -
dence necessary to participate in games, gymnastics,
and dance with enjoyment and confi dence.
Teaching by themes also involves revisiting the
same skills or concepts continually throughout the
program at different times and in different contexts. In
preschool and the primary grades, the focus is on
learning the vocabulary associated with the movement
concepts. Once the vocabulary has been learned, the
emphasis shifts to the skill themes. In fact, however,
the skill themes and movement concepts constantly
interact, as depicted in the movement analysis frame-
work (the wheel). The progression and activities for
each of the skill themes are illustrated by the spiral.
The spiral is a visual reminder that the child revisits
each task to enhance skill acquisition and retention
CHAPTER 3 Skill Themes, Movement Concepts, and the National Standards 39
and that skills are best learned when they are presented
in a progression from basic to advanced.
Support for the skill theme approach can be found
in three national statements, the National Standards for
Physical Education (NASPE 1995, 2004); Developmentally
Appropriate Physical Education Practices for Children
(COPEC 1992); and Appropriate Practices for Elementary
School Physical Education (COPEC 2000; NASPE 2009).
Essentially, these sources recommend that physical
education programs at the preschool and elementary
school levels focus on helping children improve their
fundamental motor skills. Physical fi tness, rather than
being a separate unit, is interwoven throughout the
program as we help children understand and value its
importance while they also learn to develop their own
programs of physical fi tness.
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. What do children need to learn in physical edu-
cation before they’re ready to play a game? Why?
2. What are movement concepts? How do they
modify skill themes?
3. How can you distinguish skill themes from move-
ment concepts?
4. What does “revisiting themes” mean?
5. What does the spiral indicate about skill develop-
ment? (Use Figure 3.1, the wheel, to explain your
answer.)
6. What three skill themes relate most directly to
dance? To games? To gymnastics? You may not use
the same skill theme twice.
7. Explain how two skill themes might be combined
in a task and write three samples for a third-grade
class. Use Chapters 19 –28 if you need assistance.
8. Select a team sport. List fi ve examples of how space
awareness concepts are important for that team to
succeed. You may want to refer to Chapter 16 for
the more expanded explanation of skill themes.
9. Explain what the authors mean when they write
that the skill themes may be used to develop a
program that refl ects the content suggestions in
the National Standards .
10. Attempt to locate your state physical education
standards at PE Central ( www.pecentral.org /
professional/statestandards.html ). (If your state
has not posted them, you can refer to the national
standards.) Find three examples of state (national)
standards for the elementary school grades that
directly address the teaching of movement con-
cepts or skill themes. Copy the standard (include
the grade level and standard number) and indicate
which skill theme or movement concept the stan-
dard addresses.
References /Suggested Readings
[COPEC] Council on Physical Education for Children. 1992 . Developmentally appropriate physical education practices for children: A position statement of the Council on Physical Education for Children . Reston, VA: National Association for Sport and Physical Education .
[COPEC] Council on Physical Education for Children. 2000 . Appropriate practices for elementary school physical education: A position statement of the National Association for Sport and Physical Education . Reston, VA: National As- sociation for Sport and Physical Education .
Gallagher , J. 1984 . Making sense of motor development: Interfacing research with lesson planning. In Motor skill development during childhood and adolescence , ed. J. Thomas, pp. 123 – 38 . Minneapolis: Burgess .
Holyoak , C. , and H. Weinberg . 1988 . Meeting needs and pleasing kids: A middle school physical education curriculum . Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 1992 . The physically educated person . Reston, VA: National Association for Sport and Physical Education .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 1995. Moving into the future: National standards for physical education . Reston, VA: NASPE .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2004 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. 2nd ed. Reston, VA: NASPE.
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2009 . Appropriate practices for elementary school physical education . 3rd ed. Reston, VA: National Associa- tion for Sport and Physical Education .
[NCCDPHP] National Center for Chronic Disease Preven- tion and Health Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1977 . Guidelines for school and commu- nity programs to promote lifelong physical activity among young people. Journal of School Health 76(6): 202 –19 .
Schmidt , R. A. 1977 . Schema theory: Implications for move- ment education. Motor Skills: Theory into Practice 2: 36–48 .
Stanley , S. 1977 . Physical education: A movement orienta- tion . 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill .
40
C H A P T E R
4
Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children Intelligence and skill can only function at the peak of their capacity when the body is healthy and
strong.
— JOHN F. KENNEDY
CHAPTER 4 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children 41
T he concept of wellness encompasses physical,
emotional, mental, spiritual, interpersonal/social,
and environmental well-being (Fahey, Insel, and
Roth 2003), the goal of which is a healthy, productive
lifestyle. The goal of physical fi tness is a healthy indi-
vidual. The goal of physical education is children who
become and remain physically active for a lifetime. Thus
the goals of wellness, physical education, and fi tness are
intertwined. This chapter will focus on wellness for chil-
dren and its relationship to physical education, physical
activity as the medium for the development of fi tness in
children, and physical education as the priority venue
for wellness and fi tness in children.
Wellness for Children
The dimensions of wellness for children translate into
mental/emotional health; personal and social respon-
sibility; personal safety (bicycle, auto, water, and fi re);
nonabuse of drugs, alcohol, and tobacco; and nutri-
tion, as well as physical activity and fi tness. All the di-
mensions of wellness are critical to a child’s well-being.
Crisis in any dimension leads to a breakdown in opti-
mum health for that child. The total package comes to
school; the total package comes to physical education
each time a child enters our class. Our task: the teaching
of the skills of physical education while not neglecting
any dimensions of the total child.
Mental and Emotional Health
Emotional security ranks second only to food and shel-
ter in the most basic needs of the individual. The need
to be loved and accepted moves quickly to the top for
children as the basic needs of food and shelter are met.
What happens in the life of children at home, on the
way to school, at breakfast, and in the classroom af-
fects their emotional health in the gymnasium. Emo-
tional health affects their learning. What happens in
our gymnasiums and on our playgrounds affects the
emotional health of the child in the classroom, for the
day, and beyond the school day.
The foundation of young children’s emotional
health is self-esteem —how worthy and valuable they
consider themselves (Anspaugh and Ezell 2004). We as
teachers play a critical role in how children view them-
selves. Our reactions to their skill or lack of skill, our
reaction to their mistakes and sometimes loss of con-
trol greatly affect their view of themselves. Children’s
opinions of themselves are established early and are
very fragile. A quick, negative response can have a last-
ing effect on a child. Children with a strong sense of
worth and importance are free to develop their poten-
tial, better able to resolve personal and interpersonal
confl icts, and free to establish their independence and
self-expression.
As teachers we need to remember:
• Acceptance of children, even on their worst days, is
critical.
• What happens in elementary school affects children
throughout life.
• The most important infl uences in young children’s
lives are their parents; the most powerful infl uences
at age 11 and older are their peers.
• Perception of self may or may not match reality;
perception of self greatly affects self-esteem.
R. M. Page and T. S. Page (1993) offer the following
suggestions to foster a positive climate for emotional
wellness:
• Quickly learn the names of students, call them by
name, and show respect for each child.
• Be sensitive to diverse cultures, ethnicities, and
races; strive to view children from their perspectives
rather than your own.
• The focus of fi tness in elementary school physical
edu cation has shifted from strenuous exercise programs
to physical activity as a preventative for disease and a
formula for good health.
• Physical fi tness has shifted from skills-related /athletic to
health-related fi tness.
• Physical fi tness for youngsters centers around under-
standing the health-related fi tness components and con-
cepts of fi tness, and appreciating the importance of
being physically active.
• The purpose of fi tness assessment is to identify areas of
concern and assist youngsters in establishing personal
fi tness goals; fi tness assessment should never be used
for assigning grades to children.
• Physical fi tness is a product of movement that provides
children with skills, confi dence, and enjoyment.
• Physical fi tness becomes a process, maintained through
a physically active lifestyle that begins in childhood.
• Wellness encompasses emotional, mental, spiritual,
social, and environmental well-being as well as fi tness.
• The concepts of wellness are partners with fi tness and
physical activity for a healthy lifestyle.
Key Concepts
42 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
• Expect no problems. Expect students to be compe-
tent, capable, and eager to learn.
• When problems arise, handle them immediately
and consistently.
• Avoid sarcasm, ridicule, and belittling remarks; help
students to do the same.
• Avoid all suggestions of criticism, anger, or frustra-
tion. Make personal corrections in private.
• Create an atmosphere in which children feel at ease.
• Arrange for a high ratio of successes to failures.
• Avoid encouraging competitiveness between students
in learning activities.
• Demonstrate the characteristics of effective teachers:
warmth, friendliness, fairness, a good sense of humor,
enthusiasm, empathy, openness, spontaneity, adapt-
ability, and a democratic governing style.
We are teachers of children; our interactions with
them, our actions, and our language affect not just the
moment, but their lives.
Personal and Social Responsibility
The gymnasiums and playgrounds of our schools pro-
vide a rich environment for the development of per-
sonal and social responsibility. The physical activity
setting provides a miniworld of emotional, interactive
situations. Within this world of competition and co-
operation, success and failure, and fast-moving action,
children make a multitude of decisions on a daily basis.
The development of personal and social responsibility—
and its importance to the future of our society — is a
reminder that we are teachers of children, not just
skills, sequences, games, and dances.
The importance of personal and social responsibility
is highlighted in the National Standards for Physical
Education, in two of the six standards (NASPE 2004a):
• Exhibits responsible personal and social behavior that
respects self and others in physical activity settings.
• Values physical activity for health, enjoyment, chal-
lenge, self-expression, and /or social interaction.
Although we as physical educators teach in an envi-
ronment rich in opportunity for the development of
personal and social responsibility, it is not enough simply
to let children experience decision-making situations.
We must guide them in the development of acceptance
of responsibility through awareness talks, group meet-
ings, counseling, refl ection time, individual decision
making, and our modeling of responsible personal and
social actions (Hellison 2003). Further discussion of
Hellison’s model for the development of personal and
social responsibility can be found in Chapter 9, “Estab-
lishing an Environment for Learning.”
Personal and social responsibility stem from accep-
tance of two basic concepts:
• I will respect myself and others.
• I am responsible for myself, my actions, and my
behavior.
Responsible adults develop from responsible chil-
dren who have had opportunities to make decisions,
to experience success and failure, to be accepted, and
to accept others. Acceptance of self and others leads to
respect for self and others and to personal and social
responsibility.
Safety (Bicycle, Auto, Fire, Water) The concepts of safety relative to helmets and safe riding of bicycles,
rollerblades, and skateboards; the buckling of seat belts
at all times when riding in automobiles; and water safety
for swimming and recreational outings/sports are mat-
ters of personal responsibility. Each of these areas of
personal responsibility and safety presents excellent op-
portunities for collaborative endeavors with community
agencies as schools and agencies come together to pres-
ent programs, sponsor community events, and provide
hands-on demonstrations of safety for children. Again,
we cannot assume that young children know the safety
concepts for each of these areas; they must be taught by
responsible, caring adults. We do know that when
learned at an early age the lessons of “helmets, seat belts,
and life jackets” become habits for a lifetime.
Fire Safety Should Be a Part of All
Elementary School Curriculums
The concepts of fi re safety can be addressed via a school
assembly and hands-on activities conducted by the local fi re
department personnel. We have found fi re fi ghters eager to
come to the schools; they bring trucks and ladders for dem-
onstrations, provide active participation in “stop, drop, and
roll” and “stay low,” and teach the basic critical emergency
response, “911.”
Drug, Alcohol, and Tobacco Abuse With chil- dren experimenting with drugs, alcohol, and tobacco
at increasingly younger ages, it is never too early to
educate them on the risks of use and dangers of sub-
stance abuse. We can no longer pretend that drug and
alcohol use and abuse is limited to older adolescents
and young adults. Nor can we pretend that abuse and
overdose happen only somewhere else. Elementary-
school-age children are experimenting with drugs and
alcohol. No socioeconomic level is immune to sub-
stance abuse.
CHAPTER 4 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children 43
in nutrition as it relates to running, jumping, throwing,
and being a better athlete. Thus the appeal of athletics
opens the door to educating children about the impor-
tance of eating fruits and vegetables, decreasing fats, at-
taining healthy body weight, and maintaining a balance
of physical activity and nutrition as a daily pattern, a
childhood pattern that becomes a lifestyle for wellness.
MyPyramid Children at the elementary level need an understanding of the food guide in MyPyramid ( Fig-
ure 4.1 ), the contribution of the major essential nutrients
to building and maintaining healthy bodies, and the
necessity of balancing exercise and nutrition in main-
taining good health. This new food and activity guide
focuses on personal choice, moderation, and variety.
Food groups are represented in proportionate bands,
indicating in general how much food should be selected
from each group. The importance of daily physical ac-
tivity is symbolized by a youngster running up the stairs
and by children in a variety of physical activities—the
combination of physical activity and nutrition so essen-
tial for good health ( www.MyPyramid.gov ). As children
approach puberty, this balance between exercise and
nutrition in maintaining proper body weight becomes
very important for both boys and girls; however, for
young children the emphasis on the balance is for good
health. Lessons on teaching nutrition as a wellness con-
cept and its linkage to physical activity and good health
can be found in On the Move, Lesson Plans to Accompany
Children Moving (Holt/Hale 2010).
The Good Health Balance
Physical activity and good nutrition are the essential in-
gredients for the body’s good health balance. Envision a
young child fi rst learning to walk a balance beam; the
Physical educators serve a key role for children in
the area of substance abuse. With daily reports of pro-
fessional athletes involved in substance abuse, children
receive a confusing message regarding the dangers of
drugs and the consequences of use. We can provide
positive role models and clear, consistent messages
regarding abstinence. Responsible decisions/personal re-
sponsibility begin with a solid knowledge base provided
by adults that are respected and viewed as important in
a child’s life. We as teachers are second only to parents in
the potential infl uence we have on young children.
Much research and thought have been given to the
reasons individuals use drugs. Two of those reasons are
boredom and low self-esteem. A youngster actively in-
volved in physical activity and sports is an active
youngster. A youngster involved in a quality physical
education program develops the skills for successful
participation in a variety of sports and physical activi-
ties. A solid movement-skills base provides a positive
self-image in this important area for children. Thus
physical education has the potential to contribute di-
rectly to a healthy, drug-free world for children.
Nutrition
The importance of nutrition as a contributor to a
child’s well-being cannot be overestimated. Nutrition
contributes to cognitive learning in the classroom and
in the gymnasium. Nutrition contributes to a child’s
physical development and to his or her physical activity.
Lack of good nutrition contributes to obesity and
numerous health problems.
A number of factors have contributed to the exist-
ing state of poor nutrition among school-age children
in the United States. A large number of children are
responsible for their own meals, especially breakfast
and after-school snacks. Children do not choose fruits
and vegetables as a favorite snack; neither do young
children have the knowledge or skills to prepare
healthy meals or snacks. For many children, the foods
needed for good nutrition are not available in their
homes. Thus, by choice and by circumstance, many
children are the victims of poor nutrition.
Busier schedules and more fast-food meals have also
contributed to a decrease in good nutrition for America’s
families. A positive increase in physical activity—that
is, organized sports, dance, and gymnastics clubs for
children—has been coupled with a decrease in family
meals at home. All too often the quickest meal is one
from a drive-through, one that is high in fat and low in
the balance of nutrients needed for good health.
Although elementary-age children may not be in-
terested in nutrition for good health (after all, they are
immortal), we have found that they are very interested
Figure 4.1 MyPyramid.
Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service,
2005. www.mypyramid.gov
44 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
arms are extended outward on either side of the body
for good balance ( Figure 4.2 ). If neither arm is extended
or if the extension is only on one side, the child’s bal-
ance is in jeopardy. In adults we speak of the match
between caloric intake and daily energy expenditure —
that is, energy balance. In children we call it the good
health balance.
Adults in the United States have a tremendous
mismatch between caloric intake and energy expen-
diture, the results of which are the obesity epidemic
and the health risks associated with obesity. A combi-
nation of larger food portions, more readily available
food, a lack of knowledge regarding portion sizes and
number of servings within containers, and the abun-
dance of high-fat, high-calorie food means energy
expenditure — that is, physical activity — must increase.
However, advances in technology and automation
have created just the opposite — an environment that
supports less physical activity. The same mismatch
exists for children. We as teachers must take the lead
in creating the good health balance for children — a
balance of daily physical activity and good nutrition
that leads to children becoming, and remaining,
physically active for a lifetime.
Physical Activity
Physical activity is the other half of the good health bal-
ance. The importance of physical activity is evidenced
with its inclusion in Healthy People 2010 (USDHHS 2000a),
reports from the Surgeon General (USDHHS 1996), the
National Standards for Physical Education (NASPE 2004a),
and the Child Nutrition and WIC (Women, Infants, and
Children) Reauthorization Act of 2004 (Public Law
108-285). Healthy People 2010 identifi ed the 10 leading
indicators that most greatly affect health for individuals
and communities; physical activity was number one on
that list. The Surgeon General’s report speaks of the de-
velopment of an active lifestyle, with physical inactivity
portrayed as hazardous to health. NASPE’s physical edu-
cation standards devote one of the six standards to
regular participation in physical activity.
Physical activity is now recognized as a preventa-
tive for disease and a formula for good health (Shephard
2005; Strong et al. 2005; Watts 2005; Welk and Blair
2000). Childhood obesity and preventative degener-
ative diseases have reached epidemic proportions in
the United States. The health risks of obesity can be
largely managed through physical activity. The health
risks of degenerative diseases, appearing in children
as early as age eight, can be prevented through daily
physical activity.
The obesity and degenerative diseases epidemic
presents the following:
• Young children predicted to not outlive their par-
ents (Katz 2004)
• Childhood obesity that has tripled in the last two
decades (Satcher 2003)
The Child Nutrition and WIC (Women, Infants, and
Children) Reauthorization Act of 2004 mandated that
school districts establish policies and goals regarding
nutrition, physical activity, and other school-based ac-
tivities designed to promote student wellness. Coordi-
nated School Health was established by the CDC in
1998 to promote student health and wellness by “put-
ting it all together to help students grow strong and
healthy.” Two of the eight components of Coordinated
School Health are nutrition and physical education.
Both Coordinated School Health and the Child Nutri-
tion Act emphasize school-based wellness commit-
tee /advisory councils comprised of teachers, parents,
and community leaders and collaboration to promote
wellness for children. Physical education teachers can
and should be vital members of each.
Figure 4.2 The good health balance.
CHAPTER 4 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children 45
Physical Inactivity
Physical inactivity is a health issue, an environmental
issue, and an emotional issue. As a health issue, we now
know inactivity is a contributing factor in children be-
ing overweight and obese. Inactivity has a direct ink to
degenerative diseases; more than 40 years ago the term
hypokinetic was used to describe diseases associated with
a lack of physical activity (Corbin et al. 2008). Decreases
in physical activity have been linked to increased televi-
sion time, video games, and computers — that is, in-
creases in sedentary time. Less outdoor play, due to a
variety of reasons, has also contributed to the increase
in physical inactivity. A drive through any neighbor-
hood provides a very vivid visual of the decrease in
children’s physical activity.
elementary school. Self-confi dence is linked as a protec-
tive factor against obesity and depression (Dunton et al.
2006). Confi dence in self breeds increased activity; a lack
of confi dence breeds a lack of activity leading to less
activity and increased weight gain. The negative cycle:
inactivity leads to more inactivity, to obesity and degen-
erative disease, to low self-esteem and fear of failure, and
thus to increased inactivity. The positive cycle: physical
activity leads to more activity, serves as a preventative
for obesity and degenerative disease, and increases self-
esteem and emotional, as well as physical, health.
Enjoyment and skill development are the two key
factors given by children and adolescents as reasons to
engage in and maintain programs of physical activity
(Gately et al. 2000; Lohman, Going, and Metcalfe
2004). Perceived competence of that skill development
greatly affects participation in physical activity (Davison
et al. 2006; Fairclough and Stratton 2006). It is impor-
tant for us as teachers to remember the word is “per-
ceived.” Children may be very capable of successful
participation in a variety of activities but do not view
themselves as having the skills for success. Very young
children think they are very skilled, capable of con-
qu ering the highest climbing wall, shooting at the tallest
basket, and performing at the highest level on all mea-
sures of physical ability. As children progress through
the elementary school, this perception begins to match
against the reality of the performance and the com-
parison to others, all too often resulting in a decrease
in perceived competence and confi dence, leading to a
decrease in willingness to participate and a decrease in
the joy in doing so. Our task as teachers is to provide
developmentally appropriate activities, in a “differen-
tiated, inclusive learning environment” (Dunton et al.
2006), to assure children enjoyment, confi dence, and
competence in physical activity.
Guidelines for Physical Activity
The importance of establishing physical activity habits
in childhood is supported in the research. Habits estab-
lished early in life tend to remain into adulthood, thus
becoming lifestyle. The recommendations for children’s
physical activity are included in the Physical Activity for
Children guidelines established by the Council on Phys-
ical Education for Children (NASPE 2004b). The guide-
lines include the following recommendations:
• Children should accumulate at least 60 minutes, and
up to several hours, of age-appropriate physical activity
on all, or most, days of the week. This daily accumula-
tion should include moderate and vigorous physical
activity with the majority of the time being spent in
activity that is intermittent in nature.
Physical inactivity increases with age; girls are less
active than boys. Minority children are less likely to be
active, with the highest rate of physical inactivity
among African American and Hispanic females (Kimm
et al. 2002). The percentage of physically inactive mi-
nority females who become less active as they grow
into adolescence is of clinical and public health signifi -
cance (Crespo 2005). Self-confi dence and self-esteem
are consistently mentioned as important predictors of
physical activity, or lack of activity, in both boys and
girls, increasing in importance as children reach upper
• Health care costs related to obesity ranging between
$90 billion and $120 billion per year (Satcher 2003)
• One in three children, born in 2000 and beyond, who
will develop type 2 diabetes (McConnaughey 2003)
Obesity is a health issue, an emotional issue, and a
social issue.
For children struggling with being overweight, the em-
phasis should be on fi tness and a healthy body image
rather than on weight loss. A positive focus on fi tness
and activity contributes to emotional wellness and
self-esteem as well as increased physical activity. Ex-
cellent resources are Kathy Kater’s Real Kids Come
in All Sizes (2004), a guide for parents, and Healthy
Body Image (2005), a curriculum guide for elementary
and middle school students.
Hypokinetic diseases are those diseases or conditions
associated with lack of physical activity or too little
regular exercise.
— CORBIN ET AL. 2008
46 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
• Children should participate in several bouts of phys-
ical activity lasting 15 minutes or more each day.
• Children should participate each day in a variety of
age-appropriate physical activities designed to achieve
optimal health, wellness, fi tness, and performance
benefi ts.
• Extended periods (periods of two hours or more) of
inactivity are discouraged for children, especially
during the daytime hours.
It is important to establish guidelines for the selec-
tion of physical activity for children, physical activity
that contributes positively to the child’s health and
well-being during the elementary school years and
beyond.
The Physical Activity Pyramid from the Physical Ac-
tivity for Children guidelines (NASPE 2004b) outlines
the physical activities appropriate for elementary-
school-age children with contributions to lifetime ac-
tivity and a physically active lifestyle ( Figure 4.3 ). With
a goal of 60-plus minutes of daily physical activity for
all children, the pyramid depicts the types of physical
activity appropriate for children, as well as the amount
of activity recommended within each category.
Children should receive the largest amount of their
activity at Level 1; for children ages 5 to 9, these are the
activities that involve the large muscles and have very
little formal organization (e.g., active play). The large-
motor, natural play of children is considered to be life-
style physical activities for children. Level 2 activities
are a combination of those that have an aerobic effect
(e.g., jogging, biking, and swimming) and the basic
skills of physical education. Younger children are en-
couraged to participate in free-play activities that make
Figure 4.3 Physical Activity Pyramid.
Source: National Association for Sport and Physical Education, Physical Activity for Children: A Statement of Guidelines for Children Ages 5 –12,
2nd ed. (Reston, VA: NASPE, 2004), p. 15.
Avoid long periods of
inactivity/sedentary living.
Play games that make you stretch, i.e.,
stretching exercises.
Flexibility Exercise*
Perform at least three days a week.
Play games that overload your muscles i.e., muscle fitness exercises, climbing, and jumping.
Muscle Fitness Exercise*
Walk to school, work in the yard, do chores around
the house, play outside, play games, and/or walk with your parents.
Lifestyle Activities
Include at least some of your daily activity from this level.
Accumulate many of your daily 60-plus minutes from this category.
Do sports or recreational activities that make your heart beat faster and make you sweat.
Active Sports and Recreation*
Do activities that make your heart beat faster and make you
sweat, i.e., running, jumping, biking.
Active Aerobics
* Less emphasis in these areas for children ages 5 to 9.
L E V E L 1
L E V E L 2
L E V E L 3
L E V E L 4
CHAPTER 4 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children 47
their hearts beat faster and make them sweat. Chil-
dren ages 10 to 12 will begin sports involvement and
more vigorous physical activities. Although sports
involvement appears on the Physical Activity Pyra-
mid for older children at Level 2, the focus is on self-
selection by the child and the match to the needs
and interests of the child as the primary factor for
selection. The key in Level 2 is some vigorous physi-
cal activity during the week for all children — free
play, recreation, sports. Level 3 activities include a
selection of developmentally appropriate physical
activities to reinforce the fi tness concepts of muscu-
lar strength and fl exibility. Level 4 is reserved for
“quiet” time set aside each day for play types other
than vigorous physical activity. As the pyramid is as-
cended from Level 1 to Level 4, the amount of time
spent at each level decreases. Thus, quiet /nonactive
time, while important, receives less emphasis than
active play. The Physical Activity Pyramid guidelines
are based on children’s needs and developmental
characteristics; the guidelines focus on developmen-
tally appropriate physical activity, skill development,
and fi tness through activity. Physical education pro-
vides the tools; physical activity provides the arena
for good health and fi tness development.
With the recommendations of 60 minutes plus of
physical activity per day for children, the importance
of physical education and recess becomes increas-
ingly apparent. It is through physical education that
the skills for activity are developed. It is through re-
cess that play as physical activity is fostered, social
interaction in activity is “tested,” and confi dence in
physical activity is increased. Given the skills of phys-
ical education and the environment of positive inter-
action on the playground, children gain competence
and confi dence in themselves, thus engaging in more
physical activity.
Physical Activity in and beyond the School Day
It is also readily apparent that, in most situations in our
elementary schools today, we cannot meet the recom-
mendations for 60 minutes plus of daily physical activity.
Thus programs of before and after school, in school, and
at home are essential to successful promotion of daily
physical activity. Lee and Solomon (2007) term this the
“whole-school approach,” involving all school clients—
students, physical education specialist, classroom teach-
ers, and parents—in the promotion of physical activity
for children. We as teachers of physical education must
take the lead in designing programs of physical activity
outside physical education classes and promoting physi-
cal activity for children in school, at home, and in our
communities. The physical education teacher thus
becomes the school’s “Physical Activity Director” as
well as the Teacher of Children in Physical Education.
In-School Activities
With many school programs not affording children daily
physical education, activities beyond the gymnasium
are critical for meeting the guidelines for physical activ-
ity daily, as well as for establishing the pattern for a life-
time of daily participation. In-school activities include
before- and after-school activities, daily recess, physical
activity breaks during the school day provided by the
classroom teacher, and educational television /PBS or
child-designed activity/exercise programs. Examples of in-
school programs to provide physical activity include:
• Jump rope clubs organized at different skill and in-
terest levels. These clubs are organized for full par-
ticipation by all students, in comparison to a jump
rope team with selected students.
• Jogging /walking clubs with an emphasis on jogging
or walking for distance, as opposed to running for
speed. These clubs can focus on total miles com-
pleted for each student, matching the miles of a
friend /parent/community volunteer on a hiking
trail, or walking /jogging across the state.
• Kid Fit and Fun, locally produced age-appropriate
activities for classroom breaks by PBS /educational
television. Upper-elementary-age students can
produce in-school programs to promote physical
activity using students, parents, and community
volunteers.
• “Challenges,” lesson plans to promote active par-
ticipation and skill development with minimum
teacher supervision at recess, found in On the Move,
Lesson Plans to Accompany Children Moving (Holt/
Hale 2010).
• The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) BAM! (Body
and Mind) website offers interactive activities for
students and teachers linked to national standards
for health and science; designed for students ages
9 –13 ( www.bam.gov ).
• The CDC’s VERB! (It’s What You Do) Web site offers
physical activity ideas and resources for students
ages 9 –13, parents, and teachers ( www.cdc.gov/
verb ).
• The American Heart Association’s What Moves U
campaign offers activities for P–K through upper
elementary, organized by grade levels, focused on
nutrition and physical activity; their Balance It Out
program offers activities for elementary focused on
nutrition ( www.americanheart.org ).
See References/Suggested Readings at the end of this
chapter for additional Web site listings.
48 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Pedometers
Pedometers can be excellent instruments for increasing chil-
dren’s awareness of their physical activity level. Wearing pe-
dometers during recess and after school /at home will assist
children in assessing their individual levels of activity and the
amount of cumulative activity they attain in a given time pe-
riod and in different environments (e.g., on the playground,
in organized sports, in free play).
Children enjoy charting their steps for “A Walk Across
America,” calculating the miles (and steps) to various desti-
nations within the state, or climbing Mt. Everest. Classroom
teachers appreciate the reinforcements of mathematics and
geography lessons. It is important to remember that 10,000
steps as a daily goal is a target number of steps set for
adults. It is a goal that is too high for sedentary individuals or
those with chronic diseases; it is a number that is low for
many children during an average day. If pedometers are
used to motivate children for increased physical activity, it is
important to set personal goals after establishing baseline
steps for the child, specifi c health goals, and sustainability of
the goal for that child in a routine day (Tudor-Locke 2002).
Pedometers allow children to calculate the amount of activity
they receive and to set goals for the future.
Thomas Jefferson introduced pedometers to America.
They came into the commercial market in Japan in
1965 under the name of manpo-meter ( manpo in
Japanese means 10,000 steps).
— HATANO AND TUDOR- LOCKE, 2001
Outside-of-School Activities
The decrease in physical activity is an environmental
issue. We are seeing a lack of play spaces, safety con-
cerns for children at play, fewer children riding bikes or
walking to school, and fewer neighborhood schools
within walking distance for children. Opportunities for
physical activity beyond the school setting are impor-
tant for the children we teach, for their parents, and for
the communities that collectively are our present and
our future.
Fitness clubs, physical activity clubs, and play-
ground fi tness courses provide additional physical
Physical activity leads to fi tness and wellness.
CHAPTER 4 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children 49
activity for youngsters and involve their families in
the physical activity. Awards systems often give dou-
ble points for parental participation. Family physical
activity nights, fi tness fairs, and fi tness / health
checks bring families together to participate in phys-
ical activity, as well as to learn the current informa-
tion on physical activity, fi tness, nutrition, and good
health.
Saturday activities such as “Bark in the Park,” which
invites you to bring along your dog for the activities,
and “Play with Mr. J,” scheduled playtime with the
physical education teacher Mr. J, bring students and
parents to school playgrounds and community parks
for informal physical activity. School playgrounds
Technology in Fitness / Wellness Education
The world of technology relative to fi tness /wellness educa-
tion has exploded during recent years. Fitness technology
now includes electronic portfolios and heart rate monitors for
upper-elementary students, equipment for fi tness /wellness
labs, interactive video games, the storage and analysis of fi tness data for both students and teachers, and a wealth of
information via the Internet. Jogging /walking club members
can now connect with other students around the world
charting mileage and comparing adventures. The list of In-
ternet resources is almost limitless in fi tness, nutrition, and
other areas of wellness. We encourage you as teachers of
physical education to explore the use of technology in your
teaching of physical education; however, we caution you to
use technology to enhance your program of physical educa-
tion, not as a substitute for quality teaching.
become community parks as children and adults play
together in an environment that is emotionally safe
and fosters confi dence and competence. Remembering
that parents are the number one infl uence in the lives
of elementary-age children, what better way to estab-
lish the habits and instill the importance of physical
activity for good health.
Physical Activity Director
With quality programs of physical education and daily
programs of physical activity, inside and outside the
school, we can meet the recommendation of 60 min-
utes plus of daily physical activity for children. A com-
mitment from everyone — students, parents, classroom
teachers, and the physical education specialist — is crit-
ical to attaining the goal. We as teachers must believe
we can make a difference in the lives of children, that
we can have a positive effect on children’s present and
their future of attaining and maintaining physical
activity and good health.
While everyone in the schools needs to be united
in the goal of daily physical activity for all children, it
is the role of the physical education teacher to take
the lead, to design and /or coordinate the programs of
phy sical activity. Our role as teachers of children ex-
pands to include not just our physical education cur-
riculum, but also physical activity in and outside our
gymnasiums and our schools. As teachers of physical
education and directors of physical activity, we can
provide children with the skills to develop compe-
tence and confi dence in a variety of physical activities
that are enjoyable and challenging, thus increasing
physical activity beyond their years with us.
The development of skill
promotes increased physical
activity; increased physical activity
promotes increased fi tness.
50 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Active Schools
With the physical education specialist as director of
physical activity and a school committed to meeting
the recommended requirement of physical activity for
good health, schools can become “Active Schools” de-
signed to maximize school-based opportunities for re-
inforcing the relevance and value of physical activity
for all children (Fox, Cooper, and McKenna 2004). We
as teachers of children in physical education, in collab-
oration with classroom teachers, parents and commu-
nity leaders, can design and promote our schools as
Active Schools with the following strategies:
• Develop “safe routes” to school for walking and
riding bikes.
• Develop and maintain safe, developmentally appro-
priate playgrounds at school and in the community.
• Permit access to the gymnasiums and school play-
ground after school hours and on weekends.
• Work with classroom teachers to incorporate physical
activity breaks during the day and “active” lessons.
• Mark outdoor paved surfaces for game play.
• Adopt a policy of daily recess for all children (NASPE
2001).
• Promote the value of physical education and the
impor tance of physical activity in each school
newsletter.
• Ensure safe play during recess, both physically and
emotionally.
• Market the school as being healthy, active, and safe.
Active Schools promote quality physical education
and daily physical activity, thus contributing to chil-
dren’s wellness, and to their future with a belief and
participation in physical activity.
Physical Fitness for Children
Quality physical education contributes to increased
physical activity, improved self-concept, increased self-
effi cacy, improved motor skills, increased enjoyment,
History of Physical Fitness
The fi rst alarm on children’s physical fi tness was
sounded in the mid-1950s in response to a comparison
of fi tness levels of American and European children.
The Kraus-Weber test battery had a signifi cant impact
on physical education programs in schools, resulting in
Physical Fitness and the National Standards
for Physical Education
Standard 3: Participates regularly in physical activity
Standard 4: Achieves and maintains a health-enhancing
level of physical fi tness
The National Standards for Physical Education (NASPE 2004a)
recognize the importance of physical fi tness for children,
with an emphasis at the elementary level on the learning of
skills, knowledge, and behaviors that will enable children to
be physically active now and in their adult years. The focus
for children in the early elementary years is the enjoyment of
activity: positive participation in physical education on the
playgrounds of school and community and in active play. As
children grow and mature, the focus is on an awareness of
fi tness concepts and their importance, coupled with the
development of skills and knowledge for regular participation
in meaningful activity. In the National Standards, fi tness is
viewed as a product of a physically active lifestyle; a
physically active lifestyle is the product of movement
competency and knowledge gained through the process
of positive participation in physical activity.
Physical Activity beyond Physical Education
• A before-school activity program
• Family Fun and Wellness Education nights
• A before-school coed dance program
• An exercise program that is townwide for students,
families, dignitaries, and friends
• Fitness homework calendars
• A Run / Walk Club at recess
Susan Donovan, Director of Physical Activity and Physical
Education Specialist, Guiteras Elementary School
increased motivation, and a reduction in sedentary be-
havior (LeMasurier and Corbin 2006). Physical activity
is a preventative to degenerative diseases and obesity.
With the importance of physical education and phy-
sical activity well documented in the research, what
then is the role of physical fi tness for children? What
is the role of physical fi tness in our programs of physi-
cal education?
For some teachers, fi tness is the focus of physical
education, with the curriculum devoted almost en-
tirely to activities that promote specifi c areas of physi-
cal fi tness. For some teachers, a segment of every class
is devoted to fi tness, with a specifi c number of minutes
targeting a fi tness component. For some teachers, ev-
ery physical education class begins with exercises. We
as the authors of Children Moving believe that fi tness is
a product of a quality physical education program, a
process that is ongoing as children move and learn in
our gymnasiums and on our playgrounds.
CHAPTER 4 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children 51
increased emphasis on exercises to improve physical
fi tness in children and youth and fi tness as the major
curricular focus for physical education. The second
alarm on children’s fi tness was sounded with the link-
age of physical fi tness in childhood to the prevention
of cardiorespiratory and coronary disease in adults, as
well as of the degenerative diseases of hypertension
and diabetes. The result was a curricular shift to health-
related fi tness and a renewed emphasis on activities to
boost fi tness components. The alarm sounding today
focuses on children’s lack of physical activity and the
increase in overweight and obese children.
The importance of physical activity as a preventa-
tive for disease and a formula for good health places
the emphasis of physical fi tness on a broad range of
health- enhancing physical activities. Physical fi tness
then is a product of movement that provides chil-
dren with confi dence, skills, and enjoyment. Through
quality physical education, fi tness becomes a process,
attained and maintained through health-related
physical activity. Physical fi tness as a process, a part
of a quality program of physical education, is inher-
ent throughout Children Moving. It is the philosophy
the authors have held since the idea of fi tness for
children was fi rst introduced in the text more than
25 years ago.
Physical Fitness: A Defi nition
Physical fi tness is the capacity of the heart, blood ves-
sels, lungs, and muscles to function at optimum effi -
ciency. In previous years, fi tness was defi ned as the
capacity to carry out the day’s activities without undue
fatigue. Automation, increased leisure time, and changes
in lifestyles following the Industrial Revolution meant
this criterion was no longer suffi cient. Optimum effi -
ciency is the key. Physical fi tness is now defi ned as the
body’s ability to function effi ciently and effectively in
work and leisure activities, to be healthy, to resist hy-
pokinetic diseases, and to meet emergency situations
(Corbin et al. 2008).
Physical fi tness in the past focused on skill-related
components associated with athletic performance;
fi tness today centers around factors pertaining to a
healthy lifestyle. The components of health-related fi tness
are muscular strength and endurance, fl exibility, cardio-
vascular effi ciency, and body composition.
Concepts of Physical Fitness
Fitness concepts in elementary physical education
center around children’s understanding of fi tness, an
awareness of the linkage of fi tness to good health, and
a working knowledge of activities that promote a
healthy level of fi tness:
Physical Fitness It is important that teachers help children understand these critical concepts about
physical fi tness:
• Physical fi tness is important for good health.
• Physical fi tness is improved with regular physical
activity and exercise.
• Being physically active is fun.
• Daily physical activity or active play has positive
health benefi ts.
• Body size does not determine fi tness; physical fi t-
ness is not bulky muscles.
• Good exercise and physical activity habits begin in
childhood.
• Exercise and physical activity should be a daily
habit, like brushing your teeth.
• Fitness doesn’t just happen; you prepare and practice.
• Athletic fi tness is different from health-related fi tness.
• Fitness has several components, and a truly physically
fi t person is healthy in each area.
• To develop a specifi c fi tness component — for ex-
ample, muscular strength —you must do exercises
and activities targeted for that component.
In addition, the following are important concepts for
teachers to remember:
• An emphasis on conditioning for sports is not ap-
propriate at the elementary-school-age level.
• Overload of muscles and bones can be accomplished
through activity for young children.
• Given the opportunity to be active, children will
do so.
• Because physical activity participation declines as
boys and girls reach adolescence, the teaching of
the concepts and behaviors of fi tness in the elemen-
tary school years is critically important.
Health-Related Fitness Fitness concepts for each of the components of health-related fi tness center around
children’s understanding of that component, its linkage
to good health, and activities that promote that area of
health-related fi tness. Here we highlight concepts asso-
ciated with muscular strength, endurance, fl exibility,
cardiovascular effi ciency, and body composition as they
relate to elementary school children.
Muscular Strength and Endurance The following are
important concepts for teachers to remember:
• Activities that require children to move and lift their
body weight, as opposed to forced exercise and condi-
tioning, are desirable at the elementary school level.
52 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
• Weight training is not appropriate for elementary
students; overload of muscles and bones can be ac-
complished through physical activity.
• Lack of upper-body muscular strength can be very
discouraging for children; therefore, focus on praise
for progress.
Flexibility These are the critical concepts children
should understand about fl exibility:
• You must continue to exercise to maintain fl exibility.
• Stretching should be done slowly, without bouncing.
• Stretching and /or gentle activity before activity will
help prevent injury in vigorous physical activity.
Cardiovascular Effi ciency The important concepts
for children to understand about cardiovascular effi -
ciency are:
• The heart is a muscle that benefi ts from exercise, as
do other muscles.
• Endurance running is not sprinting; pacing is im-
portant for endurance activities.
• Being on an athletic team doesn’t automatically
increase your cardiovascular effi ciency; active par-
ticipation is necessary.
In addition, teachers should remember that participa-
tion in continuous aerobic activities of long duration
is not desirable for elementary-school-age children.
Body Composition The important concepts about
body composition are:
• A certain amount of body fat is needed for good
health.
• Body weight and body composition are not the same.
• A good balance of body fat and lean tissue is at-
tained by good nutrition and physical activity.
• Body composition is affected by heredity, nutrition,
and lifestyle.
Fitness in the Physical Education Curriculum
Research has shown that children can be trained and
coached in the components of fi tness if (1) exercises
are maintained at a rate of intensity high enough to
produce the desired results and (2) diversifi ed programs
of physical education are replaced with programs of
just physical fi tness a minimum of three times per
week. Both these concepts, however, are in direct
opposition to our beliefs about activity programs
for children.
Programs of strenuous calisthenics for children can
result in “winning the battle but losing the war.” We
may develop fi tness in children for the period of time
We try to present moderate to vigorous activity as
an enjoyable experience so that children develop a
positive attitude toward an active lifestyle. We also try
to provide children and their parents with a suffi cient
knowledge of fi tness and training concepts to be wise
consumers of commercial fi tness items, packaged pro-
grams, and health spas. As teachers, we can help chil-
dren and their parents choose sports and activities for
enjoyment of physical activity and fostering fi tness.
Fitness is a personal matter; its goal is self-improvement
toward healthy living. Within our elementary physical
education curriculum we can teach basic concepts of
fi tness, design our lessons to promote physical activity,
and help children build a repertoire of skills for their
personal use.
The Teaching of Fitness Concepts
Teaching the concepts of fi tness involves a series of
lessons, distributed throughout the year, that are de-
signed to focus on a fi tness concept or component. For
example, the concept of physical fi tness is chosen as
the theme for a lesson in physical education. The con-
cept is introduced with a brief discussion of children’s
perceptions of a physically fi t person: What does a
physically fi t person look like? Do you know one? How
do you know he or she is physically fi t? Stations, vari-
ous activity areas set up around the teaching space,
provide active participation, targeting each of the
they’re under our control, but the negative feelings as-
sociated with the forced exercise /activity often lead to
negative feelings toward activity and exercise that con-
tinue into adulthood.
Although a carefully designed weight-training program
is appropriate for adolescents, experts recommend
that children lift weights only under the careful super-
vision of a qualifi ed teacher or trainer who has an ex-
tensive background in prepubescent bone ossifi cation
(Bernhardt et al. 2001). We do not recommend weight
training as part of an elementary school physical edu-
cation program.
The use of calisthenics is unacceptable in children’s
physical education. Formal exercises are unrelated to
child life situations and have very little, if any, carry-
over value.
— NEILSON AND VAN HAGEN, 1935
CHAPTER 4 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children 53
health-related fi tness components. Children working
with partners discuss and answer questions regarding
the activity and its contribution to fi tness. Following
participation at each of the stations, younger children
draw a picture to illustrate a physically fi t person; older
youngsters write two or three sentences in their journals
describing what it means to be physically fi t. The les-
son concludes with children’s responses to a defi nition
of physical fi tness. Lesson plans for introducing fi tness
components and examples of concept lessons may be found
in On the Move (Holt /Hale 2010), the collection of lesson
plans designed to accompany Children Moving. In addi-
tion to the focus lessons, support activities are provided
for the classroom teacher, bulletin boards highlight the
concept, linkage cues are given during instructional
physical education, and the concept is revisited and /or
expanded throughout the year.
The teaching of fi tness in physical education also
includes the planning of all instructional lessons to
maximize active participation, and refl ection on the
overall fi tness of classes and individual children. In ad-
dition to instructional physical education, the teaching
of fi tness to children includes providing opportunities
for physical activity during and beyond the school
day. Finally, the teaching of health-related fi tness in-
volves assisting those youngsters below the healthy
range of fi tness in the design of personal programs to
meet their needs.
Assessing Physical Fitness
The components of fi tness are assessed with a battery
of tests designed to measure a child’s performance on
each of the components. Fitness assessment may be
conducted with a commercial packaged assessment
program, with a teacher-designed test, or by children
choosing from a “menu” with several assessments for
each component. The two most widely used commer-
cial assessments for physical fi tness are the President’s
Challenge and Fitnessgram. Further information on
the specifi cs of each test, awards systems, and so forth
can be obtained by contacting the President’s Council
on Physical Fitness and Sports (President’s Challenge)
or the Institute for Aerobics Research (Fitnessgram).
The President’s Challenge is a criteria referenced test,
with norms established by testing a large number of
boys and girls at each age level. Fitnessgram is a crite-
rion reference test, with criteria established for health
fi tness — that is, the score is the level needed for good
health. See Box 4-1 for contact information.
Physical fi tness assessments can be used to culminate
a unit, to motivate students, as diagnostic screening
instruments, and /or as an ongoing process throughout
the year. Physical fi tness assessment is part of the over-
Physical Fitness Test Packages
Additional information concerning specifi c physical fi tness
packages, national norms, awards programs, and so on
may be obtained from the following sources:
Fitnessgram
Developed by:
Institute for Aerobics Research
www.cooperinst.org
Distributed by:
Human Kinetics
P.O. Box 5076
Champaign, IL 61825
www.HumanKinetics.com
President’s Challenge
Developed by:
President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports
www.presidentschallenge.org
Distributed by:
The President’s Challenge
501 N. Morton Street, Suite 203
Bloomington, IN 47404
www.presidentschallenge.org
Box 4-1
all fi tness education for children, providing information
on their levels of health-related fi tness, ways to measure
the components of fi tness, and the linkage between phy-
sical activity and improvements in fi tness. We strongly
advocate using physical fi tness assessments for screen-
ing purposes and as an ongoing process. Fitness assess-
ments should never be used to assign a grade in physical
education. Young children in primary physical educa-
tion should not be formally evaluated with a fi tness test.
We recommend not recording test scores of children
below the fourth grade. Younger children can take the
test as an educational experience, but the characteristics
of young children do not promote maximum effort
and extended concentration on a subject that is of
more interest to the teacher than to them.
If the physical fi tness assessment is to be used as a
diagnostic tool, administer the test in early fall. You can
then use the test results to help develop yearly plans, as-
sist youngsters in establishing personal fi tness goals, and
plan remedial programs for individual students. We rec-
ommend that children who have extremely low scores
be given remedial fi tness programs — individualized
54 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
After the Assessment
What is important in fi tness assessment for children is
not the test itself, but what is done after the test is
completed. Fitness assessment should be an educa-
tional experience for the child, the parents, and the
teacher. Simply sending home scores on a report card
or at the end of the semester is of very little benefi t to
anyone. The recording of scores should be done in a
manner that provides ownership to children, is per-
sonal and private for each individual, and assists chil-
dren in setting fi tness goals. Children can be active
participants in the recording of their fi tness scores fol-
lowing test completion. Scores may be recorded with
computer programs or with teacher/child-designed acti-
vity sheets, both providing interactive participation
for the children. With commercial programs, students
enter their test scores in the computer program and
receive the print-out of physical fi tness assessment;
some commercial programs also provide suggestions
for improvement in low areas.
At Linden Elementary School, we have found that
the children enjoy recording their fi tness scores with
bar graphs and bright colors. A simple graph can be
designed listing test items ( Figure 4.4 ). After the health
fi tness screening in the fall, each child is provided his
or her scores from the assessment. Using a highlighter,
Simple playground activities lead to fi tness.
education programs (IEPs)— for their area(s) of weak-
ness. The physical education teacher can counsel these
students individually on ways to improve fi tness through
physical activity. Programs of activity and exercise can
be designed for use at home, and parents can become
active participants with their child.
Children with extremely low scores refl ecting an
areas of fi tness that is of concern can benefi t from ex-
periences in a school fi tness lab, activities to do at
home to focus on a particular fi tness component, and
family activities to promote fi tness and physical activ-
ity for everyone. Schools with available space and staff-
ing can create a fi tness/wellness lab to which children
can come for physical activity and exercise designed
for their areas of weakness. Working on their personal
fi tness plans, under the supervision of a trained volun-
teer and /or the physical education teacher, children
follow their prescribed programs of activity, record the
activity in their fi tness logs, and describe feelings via
journal entries. At-home “prescriptions” can be writ-
ten, for which children complete the activities along
with their parents. A monthly calendar can be pro-
vided for the child to code (color, star, sticker) at the
completion of the activity each day. We have found
the at-home prescriptions to be an excellent introduc-
tion to family fi tness as parents and children take part
in the activities together. Examples of prescription
activities and exercises for fl exibility, muscular strength,
and cardiovascular fi tness as well as family fi tness acti-
vities can be found in Appendixes 4A & 4B at the end
of this chapter.
Whether the physical fi tness assessment is used as a
screening tool in the fall, as a culminating experience for
children, or as an ongoing process, it should be an edu-
cational endeavor. Each test item should be carefully ex-
plained, emphasizing the particular component being
tested. All too often, children do poorly on an assess-
ment because they do not understand the directions.
Suffi cient time should be allowed for practice so that
children understand the proper techniques and stretch
their muscles. The purpose of the test is to motivate the
children to do their personal best, not to trick them.
CHAPTER 4 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children 55
Personal Fitness Profile
Name
Note: Body composition should not be reported on a child’s Personal Fitness Profile.
Fall
Super HealthyBe Healthy Club
Spring
Abdominal Strength: Curl-ups
Fitness Component:
Homeroom
Score:
Fall
Super HealthyBe Healthy Club
Spring
Upper Body Strength: Pull-ups, push-ups Score:
Fall
Super HealthyBe Healthy Club
Spring
Cardiovascular Endurance: One-mile run Score:
Fall
Super HealthyBe Healthy Club
Spring
Flexibility: Sit and Reach Score:
B e c o m
in g
h e a lt
h y
H e a lt
h y
A th
le ti
c h
e a lt
h y
S u p
e r
h e a lt
h y
S e ri
o u s
c o n
c e rn
Figure 4.4 Personal fi tness
profi le.
the child colors in the portion of the bar correspond-
ing to the score for each test item —upper bar for fall
scores. Completion of the graph provides a visual rep-
resentation for the child of the areas of fi tness in the
health fi tness range, those above, and those needing
remediation. When the children have recorded their
scores and refl ected on the assessment results, they can
write in their journals their feelings about their test re-
sults and record their personal fi tness goals for the year.
When the fi tness assessment is repeated in the spring,
each child again colors the portion of the bar corre-
sponding to spring scores (lower bar for spring scores),
using a different color highlighter. A comparison of fall
and spring scores shows changes in fi tness and progress
toward personal goals established in the fall. Note: A
simple turning of the paper reveals for each child a bar
graph of the year’s fi tness assessments and opportunity
for an integrated mathematics lesson.
The focus of elementary physical education is the
child; the focus of physical fi tness should also be the
child. No child should be asked to give more than his
or her personal best. Scores from the assessment test
are personal; they are not to be compared. We recom-
mend the following guidelines for the assessment of
children’s physical fi tness:
• Develop an assessment tool that meets your needs:
times per week you see the children for physical
education, entry-level fi tness for children, class size,
your goals for fi tness.
56 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Box 4-2
Component: Developing Health-Related Fitness
Appropriate Practice
• The health-related component of fi tness is the
focus on fi tness activities. Skill-related components
of fi tness are emphasized in their relation to skill
development.
• The physical educator helps students interpret and use
assessment data for setting goals and to develop a lifelong
fi tness plan.
Inappropriate Practice
• Fitness activities are random and unrelated to lifelong
learning benefi ts. Physical fi tness activity consists of
mass exercises following a designated leader or
standard routine.
• The teacher conducts the fi tness assessment but never
uses results to set goals or to design a personal fi tness
plan.
Component: Fitness Testing
Appropriate Practice
• Physical educators use fi tness assessment as part of the
ongoing process of helping students understand, enjoy, im-
prove, and /or maintain their physical fi tness and well-being
(e.g., students set goals for improvement and they are re-
visited during the school year).
• As part of an ongoing program of physical education, stu-
dents are physically prepared in each fi tness component so
they can safely complete the assessments.
Inappropriate Practice
• Teachers use fi tness test results to assign a grade.
• Students are required to run a mile without appropriate
conditioning or acclimatization.
Source: [NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical
Education, Appropriate Practices for Elementary School Physical
Education (Reston, VA: NASPE, 2009).
Appropriate and Inappropriate Physical Education Practices
• Assist the children in setting their personal fi tness
goals. Following the fall screening and graphing of
scores, have the children record in their journals
their personal goals for the year. Young children
often need teacher assistance in setting realistic
goals. All too often the school athlete is the mea-
sure of success for children. Instead, goals should
be based on a refl ection of assessments and incre-
ments of success.
• Praise children’s accomplishments at the lower end of
the spectrum, as well as those at the high-performance
level. (In the fall, the class cheered Molly’s efforts on
the mile run [21:00]; in the spring, they cheered her
accomplishments [16:34].)
As teachers, we need to remember:
• The purpose of fi tness assessment is to determine those
areas that are below the desired range for good health.
• Factors such as chronological age, maturation, and
heredity infl uence scores on a fi tness test.
• The goal of fi tness assessment is a healthy level of
physical fi tness.
Appropriate and inappropriate practices in regard to
physical fi tness and fi tness testing are summarized in
Box 4-2 .
A Final Thought on Fitness
The goal of physical fi tness for children is to enable
them to develop health and activity habits that will
become lifestyles. The two most important factors in
attaining this goal at the elementary school level are
(1) enjoyment of physical activity and (2) mastery of
the basic skills of physical education that will enable
them to participate successfully in physical activities
that promote fi tness. Only if physical activity and fi t-
ness are fun will children pursue them outside the
time they are with us in physical edu cation. Therefore
we focus on the teaching and learning of skills, knowl-
edge, and behaviors that will enable children to value
physical activity and be physically active today, to-
morrow, and throughout their adult lives.
Jonathan, a large fourth-grader, was not looking for-
ward to the one-mile run for spring fi tness testing. On
the day of testing, his mother appeared on the jogging
track to encourage him as he began his laps. He com-
pleted his mile run in 13:35 minutes. During the last
week of school, fourth-graders were asked to write in
their journals about their favorite activity in physical
education — the favorite of all the things they had
done during the year. Jonathan’s favorite: the one-mile
run! Enjoyment and a secure environment are keys to
physical activity and fi tness for children.
CHAPTER 4 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children 57
This teaching and learning must all be done in
environ ments that are physically and emotionally
safe for children. If we at the elementary level can pro-
vide enjoyment in activity, a solid cognitive base of the
importance of fi tness for good health, and the skills
with which to be active, we will have made tremen-
dous strides in children having the confi dence and
accepting personal responsibility for their fi tness as
adolescents and young adults. This personal responsi-
bility leads to:
• A healthy individual
• A healthy, productive lifestyle
• Children with the skills to become and remain
physically active for a lifetime, and the goals of fi t-
ness, wellness, and physical education
Web Sites for Physical Activity and Nutrition
After School Physical Activity Activities to promote group
participation and physical activity, sponsored by the San
Diego County Offi ce of Education and the California
Department of Education; designed for grades 4 – 8;
www.afterschoolpa.com.
Body Venture An educational exhibit for nutrition and physi-
cal activity, sponsored by the Kansas Department of Educa-
tion; designed for grades K– 5; www.bodyventure.org.
Brain Breaks Guides to integrating physical activity and aca-
demics, sponsored by the Michigan Department of Education;
designed for grades K– 6; www.emc.cmich.edu/BrainBreaks.
CircusFit Physical activity and nutrition activities for young-
sters, parents, and families, sponsored by Ringling Bros.
and Barnum & Bailey; www.CircusFit.com.
Fit, Healthy, and Ready to Learn Guidelines for promoting
good health, nutrition, and physical activity, available from
the National Association of State Boards of Education book-
store; www.nasbe.org.
Nation at Risk A statistical sourcebook on obesity, physical
activity, and nutrition; www.americanheart.org.
Physical Best A standards-based program to assist physical
educators in teaching health-related fi tness education, spon-
sored by the National Association for Sport and Physical
Education; workshops, resources, fi tness testing for children
grades K–12; www.aahperd.org /naspe /physicalbest.
School Health Index A self-assessment and planning guide to
assist schools and wellness committees /councils in the analy-
sis of physical activity and nutrition, sponsored by the Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention, linked to the Coordinated
School Health components; www.cdc.gov.
Walking Works for Schools A walking program for schools,
sponsored by BlueCross BlueShield of Tennessee, the
Governor’s Council on Physical Fitness, and the Tennessee
Association for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and
Dance; www.WalkingWorksForSchoolsTN.com.
Web Sites with Emphasis on Nutrition for
Teachers, Children, and Parents
ABC for Fitness A physical activity program for children with
fi ve- to six-minute activity bursts for the classroom;
www. davidkatzmd.com /abcforfi tness.aspx
Dole SuperKids A focus on nutrition for children, families,
teachers, and school food services via games, songs, and
activities for children; www.dole5aday.com.
KidsHealth All about children’s health, including nutrition,
wellness, and fi tness; www.kidshealth.org.
MyPyramid A focus on nutrition and physical activity, with
activities for kids, tips for families, and classroom materials
for teachers (see For Kids link for all); www.mypyramid.gov.
Nutrition Detectives Teaching children to make healthy
choices regarding nutrition; www.davidkatzmd.com /nutrition
detectives.aspx
Summary
Physical fi tness is the capacity of the heart, blood ves-
sels, lungs, and muscles to function at optimum effi -
ciency in work, in leisure activities, and in emergency
situations. In previous years, fi tness was defi ned as the
capacity to carry out the day’s activities without undue
fatigue; we are now recognizing that this condition
may not be suffi cient for healthy hearts and lungs.
Optimum effi ciency is the key. That effi ciency also in-
cludes resistance to hypokinetic diseases.
Fitness is a process and the product of a physically
active lifestyle; a physically active lifestyle is the product
of movement competency and knowledge gained
through the process of positive participation in physi-
cal education and physical activity.
Physical fi tness for children includes a health-
related screening each fall, setting of individual goals,
a cognitive understanding of the components of
fi tness, and moderate to vigorous activity on a regular
basis. It involves the physical education specialist, the
classroom teacher, the child, and the parent(s). Physi-
cal fi tness can be incorporated into the theme of study,
added to the lesson as a group activity, and increased
58 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
through before- and after-school programs. The focus
of physical fi tness for the elementary school child is
the development of a positive attitude toward an ac-
tive lifestyle, a knowledge of the concepts of fi tness,
and an understanding of how to attain and maintain
personal fi tness.
Wellness is optimal health and well-being. In addition
to physical fi tness, wellness encompasses the dimensions
of emotional, mental, spiritual, interpersonal/social, and
environmental well-being. Physical education, fi tness,
and wellness share a common goal: optimal health and
well-being for all children.
References /Suggested Readings
Anspaugh, D. J ., and G . Ezell . 2004 . Teaching today’s health. 7th ed. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings.
Bernhardt , D . T ., et al. 2001 . Strength training by children and adolescents. Pediatrics 107: 1470 –72.
Blair , S . N ., and M. D. Meredith . 1994 . The exercise-health relationship: Does it apply to children and youth? In Health and fi tness through physical education, ed. R . R. Pate and R. C. Hohn , pp. 11–20 . Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2003 . Preva- lence of physical activity, including lifestyle activities among adults —United States, 2000 – 2001 . MMWR— Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 52(32): 764 – 69.
Corbin , C . B ., G. LeMasurier , and B. D. Franks . Making sense of multiple physical activity recommendations. PCPFS Research Digest 3(19).
Corbin , C . B ., et al. 2008 . Concepts of fi tness and wellness: A comprehensive lifestyle approach. 7th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Crespo , C . J . 2005 . Physical activity in minority popula- tions: Overcoming a public health challenge. PCPFS Re- search Digest 6(2).
Davison , K . K ., et al. 2006 . Pathways linking perceived ath- letic competence and parental support at age 9 years to girls’ physical activity at age 11 years. RQES 77(1): 23 – 31.
Dunton , G . F ., et al. 2006 . Physical activity , fi tness , and physical self-concept in adolescent females. Pediatric Exercise Science 18(2): 240 –51.
Fahey , T . D ., P. M. Insel , and W. T. Roth . 2003 . Fit and well. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Fairclough , S ., and G. Stratton . 2006 . Physical activity , fi tness , and affective responses of normal-weight and over- weight adolescents during physical education. Pediatric Exercise Science 18(1): 53 – 63.
Fox , K . R ., A. Cooper , and J. McKenna . 2005 . The school and promotion of children’s health-enhancing physical activity: Perspectives from the United Kingdom. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 23(4): 338 –58.
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. Defi ne physical fi tness. Why can we no longer de-
fi ne the level of fi tness as the capacity to carry out
the day’s activities without undue fatigue?
2. What is the difference between health-related and
skill-related fi tness?
3. Why do we emphasize health-related fi tness in our
programs?
4. What is the focus of fi tness at the elementary
school level?
5. Discuss the linkage of physical activity to physical
fi tness and wellness. Why is this relationship so
important to children in our elementary schools?
6. Why is physical inactivity called an environmen-
tal, an emotional, and a health issue?
7. Why is physical activity termed a preventative for
disease and a formula for good health?
8. Design a program of physical activity beyond phys-
ical education classes for elementary-age children.
9. Describe the options for physical fi tness assess-
ment for children.
10. Why do the authors of Children Moving not recom-
mend testing of children for fi tness below the
fourth grade?
11. What is meant by the term good health balance ?
Why is it important for children?
12. How do the Council on Physical Education for
Children Physical Activity for Children guidelines
affect the physical education curriculum?
13. What is meant by the term Active Schools ? Design
a collaborative project for working with com-
munity leaders, the parent – teacher organization,
or local agencies to increase physical activity for
children.
14. Defi ne wellness. What are the components of well-
ness for children at the elementary school level?
15. Choose one wellness component. Design a strat-
egy for working with the classroom teacher to
teach that component. Include in your action plan
the integrating of the component into physical
education.
CHAPTER 4 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children 59
Fox , K . R ., and J. Harris . 2003 . Promoting physical activity through schools. In Perspectives on health and exercise, e d. J. McKenna , and C. Riddoch , pp. 181–202 . Basingstoke , UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
Gately , P . J ., C. B. Cooke , R. Butterly , C. Knight , and S. Carroll . 2001 . The acute effects of an 8- week diet , exercise and educational camp program on obese children. Pediatric Exercise Science 12: 413 –23.
Hatano , Y ., and C. Tudor-Locke. 2001 . Pedometer-assessed physical activity: Measurement and motivations. Paper presented at the American College of Sports Medicine Meeting , Baltimore , MD.
Hellison , D . 2003 . Teaching responsibility through physical activity. 2nd ed. Champaign , IL: Human Kinetics.
Holt / Hale , S . A . 2010 . On the move: Lesson plans to accom- pany Children Moving. 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Kane , M . 2004 . Kid fi t and fun. Knoxville , TN: East Tennessee Public Communications Corporation.
Kater , K . J . 2004 . Real kids come in all sizes: Ten essential les- sons to build your child’s body esteem. New York: Broadway Books.
Kater , K . J . 2005 . Healthy body image: Teaching kids to eat and love their bodies too! 2nd ed. Seattle : National Eating Disorders Association. Available from www.bodyimage.org.
Katz , D . 2004 . How we grew so big. Time Magazine 163: 23.
Kennedy , J . F . 1960 . The soft American. Sports Illustrated 13: 15.
Kimm , S ., et al. 2002 . Decline in physical activity in black girls and white girls during adolescence. New England Journal of Medicine 347: 709 –15.
Lee , A ., and M. Solomon . 2007 . School programs to in- crease physical activity. JOPERD 78(5): 22 –24.
LeMasurier , G ., and C. B. Corbin . 2006 . Top 10 reasons for quality physical education. JOPERD 77(6): 44 –53.
Lohman , T . G ., S. B. Going , and L. Metcalfe . Seeing our- selves through the obesity epidemic. PCPFS Research Digest 5(3): 1– 6.
McAllister , R . 2003 . Healthy lunchbox. Washington , DC: LifeLine Press.
McConnaughey , J . 2003 . CDC diabetes warning for chil- dren. Associated Press , June 16.
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2001 . Recess in elementary schools: A position paper from the National Association for Sport and Physical Education. Reston , VA: NASPE.
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Education. 2004 a. Moving into the future: National stan- dards for physical education. 2nd ed. St. Louis , MO: Mosby.
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2004 b. Physical education for children ages 5 –12: A statement of guidelines. 2nd ed. Reston , VA: NASPE.
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2005 . Physical best activity guide: Elementary level. 2nd ed. Champaign , IL: Human Kinetics.
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2009 . Appropriate practices for elementary school physical education. Reston , VA: NASPE.
National Association of State Boards of Education. 2004 . The obesity epidemic. State Education Standard 5(2).
Neilson , N . P ., and W. Van Hagen. 1935 . Physical education for elementary schools. New York: A. S. Barnes .
Page , R . M ., and T. S. Page . 1993 . Fostering emotional well- being in the classroom. Boston: Jones & Bartlett.
Parker , M ., and J. Stiehl . 2005 . Personal and social respon- sibility. In Standards-based physical education curriculum development, e d. J. Lund and D. Tannehill . Boston: Jones & Bartlett.
Satcher , D . 2003 . Address to the American Alliance for Health , Physical Education , Recreation and Dance , New Orleans , March.
Shephard , R . J . 2005 . The obesity epidemic: A challenge to pediatric work physiologists? PES 17(1): 3 –17.
Strong , W . B ., et al. 2005 . Evidence based physical acti vity for school-age youth. Journal of Pediatrics 146: 732 – 37.
Tudor- Locke , C . 2002 . Taking steps toward increased physical activity: Using pedometers to measure and moti- vate. PCPFS Research Digest 3(17): 1– 6.
[USDHHS] U. S. Department of Health and Human Services. 1996 . Physical activity and health: A report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta , GA: Centers for Disease Control and Pre- vention , National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion.
[USDHHS] U. S. Department of Health and Human Ser- vices. 1997 . Guidelines for school and community programs to promote lifelong physical activity among young people. Atlanta , GA: USDHHS , Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
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[USDHHS] U. S. Department of Health and Human Ser- vices. 2000 b. Promoting better health for young people through physical activity and sports. Silver Springs , MD: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
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60 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Flexibility Activities
Wake-up Time
• Stretch all your body in all different directions; then wiggle
like Jell-O on a plate.
• Lie on your stomach, and then reach back and grab your feet
with your hands. Try to make a bowl shape with your body by
raising up your chest and legs and rocking on your stomach.
Going to School
• Keep one arm straight, and swing it in a big circle from the
front of your body to the back. Hold on tight to your books.
• Shake your leg each time you take a step. If you’re wearing
long socks, try to shake them down to your ankles. The
vibration of the skin and muscles will help loosen you up.
Studying
• Hold your hands together behind your chair, keeping your arms
straight. Can you feel which muscles are being stretched?
• Let your head fall to one shoulder, and then roll it around to
the other shoulder. Be limp, but don’t fall asleep.
In the Kitchen or Den
• Stand about 3 feet from the kitchen counter or a table. Lean
toward it, holding on to the edge of the counter or table. Can
you keep your legs straight and your feet fl at on the fl oor?
Television Time
• Sit on the fl oor and pull your feet up to your body with the
bottoms of your feet together. Hold on to your feet; then use
your elbows to push your knees to the fl oor. Next, try to touch
your chest to your feet. What do you feel stretching this time?
Family Time
• Sit facing a partner with your legs spread apart and your
feet touching your partner’s feet. (If you’re doing this exer-
cise with your father or mother, your feet may touch only
their ankles because their legs are much longer.) Hold
hands; one partner leans back and slowly pulls the other
partner so that he or she is stretching. Take turns stretching
your partner.
Strength and Endurance Activities
Wake-up Time
• Before getting out of bed, tighten all the muscles in your
body, rest your muscles, then tighten them again —hard!
Can you tighten one part of your body at a time?
Getting Ready
• While you’re wringing out the washcloth, squeeze and twist
it as hard as you can. What does this movement
strengthen?
• After putting on your shoes, lift both your feet and legs up
and down from a sitting position. How many times can you
do this without stopping? Can you hold both legs in the air
for 30 seconds?
Going to School
• Hold a heavy book in one hand and see how many times
you can lift it up and down by bending your elbow. Try lifting
the book while keeping your arm straight.
• On the bus, put your feet underneath the seat in front of you
and tighten your leg muscles to make them straight and stiff.
Studying
• Hold the sides of your chair and pull as hard as you can,
but don’t bend your back.
• How hard can you push down on the desk with your hand
and arm? Push and hold for 30 seconds.
Television Time
• Lie on your side, and lift one leg up and down in the air.
Can you do each leg for a whole commercial?
• Lie on your back with knees bent, feet fl at on the fl oor,
and arms at your sides. Tighten your abdominal muscles
and raise your arms, shoulders, and head slightly off the
fl oor. Hold that position for a couple of seconds.
• Lie on your back. Place a pillow between your knees and
try to curl up in a ball so that your nose touches the knees.
How many times can you do this during one commercial?
Appendix 4A: Family Fitness Activities
CHAPTER 4 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children 61
Cardiovascular Activities
Wake-up Time
• Before getting out of bed, lie on your back and kick your
legs up in the air. Keep kicking them as fast and as long as
possible, or move them in a circular motion, as if you were
riding a bicycle.
Getting Ready
• Stand in front of the mirror and pretend you’re boxing
with yourself. How quickly can you swing and punch?
How long?
Going to School
• Walk, skip, ride a bicycle, or even jog to school or the
bus stop.
• If you ride in a car pool, run to the car before mom or dad
gets there, and then count the number of times you can
jump up and down before she or he arrives.
Family Time
• Put on some upbeat music and dance. See who can move
around the most, longest, and best.
Appendix 4B: Prescriptions for Fitness
Activities /Exercises for Abdominal
Strength and Endurance
Wall Push Stand with your back against a wall, your feet only a few inches from the wall. Your knees
should be slightly bent, with your arms at the sides of
your body. Pull in your abdomen and press your shoul-
ders, small of back, and buttocks against the wall. Hold
the position for 5 seconds.
Untimed Sit-ups Lie fl at on your back with your knees bent and your arms crossed on your chest. Grad-
ually perform sit-ups.
Sit-up variations:
• Extend your arms forward. Shake your hands and
arms as you curl up.
• Extend your arms forward. Clap your hands on the
fl oor as you curl back to the mat.
Finger Walk Lie fl at on your back with your knees bent in the sit-up position. Extend your arms at your
sides. Walk your fi ngers forward on the mat in the direc-
tion of your feet as you tighten your stomach muscles
and raise your shoulders slightly off the mat. Gently
lower your shoulders to the mat and repeat.
Activities /Exercises for Upper-Body
Strength and Endurance
Flexed-Arm Hang In a pull-up position, palms fac- ing forward, chin above the bar ( Figure 4.5 ), hold the
position for 5 to 8 seconds without letting your chin
touch the bar or drop below the bar. When holding for
Figure 4.5 Correct position for fl exed-arm hang.
8 seconds feels comfortable, increase the duration to
15 seconds.
The fl exed-arm hang should not be held for ex-
tended periods because of the possibility of elbow
injury and /or extreme muscular fatigue.
Reverse Pull-ups Hold the bar as in the fl exed-arm position, chin above the bar, palms either forward or
reversed. Slowly lower your weight to a hanging posi-
tion by straightening your arms.
Walking Hands Assume a push-up position with your body fully extended and your hands on the fl oor
behind a line or tape mark ( Figure 4.6 ). Walk your hands
62 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
forward and backward over the line as you count 1-2-3-4;
aim for 60 counts. Variation: Time for 60 seconds.
Pillow Push-ups In a push-up position ( Figure 4.7 ), hands shoulder width apart, fi ngers forward, slowly
lower your body toward the fl oor until your chest gent-
ly touches the pillow. Straighten your arms to raise
your body back to starting position. We have found that
children have a fear of crashing to the fl oor when attempting
a push-up. Placing the pillow under the chest eliminates
this fear. You may begin with a modifi ed push-up —
knees bent — if you wish; when you are confi dent and
ready, switch to the regular position — legs straight.
Belly-ups Sit on the fl oor with legs extended for- ward, arms at the side, hands fl at on the fl oor, with
your fi ngers pointing away from your body ( Figure 4.8 ).
Raise your hips, extending your body — straight like a
board. Bend your elbows to slowly lower your body
toward the fl oor; do not allow your buttocks to touch
the fl oor. Return to the extended starting position by
pushing your body upward. Bending the elbows to lower
the body is the key to building the arm muscles.
Activities /Exercises for Shoulders, Lower
Back, and Hamstring Flexibility
Trunk and Shoulder Extensions Slowly ex- tend both your arms overhead as high as possible and
hold them for 10 seconds. Gently lower arms; repeat
extension.
Trunk and Shoulder Rotation With your right arm at shoulder level, look and slowly turn to your left;
Figure 4.8 Correct position for belly-ups.
Figure 4.9 Student performing the inner-thigh stretch on the right leg.
Figure 4.10 The lying knee-pull exercise.
hold 10 seconds. Repeat the movement in the opposite
direction.
Inner-Thigh Stretch Sit on the fl oor with your legs spread apart and extended. Slowly lean forward with
one arm on each side of one leg and hold the position
( Figure 4.9 ). Repeat the exercise on the other leg.
Lying Knee Pull Lie fl at on your back with your legs extended and arms straight at your sides. Bring your left
knee to your chest, grabbing under the knee with both
your hands ( Figure 4.10 ). Pull and hold your knee for 5
seconds. Repeat the exercise with your right leg. Remem-
ber to keep your extended leg straight and on the fl oor.
Figure 4.7 Correct position for pillow push-ups.
Figure 4.6 Weight on hands improves upper-body strength.
63
C H A P T E R
5
Refl ective Teaching The good teacher must relate his teaching to the world of his students as it is, not as he or she
would like it to be.
— HERBERT FOSTER
A search for rigid prescriptions of the right way to teach has largely been replaced with the search
for propositional rules and principles to guide practice.
— JUDITH E. RINK
64 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
T he fi rst four chapters provided an introduction to
the purpose and characteristics of a quality pro-
gram of physical education, along with an over view
of skill themes and concepts of movement, physical
fi tness, and wellness. This short but important chapter
also provides an overview — of refl ective teaching and
• The refl ective teacher believes that students, classes,
and teaching situations are different and develops
lessons and the curriculum accordingly.
• The number of students in a class, frequency and length
of classes, facilities, equipment, the behavior of the stu-
dents, and the characteristics of the school are all factors
taken into account by refl ective teachers as they develop
their lessons and programs.
• The personal value system of the teacher is the most im-
portant characteristic of a refl ective or an invariant teacher.
• Invariant teachers rarely refl ect on their effectiveness, con-
tinuing to teach the same lessons and content year after
year, ignoring the progress and interest of the students.
• Refl ective teachers are continually thinking about what
they need to change, or do differently, to heighten their
teaching and program effectiveness.
Key Concepts
the reasons for refl ective, as opposed to invariant,
teaching ( Table 5.1 ). The actual skills of refl ective teach-
ing (planning, observing, developing the content, esta-
blishing a learning environment, and analyzing your
teaching) are detailed in Part 2.
One of the guiding concepts in education today is
differentiated instruction. This means that all children
are not identical and that teachers should attempt to
vary their teaching, both what and how they teach,
based on the abilities of the children. The authors of
Children Moving , and many other respected educators,
do not believe that a prepackaged curriculum can be
used to meet the needs and abilities of all children in a
class. We want every child we teach to experience suc-
cess and pleasure and a sense of competence that leads
to their becoming physically active for a lifetime. In
order to do so, we differentiate our instruction — that
is, we are refl ective teachers who recognize that in
quality programs of physical education, one size does
not fi t all (NASPE 2009).
No two children are exactly alike. There are obvious
physical differences and more subtle personality and
individual differences. What is exciting to one child is
boring to another. Some youngsters can accomplish a
great deal on their own; other children require almost
constant monitoring if they are to make progress. For
each child who delights in the challenge and camara-
derie of a team game, another prefers the challenge
and satisfaction of individual activities.
Table 5.1 Comparison of Refl ective Teaching and Invariant Teaching
Variable Refl ective Teachers Invariant Teachers
Planning Adjust lesson plans to differences between classes Use the same plan for each primary grade and the same
and children plan for each intermediate grade
Progression within Base progression on such factors as youngsters’ Base progression on such factors as (1) six-week units;
and between lessons (1) rate and extent of improvement; (2) physical skill (2) amount of material to be covered in a semester or year;
needs; (3) interest in a particular topic or activity (3) a predetermined formula for progression
Methodology Vary the methodology according to such factors as Employ the same methodology with all classes and
(1) characteristics of children in the class; (2) purpose hope that the children will eventually fulfi ll the teacher’s
of the lesson; (3) ability of the children to accept expectations
responsibility
Curriculum Design curriculum for each unique class of children Use predetermined curricular content without
after examining the children to determine their abilities considering such factors as children’s ability, community
and needs infl uences, or children’s interests
Equipment and Modify activities and lessons to available equipment Teach activities and lessons that use available
facilities and facilities equipment and facilities
Discipline Attempt to understand management problems and Assume that the children are misbehaving and resort
then seek the causes, modifying teaching procedure to punitive measures to modify individual and class
accordingly behavior
Assessment Regularly assess the children and seek Assess sporadically and often base assessment on
constructive criticism about their teaching from whether children liked the lesson, how long they
children and colleagues remained interested, and how well they behaved
CHAPTER 5 Refl ective Teaching 65
Schools are also different. Some school buildings
have open designs, and others are divided into perma-
nent classrooms. Administrators can be strict, stultify-
ing, or supportive. Fellow teachers can be cooperative
or competitive, helpful, or obstructive. Gymnasiums,
plentiful physical education equipment, adequate fi eld
space, and small class sizes are basic necessities in some
elementary schools; other schools view such facilities
as frills. Parents may be concerned, meddlesome, apa-
thetic, helpful, or unavailable.
How is a teacher to succeed amid this diversity? We
have no magical answers. But we are convinced that a
prepackaged (linear) approach * to teaching is not ef-
fective, and so we coined the term refl ective teaching .
The refl ective teacher achieves success and professional
satisfaction by differentiating instruction in an attempt
to challenge both the high- and low-skilled children in
a class. She also changes lessons from one class to an-
other, recognizing that all third-grade classes, for ex-
ample, are not identical.
What Is Refl ective Teaching?
Refl ective teaching is recognizing that children are
different — and doing something about it. It could
also be called “adapted” teaching because the teacher
adapts the content, and his teaching, to suit the needs
of individual students and classes. Refl ective teaching
is directly related to the concept of developmentally
appropriate teaching, which acknowledges that stu-
dents develop at different rates and stages (NASPE
2009). Invariant teaching, the opposite of refl ective
teaching, assumes that all children have the same
abilities, interests, and level of physical fi tness (Ta-
ble 5.1). The concept of refl ective teaching, or differ-
entiated instruction, is not new. In fact, one expects
that the teachers in one-room schoolhouses were
models of refl ective teaching, as they were required
to teach children of many ages in the same class-
room. For many teachers, the results of attempting
to teach prepackaged lessons without considering
the unique characteristics of a class have been disas-
trous for both the children and themselves. As stated
in a recent review of the importance of physical
activity for school-age youth: “Coaching and teaching
styles are particularly relevant to the self-concept
in organized sport and physical education” (Strong
et al. 2005).
In this book, refl ective teaching doesn’t refer to
any particular methodology or style of teaching; it
refers to the many teaching skills employed by indi-
viduals who are respected as master teachers (Graham
2008). The refl ective teacher is one who can design
and implement an educational program that is con-
gruent with the idiosyncrasies of a particular school
situation. Invariant teaching, unlike refl ective teach-
ing, is characterized by the use of one approach, and
often identical content, in all teaching situations. In-
variant teachers often rely on prepackaged curricu-
lums that provide the same lessons for many classes,
thereby assuming that all children have the same
abilities and that one school is virtually identical to
another school.
Some teachers teach most of their
lessons outdoors.
*Dwight Allen defi ned linear thinking as searching for the
answer to a problem by investigating a single solution without
considering feasible alternatives (Allen 1975).
66 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
it has been our experience that far too many invariant
teachers fail to account for them in their teaching.
These six variables are the values of the teacher, class
size, the number of class sessions per week, facilities
and equipment, student behavior, and the context of
the school. We’ll now discuss these variables in detail.
Values of the Teacher
Clearly one of the most important variables is the per-
sonal disposition (attitudes and beliefs) we, as teachers,
bring to our teaching situation. Some physical edu-
cation teachers, for example, are more interested in
coaching than teaching — and their programs refl ect a
lack of planning and interest in high-quality physical
education. Other physical education teachers are to-
tally dedicated to their programs and spend countless
hours planning new and interesting activities, as well
as volunteering time with children before and after
The Need for Refl ective Teaching
If all schools, classes, and youngsters were identical,
there would be no need for refl ective teaching. We
would simply provide you with prepackaged lesson
plans for each grade level, and you could follow them
exactly. You know, however, that schools, programs,
and youngsters are different. Figure 5.1 illustrates some
of the more obvious differences. It has been drawn in
the shape of a puzzle to indicate that teaching is a con-
stant challenge as we attempt to fi t the pieces together
into a unifi ed, consistent program that provides young-
sters with the active learning experiences they need.
Refl ective teachers take these differences into account
and continuously modify and change their teaching
and curriculum based on the needs of the students at
their school. We want to focus on six of these variables
that are major factors in any program necessitating
refl ective teaching. Although they may seem obvious,
?
Student-teaching experience of
teacher
Abilities of children ?
Amount of physical education equipment
Length of class periods
Experience of teacher
Social classes of children
Facilities
Attitude of administration toward
physical education
? Support for
physical education from other teachers
Teacher’s intelligence
Attitudes of children
Age of teacher
Frequency of
classes
Teacher‘s motivation Personality
traits of teacher
Ages of children
Teacher’s training program
Size of school
?
Size of the class
Board of Education
Ethnic composition of school and community
Short-term program
goals Days per
week Social class
of teacher Community
sports programs for children
Teacher’s knowledge of subject
Busing
Long-term goals of program
Community recreation program
for children
Weather conditions
Figure 5.1 Interacting factors
that contribute to the unique
ecology of each school.
CHAPTER 5 Refl ective Teaching 67
school. Still other physical education teachers view
physical education as merely a break for the children
from the routine of the classroom, so their programs
consist primarily of fun activities for the children, with
virtually no emphasis on learning.
In many schools, physical education is also the re-
sponsibility of the classroom teacher. Like physical ed-
ucation teachers, classroom teachers vary in their views
of the purpose and importance of physical activity in
the lives of children. Some classroom teachers, for ex-
ample, fi nd time in their hectic schedules to develop
programs for children that truly enhance the develop-
ment of positive attitudes and learning as suggested in
Chapter 1. In contrast, other classroom teachers view
physical education as a break for the children and
themselves — and rely on such old standbys as kickball,
dodgeball, and Duck, Duck, Goose to keep the children
entertained during physical education class.
Ideally, every teacher, whether classroom teacher or
physical education teacher, would appreciate the impor-
tance of physical education and physical activity for
children and develop programs that are developmentally
appropriate—and effective—for children. Realistically,
however, there will always be some teachers who fall back
on the ways things were done in the past rather than
working to develop innovative programs for children. In
addition to the values of the teacher, a number of other
variables contribute to the ease or diffi culty of develop-
ing quality programs of physical education for children.
Class Size
A variable that has particular impact on what a teacher
is able to accomplish in physical education is the size
of the classes. Physical education classes are all too
often the largest classes in a school. A person doesn’t
need much teaching experience to realize that the
number of students within a given class, other vari-
ables excluded, signifi cantly dictates what a teacher
can accomplish. Lessons that are possible with 25 chil-
dren are diffi cult, if not impossible, with 100 children.
This is the primary reason it is recommended that
physical education classes be the same size as in the
classroom (USDHHS 2000).
For teachers to do more than provide directions to a
mass of children, they must have opportunities to ob-
serve and analyze and to give children feedback. The
logistical problems of providing individual instruction
for each child in a class of 50 children who meet for
half an hour are overwhelming. The educational litera-
ture supports this viewpoint: “The more successful
teachers did more tutorial teaching. They spoke to the
class as a whole in order to provide structure and give
general direction, but most of their actual instruction
was given in small groups or to individuals” (Good,
Biddle, and Brophy 1975, p. 70). Class size strongly
infl uences the teaching approach that a given teacher
can use to foster a successful educational experience.
Number of Class Sessions per Week
In addition to the values of the teacher and the size of
classes, another infl uential variable that must be con-
sidered is the number of class sessions per week. Chil-
dren in some schools, for example, have “organized”
physical education only one day a week. Children in
other schools have daily physical education. Obvi-
ously, the children who have instructional physical
education for 180 days a year can learn signifi cantly
more than those who have physical education only
36 days a year (NASPE 2002; USDHHS 2000). The chal-
lenge for the teacher is to make the diffi cult decisions
Some teachers teach in gymnasi-
ums that are used only for physical
education.
68 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
about what can be learned in one or two days a week
so that the children truly benefi t from the program,
rather than simply being exposed to a variety of
activities (Graham, Metzler, and Webster 1991;
NASPE 2009). This also means that the teacher, or
the district, will have to decide which state or na-
tional standards will have to be excluded because of
time constraints.
In schools where children don’t have daily physical
education, the classroom teacher can play a vital role
in reinforcing what the specialist has taught — and vice
versa. When the classroom teachers and the physical
education specialist work together closely, the children
reap the benefi ts.
Facilities and Equipment
A fourth variable is the adequacy of the facilities and
equipment within a particular school. Established pro-
grams of physical education often include adequate
equipment and a reasonable solution to the use of in-
door space during inclement weather. In contrast,
fl edgling programs of physical education may lack
physical education equipment. In some schools, phys-
ical education classes are forced to use classrooms, caf-
eterias, or even hallways on rainy days.
Some teachers are masters of improvisation, but
others can’t function without adequate facilities and
equipment. The teaching skills acquired during stu-
dent teaching, when equipment and facilities were
ideal, often must be adapted to less desirable condi-
tions. You may fi nd that there is only one ball per class
instead of one ball per pupil. You may fi nd yourself on
a rainy afternoon teaching in a classroom instead of
on a playground. Different environments call for dif-
ferent teaching skills.
Student Behavior
Another variable that contributes to the need for re-
fl ective teaching is generally referred to as student be-
havior. The ability to manage children effectively is a
major concern in education today, among parents as
well as teachers.
The ability to manage a class of children effectively
is also one of the few teaching skills that educators
agree is a prerequisite to successful teaching. A teacher
must be able to create and maintain an appropriate
environment if children are to learn. Some teachers are
able to maintain desirable student behavior simply by
glancing occasionally at certain children within a class.
Other teachers spend most of their time trying to
maintain order. We believe that specifi c teaching skills
can be effectively employed to create and sustain an
appropriate environment (see Chapters 9 and 10).
Unfortunately, many textbooks — and many teach-
ers —underplay the role of discipline. These texts and
teachers assume that a “good” teacher doesn’t have
discipline problems (Siedentop and Tannehill 2000).
Our experience suggests otherwise. During a teaching
career, a teacher encounters many kinds of classes.
Some will test the teacher’s ability to maintain appro-
priate behavior; others are cooperative. Successful
teachers are able to work effectively with both types
of classes.
Context of the School
A sixth variable, certainly not the least important,
that supports the need for refl ective teaching is the
context of the school. Some schools today are popu-
lated predominantly by children in transient situa-
tions, many of whom will move before the end of the
school year. An increasing number of children are
from homes in which both parents work outside the
home and consequently are generally unavailable dur-
ing the day or when the children return home after
school. Rural schools continue to have children with
needs different from those of children in suburban or
inner-city schools. Moreover, it is typical today to
have one or more children in a class who do not speak
English, and it seems that more classes have main-
streamed children than ever before. Each of these situ-
ations, as well as the many variations that have not
been described, presents interesting challenges to
teachers — challenges that have no standard answers.
The one constant in all of these situations is that chil-
dren need caring, dedicated teachers, perhaps more
than ever.
At the heart of complexity in the gym is numbers.
That the teacher is one and the learners are many
is a fact of life which shapes every aspect of the
teacher’s experience. What many outsiders fail to
appreciate is that an average class contains a lot of
kids for one person to handle even if there were no
intent to teach anything. This failure particularly is
true of parents who often feel qualifi ed as experts on
child management because they deal more or less
successfully with their own children in groups rarely
exceeding three or four.
—LARRY LOCKE, “The Ecology of the Gymnasium:
What the Tourist Never Sees”
CHAPTER 5 Refl ective Teaching 69
How Do I Become a Refl ective Teacher?
Refl ective teachers are able to think critically about
the children and then adapt lessons, facilities, and
equipment to provide a productive and worthwhile
learning environment. In short, they are able to dif-
ferentiate their instruction for different classes and
children. Part 2 of the book provides thorough expla-
nations of the techniques used by refl ective teachers
as they develop their programs into meaningful learn-
ing experiences for their children. The key message in
this chapter is to recognize that all schools, classes,
and students are not identical and that you must be
willing to change your program over the years to in-
crease its effectiveness for youngsters of all abilities,
often in less than ideal teaching circumstances. The
chapters in Part 2 describe the skills that you will need
to become a refl ective teacher. But the fi rst step is to
Refl ective teachers are constantly observing their classes to deter-
mine the children’s needs, interests, and abilities.
accept the fact that no single prepackaged curriculum
or program works for all teachers in every school. If
you accept this premise, you are well on your way to
becoming a refl ective teacher.
The next step, as described in Part 2, is to continue
to build your repertoire of content knowledge. The
more a teacher knows the content, the more options
are available to change or adapt lessons to suit the
needs of individual students or different classes. When
a teacher only knows one game, or one way of intro-
ducing a task, it is extremely diffi cult to practice refl ec-
tive teaching. The refl ective teacher has countless ways
of presenting activities to youngsters to promote their
interest and keep them learning. As with any skill, it
takes years and years of practice before one can truly
claim to be a refl ective teacher.
Some inner-city youngsters often test their teachers
according to rules governing their street corner
behavior rather than by their teachers’ middle-class
rules and expectations. This testing by street corner
rules happens to teachers and administrators in inner-
city schools every day. And most of the teachers and
administrators neither realize nor understand what is
happening. Indeed, until you actually experience this
testing —when all your middle-class niceties do not
count a damn and you wonder why this kid is doing
that to you because you are not as prejudiced as the
others and you really want to help — it will be hard, if
not impossible, for you to understand what I am
talking about.
—HERBERT FOSTER, Ribbin’, Jivin’ and Playin ’
the Dozens
Summary
Six major variables necessitate the need for refl ective
teaching, or differentiated instruction: the values of
the teacher, class size, the number of class sessions
per week, facilities and equipment, student behavior,
and the context of the school. The refl ective teacher
considers the characteristics of each class and the
abilities of the individual students. A refl ective teacher
doesn’t expect all children to respond in the same
way or to achieve the same level of skill. Refl ective
teachers continually observe and analyze, a process
that enables them to revise their expectations and adapt
all the components of the program, thereby con-
stantly improving the effectiveness of the program.
The refl ective approach to teaching requires that
teachers constantly and accurately monitor as they
attempt to design and implement a physical educa-
tion program for a given school. Refl ective teachers
also have a wealth of content knowledge that allows
them to adapt and modify tasks for individuals of
varying abilities.
70 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. What is refl ective teaching? What are its basic
characteristics?
2. What does a linear approach to learning mean?
What is a prepackaged curriculum?
3. Provide three examples of how class size infl uences
the way a teacher teaches a lesson.
4. What factors, typically beyond the teacher’s control,
contribute to the dissimilarity of teaching situations?
5. Locate the standards for your state (or use the na-
tional standards). Select a grade level and indicate
which standards you would eliminate for that
grade level if you were teaching in a school that
had physical education only one day per week.
The standards can be found at www.pecentral.org /
professional/statestandards.html. Explain why you
would eliminate the standards you have chosen
from your program.
6. In your own words, explain the major implication
of refl ective teaching, or differentiated instruction.
References /Suggested Readings
Allen , D. 1975 . The future of education: Where do we go from here? Journal of Teacher Education 26: 41– 45 .
Borko , H. , and C. Livingston . 1989 . Cognition and impro- visation: Differences in mathematics instruction by ex- pert and novice teachers. American Educational Research Journal 26(4): 473 – 98 .
Foster , H. L. 1974 . Ribbin’, jivin’ and playin’ the dozens: The unrecognized dilemma of inner-city schools . Cambridge, MA: Ballinger .
Good , T. L. , B. J. Biddle , and J. E. Brophy . 1975 . Teachers make a difference . New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston .
Graham , G. 2008 . Teaching children physical education: Be- coming a master teacher . 2nd ed. Champaign IL: Human Kinetics .
Graham , G. , C. Hopple , M. Manross , and T. Sitzman. 1993 . Novice and experienced children’s physical edu- cation teachers: Insights into their situational decision- making. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 12: 197– 217 .
Graham , G. , M. Metzler , and G. Webster. 1991 . Specialist and classroom teacher effectiveness in children’s physical education: A 3-year study [monograph]. Journal of Teach- ing in Physical Education 4: 321– 426 .
Housner , L. D. , and D. C. Griffey. 1985 . Teacher cognition: Differences in planning and interactive decision making between experienced and inexperienced teachers. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 56: 56 – 63 .
Locke , L. F. 1975 , Spring. The ecology of the gymnasium: What the tourist never sees. Southern Association for Physi- cal Education of College Women Proceedings .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Education. 2002 . 2001 Shape of the nation report: Status of physical education in the USA. Reston, VA: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2004 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. 2nd ed. Reston, VA: NASPE .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2009 . Appropriate practices for elementary school phys- ical education. Reston, VA: NASPE . www.naspeinfo.org.
Rink , J. 1996 . Effective instruction in physical education. In Student learning in physical education, ed. S.J. Silverman and C.D. Ennis, pp. 171– 98 . Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Siedentop , D. , and D. Tannehill. 2000 . Developing teaching skills in physical education . 4th ed. Mountain View, CA: Mayfi eld .
Strong , W. B. , R. M. Malina , J. R. Bumkie , S. R. Daniels , R. K. Dishman , B. Gutin , A. C. Hergenroeder , et al. 2005 . Evidence-based physical activity for school-age youth. Journal of Pediatrics 146: 732 – 37 .
[USDHHS] U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2000 . School health index for physical activity and healthy eating: A self-assessment and planning guide for elementary school . Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . Available for free download from: www.cdc. gov/HealthyYouth .
71
C H A P T E R
6
Teaching Diverse Learners Movement is learning; movement is life. No matter how disabled a child, movement can make a
difference in his /her life. Movement can help a child become oneself. If a child can move, he /she
can become more a master of the environment rather than being controlled by it.
— JANE R. EVANS
72 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
A s a group of second graders enters the gym for
class on the fi rst day of school, Mrs. Thomas, the
physical education teacher, notices one child roll-
ing his wheelchair through the door and hears two other
children speaking an unfamiliar language. Mrs. Jones’s
heart begins to beat a little faster, and even though she
has several years of teaching experience, she feels a rush
of self-doubt and begins to question her ability to meet
the needs of all her students.
Although this may seem like an unusually diverse
group, it is more common now than ever before to
fi nd physical education classes across the country with
increasingly diverse groups of students. In addition to
over 6 million special education students (Olson 2004),
• With recent increases in the diversity of America’s school-
children, physical education teachers must be prepared to
provide a quality physical education experience to students
with a wide variety of abilities, needs, and interests.
• Inclusion is the philosophy that diverse learners —
including those with differences in mental and physical
ability, skill level, fi tness levels, gender, culture, language,
religion, class, and physical characteristics — are able
to learn and to develop skills in the regular physical
education program.
• It is the responsibility of the physical education teacher to
learn about the unique needs of each diverse learner and
the implications for physical education.
• By changing basic activity components and providing
students choice among appropriate tasks, the teacher
can challenge all students in ways that provide maximum
opportunities for learning and development of their
personal potential.
• Physical education is a direct, required service for all chil-
dren with disabilities under the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA) of 1990.
• The physical education teacher is a critical member of
the multidisciplinary team (M-Team) and should be in
attendance at all meetings that involve students he or
she teaches in physical education.
• It is at the M-Team that goals are established for the child
with disabilities and the environment most conducive to
meeting those goals is identifi ed.
• A top-down ecological model provides the template for
successful inclusion of children with disabilities: deter-
mine critical skills, analyze the existing program, and
design modifi cations.
Key Concepts
currently almost 40 percent of the total public school
population is minority students (NCES 2000). By the
year 2020, more than two-thirds of the school popula-
tion will be African American, Asian, Hispanic, or Na-
tive American, with Hispanic youths representing over
20 percent of the total 5- to 17-year-old population
(Meece and Kurtz-Costes 2001). Furthermore, physical
education teachers are working with more children at
low levels of fi tness than in years past because of in-
creased levels of obesity among American youths
(AOA 2002). Although fi nding ways to meet the needs
of all students in physical education can bring both
joy and challenge for everyone involved, in order to
make a difference we must commit ourselves to pro-
viding a physical education experience in which all
children can be successful.
This chapter will provide strategies to help physical
education teachers meet the needs of the increasingly
diverse population of children entering American
schools. Diversity is defi ned as the differences that exist
among people (Chappelle and Bigman 1998). For the
purposes of this chapter, diversity includes not only
differences in mental and physical ability, but also dif-
ferences in skill levels, fi tness levels, gender, culture,
language, religion, class, and physical characteristics.
Our goal is for all students to experience a sense of
empowerment and competence in physical education
that leads to lifetime participation in physical activity.
Therefore we will fi rst defi ne the philosophy of inclu-
sion and examine ways children can be different from
one another. Then we shift the focus to ways children
are alike and ways to include all students.
Inclusion Expanded
Traditionally, in terms of physical education, inclusion
has meant that students with disabilities are placed in
regular physical education programs (Block 2000).
However, to better represent the wide variety of stu-
dent abilities, needs, and interests resulting from the
increased diversity of America’s schoolchildren, and
because teachers today are faced with more than teach-
ing children with special needs, we have expanded our
philosophy of inclusion. It is time to support diverse
learners, in all their variety of forms, through a broad-
ened conceptualization of inclusion.
Inclusion is a philosophy that says that all children
can learn, that all children want to learn. It involves
teachers creating a healthy learning climate in which
all children feel physically and emotionally safe, suc-
cessful, motivated, and connected to others and have
a sense of ownership/autonomy (Morris, Stiehl, and
Sinclair 2006). In an inclusive environment, the question
CHAPTER 6 Teaching Diverse Learners 73
is not whether children are smart, but how they are
smart. The question is not whether they can develop
skills in physical education, but how they can develop
their skills. Perhaps Tomlinson (2003) put it best when
she explained that it is all in how you frame the ques-
tion. Rather than asking, “What labels do my students
have?” instead ask, “What are their particular interests
and needs?” Rather than asking, “What are my stu-
dents’ defi cits?” instead ask, “What are their strengths?”
Rather than asking, “How do I remediate students?”
instead ask, “What can I do to ensure that each student
works to the highest level of thought and production
possible?” Instead of asking, “How can I motivate
these students?” instead ask, “What releases the moti-
vation born in all humans?” As a whole, these questions
capture the essence of inclusion. Discovering children’s
abilities and helping them learn what they are good at
is critical to their success. Inclusion identifi es and nur-
tures each student’s unique abilities, recognizing that
all children do better when the emphasis is on strengths
(Oberti 1993). Remember, “There are no real disabili-
ties, but only different abilities” (T. Shriver in Block
2007, p. ix).
Physical education programs that include diverse
learners have the same basic goals and objectives as
any other quality program. However, strategies are
used to support program goals while taking into con-
sideration participant needs, interests, abilities, and
skill and fi tness levels. These strategies may include
implementation of modifi ed tasks, assistance for a
child as needed, and /or support for the teacher, such
as in-service training, working with a translator, or
team teaching with an adapted physical education
teacher. Inclusion does not mean placement of all chil-
dren in the general physical education setting with no
assistance and support for the teacher. However, inclu-
sion does mean creating conditions so the needs of
children are met and program outcomes are achieved.
Inclusion begins with a teacher willing to accept all
children; a teacher open and responsive to individuals
The individualization of instruction leads to success for all children.
and the unique needs of each; a teacher who cele-
brates children’s strengths and adjusts, accommo-
dates, and modifi es to provide maximum learning for
each child. Before learning specifi c strategies for in-
cluding diverse learners, it is important to fi rst focus
74 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Psychological Factors
• If children value an activity and feel competent and
satisfi ed while performing it, they are more likely to
engage in the activity.
• For children to persist at an activity, they must feel
competent and confi dent in their ability to reach a
specifi c goal (self-effi cacy).
Social Factors
• Parents and siblings infl uence physical activity be-
haviors of young children.
• In adolescence, peers are more likely to have a
greater infl uence on physical activity levels.
• Enthusiastic and knowledgeable physical education
teachers and coaches are more likely to infl uence
their students’ enjoyment of physical activity.
Environmental Factors
• Because of safety concerns in many neighborhoods,
children engage in indoor activities such as watch-
ing television, reading, or playing video games.
• Transportation can also be a barrier to participating
in group activities.
Specifi c implications for teaching overweight chil-
dren include the following:
• Emphasize enjoyable participation in a variety of
physical activities.
• Create a psychologically safe climate where children
feel successful and have choices of activities to help
them reach goals.
• Help children develop the knowledge, attitudes,
and skills they need to adopt and maintain physi-
cally active lifestyles.
• Keep all or most children active at the same time so
no one feels pressure to perform alone in front of
peers, because overweight children often have low
skill levels and would consider this humiliating.
• Use short bouts of high-intensity activities through-
out the class period. Knowing that the higher level
of intensity will not last long can help motivate less
fi t children.
• Use heart rate monitors with older students to help
them determine when they reach their target heart
rate (THR) zone. Overweight students often push
themselves well beyond the THR, thinking this is
what exercise feels like, when in reality they can get
the full benefi ts of exercise by participating at a much
lower and thus more comfortable intensity level.
• Modify activities so students have choices related to
intensity (see Creating Conditions for Inclusion
later in this chapter).
• Allow children to set individual goals related to
their own skill and fi tness improvement.
• Emphasize self-improvement and personal bests in-
stead of comparing children to each other.
on ways the children may be different. The better in-
formed we are about the diversity of our children, the
better we will be able to teach the child using strategies
we will discuss later in the chapter. Diversity and the
philosophy of inclusion, beyond children with dis-
abilities, includes overweight children, cultural differ-
ences, gender equity, religious differences, and children
of poverty.
Overweight Children
As mentioned in Chapter 4, childhood obesity rates have
reached epidemic proportions. In fact, obesity among
children has tripled in the last two decades. Children
and adolescents who are obese are more likely to be
overweight or obese as adults; overweight adults are at
increased risk for heart disease, high blood pressure,
stroke, diabetes, some types of cancer, and gallbladder
disease. Also, being overweight during childhood, and
particularly adolescence, is related to increased risk of
asthma, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, orthopedic com-
plications, and sleep apnea. Psychosocial effects such
as developing a negative body image and being sub-
jected to weight-related teasing, jokes, and potentially
hurtful comments by peers and family can have a pro-
found effect on children (American Obesity Association
[AOA] 2002).
Today’s youth are considered the most inactive
generation in history. Physical education teachers
can help overweight children build healthy bodies
and establish healthy lifestyles by teaching them
ways to include physical activity in their daily lives
(Chapter 4). Physical educators can play an important
role in the treatment and prevention of overweight
children by giving them the skills and confi dence
they need to participate in physical activity for a life-
time and educating children about the importance
of health-related fi tness concepts as outlined in
Chapter 4.
In order to help children increase their physical ac-
tivity levels it is important to know the factors that
infl uence physical activity levels among children. The
National Association for Sport and Physical Education
(NASPE 2005) lists the following factors:
Biological Factors
• Boys are generally more active than girls.
• Physical activity declines between the ages of
6 and 18.
• Obese children prefer low-intensity activities, and
obese children with obese parents view endurance
activities more negatively than do lean children
with lean parents.
• Only 20 percent of the variation in a person’s physi-
cal activity is explained by genetics.
CHAPTER 6 Teaching Diverse Learners 75
Cultural Differences
Culture serves as the fabric of one’s being and includes
language, beliefs, attitudes, and patterns of communi-
cation (Tiedt and Tiedt 1990). The 2000 census shows
that the United States is more ethnically, racially, cul-
turally, and linguistically diverse than ever before. To-
day the national portrait is being increasingly enriched
with Asian, Latino, and multiracial people (Singer
2004). A monolingual, English-speaking physical edu-
cation teacher is increasingly likely to face the chal-
lenge of teaching young children whose languages and
backgrounds are completely unfamiliar. Often in this
situation even the most well-meaning educators inad-
vertently reinforce children’s confl icting feelings about
their own culture and the majority culture (Cummins
1992). To become more culturally responsive and re-
fl ective teachers (Chapter 5), we must use the cultural
knowledge, prior experiences, and learning style pref-
erences of children from diverse cultures to make
learning more appropriate and effective for them. Cul-
turally responsive teaching is teaching to and through
the strengths of these students (Gay 2000).
The teacher plays a critical role in the success of
children from diverse cultures at school. Minority stu-
dents are often empowered or disabled as a direct re-
sult of their interactions with educators (Cummins
1992). The extent that each of the following character-
istics is implemented in the school setting can directly
affect the success of minority students:
• Minority students’ language and culture are incor-
porated into the school program.
• Minority community participation is encouraged as
an integral component of children’s education.
• Instruction is used to motivate children to use lan-
guage actively to generate their own knowledge.
(Cummins 1992)
Implications for building a culturally responsive in-
structional approach in physical education as outlined
by Sparks (1994) include the following:
• Build trust . A class climate that is perceived as trust-
ing and accepting is important. One way we can
build trust is by sharing information about ourselves
and our own cultural backgrounds. This helps chil-
dren begin to make connections with us that de-
velop the foundation for trust. Learning students’
names and how to pronounce them correctly in
their native language indicates we are interested
and want to get to know them as individuals. Physi-
cal education offers a perfect setting for breaking
social barriers through cooperative and competitive
as well as group and individual physical activities.
Each of these serves as a way to strengthen the bond
between teacher and students.
• Become culturally literate . Learn about the cul-
tural background of the children. This includes
learning about traditions, communication styles, or
social values of diverse cultures. We can increase our
cultural literacy by observing children outside of
the school setting, getting to know their families,
making home visits, and allowing children to share
cultural experiences in the curriculum. In addition,
when children’s home language is encouraged, they
get a sense of acceptance of themselves and their
cultural backgrounds. Challenge yourself to learn
and use greetings in many languages and never hes-
itate to ask children how to say basic expressions.
This validates the children and shows them that
teachers, like the children themselves, struggle with
new languages.
• Use a variety of teaching methods. Become aware
of the children’s learning styles. Some cultures use
more visual cues, while others prefer tactile or audi-
tory cues for learning. Physical education offers many
opportunities for explanation and demonstration of
skills. Peer teaching (Chapter 13) allows children to
assist each other in learning.
• Promote critical thinking. Although critical think-
ing and problem solving are important for all chil-
dren, they can be especially helpful to children from
diverse cultures. Critical thinking empowers children
to make their own decisions rather than always look-
ing to others for answers. This can help build self- esteem and confi dence. Developing original routines,
creating games (Chapter 31), and using mental imag-
ery are techniques that will challenge children to
think critically in physical education.
• Provide effective feedback. Make all feedback concrete
and specifi c. It is also a good idea to demonstrate
what you mean when giving corrective feedback. Be
sure that all children regardless of color, gender, or
ethnic origin receive feedback that is positive, spe-
cifi c, and of equal quality. Chapter 15 gives specifi c
information on providing student feedback.
• Analyze instructional materials. Be sure that all
instructional materials include perspectives from dif-
ferent cultural groups rather than just the majority
group within the class. Use materials that represent
diverse cultural groups and are not discriminatory
based on race, ethnicity, religion, or gender. Use the
rich heritage of physical activity and sport that has
evolved from cultures throughout the world to high-
light unique contributions.
• Establish positive home and community relations.
Create positive relationships with parents early in
the year. This can be done through visiting the home,
making phone calls, inviting parents to come to
physical education classes to see what their child is
learning, or simply sending home a letter introducing
76 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
yourself to parents. Remember that many parents
do not read English. For example, in many regions
of the United States, it is best to send home mate-
rials in English and Spanish (and required in some
school districts). Seek out resources in the school
district to help with translation of materials. Chil-
dren love having parents come to school to speak
to the class, demonstrate a skill, or do an interac-
tive activity.
In order to effectively build a culturally responsive en-
vironment we as teachers of physical education must
value the richness of diversity in our gymnasiums, in
our classrooms, and on our playgrounds. We must fos-
ter positive attitudes toward diversity in our classes,
and promote an environment in which all children
can be successful.
Gender Equity
In 1972, the United States Congress passed Title IX of
the Education Amendments, mandating gender equity
in all educational institutions receiving federal fund-
ing. One of the intentions of Title IX was to provide
equal opportunity for physical education instruction
to all students. Title IX also mandated coeducational
classes, which may begin the process of providing gen-
der equity but does not ensure an equitable environ-
ment (Napper-Owen et al. 1999). For example, educa-
tional research has shown that both male and female
teachers exhibit gender bias in elementary and middle
school programs. In particular, this research found
that teachers’ interactions with students favor male
students (Davis 1999). Title IX provided the founda-
tion and motivation for change, but teachers are the
key to developing these new attitudes (Davis 2003).
Many teachers treat children differently based on
gender without even realizing it. As a result, children
may not be getting an equitable educational experi-
ence. To develop gender fairness, physical education
teachers must create an environment in which both
sexes feel safe to explore and develop their abilities
in sport and physical activity (Hutchinson 1995).
Implications for creating a more gender-equitable
environment as outlined by Napper-Owen (1994)
include:
• Student grouping Use categories such as their birth
date, number of pets, color of clothing, or favorite
foods, rather than gender.
• Individualized instruction Group students for instruc-
tion by ability levels to ensure more individualized
instruction.
• Feedback Provide an equal amount of quality feed-
back to all students.
• Student helpers Ask equal numbers of boys and girls
to demonstrate skills, help with equipment, and an-
swer questions in class.
• Student names Call all students by their fi rst name.
• Inclusive language Use inclusive language, such as
“base player,” “player-to-player defense,” “straight-leg
push-ups,” “modifi ed push-ups” (rather than “boys’
push-ups” and “girls’ push-ups”), and “you” rather
than “you guys.”
• Activities Teach nontraditional activities.
• Teaching materials Use teaching materials that
show both boys and girls in traditional and nontra-
ditional roles.
• Modifi cation of activities Modify activities for maxi-
mize participation by all students. A great way to in-
crease awareness of gender equity is to videotape a
lesson and count how often boys and girls answer
questions, participate in activity, receive feedback, and
demonstrate skills. Chapter 12 provides additional
suggestions for checking gender equity awareness.
Religious Differences
The First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution granted
freedom of religion to all people over 200 years ago.
Today parents from diverse religious backgrounds en-
trust the education of their children to the teachers in
public schools. Therefore it is important that schools
be places where religion and religious conviction are
treated with fairness and respect. Public schools up-
hold the First Amendment when they protect the re-
ligious liberty rights of students of all faiths or none
(Haynes 1999). Because of the confusion that has sur-
rounded the topic of religion in public schools across
the years, this is perhaps easier said than done. One
of the best ways to respect the religious rights of all
children is for teachers and administrators to work
closely with parents and community members to ap-
ply the First Amendment fairly and justly (Haynes
1999). Kahan (2003) provides helpful information for
physical educators based on current understanding of
the law:
• Lesson content Children who object to lesson con-
tent on the grounds of religious beliefs should be
excused without punishment.
• Absences Schools are advised but not obligated to
set calendars around various religious holidays;
they are required, however, to provide opportuni-
ties for students who are absent for religious rea-
sons to make up missed work without any adverse
consequences.
• Dress and physical contact Children whose dress
refl ects their religious views or modesty should be
CHAPTER 6 Teaching Diverse Learners 77
allowed to wear such clothing. For example, Muslim
girls should be allowed to wear a hijab over their hair
and long pants under their shorts, and Sikh boys
should be allowed to wear turbans. In addition, ob-
servance of clothing customs and rules regulating
physical contact and modesty may prevent some
students from participating in activities such as
swimming and dance.
• Religious symbols Religious symbols may be used as
teaching aids (e.g., cross, crèche, menorah); however,
religious symbols should not be used as seasonal dec-
orations. Exercise restraint, plan inclusively, and con-
sider the context of displays. For example, a bulle tin
board with a winter scene of snow, snowmen, pre-
sents, holly, menorahs, Christmas trees, and Kwanzaa
candles may evoke general seasonal feelings and not
perceptions of endorsing any single religion and
would therefore be acceptable.
• Holiday lessons Special lessons or treats prepared
for the observance of holidays occurring during
the school year such as Halloween, Thanksgiving,
Valentine’s Day, and St. Patrick’s Day have indirect
roots in religious events, people, and symbols and
therefore may not suit the religious beliefs of all
children.
Overall, teaching children in one of the most religi-
ously diverse countries in the world requires additional
planning, communication, and fl exibility.
Children of Poverty
The ever-widening gap between socioeconomic levels
in the United States has resulted in a tremendously
large group of children with special needs. These are
the children of poverty. For some families the poverty
is situational, created by a loss of jobs, divorce, illness,
death, and other variables beyond the control of the
children or parents in the family. For other families the
poverty is generational, existing for such a long period
of time that neither the children nor the adults in the
family have ever known nonpoverty conditions. Chil-
dren of poverty live in apartments, in houses, in shel-
ters, on the streets, and in automobiles. They live with
single parents, with multiple families, and with no
parents. They exist in all ethic groups. What they have
in common is poverty — an existence below that nec-
essary for meeting the basic needs of food, clothing,
and shelter, an existence void of the basic components
of wellness.
Children of poverty:
• Have higher rates of lead poisoning
• Have poorer vision and poorer oral hygiene
• Have more asthma and more exposure to smoke
• Have poorer nutrition and less adequate pediatric
care
• Go to bed hungry or ill fed more often
• Have families who relocate more frequently and
must change schools several times within a single
year
• Watch more television and have less access to adults
who can read to them or talk to them in intellectu-
ally stimulating, enriching ways
The social class differences in academic potential
exist by the time children are three years old. Children
of poverty enter kindergarten with academic delays
and cognitive experiential defi ciencies. Many come to
us with developmental delays and motor defi ciencies.
The belief that children of low socioeconomic status
are naturally very skilled in sports and the belief that
excellence in sport will provide the avenue to success,
security, and the fulfi llment of all dreams are two of
the misconceptions for these children. They are skilled
in physical education, as in academics, only if they
have had the experiences for readiness in those skills,
the nurturing of caring adults, and good health to
overcome the environmental variables acting nega-
tively upon that health.
Our task as teachers of children of poverty is the
same as our task for all children:
• To provide physically, emotionally safe environments
for learning
• To assure that each child feels loved and feels
worthy
• To provide “hope for a signifi cant future”
We must believe that all children are capable of suc-
cess (Tipps 2006) and empower them with the tools
for success — in physical education, in the classroom,
and beyond their years in school— and believe in their
ability to achieve that success.
Children with Special Needs
People with disabilities are the largest minority group
in the United States (Block 2007). More than 50 per-
cent of students with disabilities are from backgrounds
“other than white” (USDE 2004). Diversity and dis-
abilities cannot be ignored in our schools or in our
society.
Public Law 94-142 (the Education for All Handi-
capped Children Act of 1975) and the Individuals
with Disabilities Education Act of 1990 and 2004
(IDEA) guarantee all children with disabilities from
ages 3 to 22 a free and appropriate education in the
least restrictive environment. That education includes
78 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
physical education as a direct service — one that
must be provided for all students. IDEA defi nes phys-
ical education as the de velopment of physical and
motor fi tness; fundamental motor skills and pat-
terns; and skills in aquatics, dance, games, and sports.
IDEA further states that, to the maxi mum extent
appropriate, children with disabilities are to be edu-
cated together with children without disabilities —
that is, in their home school, in the classroom, and
in the gymnasium that would be theirs if they had
no disabilities.
Early interpretations of “least restrictive environ-
ment” led to the mainstreaming of children with dis-
abilities for art, music, and physical education and to a
somewhat limited exposure to the classroom environ-
ment of their peers, with the remainder of the day
spent in a “special ed” classroom. Parents of children
with disabilities voiced concern at this separate but
equal approach to education at the same time that re-
search was questioning the benefi ts of the approach.
There was strong concern about the negative (and once
affi xed, everlasting) label of special education. Thus
began the gradual move from mainstreaming to a phi-
losophy of inclusion. With very few exceptions, the
education of children with disabilities is done in the
general program of physical education (PL 105-17,
IDEA Amendments, 1997).
Physical Activity and Fitness
Children with disabilities tend to be less physically
active than children without disabilities. This is due
to a number of factors: the nature of the disability it-
self, overprotective parents, and a lack of recreational
and play facilities that are accessible for those with dis-
abilities. Yet physical activity is extremely important
for children with disabilities. Through physical activ-
ity, skills are developed for recreational use through-
out life. In a physical activity environment, social
skills are learned and practiced, and self-confi dence
for social interaction is enhanced. Through physical
activity, fi tness is improved. Better fi tness brings in-
creased muscle tone for those prone to being less
mobile; muscle tone brings better posture, more control
of manipulatives, and thus increased independence.
A health-enhancing level of fi tness is important for
all children.
Many children with disabilities can participate in
the regular fi tness assessment program. However, for
some boys and girls, modifi cations in assessment will
be necessary. Box 6-1 provides information relative to
fi tness assessments designed especially for students
with disabilities.
Children with disabilities can successfully participate in physical
education.
Natural Proportions
During the early days of mainstreaming, children with dis-
abilities were often grouped together and placed in one
general physical education class, resulting in the class
increasing in number by as many as 5 to 10 children with
special needs. “Natural proportions” is the recommended
principle to match the philosophy of inclusion and maximize
learning for all students (Block 2007). The principle of
natural proportions means the normal ratio of persons with
disabilities will be the guideline for the placement of chil-
dren with disabilities in general classes. With approximately
10 to 15 percent of the school-age population having dis-
abilities, a general elementary physical education class of
20 to 25 youngsters would have 2 to 3 children with dis-
abilities. The principle of natural proportions creates a
physical education environment that promotes success
and positive experiences for all children.
CHAPTER 6 Teaching Diverse Learners 79
Disabilities, Impairments, and Disorders
Disabilities, impairments, and disorders include visual
and hearing impairments; a number of physical dis-
abilities; health-related disorders; emotional, behavior,
and social disorders; and intellectual and learning dis-
abilities. Each child with a disability, impairment, or
disorder has unique needs; successful inclusion, par-
ticipation, and learning are our goals for each child.
Visual Impairments
The two categories of visual impairment are blindness
and partial sight. Impairments range from blindness to
blurred /distorted vision, tunnel vision, and the ability
to see out of the corners of the eyes only. Children
with serious visual impairments may exhibit the fol-
lowing characteristics:
• Self-stimulating mannerisms — for example, stamp-
ing feet, rocking, clicking fi ngers, and turning the
head from side to side — often due to boredom and
lack of external stimulus
• Awkward, clumsy total-body movements and poor
motor skills from lack of experience and limited
sensory information
• Poor posture due to lack of visual modeling
• Developmental lag of at least one year, often due to
lack of stimulus and /or overprotective parents
• Lack of fi tness and a tendency toward being over-
weight because of sedentary lifestyle
• Diffi culty dealing with abstractions and a limited
conception of the “whole”
• Diffi culty in conceptualizing boundaries
The child with severe visual impairments needs au-
ditory and tactile stimulation. As teachers, we need to
encourage this child to venture beyond the known en-
vironment, to explore the gymnasium and the play-
ground. We need to promote social interaction with
peers as well as adults, and to maximize learning
through all the senses. Learning goals for children with
serious visual impairments focus on attention to sen-
sory abilities, spatial awareness, and mobility. Visually
impaired children need the maximum use of their pro-
prioceptive, auditory, haptic, and spatial perceptions.
For visually impaired children, proprioceptive per-
ception is important for maintaining balance. Body
awareness and proprioceptive perception can be in-
creased through activities that focus on the identifi ca-
tion of body parts and awareness of the relationship of
body parts to each other and of the body part’s posi-
tion in space. Children can be asked to move individ-
ual body parts when the body part is named and to
perform certain movements with the isolated body part,
for example, swing or tap (Chapters 16, 18). Teachers
can increase proprioceptive awareness by adding small
weights to body parts and then instructing children to
move the parts. The gymnastics skills of balancing on
different body parts and in different positions also help
this development.
Physical Fitness Test Package for Students with Disabilities
Additional information concerning specifi c physical fi tness
assessment for students with disabilities may be obtained from
the following source:
Brockport Physical Fitness Test Manual (1999), by
J. Winnick and F. Short.
Human Kinetics
P.O. Box 5076
Champaign, IL 61825-5075
www.humankinetics.com
Box 6-1
The senses are also used to establish spatial aware-
ness. Children who are blind have diffi culty perceiving
the relationship of objects in space and the spatial re-
lationship of themselves to objects. Lateral and direc-
tional activities, such as identifi cation of left and right
sides; movement away from self — left, right, up, down,
front, back; and positioning of self in relation to equip-
ment (for example, a table or a chair) help develop
this perception in children without the visual sense.
Ron, a child blind since birth, was mainstreamed into
a physical education class. The class was studying
balance —balance on different bases of support and
balance in inverted positions (Chapter 22). Ron was
working inde pendently in the space defi ned by the
boundaries of his gymnastics mat. Suddenly he cried
aloud; the entire class stopped and turned in his di-
rection. Nothing was wrong; Ron was experiencing
for the fi rst time the change in body position and per-
ception that accompanies being balanced in an in-
verted position on the hands only. Ron apologized for
disturbing the class, and activity continued. During
sharing time at the end of the class, Ron shared his
feelings of the experience and his enthusiasm for
more gymnastics.
80 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Auditory cues help these children determine distance
in space. Sound-emitting devices can be placed on sta-
tionary equipment and the equipment used with a
partner to help measure distance, location in space,
and pathways of travel. Young children can face sounds
made at different locations and thus determine near
and far. Older children can follow a bike rider by the
sound of cardboard on the spokes or copy the pathway
of a partner by changes in intensity of the sound.
One of the greatest disabilities of visually impaired
children is lack of mobility. A mobility training program
in the gymnasium, as well as the outdoor play area,
increases the child’s independence and thus the ability
and desire to participate fully. Three-dimensional models
of both the indoor and outdoor physical education
environments, including permanent equipment, give
visually impaired children the concrete, hands-on ex-
perience to develop a conception of the whole and the
ability to move within the physical education space.
The mobility training should also include a peer-guided
tour of the environment and time for personal explo-
ration of the environment, including full use of tactile
and auditory senses. The blind child should be free to
walk, crawl, and touch the gymnasium without the
embarrassment of a class of onlookers; the teacher,
parent, or a trusted adult should be present to answer
questions and ensure safety.
The inclusion of visually impaired children in phys-
ical education classes has implications for the teacher,
the environment, and the physical education equip-
ment. Specifi c implications for the teacher include the
following:
• Teach with manual guidance accompanied by ver-
bal directions.
• Remember that the visually impaired child relies
heavily on tactile perception. Manually guiding the
visually impaired child can serve as the demonstra-
tion of the skill for other children, thus benefi ting
the group as well as the individual.
• Provide specifi c and immediate feedback. For profi t-
able feedback, the teacher must thoroughly analyze
movement skills and provide the verbal cues for cor-
recting deviations.
• Use peer teaching to assist with the manual guid-
ance and verbal feedback.
• Involve visually impaired children in small-group
and partner activities rather than large-group
situations.
• Avoid activities that involve throwing and catching
with fast speed and travel.
• Progress from simple tasks in gymnastics and games
to sequentially more diffi cult tasks to develop motor
skill and cognitive complexity.
• Involve all children in the world of creative move-
ment experiences and dance. Creative dance comes
from the inner self; it is born of the senses. Vision is
necessary only for the observer.
Adaptations in the environment include:
• Ensure that the gymnasium is well lighted to help
the child with residual vision.
• Vary the texture of the boundaries for game areas —
dirt/grass for the play area, sand for the surrounding
area.
• Make pathways between targets or bases 3 to 4 feet
wide and of a different texture.
• Keep the outdoor teaching area and the gymnasium
well organized and consistent. Introduce new equip-
ment to visually impaired children by means of
three-dimensional models.
• Provide tactile markings on the fl oor as a reference
for teaching stations, the center for teacher direc-
tions, water fountains, and so on.
• Place guide ropes across the gymnasium or play-
ground to permit the practice of locomotor skills and
freedom of travel. Tie a series of knots in the ropes
to signal the approach of the boundary.
The inclusion of visually impaired children may
necessitate such special equipment as:
• Brightly colored balls and objects for children with
limited vision
• Sponge and foam balls for projectile activities
• Protection for the eyes; eyeglasses
• Audible beep balls for tracking and location
• Battery-powered electronic sound devices within
large marker cones to serve as bases
• A large gymnastics mat to serve as “personal space”
for balancing and transferring of weight activities
Contact the American Foundation for the Blind ( www.
afb.org ) for catalogs of special equipment.
We expect children with visual disabilities to par-
ticipate to their fullest potential in physical education,
trying not to let the child use the disability as an ex-
cuse to withdraw from activity and social interaction.
Game situations that involve constant contact with the
participants require the least adaptation. When new
activities are introduced, having children with visual
disabilities play in slow motion will help their orienta-
tion to the play environment and the rules. The use of
the buddy system also helps these children participate
in traveling activities. Note, however, that although
young children naturally hold hands with partners,
they need to know the correct way to assist a visually
impaired person. That is, the visually impaired person
should grasp the guide’s upper arm above the elbow,
CHAPTER 6 Teaching Diverse Learners 81
thus permitting the nonsighted person to maintain a
sense of control rather than being led as if helpless.
Falls, scratches, and bruises are a part of physical
education for children with serious visual impair-
ments. Visually impaired children need to be permit-
ted to recover on their own, to maintain their dignity,
and to attain maximum independence. The teacher
must discuss with all members of the class the danger
of being overprotective. With the exception of ball-
handling /striking activities, the visually impaired child
can function quite independently in physical education
classes. Following orientation and mobility training,
the teacher’s task is simply to help the child develop
skills and a belief in self.
Hearing Impairments
The term hearing impairment refers to hearing loss that
can range from mild to profound. The disability in-
cludes those who have trouble hearing normal speech
and those who can’t understand even amplifi ed speech.
The term deaf is rarely used to classify a hearing im-
pairment; most individuals labeled deaf have some
level of hearing, being able to understand speech with
the help of amplifi cation or by hearing combined
with watching the speaker’s lips, facial expressions,
and gestures. The danger of labeling a child deaf is
that it may cause peers to stop interacting with the
child and may actually make the child functionally
deaf as an adult.
The social domain is the greatest problem for chil-
dren with serious hearing loss. The hearing-impaired
young child doesn’t engage in play experiences with
other children; speech, if present, is garbled and com-
munication quite limited. Hearing-impaired children
don’t understand their role in the play experience and
often withdraw, thus denying themselves the social
interaction and development of motor skills that ac-
company play for young children. As children’s games
become more complex, the hearing-impaired child is
likely to be left out of the activities. Rules are devel-
oped as the game is played; instructions are shouted
in the midst of play. Without special assistance, the
hearing-impaired child is unable to comprehend all the
intricacies of the game. Thus the child fails to develop
the social skills learned through group interaction in
play. Withdrawal from activity causes a developmental
lag in motor skills.
The frustration of being unable to communicate, to
be understood by others, and to express emotions in
socially accepted ways often leads children with seri-
ous hearing impairments to express their emotions
through physical means. Aggressive behavior is often
the means of expressing negative emotions. Additional
characteristics of a child with a serious hearing impair-
ment may include:
• Slow development of inner and expressive language,
often leading others to mistake the child as intel-
lectually disabled
• Poor pronunciation; garbled speech
• Absence of laughter
• Diffi culty in dealing with abstractions due to slow-
ness in developing inner language
• Hyperactive appearance because of constant move-
ment to maintain visual contact
• Lack of good balance in some hearing-impaired
children caused by inner-ear damage
• Shuffl ing gait resulting from not hearing the sound
of movement
Most children with hearing impairments function quite
well in the regular physical education program. As a
rule, adaptations in equipment or environment won’t
be necessary. However, the physical education teacher
needs to modify certain aspects of teaching:
• Position yourself so the child with a serious hearing
impairment can read your lips; be conscious of not
turning your back when speaking; and be close
enough for lip reading.
• Face the sun when outdoors so that the hearing-
impaired child doesn’t have to face the sun.
• Let the hearing-impaired child move freely in the
teaching environment so that he or she can always
be in the best position for hearing.
• Visually and manually demonstrate skills; don’t rely
on verbal directions alone.
• Remember, the hearing-impaired child can’t read
lips or hear a whistle across the playing fi eld or gym-
nasium; accompany the auditory sound with large
hand signals.
• Learn the basic sign language needed for communi-
cation. Figure 6.1 provides specifi c signs for physical
education and basic communication.
Hearing-impaired children with a developmental lag
in motor skills need additional physical education to
We strongly recommend a course in sign language
for teachers with hearing-impaired children in their
classroom or gymnasium. Think of how much better
the hearing-impaired child will feel when greeted the
fi rst day of physical education by a teacher she or he
can communicate with!
82 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Signing For Physical Education
Name Sign
Easy (DM)
Thank You
Again
Wrong, Mistake, Error
Ready
Sit, Seat, Chair
Stand
Right
Left
What
Watch
Good
Girl Boy
Understand No
Yes
Bad
Fine
Please
Me You
Figure 6.1 Signing for physical
education.
Source: From C.B. Eichstaedt,
“Signing for Physical Education,”
JOPERD 19, no. 5 (1978):
20 – 21. Used with permission
from the Journal of Physical
Education, Recreation and Dance.
JOPERD is a publication of the
American Alliance for Health,
Physical Education, Recreation
and Dance, 1900 Association
Drive, Reston, VA 20191.
develop the motor skills and movement patterns
needed for successful participation in the regular pro-
gram. Those with balance problems and vertigo due to
damage to the inner ear need additional work in the
area of balance to develop maximum use of the visual
and kinesthetic cues for balancing activities. Tumbling
activities with rotation and climbing to heights on
large apparatus should be done only with close adult
supervision. Children who have poor motor skills and/or
diffi culty with balance are very conscious of how their
abilities compare with those of their peers; a private
place to practice can help overcome self-consciousness
in attempting skills.
Like many children with disabilities, the child with a
serious hearing impairment may be less skilled because
of a lack of experience. As teachers, we try to maxi-
mize strengths rather than focusing on the weakness,
the inability to hear. The child will have to experience
success in activities to build the self-esteem needed
for eager participation and social interaction. The di-
rections and simple activities that the class can grasp
easily may have to be carefully explained to the child
with a serious hearing impairment. Encourage the other
children to initiate conversation with the hearing-
impaired child to help the child understand class activi-
ties, but caution them not to patronize the youngster.
We need to educate all children in our classes to inter-
act with the hearing impaired, to accept their less-than-
perfect speech, and to involve them in both physical
education and play activities.
Physical Disabilities
Physical disabilities include conditions resulting in or-
thopedic impairments, such as cerebral palsy and spina
bifi da, the crippling diseases of arthritis and muscular
CHAPTER 6 Teaching Diverse Learners 83
1
7
2
8
3
9
4
10
5 6
=15+
Alphabet A
C
I
O
U V W X Y Z
P Q R S T
J K L M N
D E F G H
B
Wrestle Baseball
Football
Basketball
Exercise
Run
Begin, Start Play
Out
In
Fast
Under, Beneath
Across, Over
Off
On
Lay
Stop Go
Come
Crawl JumpHop
Walk
Figure 6.1 Continued.
dystrophy, permanent loss of limbs, and the temporary
disabilities caused by fractures. Other related health
factors that can mean limited or restricted physical ed-
ucation for children include hemophilia, severe burns,
congenital heart defects, and respiratory disorders.
Each child with a physical disability has different
physical and motor capabilities, so the learning goals
must be designed to meet individual needs. The child’s
physical education program will include two aspects:
(1) the exercises and activities to meet specifi c needs
and develop motor skills and (2) any adaptations in
the regular program of physical education. The follow-
ing procedure is recommended when planning the
program for children with physical disabilities:
1. Identify the child’s clinical condition.
2. Determine what activities would be contraindicated
based on medical recommendation.
3. Determine functional motor skills needed.
4. Select activities that will develop desired motor skills.
5. Adapt the physical education environment and
equipment as needed to provide the program.
It’s important to remember that the program will
be designed in consultation with a physician and a
physical therapist. As teachers of physical education,
we aren’t expected to make a clinical diagnosis or to
prescribe a program of individualized remedial exer-
cises without the assistance of trained medical profes-
sionals. The professionals familiar with the child’s
medical history will be valuable consultants to the
team developing the child’s program ( Box 6-2 ).
Cerebral Palsy Perhaps the most misunderstood of all children with disabilities are those with cerebral palsy.
Because of the language and auditory disabilities and the
lack of muscular control that often accompany cerebral
palsy, the child is often labeled intellectually disabled.
84 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Box 6-2
• Act naturally. Be you. We often have a tendency to either
ignore a disabled child or overattend. Like Goldilocks, pick
the amount of attention that is “just right.”
• Assume the child is bright. Talk as you would to any child
until you are told to do otherwise. It is better to “talk up” to
someone than to talk down.
• Talk to the child, not to the attendant, parent, or teacher.
• Establish eye contact. This may mean sitting down, comfort-
ably half-kneeling, or moving to one side (if the child cannot
look straight ahead). Avoid standing behind the wheelchair
and talking. Many children rely on facial cues, gestures, and
clear hearing to understand all that you are saying.
• Avoid simple yes /no questions. They make for dull, one-
sided conversation — for anyone! Instead, ask about family,
friends, activities. Don’t ask, “Did you enjoy the circus?” but
rather, “What did you see at the circus?” “Whom did you go
with?” and “Tell me about the elephants.”
• Wait for replies . . . patiently. Repeating a question too soon
may interrupt a child who is attempting to formulate an answer.
• Keep conversation about a child’s wheelchair to a mini-
mum, not because it is insulting (it isn’t), but because often
it is all people fi nd to talk about (e.g., “I bet you can zoom
around in that thing! I wish I had one. How fast does it go?
Can I ride? How long do the batteries last?”). A little wheel-
chair talk is OK, but move to other topics that are more
interesting to the child.
• It is fi ne to use phrases like “I have to run now” to a child in
a wheelchair, or “I see” to a child who is blind.
• Many children cannot help drooling. Saliva won’t kill you.
Don’t be hesitant to wipe someone’s mouth (with their per-
mission) or hold a hand that is wet.
• Yes, touching is OK. Holding hands, hugging, or a pat on
the back is appropriate if it is something you would do
with any child. A pat on the head is typically considered a
condescending gesture. Appropriateness is the key. Keep
in mind that some children are too affectionate and need to
learn proper social interaction.
• Roughhousing is great — provided you get clearance
(ask the parents). Being “thrown around” is part of
growing up!
• Ask permission before you help a child. Ask the parents,
too, if they are present —but ask the child fi rst.
• When lifting children, fi rst show them and then tell them
where they will be set down.
• A child with a disability can misbehave just like any other
child. Not to mince words: They can be snotty. Or they can
be nice. Don’t let yourself become so tolerant that you allow
clearly unacceptable behavior.
• Don’t feel as if everything you have to say needs to be funny
or light. Serious topics are welcomed. Some children ap-
preciate a break from laughing because they cannot control
that response very well.
Source: Dave Taylor, Project Active Newsletter 12, no. 1 (1991),
ed. Joe Karp, Northshore School District, Bothell, WA. Used with
permission.
What Do I Say? What Do I Do? Tips for Times with Children Who Have Disabilities
Social acceptance and recognition of strengths are
major obstacles for children with cerebral palsy. Cere-
bral palsy is a neurological impairment, an impair-
ment caused by incomplete development of, or injury
to, the central nervous system due to prenatal factors,
injuries during birth, or postnatal conditions such as
a serious childhood disease with a high fever or a
head injury. Characteristics associated with cerebral
palsy include:
• Disabilities in visual, auditory, and perceptual de-
velopment and in speech
• Lack of concentration, distractability, overexcitabil-
ity, and hyperactivity causing underachievement
and poor behavior
• Poor coordination and lack of balance, resulting in
awkward movements and frequent falls
• Diffi culty in coordinating eye movements
• Tendency toward seizures
Coordination with Classroom Teacher
One of the keys to successful inclusion of children with dis-
abilities is to promote the acceptance of those children by their
peers. Many children have never been around children with
disabilities and are hesitant about beginning conver sations with
them or engaging in activity. The physical education teacher
should coordinate efforts with the classroom teacher to orient
children to the nature of the disability, its correct name, any
limitations it imposes, and the potential for activity.
The lack of coordination associated with cerebral
palsy results in a delay in motor control. The child
with cerebral palsy will benefi t from the breakdown of
skills to basic components and sequential presentation
of those components. Due to either restricted or extrane-
ous movements, the child with cerebral palsy expends a
CHAPTER 6 Teaching Diverse Learners 85
great deal of energy when performing physical activity;
a decrease in endurance may result. The physical educa-
tion program for a child with cerebral palsy should con-
centrate on perceptual motor activities — locomotor
patterns, balance, response to rhythm, development of
ocular control, and form perception—as well as the de-
velopment of skills for successful participation.
For some children with cerebral palsy, the only ef-
fect is a slight speech impairment; others have a total
inability to control body movements. The physical
education teacher will benefi t from extensive reading
concerning the type of cerebral palsy and from discus-
sion with the physical therapist concerning special
needs and the adaptation of equipment and activities
for maximum participation.
Spina Bifi da Spina bifi da is a congenital condition in which the bony elements of the spine don’t close prop-
erly during development in the womb. In mild cases of
spina bifi da, the only effects may be weak muscles and de-
viations in posture. Because spina bifi da causes paralysis
in the legs and a loss of sensation in the lower limbs, chil-
dren with mild spina bifi da benefi t from weight-bearing
activities to stimulate bone growth and circulation in
the lower limbs, as well as from exercises/activities to
develop muscular strength in the upper body.
Children with spina bifi da have normal intelligence;
they have the same play and social needs as all children.
Adaptations in physical education will be those needed
to accommodate their mode of transportation—that is,
crutches or a wheelchair. In addition to the areas of
need noted above, it is necessary for children with spina
bifi da to develop skills for participation with their peers
With minimal teacher assistance, this child participates successfully
in the physical education program.
Teacher
I will know you.
I will touch you and hold you
And smell and taste and listen
To the noises that you make — and the words, if any.
I will know you.
Each atom of your small, lonely
Aching, raging, hurting being
Will be known to me
Before I try to teach you.
Before I try to teach
I must fi rst reach you.
And then, when I have come to know you, intimately,
I will insist, gently, gradually, but insist
That you know me.
And later, that you trust me
And then yourself.
Now, knowing each other, we will begin to know the world —
The seasons, the trees, animals, food, the other children,
The printed word, books,
The knowledge of what has gone before and been recorded.
Then as surely as I moved toward you
I will move away.
As I once insisted on being close to you,
Demanding entrance into your half wild world
Of fear and fantasy, refusing you aloneness.
So now, I move away.
As your words come and your walk quickens,
As you laugh out loud
Or read clearly and with understanding,
I stand behind you — no longer close —
Available, but no longer vital to you.
And you —you grow!
You are! You will become!
And I, the teacher,
I turn, with pride in you,
Toward my next child.
Mary MacCracken
Source: In Touch 1, no. 6 (July 1978). Used with permission
from the National Mental Health Association.
86 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Asthma Children are being affected in increasing numbers by asthma, an allergic reaction that results in
wheezing, coughing, tightening of the airways, and
accumulation of mucus in the bronchial tubes. An as th-
matic attack can be triggered by allergens, upper re-
spiratory infections, or even robust laughing. The most
common conditions we see in physical education are
reactions to changes in the weather (especially cold
weather) and to strenuous exercise (e.g., the distance
run for fi tness assessment).
All too often in the past, physical educators treated
lightly the asthmatic child who had a note, an excuse
from running, or a request for adaptation in activity.
Asthma is a serious health problem for millions of chil-
dren. Failure to attend to the condition can result in
serious and sometimes life-threatening consequences
for the child.
The following suggestions will be helpful in ensur-
ing maximum, healthy participation for children with
asthma:
• Scan health records in the fall, noting children with
asthma and /or serious allergies.
• Code your daily record system for individual
reminders.
• Notify children with asthma or allergies and /or their
parents before a day of especially vigorous activity.
• Encourage extra hydration during vigorous and /or
prolonged physical activity.
• Ask the child before the activity if he or she brought
an inhaler to physical education class.
• Consult with the parents of children with serious
asth matic conditions for any special safeguards or
procedures.
• On days when adaptation is necessary, make needed
modifi cations to provide maximum participation.
Diabetes Another health disorder that necessitates our attention is type 1 (insulin-dependent) dia betes.
Although we may experience only one or two children
with diabetes in our years of teaching, the child with
diabetes requires our having a thorough understanding
of the disorder, an awareness of the warning signs of
low blood sugar, and the knowledge to instigate imme-
diate emergency procedures.
The goal for a child with diabetes is to make the dia-
betes fi t into daily life, as opposed to daily life fi tting
into the diabetes treatment plan. Children with dia-
betes can be expected to participate fully in physical
education. If their physical education is scheduled be-
fore lunch or in the late afternoon, a snack may be
advised in anticipation of the physical activity. On
days of especially strenuous activity (e.g., the distance
run for fi tness assessment), an extra snack may be
in physical education and skills for lifetime sports and
activities in which they can be successful.
Like many children with disabilities, children with
spina bifi da benefi t from the socialization inherent in
physical education, in addition to learning and devel-
oping skills. Guiding this growth is perhaps the great-
est contribution we as physical educators can make in
educating children with disabilities.
Muscular Dystrophy Childhood muscular dystro- phy begins between the ages of two and six. Muscular
dystrophy is a progressive disease that affects the volun-
tary muscles—for example, legs and arms; involuntary
muscles, such as the diaphragm, aren’t affected. First af-
fected are the muscles involved in walking and standing;
the child with muscular dystrophy will begin to have
diffi culty maintaining posture, getting up from a chair,
or walking up stairs. The degenerative nature of the dis-
ease causes the general deterioration of the muscle tissue
and a replacement of muscle with fat. Thus the young
child with muscular dystrophy initially appears quite
healthy as the legs and arms maintain or increase in size.
The child with muscular dystrophy has a tendency to
tire easily. Fine manual dexterity is gradually lost, and
the progressive weakening of the muscles causes adverse
postural changes. The learning goals for the child with
muscular dystrophy should concentrate on exercises to
strengthen the muscles involved in the basic tasks of
daily living, walking patterns, posture control, and stretch-
ing of contractures. However, these exercises must be
selected in consultation with the child’s physician. The
child with muscular dystrophy should be kept actively
involved in physical education to the extent the condi-
tion permits; inactivity only increases the atrophy of the
muscles. Adaptations will be necessary as the child be-
comes dependent on crutches, braces, or a wheelchair.
Health-Related Disorders
Although not normally thought of as physical disabili-
ties, several other health-related disorders can affect a
child’s full participation in physical education. The
following disorders may require temporary adaptations
in the child’s environment or limitations in physical acti-
vity: juvenile arthritis, asthma, diabetes, heart defects,
sickle-cell anemia, severe burns, and respiratory disor-
ders. The physical educator should review health records
early in the school year, making note of any conditions
that require monitoring and/or temporary adaptations.
Open communication with the child’s parents, rapport
with the child, and an understanding of the particular
disorder and its effects will result in maximum partici-
pation for the child as well as trust among you, the
parents, and—most important—the child.
CHAPTER 6 Teaching Diverse Learners 87
provided by the parents. Children with diabetes react
emotionally as well as physically to daily insulin, ketone
checks, and a routine that is different from that of their
friends. Confi dence in self and acceptance by peers are
very important for these children. Success in movement
skills extends beyond the gymnasium to aid feelings of
self-worth and social acceptance.
Intellectual Disabilities
The term intellectual disabilities refers to intellectual
functioning that is signifi cantly below average, accom-
panied by defi cits in adaptive behavior. Children with
intellectual disabilities have problems of maturation,
learning, and /or social adjustment, which, to different
degrees, result in a degree of independence or social
responsibility lower than that expected for their age.
These characteristics manifest themselves during the
early developmental periods of life.
The physical skills of many children with mild or
moderate intellectual disability are average and above;
the diffi culties center around comprehending the in-
structions and following through to complete the as-
signment. The youngster with intellectual disabilities
can more easily understand and follow directions if we
remember the following:
• Keep verbal directions to a minimum; when possi-
ble use both visual and verbal instructions.
• Communicate in a direct, simple, and meaningful
manner.
• Present tasks within the child’s current level of
physical skills.
• Structure the environment for focus on tasks and a
minimum of distractions.
• Maintain a routine so that the child knows what to
expect.
• Provide repetition of experiences for overlearning.
• Minimize the number of variables to which the
child must attend; simplify the task.
• Present the lesson in short segments; restate the task
at regular intervals.
• Reinforce strengths with frequent praise; minimize
weaknesses.
Children with intellectual disabilities can perform sim-
ple gymnastics sequences and rhythmical routines and
participate in skill development activities. The teacher’s
attentiveness to task presentation and lesson design
will result in better learning, not just for children with
cognitive defi cits, but for all students.
Many children with intellectual disabilities are lack-
ing in areas of verbal expression and social interaction.
Physical education classes can provide excellent oppor-
tunities for growth in both these areas. The following
suggestions will help foster personal and social growth
for the child with intellectual disabilities:
• Engage the child in conversation. Ask questions; en-
courage a response.
• Be an attentive listener; listen when the child speaks.
• Create opportunities for cooperative activities that
actively involve the child.
• Recognize achievements; share them with the whole
class so that they can appreciate and share in the
child’s accomplishment.
• Encourage verbal expression of feelings.
Just as we as teachers must take an active role in inter-
acting socially and verbally with children with intellec-
tual disabilities, we must also teach their fellow students
to do the same. The child’s initial response to another
Physical activity is just as exciting to children with disabilities as it is
for those without disabilities.
88 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
child’s attempts at conversation or group participa-
tion may be silence; children with intellectual disabili-
ties may be unsure of themselves or not understand.
Remind the other children to repeat the question or to
reach out with a touch to include the child with dis-
abilities in the group.
Emotional Disturbance and Behavior Disorders
In increasing numbers, children come to us with be-
havior disabilities: emotionally disturbed, behavior
disordered, hyperactive, distractive, aggressive, impul-
sive, and socially unacceptable. Some may have been
diagnosed with attention defi cit disorder (ADD) or at-
tention defi cit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Children
classifi ed as emotionally disturbed or behavior disor-
dered have defi ciencies in at least one of the following:
characteristics that facilitate learning, characteristics
that promote interpersonal relationships, and charac-
teristics that foster appropriate behavior under normal
conditions. What classifi es children with these charac-
teristics as emotionally disturbed /behavior disordered
is the persistence of the behavior, its severity , and its
adverse effects on educational performance .
The role of the teacher is to control the learning
environment while helping the child gain control. The
following guidelines have implications for teachers of
physical education:
• Provide a sense of order, structure, and dependabil-
ity in the learning environment.
• Teach the child that verbal responses to frustration
and confl ict are acceptable, but that physical aggres-
sion is not.
• Make it clear to the child that he or she is accepted
even when the behavior is unacceptable.
• Establish short-range, achievable goals geared to the
child’s current level of functioning.
• Convey your expectations through your conduct
and consistent messages.
• Avoid overreacting to extreme behavior; an emotional
response from the teacher is counterproductive.
• Remember that what works for one child with emo-
tional disturbance or behavior disorders may not
work for another.
Physical activity has been shown to have a posi-
tive infl uence on children with behavior disorders or
disruptive behaviors. These children benefi t from physi-
cal education programs that emphasize fi tness, bal-
ance, and basic movement; many have great diffi culty
with competitive games and sports. Because of their
behavior, these children’s past experiences in physical
education have included less activity, more “time-out,”
and less skill development than other students have
experienced. The development of basic skills may
require attention. Programs such as Hellison’s re-
sponsibility model (Chapter 9) and programs with a
cooperative rather than a highly competitive focus
have been found to positively infl uence the develop-
ment of personal and social responsibility for these
at-risk students.
Social Interaction Disorders /Autism
Spectrum Disorder
Children with social interaction disorders or pervasive
developmental disorders include those with autism,
Asperger syndrome, and Rett’s disorder. Although each
disorder has its unique characteristics and varying de-
grees of severity, common to all are severe impairment
of communication and /or social interaction skills and
the presence of repetitive behaviors. These children
appear extremely shy, often withdrawn into their own
world. The indoor and outdoor environments of phys-
ical education can be a nightmare with loud sounds,
an abundance of visual stimuli, and constantly chang-
ing activity. Very often their recourse is to withdraw to
the inner world of self-movement (stimming) and self-
talk or to wander aimlessly in the midst of the physical
activity/instruction /play. Motor skills are often below
the level of their peers.
Children with social interaction disorders can more
easily function as members of our physical education
classes if we remember:
• Changes in routine and transitions in activity are
very diffi cult for these children.
• Visual cues are much more effective than auditory.
• Motor performance tests often underrepresent ability
because of the child’s failure to respond to auditory
directions.
• Skills should be developed in contexts (i.e., func-
tional patterns), not as isolated skills.
Major goals for children with social interaction dis-
orders are appropriate social behaviors and social /
verbal interactions. The physical education environ-
ment is rich in opportunities for this development.
For these children, such skills must be taught and
consistently reinforced.
Appropriate nonverbal and verbal social skills do
not develop naturally, nor do the children learn them
from modeling others. As with all children with di-
abilities, each child with a social interaction disorder is
unique; each disorder is unique to that child. Close
communication with the child’s consultant on the
multidisciplinary team will be invaluable as you work
toward the short- and long-range goals of the individu-
alized education program.
CHAPTER 6 Teaching Diverse Learners 89
Learning Disabilities
A specifi c learning disability is a disorder in one or
more of the basic processes involved in understand-
ing or using language. According to the U.S. Depart-
ment of Health and Human Services, the disability
may manifest itself as an imperfect ability to listen,
think, speak, write, spell, or do mathematical calcula-
tions. Children with learning disabilities have normal
intelligence but, unlike other children, are unable to
perform academically within the normal IQ range.
Children with learning disabilities are typically char-
acterized by hyperactive behavior, short attention
span, impulsiveness, poor self-concept, and often a
delay in play development.
The motor skills of children with learning disabilities
are diffi cult to categorize. Some children with learning
disabilities experience no motor delays; others demon-
strate a number of delays. The most common diffi culties
include visual-motor coordination, fi ne motor coordi-
nation, bilateral coordination, and balance. In the past,
learning goals for children with learning disabilities fo-
cused on perceptual-motor development; more recently
the focus has been on sensory integration. Selection of
the activities for meeting learning goals must be based on
assessment of the child’s defi ciencies. Not all learning-
disabled children have motor/perceptual delays; not all
have the same defi ciencies.
• Give clear, brief instructions; ask the child to repeat
the directions before beginning the activity.
• Use small learning steps, and praise the child’s ef-
forts and accomplishments. Remember, the attitude
of the learning-disabled child is “I can’t.”
• Use a positive behavior modifi cation program if
needed to increase appropriate and decrease inap-
propriate behavior (Chapters 9 and 10).
• End the lesson with a brief relaxation period.
Teaching children with learning disabilities can be a
most rewarding experience (see Box 6-3). Teachers can
help the youngsters develop socialization skills, motor
skills many didn’t know existed, and self-confi dence. We
believe that children with disabilities can benefi t from
physical education and from integration with others.
Remedial Physical Education
Although many children with disabilities have average
or above-average physical skills, others have physical
skills that are far below average because of a lack of
experience or as a secondary characteristic of the dis-
abling condition. For some children with disabilities,
the small-group physical education class can provide
the “extra” practice they need to succeed in the gen-
eral physical education class. For these children, the
remedial physical education class provides the envi-
ronment for learning the basic skills of physical educa-
tion that will enable them to participate successfully
in the gymnasium and on the playground. Disability Awareness
Children who have mild or moderate intellectual disabilities,
learning disabilities, or emotional disturbances but whose
physical appearance does not manifest the disability are
sometimes the least accepted by their peers. The class has
the same expectations of them as of the nondisabled, and
the class can become frustrated when the child with dis-
abilities does not behave or respond as expected. The class
response is usually due to the students’ lack of awareness
of the disability or knowledge of its characteristics. We as
teachers must educate our students regarding specifi c
disabilities. We must answer their questions, increase their
awareness of the disability, and thus increase their under-
standing and acceptance of all children.
Children with learning disabilities can be expected
to participate fully in all physical education activities.
Slight teaching modifi cations may be needed for indi-
vidual students:
• To reduce hyperactive tendencies, prepare the les-
son with several short activities in mind rather than
one lengthy period of concentration.
Atlantoaxial Subluxation
A number of children with Down syndrome have a condition
called atlantoaxial subluxation, a maladjustment of the cer-
vical vertebrae in the neck. Because of the possibility of
serious injury, people with atlantoaxial subluxation should not
participate in any activities that place stress on the head and
neck muscles. Down syndrome children with atlantoaxial
subluxation should not be actively involved in inverted
balances, rolling activities, or other gymnastics actions that
could place stress on the head and neck.
The content of the remedial physical education class
centers around three areas of physical/motor skill de-
velopment. The fi rst area of concentration is mobility,
balance, and muscular strength —hopping, jumping,
and running; stepping onto a low platform or climbing
the fi rst rung of a ladder; walking a low balance beam
or bench; and grasping a bar and lifting the body off
the fl oor, taking weight on hands and feet. These areas
90 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
contribute not only to success in physical education
but also to greater independence throughout life.
The second area of concentration is physical fi tness.
Although the child’s fl exibility is often very good, mus-
cular strength —both abdominal and upper body — and
cardiovascular endurance may be extremely poor. See
Box 6-2 for fi tness relative to students with disabilities.
The third content area is the basic manipulative skills
of physical education — throwing, catching, dribbling,
kicking, and so forth. Children who succeed in these
three content areas will participate meaningfully in
physical education, attain greater personal indepen-
dence, and improve their recreational/leisure skills on
the school playground and beyond.
Early testing of the motor skills of the children in
the remedial physical education class will help the
teacher develop the educational program for each child.
This program should be based on the child’s present level
of functioning and include goals for the year. Although
evaluation is ongoing, motor skills tests should be con-
ducted at least by midyear and again in the spring. Re-
cords of activities and achievements can be kept in
simple chart form. Remember, progress for these chil-
dren is often very slow and is measured in small incre-
ments; charting their progress will help you recognize
and praise achievements.
Resources: See Web sites pertinent to specifi c disabilities,
impairments, and disorders at the end of this chapter.
Creating Conditions for Inclusion
The question that still remains is, How do you create
an inclusive environment where all students meet pro-
gram goals through maximum learning and participa-
tion? At this point, the idea of meeting the needs of so
many different learners may feel overwhelming. How-
ever, rather than focusing on student differences, the
purpose of this section is to provide strategies for creat-
ing fi ve universal conditions needed to maximize stu-
dent learning and participation: students need to feel
competent, to belong, to feel useful, to have a sense of
ownership, and to feel optimistic (Sagor 2002).
Kids are sacred; activities or learning tasks are not. If
the learning tasks or activities you choose to teach do
not align with program goals or meet these fi ve basic
needs of all learners, you have three options: (1) con-
tinue to use the activity the way it has always been
done and thus not meet the needs of kids; (2) stop us-
ing the activity entirely and miss the benefi ts of the
activity; or (3) give the activity a make-over — modify
it by accentuating the positive features and minimizing
or eliminating the negative or inappropriate features
(Morris et al. 2006). The third option allows you to
take activities and modify them in ways that meet needs
specifi c to your own setting. Morris and his coauthors
point out that the three keys to making successful and
effective modifi cations are (1) change, (2) challenge,
and (3) choice.
Change
A teacher must be willing to make changes when learn-
ing tasks or activities do not meet the needs of all
learners. All activities are made up of basic categories
that can be changed ( Box 6-3 ). These categories can
include grouping (how learners are grouped — e.g.,
individually, in pairs, small groups, coed); organiza-
tional pattern (how learners are arranged — e.g., circle,
lines, scattered, in designated zones); equipment (any
objects, materials, or props — e.g., music, hoops, task
cards, ropes, balls); movements (e.g., crawl, walk, crab
walk, strike); and conditions (e.g., three minutes, with-
out hands, until everyone stops, four turns, or with
blindfold); (Morris et al. 2006). See Chapter 31 for addi-
tional strategies for changing games play for children.
Simple changes across such categories can make al-
most any activity more inclusive. When teaching stu-
dents at the precontrol level to catch by having them
learn to stop a rolling ball (Chapter 25), simply change
the equipment from a regular plastic ball to a larger,
slow-moving, sound-emitting ball so visually impaired
students can also learn to catch a rolling ball.
Changes can also alter the nature of student partici-
pation. For example, many students enjoy and even
beg at times to play elimination games (activities that
involve eliminating other students in order to win,
which are not promoted or included in Children Mov-
ing ). This creates a situation where the more skilled stu-
dents are allowed to dominate the activity while less
skilled students, who actually need more practice, are
sitting on the side and often feeling quite discouraged.
A traditional game of Four Square is an elimination
game. In the traditional game, a student who misses by
not being able to return the ball to an opponent is out
of the game. The game becomes nonelimination by
changing the elimination rule to having students count
how many in a row they can hit without missing, mak-
ing the game a cooperative activity, or by having stu-
dents earn as many individual points as they can in a
given time period (two minutes). These simple rule
changes exemplify best practices in physical education
by maximizing participation for all students.
Challenge
Changes across each of the categories in Box 6-3 also
can be made to challenge all students at an appropriate
level. It is important to monitor the success of students
closely. Children engaged in learning a new skill should
be successful approximately 80 percent of the time;
CHAPTER 6 Teaching Diverse Learners 91
Box 6-3
Grouping
Age
Coed
Mixed skill levels
Similar skill
Season of birthday
(fall /spring)
Favorite movies
Favorite fruit
Clothing colors
By drawing num-
bers or cards
Examples of Items and Choices in Activity Categories
Movements
Locomotor:
Power walk, push wheel
chair, run, skip, hop,
gallop, grapevine
Nonmanipulative:
Turn, twist, roll,
balance, stretch
Manipulative:
Throw, catch, volley,
dribble, strike, kick
(See the wheel in
Chapter 16 for more)
Other:
To music, to the beat of
a tambourine
Equipment
Nets, walls, rackets,
bats, scarves, ropes,
music, hoops, toss
rings, discs, scoops,
sticks, skates, bicycles,
heart rate monitors,
spots, mats, wedges,
balance beams, volley
birds, climbing harness
Conditions
One bounce, using a
wedge, four beats,
lower net, all must hit,
three-step rule, using
two points of balance,
may run to fi rst or third
base, until music stops,
without using feet,
within boundaries
Organizational
Pattern
Scattered, in lines, in
rows, with a partner, in
corners, back to back,
elbow to elbow with two
people, against wall,
across from your group
Creating Choices for Each Category
You may want to
combine with an-
other group or keep
your current group.
You can throw or hit
the ball over the line to
start the rally with your
partner.
You can choose to roll,
step, or jump over the
rope.
You may choose a
large hula hoop or a
smaller one (a larger
hula hoop is easier to
twirl around the waist
than a smaller one).
You may choose to
raise or lower the net
height. You may also
decide to hit over a line
on the fl oor.
You may choose to let
the ball bounce once
per side or use a no-
bounce rule.
For the fi rst four beats
of music you can either
do four quick single
jumps side to side or
do two double-count
jumps, one on the
right, one on the left.
You may choose to
work with a partner
or alone.
Source: G.S.D. Morris and J. Stiehl, Changing Kids’ Games, 2nd ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1999).
otherwise, consider modifying the task so it becomes
more or less diffi cult. (See Chapter 11 for more on stu-
dent success rates.) When a group of diverse learners is
learning a skill, it is not unusual for a task to challenge
some children at an appropriate level while others
seem almost bored with the task, and still others are
frustrated because the task is too diffi cult. To challenge
all students at a more appropriate level, the teacher
needs to utilize intratask variation (Chapter 11). Intra-
task variation is a technique in which the teacher de-
cides to modify a task for individuals or small groups
within the class; it is a private interaction between one
or more students and the teacher. The following are
examples of intratask variation for the activity travel-
ing to fl ee (Chapter 20).
The task is for students to spread out in space and, on signal, to fl ee from an imaginary chaser by walking
quickly.
1. Intratask variation used to make the activity more
inclusive for a visually impaired student:
“John, I would like you to use this guide rope (place
rope in the visually impaired student’s hand) to prac-
tice moving away from your imaginary chaser.” The
guide rope extends across the gym or playground to
permit the practice of locomotor skills and freedom of
travel. Tie a series of knots in the ropes to signal the
approach of boundaries. Other children are spread out
in space and practice fl eeing an imaginary chaser by
walking quickly.
92 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
2. Intratask variation to make the task more inclusive
for several very skilled students:
“See if the three of you can fl ee an imaginary chaser
while avoiding the hoops on the ground.” Other chil-
dren continue original task.
3. Intratask variation for a less fi t student:
“Sue, you can move away from the chaser slowly until
you feel ready to walk quickly again.”
Choice
When modifying activities to meet the needs of all
students, choice is the key (Morris et al. 2006). Offer-
ing children choice among appropriate challenges
(or tasks) not only creates a more inclusive environ-
ment but also empowers children by allowing them
to make decisions about how they want to partici-
pate. When students have choices, they are much
more likely to participate. This becomes increasingly
important for children in upper-elementary and
middle school. One way to offer students choice is
through teaching by invitation (Chapter 11). Unlike
intratask variation, teaching by invitation allows
students to decide what task they prefer to work
on. The following are examples of ways to give
children choices:
1. “Choose one of the objects in the hoops and keep
the object from touching the ground by hitting it
up using an underhand motion.” Place a variety of
objects in hoops around the play area. Suggestions:
Large bright items such as balloons and beach balls
are slow moving and easy to see, and therefore may
be appropriate for less skilled students. Medium-
size, softer items such as a volleyball trainer or an
inexpensive plastic ball may offer more challenge
for others. Students may also fi nd it motivating to
use a less traditional item such as a Volleybird just
to try something new.
2. Station teaching or learning centers are popular
instructional approaches among physical educa-
tion teachers. A typical lesson may involve asking
students to perform an exercise at each of several
fi tness stations. Jim Stiehl, a teacher of diverse
learners, advises that if you want to ensure that
students fail, provide only one way to do some-
thing. This one-size-fi ts-all approach in fi tness sta-
tions means requiring that everyone perform the
same thing at each station. To avoid this outcome,
set up each station to represent a health-related
fi tness component such as muscular fi tness, car-
diovascular fi tness, and fl exibility or body compo-
sition. At each station place three color-coded
plates (red, white, and blue). Tell students that red
represents the most diffi cult task, white represents
the medium-level task, and blue represents the
easiest task. Then place pictures and /or descrip-
tions of exercises under each plate. At each station,
students can choose to perform the red, white, or
blue exercise or a combination of all three. For ex-
ample, at a fl exibility station, the exercise under
the red plate (most diffi cult) might be, “While sit-
ting, touch your toes with both hands and hold for
10 seconds”; under the white plate (medium diffi -
culty), “While sitting, see if you can touch your toes
with both hands for 5 seconds”; and for the blue plate
(easiest), “While sitting, see if you can touch your
knees with both hands and hold for 10 seconds.”
Another set of plates may include red: straight-leg
push-ups; white: modifi ed push-ups (bend knees);
blue: wall push-ups.
3. It is also important to break ourselves of thinking
that games, dance, and gymnastic activities must be
done “the way they have always been done” or even
done according to their names. For example, when
playing a modifi ed striking and fi elding game, a stu-
dent with a disability came to bat and told the
pitcher (a preservice teacher) that he could not bat
but could kick, so he wanted the pitch rolled to him.
Amazingly, the idea of not participating because
he was unable to bat never crossed this student’s
mind. Instead he quickly thought of a modifi ca-
tion and insisted he could play as long as he had
the choice to kick a larger ball rather than hitting
a small ball. Less skilled students then created their
own adaptation by asking to have the larger foam
ball tossed to them so they could hit it with the
bat. Choice can be offered to students within the
same activity by keeping an open mind about how
a game or activity must be played and by allowing
student input.
In order to create more inclusive physical activity
environments, physical education teachers must
make deliberate attempts to provide choices. Karl
Rohnke (1989) reminds us to always offer choices be-
cause a coerced player is no longer a player. Choice
encourages participation, accommodates diversity,
and empowers students to make responsible decisions
about their own participation (Morris et al. 2006). A
quality, caring teacher will always struggle to meet
the needs of all students. However, by structuring the
environment in ways that provide choice, students
can make decisions about what works best for them.
Using the concepts of change, challenge, and choice
will enable us as teachers to create or modify any ac-
tivity to better meet the needs of learners and achieve
program goals.
CHAPTER 6 Teaching Diverse Learners 93
Meeting the Needs of Children with Disabilities
Meeting the needs of the child with disabilities is a
joint effort of school professionals, parents, and pro-
fessionals from related services. The physical educa-
tion teacher is a critical member of the professional
staff planning for and implementing the program for a
child with disabilities.
The Multidisciplinary Team
The appropriate education — both placement and
curriculum—for each student with disabilities is deter-
mined by a multidisciplinary team called the M-Team.
The M-Team is composed of all those involved in pro-
viding an appropriate education for the child: the class-
room teacher, special educators (physical education),
parents, and professionals from related services. Follow-
ing an educational assessment by the school psycho-
logist and other professionals as needed, the M-Team
designs the educational program for the child; identifi es
support services needed and services to be secured from
outside agencies; and establishes the educational goals
to be attained within the given school year.
Because physical education is a direct service for all
children with disabilities, the physical education teacher
is a vital member of the multidisciplinary team. As a
member of the M-Team, the physical education specialist
provides information about how the identifi ed disability
will affect the child’s performance in the existing pro-
gram of physical education; the child’s performance in
physical fi tness and basic motor skills and patterns of
physical education; and the support services needed to
meet the unique needs of this child and facilitate maxi-
mum learning in physical education. During the M-Team
meeting, short- and long-term goals are written for all
areas of the child’s learning, and the environment most
conducive to meeting those goals is identifi ed. As the
physical education professional on the M-Team, your in-
put is needed to establish the short- and long-term goals
relative to physical education and to identify the envi-
ronment most conducive to meeting those goals.
Physical education options may include full inclu-
sion, inclusion with a teacher assistant, or remedial
physical education in addition to the regular program.
The goal of the last is assistance in specifi ed areas for
better functioning /performance in the regular physi-
cal education program.
Individualized Education Program
Education for a child diagnosed with disabilities is for-
mulated through the individualized education program
(IEP). Generally, the IEP is limited to curricular areas of
special education and related services — instruction de-
signed to meet the unique needs of the child and the
related services necessary to help the child achieve
maximum success. The IEP includes:
• A statement of the present level of the child’s
functioning
• Annual goals
• Short-term instructional objectives with timelines
• An explanation of the extent to which the child will
not participate in the regular educational setting
(physical education program)
• Special services to be provided, including their du-
ration and extent
• Support services needed—personnel and equipment
• Plan for evaluation of annual goals
For some students with disabilities, full participa-
tion in physical education is possible; therefore the IEP
will not address physical education. For other students,
full participation is possible with support services, that
is, personnel and /or equipment; these services will be
identifi ed in the IEP. For still other students, the develop-
ment of skills for successful participation will require
modifi cation within the physical education curricu-
lum, perhaps an alternative when an activity is not
appropriate or is contraindicated. This alternative may
be participation in another physical education class or
work on a short-term physical education goal from the
IEP within the class setting.
Even at the elementary level, physical education for
children with disabilities should focus on the develop-
ment of functional and motor skills that lead to physi-
cal activity and successful recreational participation.
Short- and long-term goals for the child in physical
education will center around the skills needed for
meaningful participation in physical education, the
remediation of defi cient motor skills and fi tness com-
ponents, and the skills needed for successful participa-
tion in physical activities at recess and in after-school
play/recreational activities.
The IEP is a projection of what professionals and the
parents think the child can accomplish. If the annual
goals are inappropriate, the M-Team reassesses the
child’s curriculum and formulates new goals better
suited to the child’s needs.
Least Restrictive Environment
The least restrictive environment is the educational setting
that is most appropriate and most enabling for the child
with disabilities. To the maximum extent appropriate,
children with disabilities are to be educated with non-
disabled students—thus the philosophy of inclusion.
94 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Legal reasons aside, there are sound educational
reasons for educating children with disabilities in the
least restrictive environment. Research has shown
that placing these youngsters with nondisabled chil-
dren yields positive benefi ts in behavior and life skills.
Educators have long agreed on the effectiveness of
peer modeling in academics and skill acquisition
among children. Furthermore, the inclusive classroom
and gymnasium more closely mirror the real world
than does the classroom or physical education setting
that consists entirely of children with disabilities.
Most of the students with disabilities we see in our
public schools will reside and work within our com-
munities and participate in community activities. The
least restrictive, more enabling educational environ-
ment should give students with disabilities the same
opportunities to learn, to develop personal potential,
and to interact and mature socially that all other stu-
dents receive.
The Ecological Model of Inclusion
After the IEP has been written, it’s the responsibility
of all teachers working with the child with disabilities
to implement what is written in the program. It is the
responsibility of the physical education teacher to de-
sign instruction and to modify both teaching and
curriculum to meet the short- and long-term goals
written for physical education within the environ-
ment deemed least restrictive by the multidisciplinary
team. Implementation actually begins with the IEP
itself — the long- and short-term goals for the child
with disabilities. When planning for inclusion, we
suggest using a top-down ecological model * (Block
2000), as follows.
Step 1: Determine the critical skills the child with
disabilities will need to be successful in the present—
in physical education, on the playground—and in
future recreational settings. Observe the child’s
homeroom at recess. What activities do the children
choose to participate in during this time? What skills
are needed for the child with disabilities to success-
fully participate in activities at recess? What are the
skills he or she will need to be successful in the phys-
ical education program? What are the skills needed
for successful participation in recreational activities
outside the school setting? These are the skills that
should be contained within the goals for physical
education for the child with disabilities.
Step 2: Analyze the existing physical education pro-
gram to match the existing program to the long-
and short-term goals of the student’s IEP. Are the
skills taught within the general physical education
program consistent with the needs of the child with
disabilities? What existing activities within the pro-
gram will benefi t the child? What activities are not
appropriate for this child? An analysis of the exist-
ing curriculum will reveal areas of match between
goals and existing program and areas in which
modifi cations are needed. Ask yourself the follow-
ing questions: Where are modifi cations needed? What
modifi cations are needed in instruction (Chapter 13)?
What modifi cations are needed in curriculum
(Chapters 29 – 31)?
Step 3: Design modifi cations in your teaching and
curriculum to meet the needs of the child with dis-
abilities. Planning for inclusion in physical education
permits the child with disabilities to be physically
educated along with his or her peers. Implementation
of the IEP will be much easier and learning much
greater with planning for this special child and with
the design of a developmentally appropriate program
of physical education.
Whether the IEP specifi es full inclusion, inclusion
with support services, or inclusion plus a remedial pro-
gram, we can no longer be content with letting the child
with disabilities serve only as the scorekeeper. Neither
can we accept “token” participation. Our task is to de-
sign the program to develop each child’s skills in
*A top-down ecological model implies that planning is based on
the skills students need to achieve to be successful in the future.
We plan for the skills they will need as they leave elementary
school.
Essential Elements of Inclusion Programs
• A full continuum of placement options and services.
Placement and services must be determined for each
student by a team that includes all stakeholders and
must be specifi ed in the individualized education
program.
• Appropriate professional development, as part of normal
work activity, for all educators and support staff associ-
ated with such programs.
• Adequate time, as part of the normal school day, to en-
gage in coordinated and collaborative planning on behalf
of all students.
• Class sizes that are responsive to student needs.
• Staff and technical assistance that are specifi cally appro-
priate to student and teacher needs.
Source: NEA Today, July 1996. (Washington, DC: National
Education Association).
CHAPTER 6 Teaching Diverse Learners 95
gymnastics, games, and dance, and to provide oppor-
tunities for these students to reach the goals that have
been established for them.
Adaptations in tasks will permit any child to partici-
pate, to achieve, and to develop skills commensurate
with personal ability. With an understanding of ba-
sic concepts, an awareness of the children’s needs,
and knowledge of how to adapt the environment
and the curriculum, the teacher can create an en-
abling environment for children with special needs.
Children with disabilities can function in an elemen-
tary physical education environment that allows
individual response and fosters performance at the
individual’s skill level and that is taught by teachers
who observe, refl ect, and make changes in light of
children’s needs.
Implementing Inclusion
Even with a strong belief in the philosophy of inclu-
sion, initial attempts at implementation are often ac-
companied with feelings of apprehension. Can I meet
the needs of this child with disabilities? Can I meet the
needs of all the children in my class? The following
strategies will assist in implementing inclusion:
Prepare yourself
• Learn everything you can about the disability. Con-
tact your nearest medical library; the librarians will
be happy to provide information for you. Search the
Internet; the search will be limited only by the time
you can devote to the learning.
• Get to know the child and his or her family. Visit
with the child in the home environment. Invite
the parents to school to observe a physical educa-
tion class. Let the family and the child get to know
you. Discussion will be much easier if the child
and the parents are comfortable with you as the
teacher.
Prepare the class
• Discuss the disability in general terms with the class
the child with disabilities will be attending.
• Tell the class about the child —his or her likes and
dislikes, his or her strengths. Discuss things the class
can do to help the child in physical education —
things to help, not hinder, the child.
Become an active member of the M-Team.
• You are the expert in terms of the child’s motor
functioning and skill level. You are the key in the
design of goals for motor development and appro-
priate placement for the child. You are critical to the
discussion of assistance needed for the child in
physical education.
Plan for success
• Using the ecological model described above, make
the following decisions in your daily planning:
Is this lesson appropriate for the child with dis-
abilities? What modifi cations need to be made in
the tasks presented for the child with disabilities?
Is this a lesson that is not appropriate, and if so,
what goals from the IEP can be the alternative
activities for the lesson?
• The “ecological model” approach to planning plus
participation in the remedial physical education
class will greatly facilitate positive, successful physi-
cal education for the child with disabilities and for
the teacher.
Most importantly, remember inclusion is a philo-
sophy that refl ects a belief that all children, regard-
less of abilities or disabilities, are educated within the
same environment (Block 2007). It is a physical edu-
cation environment where each and every child has
their needs met. It is an environment where all chil-
dren are accepted, all are valued, an environment in
which we design, adapt, and modify experiences on
a daily basis to maximize individual learning.
A Final Thought
If we are to become teachers of all children — children
of diversity, children with disabilities —we must be
aware of and move beyond our individual biases,
beyond our preconceived expectations of students and
their potential (Timken 2005). We must value the rich-
ness of diversity and be responsive to the cultures,
needs, interests, and abilities of the children we teach.
We must know our students and know them well.
As we strive to provide maximum opportunities for
learning and development of personal potential in all
children, may the following student request be our
inspiration:
Please, my teacher, open up your . . .
Heart to care ever more deeply for us;
mind to think ever more creatively about ways of
helping us learn;
mouth to seek fresh ideas and feedback (including
from us!); and
classroom to join colleagues and parents in a
thriving community
where as teacher, parents and children together
we strive to reach our potential.
okay?
—Ronald F. Ferguson, August 2003
96 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Summary
Diversity in the United States is steadily increasing.
Diversity is defi ned as differences that exist among
people. Physical education teachers must be prepared
to teach all students, including those with differences
in mental and physical ability, skill level, fi tness level,
gender, culture, language, class, and physical charac-
teristics. It is time to support diverse learners through
a broadened conceptualization of inclusion that goes
beyond accommodating students with special needs.
Inclusion does not mean sitting on the sidelines
keeping score. Inclusion involves teachers in creating a
healthy learning climate where all children feel safe,
successful, motivated, and connected to others and
have a sense of ownership. When learning tasks or ac-
tivities do not meet these basic needs of all learners,
modifi cations must be made.
The concepts of change, challenge, and choice pro-
vide structure for making these modifi cations. Changes
can be made to any task or activity across fi ve categories:
grouping, movements, equipment, conditions, and orga-
nizational pattern. Teachers should make changes across
these categories in order to challenge all students at the
appropriate level. Another strategy for meeting the needs
of diverse learners is to create conditions that allow
students choice among appropriate tasks or challenges.
In addition to developing strategies for modifying
learning tasks, we should learn about the many ways
students can be different. This includes learning about
culturally responsive teaching, gender equity, religious
differences, children of poverty, teaching overweight
children, and teaching children with mental and physi-
cal disabilities. When a student with a disability or who
speaks another language enters our classroom, we should
educate ourselves about their unique needs through ex-
tensive reading, as well as communicating with qualifi ed
professionals, parents, and community members.
When working with diverse students, it is impor-
tant to know that integrating children with special
needs into regular educational settings is no longer a
choice for teachers and administrators. The Individu-
als with Disabilities Education Act of 1990 guarantees
each child with a disability a free and appropriate
education in the least restrictive environment. The
multidisciplinary team, commonly called the M-Team,
determines the placement that constitutes the least re-
strictive environment.
The child’s educational program, including annual
goals, support services, and any special services, is writ-
ten into the individualized education program (IEP).
The IEP includes physical education as a direct service
for all children with disabilities.
We need to educate all children concerning indi-
vidual differences and to orient them to the world of
diversity. By promoting the acceptance of all individu-
als and presenting a curriculum that focuses on the
development of skills commensurate with ability, we
can promote the acceptance of all children as contrib-
uting members of physical education classes.
Sample Web Sites for Disabilities,
Impairments, and Disorders
Attention-Defi cit /Hyperactivity Disorder
Attention Defi cit Disorder Association; www.add.org.
Children and Adults with Attention Defi cit /Hyperactivity
Disorder; www.chadd.org.
National Resource Center on AD/HD; www.help4adhd.org.
Autism, Asperger Syndrome
Autism Research Institute; www.autism.com.
Autism Society of America; www.autism-society.org.
National Institute of Neurological Disorders (Asperger Syn-
drome); www.ninds.nih.gov.
Blindness and Visual Impairments
American Foundation for the Blind; www.afb.org.
Cerebral Palsy
American Cerebral Palsy Information / 4MyChild;
www.cerebralpalsy.org.
Hearing Impairments
National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication
Disorders; www.nidecd.nih.gov.
Developmental Disabilities
Developmental Delay Resources; www.devdelay.org.
Diabetes
American Diabetes Association / For Parents & Kids / For
Schools; www.diabetes.org.
Learning Disabilities
Learning Disabilities Association of America;
www.ldaamerica.org.
Tourette Syndrome
Tourette Syndrome Association; http://tsa-usa.org.
CHAPTER 6 Teaching Diverse Learners 97
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. Defi ne diversity and provide three specifi c exam-
ples of diversity in physical education.
2. Explain the term inclusion expanded.
3. Explain what culturally responsive teaching is. Use
two specifi c examples of things a physical educa-
tor might do to become a more culturally respon-
sive teacher.
4. Describe three ways a teacher can create a more
gender-equitable environment.
5. Explain the purpose(s) or reasons for modifying
activities.
6. Name three categories that can be used to change
activities. For each category list one modifi cation
that could be made to decrease the diffi culty of a
task, and one modifi cation that could be made to
increase the diffi culty of a task.
7. Explain how choice can be used to accommodate
individual differences in physical education. Be
sure to include a specifi c example in your answer.
8. What is the Individuals with Disabilities Education
Act? What is its impact on physical education?
9. What is a multidisciplinary team? What is its func-
tion? Who serves on the M-Team?
10. Why is the physical education teacher an impor-
tant member of the multidisciplinary team?
11. What is an individualized education program?
What does it include?
12. What are the three steps in planning for inclusion?
Why is this planning important for inclusion of a
child with disabilities in physical education?
13. Choose one physically disabling condition and
explain its implications for physical education.
Discuss the adaptations involved in physical edu-
cation for this child — adaptations for the child,
adaptations for the whole class, and adaptations
for the teacher.
References /Suggested Readings
[AOA] American Obesity Association. 2002 . AOA fact sheets: Obesity in youth. Retrieved June 6, 2005, from www. obesity.org .
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Develop- ment. 2003 . Teaching all students. Educational Leadership 61(2).
Auxier , D. , J. Pyfer , and C. Huettig . 1997 . Principles and methods of adapted physical education and recreation. St. Louis, MO: Times Mirror/ Mosby .
Block , M. E. 2000 . A teacher’s guide to including students with disabilities in regular physical education. 2nd ed. Baltimore: Brookes .
Block , M. E. 2007 . A teacher’s guide to including students with disabilities in general physical education. 3rd ed. Baltimore: Brookes .
Block , M. E. , and C. Garcia , eds. 1995 . Including students with disabilities in physical education: A position statement. Reston, VA: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Rec- reation and Dance .
Chappelle , S. , and L. Bigman , with F. Hillyer . 1998 . Diver- sity in action. Hamilton, MA: Project Adventure .
Cummins , J. 1992 . The empowerment of Indian stu- dents. In Teaching American Indian Students, ed. J. Reyhnor, pp. 3 –12 . Norman: University of Oklahoma .
Davis , K. L. 1999 . Giving women a chance to learn: Gen- der equity principles for HPERD classes. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 70(4): 13 –15 .
Davis , K. L. 2003 . Teaching for gender equity in physical education: A review of the literature. Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal 12(2): 55 – 82 .
Evans , J. R. 1980 . They have to be carefully taught: A hand- book for parents and teachers of young children with handi- capping conditions. Reston, VA: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance .
Gay , G. 2000 . Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, re- search, and practice. New York: Teachers College Press .
Haynes , C. C. 1999 . A teacher’s guide to religion in the public schools. Nashville: First Amendment Center . Available for free download at www.freedomforum.org .
Hutchinson , G. E. 1995 . Gender-fair teaching in physical education. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 66(1): 42 – 47 .
Kahan , D. 2003 . Religious boundaries in public school physical activity settings (law review). Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 74(1): 11–13 .
MacCracken , M. 1978 , July. Teacher. In Touch 1(6).
Meece , J. L. , and B. Kurtz-Costes. 2001 . The schooling of ethnic minority children and youth. Educational Psycholo- gist 36(1): 1–7 .
Morris , G. S.D. , and J. Stiehl . 1999 . Changing kids’ games. 2nd ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Morris , G. S.D. , J. Stiehl . and C. Sinclair . 2006 . Change, challenge, choice: Creating strategies that include everyone. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
98 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Napper-Owen , G. E. 1994 . Equality in the elementary gymnasium. Strategies 8(3): 23 –26 .
Napper-Owen , G. E. , S. K. Kovar , K. L. Ermler , and J. H. Mehrhof. 1999 . Curricula equity in required ninth-grade physical education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Educa- tion 19: 2 –21 .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2005 . Physical education for lifelong fi tness: The physical best teachers guide. 2nd ed. Champaign, IL: Hu- man Kinetics .
[NCES] National Center of Educational Statistics. 2000 . The condition of education. Washington, DC: U.S. Depart- ment of Education, Offi ce of Educational Research and Improvement .
National Education Association. 1996 , July. NEA Today. Washington, DC: National Education Association .
Oberti , C. 1993 . Inclusion: A parent’s perspective. Excep- tional Parent 23(7): 18 –21 .
Olson , L. 2004 , Jan. 8. Enveloping expectations. In Qual- ity counts 2004: Count me in: Special education in an era of standards. Education Week on the Web. Retrieved Septem- ber 14, 2005, from www.edweek.org /sreports/qc04 .
Rohnke , K. 1989 . Cowstails and cobras II: A guide to games, initiatives, ropes courses and adventure curriculum. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt .
Sagor , R. 2002 . Lessons from skateboarders. Educational Leadership 60(1): 34 – 37 .
Sherrill , C. 2004 . Adapted physical activity, recreation, and sport. 6th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill .
Singer , A. 2004 , December. The changing face of America. eJour nal USA: Society and Values. Retrieved June 6, 2005, from usinfo.state.gov/journals/itsv/1204/ijse/singer.htm.
Sparks , W. G. III . 1994 . Culturally responsive pedagogy: A framework for addressing multicultural issues. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 65(9): 33 – 36, 61 .
Tiedt , P. L. , and I. M. Tredt. 1990 . Multicultural teaching: A handbook of activities, information, and resources. Boston: Allyn & Bacon .
Timken , G. L. 2005 . Teaching all kids: Valuing students through culturally responsive and inclusive practice. In Standards-based physical education curriculum development, ed. J. Lund and D. Tannehill, pp. 78 – 97. Boston: Jones & Bartlett .
Tipps , C. R. 2006. Kids at hope: All children are capable of success –No exceptions! JOPERD 77(1): 24 –26 .
Tomlinson , C. A. 2003 . Deciding to teach them all. Edu- cational Leadership 61(2): 7–11 .
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P A R T
99
Part 2 describes many of the teaching skills that teachers use to help
children learn and enjoy physical activity. Chapter 7, “Determining Generic
Levels of Skill Profi ciency,” describes a system for matching class activities,
or tasks, with the abilities of the children so that success rates can be high
and enjoyment frequent. As we know, neither age nor grade level is an ac-
curate indicator of a child’s physical abilities. Chapter 7 provides a system
for observing children that can enable the teacher to match the content of
the lessons (which are organized according to the generic levels) with the
children’s abilities.
Chapter 8, “Planning,” discusses lesson planning skills. A poorly
planned or inappropriately organized lesson often will fail, regardless of
a teacher’s ability to interact with children. Chapter 8 describes step-
by-step effective planning for the year and the day and covers such im-
portant points as how to record progress, design lessons, and actually
enjoy planning.
Chapters 9 to 11—“Establishing an Environment for Learning,” “Maintain-
ing Appropriate Behavior,” and “Developing the Content,” respectively —
discuss skills used in the instructional process. These skills all involve develop-
ing an environment in physical education that supports learning. Chapter 9
includes ideas for creating a positive learning environment in physical education. The chapter elabo-
rates on various ways to establish the proper attitudes, how to foster an atmosphere conducive to
learning in the gymnasium, and how to set up safety procedures.
Chapter 10 provides practical ideas on maintaining a productive environment, including ap-
proaches for working both with individual children and with entire classes. Specifi c examples from
actual teaching situations illustrate how to increase appropriate and decrease inappropriate be-
havior and how to maintain proper behavior. The teacher is shown how to interact positively with
the children; how to work with them one on one; how to apply “punishment,” such as time-outs
and desists; and how to follow worthwhile reward systems, such as class rewards and tokens.
2
Teaching Skills
100
Chapter 11 outlines the process of making decisions to de-
velop the content. Refl ective teachers constantly fi nd themselves
asking such questions as, Which tasks are appropriate for this
class of children? Will the children benefi t from a cue (refi ne-
ment), or should the task be changed to a harder or easier one?
This task is appropriate for the children, but they seem to be
getting bored —how can their interest be maintained? These are
the questions that we respond to in Chapter 11 as we explain a
process for developing the content and provide practical exam-
ples. This is an especially important chapter because all the
chapters in Parts 3 and 4 are based on this approach to content
development.
Chapter 12, “Observing Student Responses,” focuses on
observing children’s responses to movement tasks and in-
cludes a format for observing classes that includes safety,
on-task behavior, and the movements of the entire class and
individual children. Two observation techniques of back-to-
the-wall and scanning are suggested as effective ways in which
to observe.
Chapter 13, “Instructional Approaches,” provides an overview
of the pedagogy of skill themes by describing a variety of
different instructional techniques used to create active learning
experiences for children. This chapter explains a number of ap-
proaches that go beyond direct interactive instruction to indirect
instruction — for example, task sheets, stations, peer teaching,
cooperative learning, guided discovery, and child-designed
instruction. Each of these alternatives provides a more engaging
way for children to learn as well as more fully addressing the
cognitive and affective goals of our physical education classes.
The fi nal two chapters in Part 2, “Assessing Student Learning”
(Chapter 14) and “Understanding Your Teaching” (Chapter 15),
both focus on attempting to determine how well lessons are
going — for the children, and for you as a teacher. In recent years,
educators have started to use alternative methods of evaluating
children — commonly called assessment for learning. These tech-
niques are ongoing, rather being than a culminating experience at
the end of a series of lessons, and are designed by teachers to
assess specifi cally what they have been teaching. Chapter 14 in-
cludes some of these techniques, such as journals, exit slips,
student drawings, and displays. Additionally, scoring rubrics are
explained as a way to determine how well children have learned
what was taught.
Successful teachers not only assess children but also assess
their own teaching. Chapter 15 describes some of the techniques
teachers use to do so —by themselves or with the assistance of
students and /or colleagues. This chapter concludes by discuss-
ing the importance of support groups for teachers as one way to
provide encouragement and comfort in a challenging profession.
As in Part 1, useful reading comprehension questions and refer-
ences are provided at the end of each chapter.
101
C H A P T E R
7
Determining Generic Levels of Skill Profi ciency Where parents have a voice in physical education programs, they usually insist that the curriculum
includes the dances, games, and sports skills of their culture. At the elementary level these activities
are often preceded by the fundamental skills that are combined into more complex tasks as age
and skill levels increase. . . . Teachers are to concentrate on the process of learning by selecting the
appropriate content for whatever level of development the child demonstrates.
— VERN SEEFELDT
102 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
T hink about a group of your friends or maybe a
class you are teaching. If they were asked to drib-
ble a ball with their feet through a general space,
would they all be able to do it successfully? Would
some, perhaps those on a soccer team, be much more
profi cient than others? Would some keep losing con-
trol of the ball?
You probably answered yes to the last two questions.
Obviously age, or grade level, is not an accurate pre-
dictor of developmental level. If all fi fth graders had
identical motor skill abilities, this chapter would not
be necessary. Typically, however, in a fi fth-grade class,
there is a wide range of motor abilities — and that range
only increases with age.
One challenge of refl ective teaching (Chapter 5) is
matching a task (activity) to the ability of a child. If a
task is appropriate, not too hard and not too easy, the
child will typically be successful and therefore remain
interested, continue trying, and learn. If a task is too
easy, however, the child will become bored and lose
interest; too hard, and the child will want to do some-
thing else because of the frustration level. Matching
tasks to abilities is complicated drastically by the fact
that we don’t teach one child at a time —we typically
teach 25 or more in a class. And the range of abilities
within any class is typically a wide one. Some of the
children may never have tried an activity, whereas oth-
ers may have been playing it at home after school or
on a team for several years.
In writing this book, we knew from the outset that
describing and organizing activities according to the
children’s grade level would be inadequate. We dis-
cussed the possibility of organizing the curriculum ac-
cording to the categories of beginner, intermediate,
and advanced. We learned quickly, however, that even
among the three of us who had been working together
closely, there were different concepts of what consti-
tuted a beginning, an intermediate, and an advanced
level of ability. We needed a classifi cation system that
would help us communicate with one another — and
with you.
As we reviewed the literature, we came across a
classifi cation system developed by Sheila Stanley
(1977), which we found to be descriptive and helpful
in communicating the range of abilities related to a
skill. She proposed four levels, which we have termed
the generic levels of skill profi ciency (GLSP): precontrol,
control, utilization, and profi ciency. As we discussed
her system, we found that it was helpful to us and
allowed us to describe and understand the range of
motor abilities more accurately.
The term generic is synonymous with terms such as
universal , all-purpose , covering a broad spectrum . We
thought it would be too diffi cult and confusing if we
created a different classifi cation system for each skill
theme. Thus, we use the term generic to mean that the
same classifi cation system can be used to analyze
youngsters’ ability levels for all of the different skill
themes. Levels of skill profi ciency is the phrase we use to
identify children’s developmental level for each of the
skill themes. We are not suggesting that the GLSP are
precise, exact measures of motor ability. They are,
however, immensely helpful as a way to observe a class
of youngsters to quickly determine their overall ability
and make an informed decision about which task is
appropriate for the overall skill level of the class. The
GLSP system also enables the teacher to assess indi-
vidual youngsters quickly when attempting to manage
an entire class.
We have organized and sequenced the content in
the skill theme chapters by the GLSP. As you become
familiar with these terms, we think you, too, will fi nd
them more descriptive and helpful than the beginner-
to-advanced classifi cations. Before describing how we
have used the GLSP throughout the text, we fi rst need
to defi ne and describe each of the four skill levels.
• The generic levels of skill profi ciency (GLSP) provide a
relatively quick and easy way to assess the abilities of
entire classes of children.
• The GLSP apply to the skill themes, not the movement
concepts.
• The GLSP serve as a guide to matching the diffi culty of
a task (activity) to the ability of the students so they can
have success and yet still be challenged.
• Precontrol level is the beginner or novice level. At this
level, successful performances are typically accidents
and are rarely repeated.
• At the control level, tasks require intense concentration if
they are to be performed successfully. Learners at this
level are easily distracted.
• Learners at the utilization level are ready to combine sev-
eral skills together or practice in dynamic, un predictable
contexts.
• Profi ciency level is the expert, or mastery, level.
• It is unreasonable to expect children to advance from the
precontrol to the profi ciency level in a skill theme if they
practice that skill only during physical education classes.
• Adults can be at the precontrol level in skill themes they
have had little or no opportunity to practice.
Key Concepts
CHAPTER 7 Determining Generic Levels of Skill Profi ciency 103
Identifying Generic Levels of Skill Profi ciency
Observable characteristics of each generic level of skill
profi ciency are discussed below and listed in Box 7-1 .
Precontrol Level
The precontrol (beginner) level is characterized by lack
of ability to either consciously control or intentionally
replicate a movement. For example, a child at the pre-
control level who is bouncing a ball spends more time
chasing after the ball than bouncing it — the ball seems
to control the child. A child who tries to do a forward
roll may complete a revolution on a mat or may get
stuck, not rolling at all or rolling half forward and half
to the side and fi nishing fl at on the back. A child’s
efforts to strike a ball with a racket are characterized
by frequent misses, mishits, and an ineffi cient and
inconsistent striking pattern. Successful skill perfor-
mances are a surprise! Most preschool and kindergar-
ten children are at the precontrol level. By the time
children are in the fi rst grade, however, you’ll observe
some of them entering the control level.
Control Level
The control (advanced beginner) level is character-
ized by less haphazard movements — the body
appears to respond more accurately to the child’s
intentions. The child’s movements often involve in-
tense concen tration because the movements are far
from automatic. A movement that is repeated be-
comes increasingly uniform and effi cient. At this
level, a cartwheel the child performs is more or less
identifi able as a cartwheel; the child is able to travel
in a previously identifi ed direction while briefl y tak-
ing full weight on the hands. When the child tries to
Box 7-1
Precontrol Level
• Child is unable to repeat movements in succession; one
attempt doesn’t look like another attempt to perform the
same movement.
• Child uses extraneous movements that are unnecessary for
effi ciently performing the skill.
• Child seems awkward and frequently doesn’t even come
close to performing the skill correctly.
• Correct performances are characterized more by surprise
than by expectancy.
• When the child practices with a ball, the ball seems to control
the child.
Control Level
• The child’s movements appear less haphazard and seem to
conform more to the child’s intentions.
• Movements appear more consistent, and repetitions are
somewhat alike.
• The child begins to perform the skill correctly more frequently.
• The child’s attempt to combine one movement with another
or perform the skill in relation to an unpredictable object or
person is usually unsuccessful.
• Because the movement isn’t automatic, the child needs to
concentrate intensely on what he or she is doing.
Utilization Level
• The movement becomes more automatic and can be
performed successfully, with concentration.
• Even when the context of the task is varied (slightly at fi rst),
the child can still perform the movement successfully.
• The child has developed control of the skill in predictable
situations and is beginning to be able to move skillfully in
unpredictable situations. The child can execute the skill the
same way consistently.
• The child can use the skill in combination with other skills
and still perform it appropriately.
Profi ciency Level
• The skill has become almost automatic, and performances
in a similar context appear almost identical.
• The child is able to focus on extraneous variables — an
opponent, an unpredictable object, the fl ow of travel— and
still perform the skill as intended.
• The movement often seems effortless as the child performs
the skill with ease and seeming lack of attention.
• The movement can be performed successfully in a
variety of planned and unplanned situations as the child
appears to modify performance to meet the demands of
the situation.
Observable Characteristics of the Generic Levels of Skill Profi ciency
104 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
One Child, More Than One Level
Now that you have an understanding of the four levels
of skill profi ciency, we can expand our use of the term
generic. Once again, our jobs as teachers would be much
easier if every child had the same ability — not only
within a grade, but also for every skill. If this were so,
we could, for example, merely observe a child kicking
a ball at the utilization level and thereby determine
that the child was also at the utilization level in throw-
ing, balancing, and jumping and landing. As you
know, however, this is not the case. A child may be at
the utilization level in one skill and at the precontrol
level in another. It’s not uncommon for children in
our classes to be skillful (utilization-level) throwers
and catchers and be at the precontrol level in the non-
manipulative skills of rolling, balancing, and transfer-
ring weight. By generic, then, we mean that the terms
precontrol, control, utilization, and profi ciency are used to
describe a child’s ability in every skill we teach —we
don’t use a different set of terms to describe the skill
level for balancing, for example, and still another set
of terms to describe the skill level for volleying. The
hypothetical example in Figure 7.1 illustrates two
points: (1) the GLSP apply to all the skills we teach,
and (2) children are typically at different skill levels for
different skills.
Figure 7.1 also suggests that age is not an accurate
indicator of ability. If it were, all adults would be skillful
throw a ball at a target, the ball usually travels in the
direction of the target.
Some primary-grade children are at the control
level. You’ll begin to observe that a few children in-
volved in certain youth sports programs are at the next
level, the utilization level. This is true only for their
sport, however. For example, children involved in after-
school gymnastics programs may be approaching the
utilization level in the skill themes of rolling or trans-
ferring weight, but they may be at the precontrol level
for throwing and catching or kicking a ball.
Utilization Level
The utilization (intermediate) level is characterized by
increasingly automatic movements. A child at this
level is able to use a movement in a variety of ways
because he or she doesn’t need to think as much about
how to execute the movement. Dribbling a ball in a
game situation is appropriate for a child at the utiliza-
tion level. When children at the previous level (control)
try to dribble a ball, they spend more time chasing the
ball than dribbling because they’re unable to focus on
dribbling a ball while trying to travel away from an op-
ponent. A cartwheel, as one in a sequence of three
movements, is also an appropriate task for a child at
the utilization level.
As children get older, the gap between the skill lev-
els widens. Children in the fourth and fi fth grades who
are involved in youth sports programs are often at the
utilization level in the skill themes used in their sport,
but not necessarily in other skills. In the same class, how-
ever, it’s not uncommon to have children who have
remained at the precontrol level, primarily because of
their lack of activity beyond formally organized physi-
cal education classes.
Profi ciency Level
The fourth level, profi ciency (advanced), is character-
ized by somewhat automatic movements that begin
to seem effortless. At this level, the child gains con-
trol of a specifi c movement and is challenged by the
opportunities to employ that skill in changing en-
vironments that may require sudden and unpre-
dictable movements (open skill). The challenge of
repeating movements exactly and with ever-increasing
degrees of quality (closed skill) is also appropriate
for children at this level. Rarely are elementary school
children at the profi ciency level in a skill. In almost
every instance, their profi ciency is a result of their
extensive involvement in after-school youth sports
programs.
Proficiency
Utilization
Control
Precontrol
L e a p
in g
B a la
n c in
g
R o ll in
g
T ra
n sf
e rr
in g
w e ig
h t
T h
ro w
in g
C a tc
h in
g
P u n
ti n
g
S tr
ik in
g w
it h
a r
a c k e t
S tr
ik in
g w
it h
a b
a t
Figure 7.1 Hypothetical example representing a child’s varying
levels of profi ciency in different skills.
CHAPTER 7 Determining Generic Levels of Skill Profi ciency 105
at striking with a racket, for example, and we know this
isn’t true. We often observe fourth and fi fth graders at
the precontrol level when a new skill is introduced,
one they have never practiced. Generally, however,
because of their physical maturation and previous ex-
periences, they move from the precontrol level more
rapidly than the primary-grade children (although
there are always exceptions).
Using the Generic Levels of Skill Profi ciency in Teaching
The generic levels of skill profi ciency provide a broad
guideline for answering two important questions:
1. What is the ability level of this class?
2. Which tasks and activities work best for a class at
this GLSP?
Although there will be a range of skill levels within any
class, we as teachers make a judgment about the over-
all ability of the class. Then we modify the tasks for
individuals using teaching by invitation and intratask
variation, as discussed in Chapter 11.
Tasks that succeed with one class may need to be
changed (made easier or harder) to meet the needs of
the next class. The GLSP provide us with broad guide-
lines for doing so. For example, it is generally safe to
assume that most of the children in school through
fi rst grade will be at the precontrol level.
In the upper grades, however, we typically fi nd a
few children who are at precontrol level, a number at
control level, some at utilization level, and a few, espe-
cially in middle school, who might be at profi ciency
level: the higher the grade level, the greater the range
of skill levels within a class.
Note that we use the generic levels of skill profi -
ciency to describe a youngster’s profi ciency for each
skill theme — for example, kicking, jumping and land-
ing, or striking a ball with a bat. The skill levels do not
pertain to the movement concepts (Chapters 16 to 18),
because the concepts aren’t skills; they represent cog-
nitive understanding expressed through versatile and
effi cient use of the skill themes. As you read further,
this point will become clearer. For now, however, just
remember that the four levels of skill profi ciency apply to
the skill themes only .
As refl ective teachers we use the GLSP in two ways.
First, we observe the students to determine their over-
all skill level. Second, we attempt to match the tasks to
the skill level of the children in the class. For example,
if we determine that the majority of the children in a
class are at the precontrol level for the skill of kicking,
we would not ask them to play a profi ciency-level
game such as Alley Soccer or Cone Soccer (Chapter 24).
Instead, we would ask them to practice precontrol
tasks, such as kicking a stationary ball from a standing
position and then running to kick the ball.
Which Task?
As teachers gain experience and learn to use the GLSP,
they become able to assess the overall skill level of a
class rather quickly and determine which tasks will be
helpful to that group (Graham et al. 1993; Housner
and Griffey 1985). For those who are new to the skill
theme approach, or perhaps new to a school, it will
take time and experience to learn the tasks that “work”
with different grade and ability levels. Veteran teachers
who have been teaching by skill themes know which
tasks will work— and which will not. Beginning teach-
ers, in contrast, will learn with practice the tasks that
are most effective, and how to make them interesting
and appealing to children of various grade levels. As
you plan, especially when you start working with the
skill theme approach, we recommend being prepared
to deliver a series of tasks (10 to 15) in a lesson — not
just one or two! Extensive planning will also help you
learn the progression of tasks for each skill theme and
movement concept. The chapters on planning and ob-
servation techniques (Chapters 8 and 12) that follow
will also help you better understand how to plan for
skill theme lessons — and when to use a task and when
to change to a new one.
Finally, it is important to remember that there is no
single, correct way to deliver the tasks in a lesson. Some
teachers, for example, prefer to start at the precontrol
level (for a class at the control level) and quickly pro-
gress up the spiral with a series of tasks that serve as a
warm-up and review for the children. Others prefer to
start with a task or activity that most closely matches
that class’s GLSP. If a task is too hard and children have
high rates of failure and frustration, then a teacher
who has planned well can move down the spiral to an
easier task. That’s why it is so important to plan a series
of tasks rather than only one or two for a lesson.
How to Know If a Task Works
Chapter 12, “Observing Student Responses,” explains
in more detail how to know if a task works, but a quick
overview of the process will be helpful here. A task
works when youngsters are provided numerous chances
to be successful— and they want to keep doing the
task. Tasks that are too hard or too easy lead to frustra-
tion or boredom. The GLSP will help you match tasks
to the ability level of the majority of the class so that
106 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Personal Opinion
Age: Sex:
Answer the following questions:
1) What is the most important thing you have learned in flag
football?
2) Did you enjoy the unit? Why? Why not?
3) Is flag football appropriate to your age? Why?/Why not?
Figure 7.2 Sixth-grader’s evaluation of a
fl ag football unit.
children are not frustrated or bored. This is why we did
not organize the book by grade levels: there is such a
wide range of variance among classes at the same grade
level. As you increase your understanding of the skill
theme approach, you will fi nd that it is relatively easy
to change tasks and activities with classes.
When a class is required to play a sport or participate
in a predesigned game—that is, a game that has been
designed with no knowledge of the class of children be-
ing taught—the teacher implicitly assumes that all the
youngsters have the same abilities and interests. The
response of a sixth-grade boy to an opinion poll about a
“fl ag football” unit ( Figure 7.2 ) provides one potent ex-
ample of how some children feel when they are all re-
quired to play a sport that requires profi ciency-level
skills. It also suggests why teaching the prerequisite skills
for successful game playing, as opposed to playing games,
is so important at the elementary school level— especially
for those youngsters who have not reached the utiliza-
tion or profi ciency level.
Insights about the Generic Levels of Skill Profi ciency
Now that you’re familiar with the four levels that con-
stitute the GLSP, you need to be aware of four insights
that will enhance your understanding of the levels and
help you apply them in your teaching situation.
Multiple Skill Levels in a Class
The fi rst insight is that in the upper-elementary and
middle school grades, you can expect to have children
in the same class at three different levels: precontrol,
control, and utilization. Your challenge as a teacher is
CHAPTER 7 Determining Generic Levels of Skill Profi ciency 107
to determine the predominant skill level and then
make adjustments for individuals, through teaching
by invitation or intratask variation (Chapter 11) and
task sheets (Chapter 13), for example. In the preschool
and primary grades, in contrast, many children will be
at the precontrol and control levels — although there
will always be an exception or two.
Control Level in Two Days a Week
The second insight we can offer is that in programs of
elementary school physical education, in which chil-
dren have physical education classes only once or
twice a week, the children will reach the utilization
level of most of the skill themes only if they do some-
thing outside of class (Graham, Metzler, and Webster
1991). Unfortunately, an increasing number of chil-
dren today are not physically active after school and
on weekends. It is our observation that, along with the
decline in physical activity beginning in the middle
school years (Chapter 1), children are also experienc-
ing a decline in their skill levels from past years. The
implication, of course, is that it is not uncommon for
a teacher to use control-level tasks for children in the
fourth and fi fth grades —because the majority haven’t
developed their skills beyond that level. If we develop
lessons using utilization- and profi ciency-level tasks,
we end up frustrating these children and convincing
them that physical activity is not enjoyable because
they are so inept.
Profi ciency Level Is Rare
Our third insight is that children who are at the profi -
ciency level in a skill are the exception. Remember that
the GLSP apply to skills, not ages. Thus anyone, re-
gardless of age, can be at the precontrol level. The stan-
dards or criteria for each of the skill levels apply across
the board to all skills and all ages. Consequently, we do
not see many children at the profi ciency level. In fact,
it seems unlikely that many children can reach pro-
fi ciency level simply by participating in a physical
education program —unless that program is a quality,
daily program. Typically children reach the profi ciency
level in a skill because they’ve been involved in an
after-school sports program in which they practice the
skill frequently or because a parent or older sister or
brother is involved in a sport and the child consequently
spends a lot of time practicing and receiving instruc-
tion in the backyard.
Overall, however, we do not observe children at
profi ciency level very often. For this reason, you will
probably use the profi ciency-level tasks we have listed
in each of the chapters more as part of teaching by
invitation and intratask variation (Chapter 11) than
with entire classes of children. This does not mean, of
course, that some of the children don’t want to per-
form the profi ciency-level tasks, especially the games.
Children who are new to the skill theme approach,
particularly those in the upper-elementary and middle
school grades, constantly ask the question, “When do
we get to play the real ‘offi cial’ game?” Our standard
answer is, “At recess. At home. On the weekends.” In
time, as the children become accustomed to the skill
theme approach and we’re able to individualize the
program to a greater extent, they no longer ask the
question — at least, not as often.
Unfortunately, some teachers succumb to the pres-
sure from the children to “play the game.” In the long
run, the children end up shortchanged, just as they do
when their diet consists primarily of unhealthy snacks
and fast food. Although it may not be as much fun as
playing games such as kickball and dodgeball, a focus
on learning and improving has the potential to help
children eventually derive the benefi ts of regular in-
volvement in physical activity (Malina 2001). Failure to
help children develop the prerequisite skills may mean
that the children, as they age, come to feel inadequate
and incompetent in physical activity. Just as it’s easier
for parents to let their children sit in front of the tele-
vision for fi ve or six hours a day, it’s easier for teachers
to let the children play kickball and dodgeball every
day. But it’s not better for the children!
Assessment Using the GLSP?
As you will see in Chapter 14 on assessment, we do not
suggest that the generic levels of skill profi ciency be
used to assess the progress of children in physical edu-
cation. After reading this chapter, you can understand
why. Change from one level to another (e.g., control
to utilization) is primarily dependent on copious
amounts of practice and experiences using the skill
themes. Unfortunately, in too many programs of phys-
ical education, there is simply not enough time to rea-
sonably expect children to progress from one skill level
to another over a semester or even a year. For this rea-
son, we assess what children can reasonably learn in
the time allotted for physical education, as you will see
in Chapter 14. Thus our fi nal insight to conclude this
chapter is that the GLSP are immensely helpful for
determining the overall skill level of a class and the
ability level of individual children. It seems unreason-
able, however, to expect that we will see dramatic
changes in skill level from year to year if children
practice the skills only during physical education
class. For this reason, we do not recommend that the
GLSP be used to assess, or grade, the progress of indi-
vidual students.
108 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Summary
Organizing curriculum by grade level or age is con-
venient. Yet because of the range of skills found at
any grade level or age, age and grade level are inade-
quate indicators of children’s skill levels. We have
adopted the concept of generic levels of skill profi -
ciency (GLSP). Assessing children’s skills in terms of
these levels is a basis for planning appropriate acti-
vities. The four generic levels of motor skill profi -
ciency are (1) precontrol, (2) control, (3) utilization,
and (4) profi ciency.
Children at the precontrol level are unable to con-
sciously control or replicate a particular movement.
At the control level, the child’s body appears to re-
spond more accurately to the child’s intentions, and
movements become increasingly similar. Movements
are even more automatic and refl exive at the utiliza-
tion level; children can use a movement in a variety
of contexts. At the profi ciency level, the child has
gained control of a movement and is challenged
by the goal of repeating movements exactly or using
movements effectively in dynamic, unpredictable
situations.
The generic levels of skill profi ciency are task
related — that is, a child at the utilization level in one
skill may be at the control level in another skill. Age
and skill level are not necessarily related.
Proficiency
Utilization
Control
Precontrol
1 5 6 7 8 92 3 4 10
10 Skills
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. What is the purpose of the GLSP? How are they
used?
2. In your own words, explain the differences between
the four levels of skill profi ciency.
3. What do we mean by generic?
4. Why isn’t age an indicator of motor skill
profi ciency?
5. Describe how the GLSP serve as a guide for selecting
and matching tasks to the abilities of children
within a class. Pick a skill theme, and describe how
you would use the GLSP to help you make your de-
cisions about which tasks to present.
6. Figure 7.1 shows a hypothetical example of a child’s
profi ciency level at several skills. Use the following
form to create your own graph. Select 10 of the skill
themes that represent your range of abilities. Graph
your skill levels. Which skill themes do you need to
work on most? Why are you less advanced at these
CHAPTER 7 Determining Generic Levels of Skill Profi ciency 109
References /Suggested Readings
Graham , G. , C. Hopple , M. Manross , and T. Sitzman. 1993 . Novice and experienced children’s physical education teachers: Insights into their situational decision-making. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 12(2): 197–214 .
Graham , G. , M. Metzler , and G. Webster . 1991 . Specialist and classroom teacher effectiveness in children’s physical education: A 3-year study [monograph]. Journal of Teach- ing in Physical Education 4: 321– 426 .
Housner , L. D. , and D. C. Griffey. 1985 . Teacher cognition: Differences in planning and interactive decision making
between experienced and inexperienced teachers. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 56: 56 – 63 .
Malina , R. M. 2001 . Adherence to physical activity from childhood to adulthood. Quest 53: 350 .
Seefeldt , V. 1979 . Developmental motor patterns: Implica- tions for elementary school physical education. In Psychol- ogy of motor behavior and sport, ed. C. Nadeau, W. Halliwell, K. Newell, and C. Roberts. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Stanley , S. 1977 . Physical education: A movement orientation. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill .
skills than at the others? Did you rate yourself at the
profi ciency level for any of these skills? If so, why
do you think you attained the profi ciency level for
that skill? Answer the same questions if you’re at
the precontrol level for any of the 10 skills you
selected.
7. In Figure 7.2, a sixth-grade boy responds to three
questions about a fl ag football unit. Why do you
think he responded as he did? What do think his
GLSP were for throwing, catching, chasing, and
fl eeing? What would you do if he were in your class
to assist him to enjoy the “unit”?
110 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
110
C H A P T E R
8
Planning “Will you please tell me which way I ought to go from here?”
“That depends a good deal on where you want to get to,” said the Cat.
“I don’t care much where,” said Alice.
“Then it doesn’t matter which way you go,” said the Cat.
— LEWIS CARROLL
If you don’t know where you are going, you will be lost when you get there.
— YOGI BERRA
If you want kids to learn to skip, teach them the essential components of skipping, let them practice
skipping, and then assess how well they can skip.
—NASPE 2004, P. 3
CHAPTER 8 Planning 111
T his and the next seven chapters focus on many
of the techniques or skills that successful teachers
use when they teach children. The fi rst teaching
skill we want to discuss is planning. Some of the mate-
rial in this chapter will be new to you—and it won’t be
explained until later in the book. You will probably
want to review this chapter again after you have read
the content chapters (Parts 3 and 4), when the examples
will probably make more sense to you.
We think it is important to start at the beginning.
Any good program begins with a good plan. For many
teachers, however, planning is one of the least enjoy-
able aspects of teaching. And yet it’s essential, because
failure to plan appropriately can lead to lessons that
are disastrous. Disorganization and spending an exces-
sive amount of time on management characterize the
lessons of the teacher who hasn’t planned effectively.
Inappropriate planning can also have long-term im-
plications. One important task of physical education is
to provide a variety of learning experiences that give
children a broad foundation of movement abilities
(Stodden et al. 2008). Children who are skillful in only
a few activities, typically games, may be the products
of programs characterized by ineffi cient planning. In-
structors who don’t plan are likely to teach only what
they know well and what the children enjoy, which
often results in an unbalanced program over the years.
Because planning is typically done during the teach-
er’s own time rather than during school time, there are
strong temptations to avoid it. It can be much more
pleasant to watch television, go to a ball game, or just
go to bed early. But planning, even though you may
consider it as onerous as homework, is necessary.
The benefi ts of effective planning include classes
that run more smoothly with less interruption and
confusion; tasks that are interesting, enjoyable, and
worthwhile; and, in some instances, less off-task be-
havior. In short, well-planned classes assist children to
learn the concepts and skills that are being taught.
Refl ective Planning
If all schools, all children, all facilities, all teachers, all
communities, and all equipment were the same, we
could simply provide you with a book of prepackaged
lesson plans that would be successful with every class
you teach, no matter the situation. As you know, how-
ever, that isn’t the case. Experienced teachers are able to
plan lessons—and entire programs—that consider the
various unique characteristics of their teaching situa-
tion (Graham et al. 1993; Housner and Griffey 1985).
The refl ective planner considers many factors when
trying to devise the best lessons possible under the
circumstances. Planning can’t be reduced to an exact
formula, but certain factors will always infl uence the
effectiveness of a lesson. Each factor is important, and
all interact to determine the teaching environment
for which the refl ective teacher must plan. When
planning, we consider class size, frequency of class
meetings, available equipment and facilities, personal
characteristics of the children, and children’s skill
levels and interests.
Class size often determines the amount and types of
information that can be presented. For example, a class
of 15 children will accomplish signifi cantly more in a
year’s time than a class of 60 (Glass et al. 1979).
Frequency of class meetings is the second factor. Classes
that meet once or twice a week accomplish far less than
classes that meet daily, because you can’t present as
much material in one or two days as you can in fi ve
(Kelly 1989). And children, particularly the younger
ones, tend to forget what they learned a week earlier.
To learn and understand a concept or skill, a child
needs a multitude of experiences with a particular
task or challenge. When the amount of available
equipment and facilities is limited, each child has fewer
opportunities to use the equipment. One result is
that children learn more slowly than they would
• Refl ective teachers plan and revise their plans over the
course of a career as they continue to strive to provide
the most productive and enjoyable learning experiences
for children.
• Planning is divided into four parts in this chapter. The fi rst
part is the development of a curriculum scope that out-
lines the content to be taught for several years.
• The second planning step is to decide how many lessons
will be devoted to each of the skill themes and movement
and fi tness concepts during a year.
• The third step is the development of benchmarks or as-
sessments that allow the refl ective teacher to determine if
the children are learning what is being taught.
• The fi nal step is the development of daily lesson plans
that are interesting and benefi cial to youngsters.
• Ideally, lessons encourage students to be physically active
during the majority of the lesson. Typically this occurs
when children are able to be successful and to consider
the lesson fun.
• Just because a lesson is fun does not mean that it is a
productive learning experience for children.
Key Concepts
112 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
with adequate equipment that would increase learn-
ing opportunities.
Equipment also dictates which experiences can be
presented. In gymnastics, for example, children who
have progressed beyond the initial stages of skill devel-
opment need apparatus—tables, beams—that allow
them to work off the fl oor, because only with such
equipment will they continue to be challenged. Simi-
larly, nylon hose rackets are appropriate for children
who are just beginning to learn to strike with imple-
ments. But foam paddles or actual rackets are essential
if the children are to remain interested in and chal-
lenged by the skill theme of striking with implements.
Facilities also infl uence planning. Kicking can be
studied briefl y in a limited indoor space. But children
can learn much more about kicking when they can
practice it outdoors in a larger area. Thus lack of ade-
quate outdoor facilities may prevent you from devoting
as much time as you’d like to a particular skill theme.
Similarly, the kind of available indoor space infl u-
ences planning. Most teachers, for example, prefer to
teach dance indoors. Hallways, classrooms with furni-
ture pushed aside, school foyers—all these indoor areas
can be used for teaching. But these aren’t ideal settings
for teaching many skill themes. It’s extremely diffi cult,
for example, to teach locomotor activities in a crowded
classroom. However, you can effectively teach the move-
ment concepts of symmetrical and nonsymmetrical
shapes in a crowded indoor area.
How responsible are the students? Children’s ability
to function in a variety of environments also infl uences
planning (see Chapters 9 and 10). During the fi rst
few meetings of a class, you can gather observations
about the children’s characteristics; this information is
useful when you plan lessons for a particular class.
Some classes and some individual children can coop-
erate with others and work well in less than optimal
circumstances.
The four factors just mentioned are easier to assess
than children’s skill levels and interests. You must have
this information, though, to decide what tasks are
appropriate and how to present those tasks. You want
to challenge the students but not overwhelm them,
so they will continue to be interested and will want
to learn.
If you decide that your class needs to be introduced
to the concept of levels (Chapter 16), many factors,
including the children’s ages and abilities, will deter-
mine your plan for this lesson. Young, unskilled chil-
dren often enjoy the challenge of taking different body
parts into different levels—for example, “Can you
move your elbow into low level?” “Can you move an
ankle into high level?” Children in the intermediate
grades might be bored by that task and so would
probably learn more effectively if challenged to catch
or strike a ball at low or high levels.
When teaching children in the upper grades, it’s im-
portant to consider the types of movement experiences
to which they’ve already been exposed. You’ll want to
take advantage of skills learned in earlier experiences,
and you’ll also want to avoid repetition of material
with which students are already familiar. For example,
if the children are profi cient in the skills used in soft-
ball, you may decide to minimize the amount of time
spent on the skill theme of striking with bats.
A Four-Step Planning Process
Although there are several ways teachers plan either
alone or as a group when they develop a curriculum,
we suggest a four-step planning process that provides
children with a progression of learning experiences
over several years. At this point in the book, much of
the terminology will be new to you. Our recommen-
dation is that you continue to read with the under-
standing that you’ll return to this chapter after reading
more of the book, when the examples we provide to
illustrate the four parts of the planning process will
make more sense to you. Don’t be frustrated, however,
Effective teachers use many resources to plan successful lessons.
CHAPTER 8 Planning 113
if you don’t understand the meaning of every term we
use—the defi nitions are in future chapters. At this
point, it’s important that you understand the process
itself—the four steps that describe one way to develop
an overall plan for a physical education program. The
four steps are:
Step 1: Develop a curriculum scope and sequence
for the entire fi ve or six years of the program.
Step 2: Develop a yearly plan from the program
scope and sequence, deciding approximately how
many days you will devote to the various movement
concepts and skill themes for each grade taught
that year.
Step 3: Decide which part of each of the skill themes
and movement and fi tness concepts you’ll focus on,
with special attention to the cues or refi nements
(see Chapter 11) that you will be emphasizing. These
are referred to as benchmarks or checkpoints.
Step 4: Write daily lesson plans.
An analogy may help explain the process. Imagine
that you and a friend are going on a trip. You are
planning to drive several thousand miles. You would
prob ably ask and answer questions similar to the four
steps:
1. Where do we plan to end up? What do we plan to
visit along the way?
2. How many days do we plan to stay in each location?
3. What will we use as our performance indicators (or
benchmarks) along the way to determine how well
our plan is working?
4. How will we organize each day?
Effective teachers ask, and answer, essentially the same
four questions as they plan their programs. The plan-
ning process used by teachers employing a skill theme
approach—one of asking and answering these four
questions—is described (with examples) in the follow-
ing sections. We caution you that the process may
appear complex, but, just as with a long journey, taking
it step by step makes it much easier.
Step 1: Developing the Scope and Sequence
The fi rst step is deciding what you will include in your
curriculum—and what you will not include. This is
the scope of the curriculum. Teachers in Florida, for
example, would probably not focus on ice skating or
snow skiing, whereas teachers in Alaska and Minnesota
might. Reviewing the curriculum scope tells us what is
included—and what is not.
Just as in your imaginary trip with a friend, you will
need to decide the sequence of your journey—where
Table 8.1 Sample of Movement Concept Scope and
Sequence for Grades K– 5 (Step 1 in Planning)
Movement Concept K 1 2 3 4 5
Space Awareness
Self-space X X
General space X X X
Levels X X X
Directions X X X
Pathways X X X
Extensions X X
Effort
Time /speed X X X X X
Force X X X X
Flow X X X X
Relationships
Body part identifi cation X
Shapes X X X
Relationships with objects X X X X
Relationships with people X X X X
Notes: This chart is intended only as an example. Refl ective teachers will want
to adapt this chart for their school.
X denotes that a movement concept is the major focus of lessons at a
grade level. Concepts are studied at other grade levels but not as the primary
focus of the lesson.
you will go fi rst, second, and so on. The curriculum
sequence provides an overview of the order in which
the content will be taught, and at what grade levels. In
the skill theme approach, the movement concepts
( Table 8.1 ) are emphasized in grades K–2 (visited fi rst)
and the skill themes (Table 8.2) in grades 3–5. This
does not mean that fi rst graders never throw or kick in a
skill theme approach, but rather that the lesson focuses
not on learning to throw or kick, but on using move-
ment concepts to enhance the effectiveness of those
skills. In contrast, a concept like pathways is important
as fourth and fi fth graders participate in small-sided
games in which they try to escape (fl ee) or catch. At the
upper grades, however, the children have already learned
the concept of pathways, so we incorporate straight,
curved, and zigzag pathways into their games, dance,
and gymnastic routines to make them more interesting
and challenging.
As we have discussed in previous chapters, Chil-
dren Moving focuses on youngsters learning the fun-
damental motor skills (Stodden et al. 2008) used in a
variety of sports and physical activities, but not the
offi cial, adult versions (rules) of the sports (Chapters 2,
3, and 31). Consequently, our organizing themes are
not sports, but skill themes and concepts (movement,
fi tness, and wellness). Tables 8.1 and 8.2 provide ex-
amples of a scope and sequence for movement con-
cepts (Table 8.1) and skill themes ( Table 8.2 ). These
114 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Table 8.2 Sample Skill Theme Scope and Sequence for
Grades K– 5 (Step 1 in Planning)
Skill Theme K 1 2 3 4 5
Traveling
Walking X X
Running X X
Hopping X X X
Skipping X X X
Galloping X X X
Leaping X X X X
Sliding X X X X
Chasing, Fleeing, Dodging X X X X X
Jumping and Landing X X X X X X
Balancing X X X X X
Transferring Weight X X X X
Rolling X X X X X X
Kicking X X X X
Punting X X
Throwing X X X X
Catching X X X X
Volleying X X X
Hand Dribbling X X X X
Foot Dribbling X X X X
Striking with Rackets X X X X
Striking with Long-Handled Implements
Bats X X X
Golf clubs X X X
Hockey sticks X X X
Notes: This chart is intended only as an example. Refl ective teachers will want
to adapt this chart for their school.
X denotes that a skill theme is the major focus of lessons at a grade level.
Concepts are studied at other grade levels but not as the primary focus of the
lesson.
Table 8.3 Sample Yearly Overview of Number of Lessons
for a Two-Day-a-Week Program: Grades K, 2, and 4
(Step 2 in Planning)
Concept / Theme /Activity K 2 4
Establishing a Learning Environment 6 4 3
Space Awareness 10 4 2
Effort 4 4 3
Relationships 6 4 3
Traveling 10 3 1
Chasing, Fleeing, Dodging 3 5 3
Jumping and Landing 4 4 3
Rolling 2 4 4
Balancing 4 4 4
Transferring Weight 2 3 4
Kicking and Punting 4 4 4
Throwing and Catching 4 6 6
Volleying 0 2 4
Dribbling 1 2 3
Striking with Rackets 2 4 4
Striking with Hockey Sticks 0 1 2
Striking with Golf Clubs 0 1 2
Striking with Bats 0 1 2
Fitness / Wellness Concepts 5 7 10
Field Day and Other Events 5 5 5
Total Days per Year 72 72 72
Note: Numbers represent days per year that a concept theme will be the major
focus of a lesson. Numbers are intended for discussion only; the overview will
differ from teacher to teacher.
examples are organized by grade levels to be consistent
with the National Association for Sport and Physical
Fitness’s National Standards (NASPE 1995, 2004). The
grade levels merely serve as a general indicator, how-
ever; the decisions about what to teach and when are
based on observing the actual classes of children we
teach (Chapters 7 and 12). So when you develop the
scope and sequences for your own program, the fi rst
two questions you will need to answer as a refl ective
teacher are:
1. What do I want to include in my curriculum
(scope)?
2. At what grade levels will I emphasize the various
concepts and skills (sequence)?
Step 2: Devising a Yearly Overview
Continuing the analogy of a trip with a friend, the
next step would be to decide how long you plan to
spend at each destination. You will visit some places
only briefl y; at others you will spend several days. In
curriculum development, once you have decided
your scope and sequence, the next step is to develop
a yearly overview. How many days do you plan to
spend teaching the movement concept “levels” to
kindergarten children? How many days will you
spend teaching your fourth and fi fth graders to strike
with paddles?
Table 8.3 exemplifi es the overview of a teacher who
sees children twice a week (72 days a year) for physical
education. It uses the kindergarten, second-, and
fourth-grade levels to be consistent with the National
Standards and provides one example of how many days
a teacher might spend on the various concepts and
skills in a given year.
Find Your State Standards
In recent years, many states have revised or developed
state standards based on the National Standards. If you
are interested in locating your standards, go to PE Central
( www.pecentral.org ). You will fi nd the state standards listed
under the “Professional Information” link on the front page.
CHAPTER 8 Planning 115
As you review Table 8.3, two facts should strike you:
• There aren’t enough days for youngsters to learn
everything recommended in most curriculum guides
or state or national standards.
• The primary-grade emphasis is on the movement
concepts; the upper-grade emphasis is on the skill
themes.
Like Tables 8.1 and 8.2, Table 8.3 is for illustrative
purposes only. As a refl ective teacher, you will want to
ask and answer the following question based on your
specifi c teaching situation: “How many days a year
will I be able to allocate to teaching each concept and
skill theme?”
Once you have developed a yearly overview for your
program, you’ll need to translate it into a yearly calen-
dar. Essentially, this involves deciding which skill
themes or concepts you’ll emphasize during which
days of the school year. Most school districts provide
planning calendars, and preparation of the yearly cal-
endar can be done rather easily at the beginning of the
school year during planning days. Figure 8.1 shows
one type of planning calendar.
Based on what we know about how children learn,
it seems wise to distribute the throwing lessons over the
year rather than to mass them together (Rink 1996). If,
for example, a teacher planned to teach throwing for
three days of the year, two of the throwing lessons
might be scheduled in September, the third in March.
A teacher with a three-day-a-week program might have
a total of nine throwing lessons. In such a case, the
teacher might decide to devote three lessons in a row
to throwing, but it’s still better to spread the total num-
ber of lessons throughout the year. Continuing to re-
visit lessons helps the children better remember the
key points; spending several days on a skill or concept
and then not reviewing it for another year is much less
effective. Again, it’s important to emphasize that the
children will actually practice throwing in more classes
than just the ones that focus primarily on throwing.
For example, the sessions dedicated to catching will
typically offer many opportunities to throw. In these
Week 1
M
T
W
T
F
Week 7
M
T
W
T
F
Week 13
M
T
W
T
F
Week 19
M
T
W
T
F
Week 25
M
T
W
T
F
Week 31
M
T
W
T
F
Week 2
M
T
W
T
F
Week 8
M
T
W
T
F
Week 14
M
T
W
T
F
Week 20
M
T
W
T
F
Week 26
M
T
W
T
F
Week 32
M
T
W
T
F
Week 3
M
T
W
T
F
Week 9
M
T
W
T
F
Week 15
M
T
W
T
F
Week 21
M
T
W
T
F
Week 27
M
T
W
T
F
Week 33
M
T
W
T
F
Week 4
M
T
W
T
F
Week 10
M
T
W
T
F
Week 16
M
T
W
T
F
Week 22
M
T
W
T
F
Week 28
M
T
W
T
F
Week 34
M
T
W
T
F
Week 5
M
T
W
T
F
Week 11
M
T
W
T
F
Week 17
M
T
W
T
F
Week 23
M
T
W
T
F
Week 29
M
T
W
T
F
Week 35
M
T
W
T
F
Week 6
M
T
W
T
F
Week 12
M
T
W
T
F
Week 18
M
T
W
T
F
Week 24
M
T
W
T
F
Week 30
M
T
W
T
F
Week 36
M
T
W
T
F
Figure 8.1 Yearly planning calendar.
116 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
sessions, however, the teacher will focus on the way the
children catch, not on the way they throw. Obviously,
children don’t become effective throwers in three les-
sons a year—it takes much more time and practice. It is
possible for them to learn parts of the overhand throw,
however, in three lessons a year. It is reasonable to ex-
pect, for example, that they can learn to step with the
foot opposite the throwing hand or turn their non-
dominant side toward the target (see Chapter 11).
The beginning teacher will have to experiment
with devising the lesson sequences. This process of
sequencing lessons to enhance learning movement
concepts or skill themes is a valuable one. With prac-
tice, you’ll learn to predict, with increasing accuracy,
the appropriate emphasis that you should place on a
theme or concept in a given class. And experience
helps you adjust the sequence of the lessons to ac-
count for individual differences within a class and
among classes. Once you have outlined a sequence,
you can rearrange that sequence without losing sight
of the intended direction or progression of the skill
theme or movement concept.
Here are helpful guidelines for developing your
yearly overviews:
• The fi rst time you introduce a concept or theme, the
children will need several lessons in a row to grasp
the major ideas. Later in the year, they’ll need less
time. Mass the practice in the beginning of the year;
distribute it later (Schmidt and Wrisberg 2008).
During weeks 4 and 6, for example, you may devote
four lessons to jumping and landing. For the re-
mainder of the year, jumping and landing are the
major focus of the lesson for only two days in a row.
This same principle applies to any skill theme or
movement concept: massed practice during initial
learning, distributed practice later.
• The older the children, the longer they’re able to re-
main on the same skill theme. For example, children
designing games or dances typically need several
days in a row for this task. As the children become
more skilled, you’ll notice that it becomes easier to
remain on a skill theme than it was initially.
• It isn’t very effective to focus on a skill once a year
and then never revisit it. Three weeks of practice in
February on the skill theme of rolling, for example,
probably won’t lead to the long-term learning that
three weeks of practice—one week each in October,
February, and April—will.
• To get you started, a major task is generally appro-
priate for the focus of a day’s lesson. If you think the
children will fi nd a single task too strenuous or un-
interesting, you may want to combine a major task
from two different chapters. For example, you may
want to combine the ideas under the heading Jump-
ing a Turned Rope (Chapter 21) with the major task
Traveling in Different Pathways (Chapter 19). This
will give the children variety. Although most of our
lessons focus on one major movement concept or
skill theme, there’s no reason not to focus on two
themes or concepts in a single lesson.
Our experience has been that it’s often diffi cult for
beginning teachers to develop a daily calendar. In an
attempt to make this process easier (and better), we
have provided four sample daily calendars in the Ap-
pendix in this book. Two calendars are for classes that
have physical education fi ve times a week (180 days a
year); two are for classes that meet twice a week (72 days
a year). Two of the calendars are for kindergarten through
grade 2, and two are for grades 3–6.
You’ll want to change these calendars as you plan
your year, but they’re a helpful start. To the right of each
activity is a page number, which indicates where in
Children Moving you can fi nd a thorough explanation of
each task and how it can be presented to children.
Once you’ve written your outline, use it only as a
guide and change it as often and as much as the par-
ticular situation requires. You will want to write your
outlines in pencil, leaving plenty of space for changes.
Learning is not totally predictable. If the study of a
particular topic is going especially well, we don’t
change simply because the daily outline tells us to
change. If several lessons on a particular topic have
proven ineffective, it’s possible to change to a different
focus even though the daily outline calls for teaching
three more lessons on that topic.
The children’s needs and interests are the guide for the
lessons to be presented. No outline, however theoreti-
cally sound it may be, can unfailingly refl ect the prog-
ress and the interests of all the children being taught.
Step 3: Determining Benchmarks (Performance
Indicators or Checkpoints)
Now that you and your friend have decided where you
want to go on your imaginary trip and how long you
plan to spend at various sites along the way, your next
step is to determine performance indicators (bench-
marks or checkpoints) that you constantly check to be
certain you are on the right road headed in the desired
direction—in other words, to ensure that you don’t
get lost. In most cases, especially if you are not on an
interstate highway, you would constantly check your
map, highway signs, and anything else that would as-
sure you that you are headed in the proper direction.
Good teachers do the same thing. They develop
checkpoints to be sure the children are learning what
they want them to be learning—and then constantly
assess their progress along the way. These teachers
don’t wait until the fi fth grade, for example, to assess
CHAPTER 8 Planning 117
what the children have learned (or not learned). They
continually check to be sure the children are “getting
it” before moving on—and revisit areas that have not
been clear to the children.
The fi rst edition of the National Standards for Physical
Education (NASPE 1995) included a comprehensive
listing of sample benchmarks designed to serve as guides
to what students are expected to be learning in our
physical education programs. They are intended to
serve as checkpoints along the way, assuring us that we
are on the right course in guiding youngsters in the
process of becoming physically active for a lifetime.
They represent the “learnable pieces” that, when com-
bined, result in skillful performance and the develop-
ment of a positive sense of self-effi cacy. Often the
benchmarks are the critical elements or cues for vari-
ous skills. Thus once a teacher makes the decision to
spend a certain number of days on the skill of catch-
ing, for example, she will need to decide what the
students are going to learn about catching—that is,
the critical elements of catching. Remember that the
students will not be able to become profi ciency-level
catchers in one year, but they can learn one or more
catching cues that year. Table 8.4 provides one exam-
ple of how a teacher might defi ne the various critical
elements of catching that will be emphasized from
year to year. Assume that a teacher decides to teach
the four catching cues in Table 8.4. (This is one ex-
ample of Content Standard 2 of the National Standards,
which states, “Demonstrates understanding of move-
ment concepts, principles, strategies and tactics as they
apply to the learning and performance of physical
activities” [NASPE 2004, p. 11].) The teacher could
then decide which cues to emphasize each year to
serve as benchmarks of student progress. These four
phrases would provide a checkpoint to be sure that
the children were actually remembering and applying
these cues, which would assist them on their journey
to becoming competent and confi dent catchers.
For younger children, the teacher might teach the
difference between symmetrical and asymmetrical
movements, as described in the chapter on space
awareness (Chapter 16). If the teacher wanted to adapt
the assessment example from Content Standard 1 of
the National Standards —“Demonstrates competency in
motor skills and movement patterns needed to per-
Table 8.5 Sample Performance Outcomes for Catching,
Grades K– 5
Grade Range Performance Outcomes
K– 2 Drops a ball and catches it at the peak of the
bounce
3 – 5 Catches a fl y ball using mature form (e.g.,
has eyes on ball, moves to position, reaches
with hands, catches with hands only rather
than trapping the ball, bends elbows to pull
ball into chest to absorb force)
Source: NASPE 2004, pp. 16 –17.
Table 8.4 Sample Critical Elements (Cues) for Assessing
Progress in Catching
Grade Critical Element (Cues)
2 Eye contact (track the ball)
3 Ready position (quick feet)
4 Hand and arm position (hands up)
5 Absorption of force (give)
Table 8.6 Sample Performance Outcomes for Balancing,
Grades K– 8
Grade Range Performance Outcome
K– 2 Discovers how to balance on different body
parts, at different levels, becoming “like a
statue” while making symmetrical and
nonsymmetrical shapes
3 – 5 Balances with control on a variety of objects,
such as balance board, large apparatus,
skates
6 – 8 Designs and performs gymnastic (or dance)
sequences that combine traveling, rolling,
balancing, and weight transfer into smooth,
fl owing sequences with intentional changes
in direction, speed, and fl ow
Source: NASPE 2004, pp. 16 –18.
form a variety of physical activities”(NASPE 2004)—
into a series of yearly benchmarks, they might look
like the items in Table 8.5 .
Again for Content Standard 1, but including older
children, the teacher might want to use the criteria for
assessment suggested in a gymnastics example related
to balance from the National Standards for Physical Edu-
cation (NASPE 2004, pp. 16–18) and in Chapters 19, 22,
and 23 of Children Moving. He might develop the perfor-
mance indicators or benchmarks shown in Table 8.6 .
The fi rst three steps of the planning process involve
long-range planning and some diffi cult decisions. For-
tunately, however, you can make these decisions over
a summer, for example, or over a year as you “pilot,” or
try out, a curriculum. Ideally, you make these deci-
sions along with your fellow teachers as you talk about,
refl ect, and design a curriculum that will be successful
for you in your district. The last step in the planning
process, however, is one you do on your own: translat-
ing the scope and sequence completed in Step 1, the
yearly outline completed in Step 2, and the benchmarks
identifi ed as part of Step 3 into a daily lesson plan.
Just as on your imaginary trip with your friend, as
a refl ective teacher you will need to decide on the
benchmarks that fi t your program. You will see that in
118 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Parts 3 and 4 of Children Moving, along with the tasks
and activities, we have included the cues or critical ele-
ments that we emphasize in our teaching. These cues
are consistent with the National Standards for Physical
Education and will allow you to develop your own set
of benchmarks to measure the progress of your chil-
dren on their journey to becoming physically active
for a lifetime. Thus the question we suggest you ask
and answer for Step 3 of the planning process is this:
“What are the benchmarks or checkpoints that I will
use to assess the progress my students are making?”
For example, if a teacher wants students to know how
to position their hands correctly to catch a ball above
the waist, or below the waist, most of them should be
able to demonstrate this cue correctly. If, however,
most of them still cannot demonstrate the proper way
to position their hands, then the teacher needs to re-
teach the skill so the students can eventually become
successful softball or basketball players.
as you gain experience and knowledge of children’s abil-
ities and interests, you will fi nd that you can be less de-
tailed. In the beginning, however, detailed planning of
the sort we suggest here is an excellent way to under-
stand how to teach the skill theme content.
Short-term planning is typically done during plan-
ning periods, after school, and in the evenings. This
is the step in which you take into account the specifi c
variations among individuals and classes. Long-term
planning (Steps 1– 3) is typically done before the
school year begins, before you know the individual
children you’ll be teaching. Thus it is in daily lesson
planning (Step 4) that you can accommodate indi-
vidual variations.
You can generate lesson ideas from a number of
sources, including notes from classes, your own and
others’ observations, books, the Internet, workshops,
conferences, articles, and discussions. Planning for les-
sons involves sifting through sources and then designing
lessons to match the needs and characteristics of a par-
ticular class to help them learn the benchmarks devel-
oped in the previous step of the planning process. We’ve
found few, if any, prepackaged lessons that worked for
us as they supposedly worked for their authors. So in-
stead of including specifi c lesson plans in Children Moving
(with the exception of Box 8-1), we provide tasks for deve-
lopment to encourage you to develop your own plans.
To plan effectively, you need to consider the vital in-
formation in Box 8-1, which is useful for planning les-
sons and for improving teaching. It is presented here
only as a guide; you may want to change it or adapt it to
your particular style of lesson planning. This is the for-
mat that is also used in On the Move (Holt/Hale 2010).
We have intentionally included more detail than a typi-
cal plan contains so that we can provide a better under-
standing of how we develop the content in a lesson.
The sample lesson plan in Box 8-1 has 12 parts. Each
part, along with suggested modifi cations, is discussed
in the order in which a plan is typically completed.
1. Class Name This part isn’t necessary for a class-
room teacher. Physical education specialists may
want to make a plan for each of their classes or,
when their teaching load is particularly heavy, list
the grade level (e.g., second /third grade) as a gen-
eral guide. Another alternative is just to list the
skill level of the class. Teachers with heavy loads —
for example, 30 different classes in a week—use
the same basic plan for each grade level and then
make individual notes about different classes as
suggested at the end of this form (part 12).
2. Skill Level This provides a reminder of the skill
level of the class. The information is based on ob-
servations and assessments.
Less Is More
“Less is more” is a popular saying that refers to the fact that
we often try to do more than we have time for. This is espe-
cially true in planning your curriculum. Many physical educa-
tion programs “expose” children to a variety of motor skills
and sports, but there is little, if any, learning that occurs as a
result of this exposure. As you design your curriculum, keep
this in mind. The classroom teacher easily describes what the
children have learned in math or reading for that year. How
will you respond if asked what the children have learned in
your program? That response is quite different from simply
explaining what you “did” in physical education that year.
Step 4: Detailing Daily Lesson Plans
The fi nal question a teacher asks as part of the plan-
ning process is, “What tasks and cues will I teach each
day in my lessons?” On your imaginary trip with your
friend, you will also need to plan each day by answer-
ing questions like these: How far do we plan to drive?
Where will we stop along the way? What will we see
and do there? Where will we stop for the night? And,
of course, each day’s plan will often not work out ex-
actly as imagined — for many reasons.
The same is true for teachers. Although daily learning
plans rarely work out exactly as designed, you will want
to develop them based on the decisions you made in the
fi rst three steps of the planning process. To assist you, we
have included in Box 8-1 an example of a lesson plan for
use with a skill theme approach. The plan is quite de-
tailed because we think the detail is especially helpful to
teachers planning to use a skill theme approach. In time,
CHAPTER 8 Planning 119
Box 8-1
Catching
Class Name Skill Level
Lesson Length
Number of Meetings per Week
Focus: Catching
Subfocus: Spatial awareness, underhand throwing
Objectives: At the end of this lesson the children will
have learned to
1. Move their arms in front of the body
(elbows fl exed) in preparation for catching
the ball or beanbag
2. Extend their arms to catch the ball or
beanbag
CUES: Hands ready
Extend
Materials / Various types of large, lightweight balls
Equipment: (plastic, beach balls, Nerf )
Tennis balls, whiffl e, yarn, small Nerf balls for
stations
Net, 6⬘ ⫻ 8⬘ (found in decorative section of
drugstore)
Small incline surface with sides (slide from
backyard jungle gym; long box with sides,
ends removed)
Organization / Children in self-space
Management: Children throw against a wall
Stations: See diagram
Introduction
The skill we are working on today is actually one-half of a
two-part skill — throwing and catching. We are going to focus
on catching — catching the ball with hands only. The skill of
catching is important in many games we play as well as in
junior high and high school sports like basketball, football,
and softball.
Scattered around the room are different types and sizes of
balls. Some are large, some are small, but all are lightweight so
they will not hurt if they hit you when you are trying to catch.
Spread out in general space and begin to toss the ball to
yourself and catch it.
Task Development
1.0 As I observed you warming up, I noticed several of you
were having trouble tossing the ball upward. Some balls were
going far from your space; others were going back over your
heads. Let’s review the toss for a moment.
Cue Hold the ball slightly in front of you with both hands.
Toss the ball by lifting your arms upward, stopping the
lifting when your arms are at shoulder height.
T Practice again, tossing the ball only slightly above your head.
T The toss looks much better. Now we are ready to
concentrate on the catch. See if you can catch the ball
with your hands only. Sometimes it helps to let it bounce
one time before you catch it. ( Model. ) Toss, bounce,
catch. Ready? Begin.
Cue Remember, bend your arms as you are getting ready for
the catch. Think, “Hands ready.”
T Toss the ball higher this time so the bounce will go as high
as your head.
Cue Reach for the ball. Don’t wait and catch it against your
body.
2.0 Stand approximately 6 to 8 feet from the wall. Remember
the bubble of your self-space and your neighbors’— don’t
stand too close. Toss the ball to the wall and catch it after it
bounces one time.
T Throw the ball just hard enough for it to rebound to you.
Too much force will send it over your head.
T Practice a couple of times more as I observe your readiness.
T You appear to be ready to catch the ball as it rebounds
from the wall without the bounce. When you feel
comfortable, try this skill.
T Return to your self-space scattered about the room. Toss
the ball upward and catch it before it bounces.
C See if you can catch the ball fi ve times without a miss.
C I will time you for 30 seconds, Try to toss and catch in
your self-space without dropping the ball. (Older students:
If we are 100% successful, I will never hear a ball touch
the fl oor.)
Sample Lesson Plan for Skill Theme Approach
Teacher
1
2
4
3
120 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Box 8-1 (continued)
Children at the precontrol level of skill development need mass
practice and revisitation to the theme often. Station practice
as revisitation will be enjoyable and benefi cial.
Stations for Practice: Four stations are set up for practice of
the skill we have been learning — catching. The stations are
for fun, but will give us additional practice of our catching.
Even professional athletes spend lots of time practicing the
skill of catching.
Station 1: (Suspend a net approximately 6 feet above the
fl oor, with the back corner higher than the front edge so
the ball will roll off. Use 8½⬙ plastic balls.) Toss the ball
above the net. It will slowly roll down the net and drop off.
Catch it before it bounces.
Station 2: (Use tennis balls, whiffl e balls, yarn balls, Nerf balls.)
Select a ball. Toss and catch it fi ve times; you may let it
bounce if you wish. After fi ve catches, try another type of
ball. Continue until you have used all the different types.
Station 3: (Use slide with raised edges, back against wall,
slight incline; playground or plastic ball.) Toss the ball up
the slide. It will come back toward you quickly. Catch it fi rst
after one bounce, then before.
Station 4: Partner toss. Face your partner. First catch after
a bounce and then without the bounce. When you are
successful, you may take one step back if you wish.
Use this station to note individual visual tracking of the ball,
hands /arms in ready position, and reaching for the ball.
Closure
Our lesson today focused on throwing and catching. Which
part were we concentrating on?
Do we catch with hands only or against the chest?
Show me the correct arm position for catching: correct, arms
extended with elbows slightly bent.
Refl ection
Do the children get their arms /hands in ready position in
preparation for the catch?
Do they extend their arms when they catch or do they still trap
the ball against the chest?
Source: Adapted from Shirley Ann Holt /Hale, On the Move:
Lesson Plans to Accompany Children Moving, 8th ed. (New York:
McGraw-Hill, 2010).
3. Length of Lesson (Time) This refers to the length of
a class—for example, 10:00 to 10:30, or 30 minutes.
4. Number of Meetings per Week This information
is especially helpful for specialists who meet cer-
tain classes a different number of times per week
from others.
5. Major Focus and Subfocus The major focus of the
lesson will be based on what you did in Step 2 of the
planning process, when you decided which concepts
and skill themes would be taught on which days of
the school year. This provides you with the focus and
purpose for that lesson or lessons. The subfocus also
indicates which additional concepts and skill themes
will be reinforced within that lesson. In the sample
lesson plan in Box 8-1, the children will spend most
of their time throwing and catching, but the teacher
will emphasize their catching skill. In addition,
they’ll need to be aware of self-space and levels
(Chapter 16), although these concepts will not be
the major focus of the lesson because they have al-
ready been taught in previous lessons. In this lesson,
throwing (Chapter 25) will also be a subfocus.
6. Objectives The objectives for the lesson describe
what the children are to learn during the lesson,
rather than what they are to do. For example, stating
that the children will throw and catch a ball in self-
space is not an objective—it is a task. “The children
will learn to catch a ball” is an objective. Unfortu-
nately, this objective cannot be accomplished in a
30-minute lesson; it will take many lessons, perhaps
thousands of practice catches, before a child can be
said to be truly able to catch a ball.
The objectives, then, are “learnable pieces”
based on the benchmarks—something a child has
a reason able chance to learn in a single lesson. In
the sample lesson in Box 8-1, the teacher will focus
on two aspects (critical elements) of successful
catching: teaching the children (1) to move their
hands into a ready position before catching the
ball and (2) to extend their arms to avoid trapping
the ball against their body. The teacher decided on
these two cues after reading the chapter on catch-
ing (Chapter 25) and the sample benchmarks in
the fi rst edition of the National Standards for Physi-
cal Education (NASPE 1995, p. 20). The teacher will
not simply provide chances to practice catching
but will demonstrate and provide individual
feedback related to using the hands and arms
appropriately to catch a ball or an object. During
the lesson, she will continually pause and remind
CHAPTER 8 Planning 121
the children of the cue they need to work on.
Sometimes she will demonstrate the cue. Sometimes
she will pinpoint other youngsters as they use the
critical elements in their catching (Chapter 11). As
the children practice, the teacher will also move
among them and provide feedback about how well
they are using the cues. You will hear her con-
stantly remind individual children to “get their
hands into the ‘ready’ position” or to “reach for
the ball.” When the teacher observes individual
children and then provides an analysis of how
they are using a cue, the technique is called spe-
cifi c, congruent feedback (Chapter 11). Cues are ex-
tremely important; they are what the children can
actually learn during a lesson—the learnable piece
(Graham 2001).
7. Materials/Equipment This section of the lesson
plan is simply a list of equipment and materials
that will be needed for the lesson. It serves as a
handy checklist to make certain that everything is
available before beginning the lesson. Given the
hectic schedules of elementary schools, it’s easy to
forget a piece of equipment; the checklist is de-
signed to prevent this from occurring.
8. Organization/Management This section of the
plan provides the teacher with a place to write
down the different organizations and formats that
will be used during a lesson. Although this may not
be necessary for experienced teachers, it’s very
helpful for beginning teachers; it leads them to
think through the organizational formats that they
might use during the lesson, thereby avoiding some
of the problems that might occur—for example,
when a teacher hasn’t thought about how the chil-
dren will move from throwing against a wall to
fi nding a partner to throw and catch with. If not
planned for carefully, these transitions can lead to
wasted time, confusion, and even misbehavior.
9. Introduction This extremely important part of
the lesson sets the tone by providing the chil-
dren with a cognitive scaffolding for what they’ll
learn—and why! Some teachers introduce the
lesson as soon as the children arrive; others pre-
fer to provide children with a chance to move for
a few minutes fi rst (instant activity) (Graham
2001). The “why” part of the introduction is es-
pecially important for the older grades and chil-
dren in middle school (Graham 2001).
10. Task Development The section of the lesson plan
that includes the tasks and activities for the lesson
is referred to as the task development section. How-
ever, it includes much more than simply tasks or
activities. In the sample lesson plan in Box 8-1,
we’ve provided a typical task development section
that includes not only tasks (denoted by T ), but
also challenges (denoted by a C symbol). After
you read Chapter 11, the meaning of each of these
will become clearer to you as a way you can pro-
vide a sequence of tasks throughout a lesson. To
provide a better feel for how teachers develop tasks,
we have written the sample lesson in Box 8-1 as a
teacher might actually speak it to the children. In
your plan, you’ll want to abbreviate the format pre-
sented here. Chapter 11 provides a more concise
format for planning the task development section
of the lesson.
11. Closure The closure, or conclusion, typically lasts
no more than two or three minutes. The teacher
calls the children together and quickly reviews the
key points (the learnable pieces) of the lesson that
were stated in the lesson objectives and empha-
sized throughout the class. As the sample lesson
in Box 8-1 indicates, the teacher can phrase the
closure in the form of questions. This is an espe-
cially important time to remind children of what
has been emphasized throughout the class. It can
also provide the teacher with important insights
about whether the children have attained the lesson
objectives (Graham 2008).
12. Refl ection In a perfect world, there would be
time at the end of every lesson for a teacher to
refl ect on the lesson just completed. Did I accom-
plish my objectives? Which tasks worked well?
Which needed to be changed? What do I need
to emphasize the next time I teach catching to
this class?
The Kids Love It
One of the comments often heard from teachers whose goal
is to keep youngsters “busy, happy, and good” is that the kids
“love” the game or activity. Although it is certainly desirable for
youngsters to enjoy an activity, it is not our sole criterion. For
example, some children would “love” to eat ice cream or
doughnuts or potato chips for every meal. Obviously, however,
it would not be in the best interest of these children if that were
all they ate. The same is true for the classroom. There are many
fun reading, math, and science games. But the successful
teacher always evaluates these games or activities to be
certain that if the children play them, they actually lead to
better reading, more effective computing, or understanding
science concepts. So when we hear that youngsters “love” a
game or an activity, we can’t help but wonder: Are the children
really learning something? Is the activity truly a learning experi-
ence? Should the fact that kids love it be the sole, or major,
criterion to determine the success of a lesson? Our goal is to
keep youngsters “busy, happy, and good”—but also learning!
If they aren’t learning, then what are we teaching them?
122 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
In the real world, however, the teacher rarely has
time to refl ect on the lesson that was just taught—one
class follows another, often with no break. However,
the teacher usually has a few minutes in the day to jot
down a few notes about what the children did or didn’t
accomplish. We suggest guiding the refl ection by asking
questions related to the objectives for the lesson. Realis-
tically, the teacher often refl ects about several classes
that have been taught in a row and thus makes the best
guess about what the children in those classes have
learned and what might be changed in future lessons.
A well-developed plan can be somewhat lengthy,
especially for beginning teachers. For this reason,
many teachers fi nd it helpful to write a brief outline on
a 5-by-8-inch card that they carry with them during
the lesson as a handy reminder.
As you review these 12 steps for the lesson plan,
you may fi nd that certain steps are unnecessary for your
situation. This is to be expected. We suggest that you
adapt this format to meet your needs and then make
plenty of copies for the year.
Making Planning Enjoyable
Planning is hard work. It takes time and energy to
plan effective lessons that are exciting and interesting
to children. Teachers who fail to plan well are tempted
to return to old standbys—kickball, dodgeball, and
Four Square—that contribute minimally to children’s
physical education.
You’ll always be able to fi nd something to do that is
more interesting than planning lessons. So it’s a good
idea to devise ways to make planning easier and more
fun. We’ve found the following ideas helpful:
• Set aside some time each day specifi cally for plan-
ning. Then you won’t be constantly trying to fi nd
time to plan. Some people fi nd that planning at
school before they leave for home is effective; oth-
ers prefer to arrive at school early to plan the day.
• Try to become excited about your plans. When
you’re excited about trying to present an idea in a
new and interesting way, planning is fun, and you
communicate your enthusiasm to your students.
Reading books and journals, attending conferences,
talking to colleagues, and searching the Internet are
some of the ways that you can fi nd new and inter-
esting ideas to incorporate into your plans. Remem-
ber, however, that less is more, so be sure to take
something out for every new activity you add into
your scope and sequence.
• Don’t hesitate to experiment. The worst that can
happen is that a lesson won’t work as planned.
When this happens, we tell the children we were
trying a new idea and it didn’t work. Children un-
derstand and sometimes make worthwhile sugges-
tions about how the idea might be improved.
When you set aside appropriate amounts of time,
discover new ideas, and attempt to make lessons ex-
citing, planning becomes more enjoyable. And your
attitude toward teaching will be affected. Most of us
experience uncertainty when beginning a lesson (or
anything else) for which we’re unprepared. When
you’ve planned a lesson thoroughly, the assurance
and enthusiasm you feel can be contagious.
Recording Progress
A refl ective teacher will want to record the progress that
a particular class, group, or individual makes during a
lesson. An elementary school physical education spe-
cialist may teach 8 to 12 classes a day. Each group and
each student will progress to a different degree and in a
different way. A refl ective teacher, whose approach takes
these differences into consideration, will need notes on
which to base the next day’s (or week’s) lessons.
You can write brief comments in a standard plan-
ning book or on index cards. Some teachers use hand-
held computers or a tape recorder. Notes summarizing
what was accomplished during a lesson help you plan
the next day’s lessons. Ideally, the day’s schedule will
include 5 or 10 minutes between classes; you can use
this time for recording observations and, if necessary,
arranging equipment for the next class. Teachers who
use handheld computers to keep track of their students’
progress have the advantage of easily downloading the
information into a computer for ease of use and future
reference. Whether you use note cards, a tape recorder,
a handheld computer, or some other technique, it will
certainly help you plan more effi ciently. What seems
clear at 9 a.m. is often opaque by 4 p.m.
Lesson Design
If children are to develop into skillful movers, they
must do more than play games. Children need oppor-
tunities to practice skills in contexts that are meaning-
ful and enjoyable to them. A successful teacher creates
practice situations that are enjoyable, that are appro-
priately designed, and that allow for maximum par-
ticipation. The teacher who can design interesting and
exciting practice situations will rarely hear the ques-
tion asked so often by highly skilled, unchallenged
children, “When do we get to play a game?”
CHAPTER 8 Planning 123
Interesting Lessons
Many children, particularly younger ones, don’t un-
derstand the need to practice to become more skillful.
Children typically are interested only in the present
and have little concern about years later. Thus young
children more easily accept and enjoy lessons with
immediate meaning. For example, we wouldn’t teach
second graders how to turn on one foot (pivot) by
having them perform a mass drill, because such an ex-
ercise would have little meaning or interest to them.
We might, however, have them jog around the gym
and instruct them, “Spin around on one foot when you
hear the drum and then continue jogging.” On the
next drumbeat we might say, “Pivot on the other foot”
or “Spin in the opposite direction.” Later, when the
children are able to travel dribbling a ball, we might
say, “Spin on the drumbeat while continuing to dribble
a ball.” We don’t teach skills as if all children really
want to learn the skill because they intend to play on a
varsity team in high school—they don’t.
Variety in a lesson also makes the lesson more en-
joyable. We try to give children a number of related
practice opportunities in a single lesson rather than
having them practice the same skill the same way the
entire lesson. And the only way to accomplish this
goal is through extensive and thorough planning.
Appropriate Lessons
Children want to be challenged and successful at the
same time. The ideal task is diffi cult enough so that the
child can’t do it as intended every time, yet easy
enough so that the child is successful much of the
time. If small children try to shoot a basketball through
a 10-foot-high basket, their success rate may be so low
that they’ll quickly lose interest. If the same children
are given options—for example, shooting at a basket
7 feet high or shooting through a hoop suspended
from a pole—their interest will remain higher for longer
periods, and their skills will therefore improve.
Maximum Participation
One of the clearest differences between more effective
and less effective teachers is that the students of more
effective teachers actually spend more time practicing
than do the children of less effective teachers (Rink
1996; Siedentop and Tannehill 2000). The value of
practice may seem obvious, yet practice is frequently
neglected, particularly in teaching games. When a class
of 30 children practices a skill such as throwing or
catching and uses only three or four balls, the chil-
dren’s skills will improve less than the skills of children
whose teacher designs the same lesson so that there is
a ball for every two children in the class.
Remember, though, that not all children have
learned to practice on their own. Making more equip-
ment available doesn’t guarantee increased practice
time. In fact, we’ve observed instances in which the
children in a class actually practiced more when there
were only three or four balls available because most of
the students in the class hadn’t yet learned to work on
their own.
One study (Graham et al. 1993) that compared
student teachers with experienced teachers found
that veteran teachers provided children with far fewer
tasks than the novice teachers. The novices believed
that they had to “get through all of the tasks in their
plan.” In contrast, the veteran teachers were focused
on the children. If a task was “right,” they stayed with
it for long periods of time.
Parting Thought
The planning process described above no doubt seems
complex, time consuming, and maybe even unneces-
sary. It’s not! Think again about planning your trip.
Time spent planning can heighten the enjoyment
dramatically. Being lost, confused, or in the wrong
place at the wrong time is no fun. Neither are poorly
planned lessons that are uninteresting, dominated by
a few highly skilled children (unless, of course, you are
one of the highly skilled), or simply unproductive. If
you want to become a highly successful teacher, it is
going to take a lot of work—and the journey starts
with planning.
Summary
Planning is a crucial part of the teaching process.
Successful teachers plan effectively—not only their
daily lessons, but also the entire program, as well as
each year of the program. Plans are guides, not cast
in stone. As you learn more about the school, the
children, and the context of the teaching situation,
plans change!
This chapter described four steps in the planning pro-
cess. Step 1 is the development of a scope and sequence
for all of the grades you will be teaching. Essentially,
124 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
the fi rst step answers the questions “What will I teach?”
and “In what grades?” Step 2 involves making the diffi -
cult decisions about how many days you will be able to
focus on various skills and concepts—and which ones
should receive more or less emphasis. Benchmarks
(learnable pieces) are formulated in Step 3 as you deter-
mine when and how you will check to see what your
children are learning. Step 4 is the creation of daily les-
son plans. Twelve different parts of a lesson plan are
described, along with examples to illustrate the pro-
cess of planning daily lessons. The chapter concludes
with ideas for creating lessons that are interesting and
appropriate and that provide for maximum participa-
tion and success for the children.
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. What is meant by the term refl ective planning? Think
about your elementary school: Which contextual
factors infl uenced the program and the way the
teacher planned?
2. What might happen when a teacher does not bother
to do Steps 1 and 2 in the planning process and
only plans day to day?
3. Tables 8.1 and 8.2 present sample scope and se-
quences for the movement concepts and skill themes.
In your own words, explain why some concepts and
skills are not taught at various grade levels. Use spe-
cifi c concepts and skills in your explanation.
4. Using Table 8.3 as a guide select fi rst, third, or fi fth
grade and do a yearly overview for that grade.
Then write a brief analysis explaining what you
changed from the grade before and after. So, for
example, if you choose third grade, explain how
your guide is different from those for second and
fourth grades.
5. Use the guide for planning daily lessons (Box 8-1) to
plan one of your own lessons. Use one of the move-
ment concept or skill theme chapters as a guide, but
do not use the skills of throwing and catching.
6. Veteran teachers typically spend less time planning
than do beginning teachers. Why might this be the
case?
7. Explain how the concept “less is more” applies to
developing a curriculum. What happens when a
teacher attempts to jam too many skill themes into
a year for the time allotted?
References /Suggested Readings
Glass , G. V. , L. Cahen , M. Smith , and N. Filby . 1979 , April–May. Class size and learning. Today’s Education 68(2): 42–44 .
Graham , G. 2008 . Teaching children physical education. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Graham , G. , C. Hopple , M. Manross , and T. Sitzman . 1993 . Novice and experienced children’s physical education teachers: Insights into their situational decision-making. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 12(2): 197–217 .
Holt/Hale , S. 2010 . On the move: Lesson plans to accompany Children Moving. New York: McGraw-Hill .
Housner , L. , and D. Griffey . 1985 . Teacher cognition: Dif- ferences in planning and interactive decision making between experienced and inexperienced teachers. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 56: 56–63 .
Kelly , L. E. 1989 . Instructional time: The overlooked factor in PE curriculum development. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 60: 29–32 .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 1995 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. St. Louis, MO: Mosby .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2004 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. 2nd ed. Reston, VA: National Associa- tion for Sport and Physical Education .
Rink , J. E. 1996 . Effective instruction in physical education. In Student learning in physical education, ed. S. Silverman and C. Ennis, pp. 171–98 . Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Schmidt , R. A. , and C. A. Wrisberg . 2008 . Motor learning and performance . 4th ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Siedentop , D. , and D. Tannehill. 2000 . Developing teaching skills in physical education. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill .
Stodden , D. F. , J. D. Goodway , S. J. Langendorfer , M. A. Roberton , M. E. Rudisill , C. Garcia , and L. E. Garcia . 2008 . A developmental perspective on the role of motor skill competence in physical activity. Quest: 290–306 .
125
C H A P T E R
9
Establishing an Environment for Learning A well run lesson that teaches nothing is just as useless as a chaotic lesson in which no academic
work is possible.
— WALTER DOYLE
126 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
M any would argue that this is a chapter about
management — about doing things to make sure
youngsters do what we want them to; about
having children “behave” the way we want. Techni-
cally, it probably is, but we have a bit of a different take
on management. For us, management is the creation,
development, and utilization of processes resulting in a
gymnasium or playground conducive to learning. You
can arrive at the result, a classroom for learning, using
multiple approaches, but regardless of the approach,
several key variables need to be addressed (see Box 9-1).
As you read this chapter, decide what approaches you
prefer and what kind of teacher you want to be.
To teach effectively, it’s necessary to establish an en-
vironment in which learning is supported and allowed
to take place. Such an environment is a necessary,
though not suffi cient, condition for learning. Establish-
ing the learning environment has been called a fi rst-
base skill—you can’t get to home without getting on
fi rst, but getting to fi rst is only the initial step to scoring
a run (Rink 1987). Without such an environment, there
is little chance learning will occur; with it, learning is
still not possible unless instructional activities are car-
ried out. Establishing a learning environment involves
using both managerial and instructional techniques to
place students in contact with — and to keep them in
contact with — the subject matter at a high success rate
for as long as possible. For us, the learning environ-
ment is the simultaneous working of two parts or com-
ponents: one instructional and the other managerial.
Others have analogized these components to “sys-
tems,” and, similar to a smoothly operating piece of
machinery, both must be present for the classroom to
operate (Tousignant and Siedentop 1983). Regardless of
the term used, both instructional and managerial struc-
tures must be present in order to establish an environ-
ment that has the potential for learning. One without
the other is not adequate. You can manage without
teaching, but you cannot teach without managing.
A component can be defi ned as a regular pattern of
practices used to accomplish the functions of a class.
The managerial component refers to the non–subject-
matter activities necessary for a class to run smoothly
and effi ciently over a period of time. The instructional
component refers to the subject-matter activities de-
signed to see that children learn what is desired by par-
ticipating in physical education. Both components need
to be developed when establishing a learning environ-
ment. All too often, physical education teachers establish
a managerial aspect (Mowling et al. 2004) but neglect to
focus on an instructional aspect or component. This
chapter and Chapter 10 are about the managerial com-
ponents of the learning environment. Chapters 11, 12,
and 13 are about the instructional components.
For each of these components, certain teacher prac-
tices ensure that the component achieves what the
teacher desires. A well-operating component, either
managerial or instructional, establishes and maintains
student responsibility for appropriate conduct, task in-
volvement, and learning outcomes (see Chapter 11 and
The Instructional Component in this chapter). The prac-
tices that accomplish this are known as accountability
measures (Doyle 1980; Hastie and Siedentop 2007).
Whether personal or imposed, these accountability
measures are so important that without them both the
instructional and managerial components become lax
and may not even operate (Doyle 1980). Traditional
accountability measures in physical education include
tests, grades, attendance, teacher reprimands, and puni-
shment. Those types of accountability measures are
now thought to be largely inappropriate if student learn-
ing is the intended outcome of physical education. In
fact, they undermine learning and communicate to the
• A learning environment is the condition created in a class-
room by the teacher that supports (or hinders) learning by
the students.
• A learning environment consists of two components, a
managerial component and an instructional component,
both of which are necessary if physical education is to
reach its full learning potential.
• The managerial component establishes the structures
that allow the classroom to function effortlessly.
• The instructional component refers to the subject matter
activities that allow students to learn physical education
content (see Chapter 11 for aspects of the instructional
component).
• The development of a managerial component is a neces-
sary, but not suffi cient, condition for student learning.
• As part of the managerial component, effective teachers
develop protocols including both rules and routines that
ensure smooth existence in the gymnasium and on the
playground.
• Rules are general expectations for behavior that cover a
wide variety of situations; routines are procedures for
accomplishing specifi c duties within a class.
• Rules and routines are most effective when they refl ect
a positive environment while teaching children to be
responsible for their own behavior.
• The development of protocols is an integral and critical
part of maintaining a safe environment.
Key Concepts
CHAPTER 9 Establishing an Environment for Learning 127
public that physical education has little to teach
other than to dress and show up for class. This chap-
ter will introduce you to a variety of other teacher
practices that serve as accountability measures in
establishing the managerial and instructional com-
ponents necessary for a smoothly running class in
which learning occurs.
Although the development of a component sounds
quite rigid and sterile, the type of component devel-
oped and how it is implemented refl ect what we be-
lieve not only about physical education but also about
education, children, and society. It mirrors what we
feel is important about our school, our gymnasium,
our students, and ourselves. All components must
accomplish certain things — the smooth and consistent
operation of the gym —yet it is how the component is
put into action that says who we are. For example, a
managerial component that is solely teacher devel-
oped and directed indicates a belief that student input
or helping students learn to make decisions isn’t
important. On the other hand, the complete lack of a
managerial component could indicate an abdication
by the teacher of all responsibility and a belief that it
doesn’t make any difference what we do (Ennis 1995).
However, components that help students learn to
make decisions about managerial (noninstructional)
situations and instructional (learning) situations in-
dicates that we value students and have taken the re-
sponsibility not only to teach psychomotor content,
but also to teach the larger goals of personal and so-
cial responsibility (Helion 1996; Parker, Kallusky, and
Hellison 1999; Parker and Stiehl 2005). The National
Standards indicate that one of the goals of physical
education is to develop students who demonstrate
responsible personal and social behavior in physical
activity settings (NASPE 2004). Although the account-
ability and managerial literature have largely devel-
oped from behavior management and business, where
effi ciency is paramount, there are models in which
the development of responsibility and self-direction
are important (Hellison 2003). In these models, al-
though initial effi ciency may be slightly compromised
and the teacher must be willing to relinquish some
control, students gradually move toward more inde-
pendent learning and responsibility.
It is our belief that physical education is child cen-
tered and that students should develop increasing
responsibility for their own behavior, attitudes, and
learning. Therefore the prevailing philosophy of this
chapter is the development of components designed
to accomplish the goals of self-directed learning and
behavior. In other words, just like fi tness and motor
skill development, responsibility is part of the content
with which students must stay in contact.
Gymnasium Atmosphere
When the weather forecaster announces an impend-
ing low-pressure system, we know what it will feel
like —heavy, humid, and often accompanied by rain or
snow. Similarly, with high-pressure systems, we know
to expect fair weather and dry air. The atmosphere of
the gym is much the same except it is created by the
teacher, not by weather systems. Regardless of the
component — managerial or instructional— the atmo-
sphere in the gym needs to be emotionally safe and
positive. If this atmosphere is not created, then the
remainder of this book is probably useless.
As discussed in Chapter 5, of all the teacher prac-
tices involved in establishing a positive learning envi-
ronment, one of the most important pieces is also one
of the least tangible and most easily compromised:
teacher attitude or approach to teaching and children.
This is essentially the translation of a teacher’s beliefs
into practice. The teacher’s self-image and feelings
about teaching, about physical education, and about
children all infl uence atmosphere. The enthusiastic
teacher conveys this attitude to the children and as a
result heightens their enthusiasm for physical educa-
tion. The teacher who views physical education as a
time for learning and work communicates this feeling
to the children in the way he or she demands that all
the children adhere to certain criteria for behavior.
Likewise, the teacher who believes that children are
vessels to be molded and should be compliant with
teacher expectations, whether they seem reasonable or
not, communicates to children that they are not ca-
pable of making signifi cant decisions.
Even though children’s motivation for participation
in physical education changes with age (Xiang, McBride,
and Guan 2004), it has been said that, at any age, in
order for children to be motivated to learn, they need to
belong and feel competent, useful, potent, and optimistic.
When those needs are met, people commit whole-
heartedly to an endeavor (Sagor 2002). The study of
physical activity settings has yielded similar fi ndings
(Deutsch 1999; Herbel and Parker 1995; Galvan 2004).
It is the teacher – student relationship that is at the heart
of this notion of class management/atmosphere that
supports student learning. In looking at thousands of
Classroom management helps run an effective class-
room, but doesn’t solve the social problems.
— DON HELLISON
128 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Box 9-1
Components: The Learning Environment and
Instructional Strategies
Appropriate Practice
• Physical educators systematically plan for, develop, and
maintain a positive learning environment focused on
maximizing learning and participation, in an atmosphere
of respect and support from the teacher and the peers
of the child.
• The environment is supportive of all children, and
promotes the development of a positive self-concept.
Children are given chances to try, to fail, and to try
again, free of criticism or harassment from the teacher
or other students.
• Programs are designed to guide children to take responsi-
bility for their own behavior and learning. Emphasis is on
intrinsic, rather than extrinsic, incentives.
• Fair and consistent classroom management practices
encourage student responsibility for positive behavior.
Students are often included in the process of developing
class rules /agreements.
• Bullying and inappropriate student remarks and behaviors
are dealt with immediately and fi rmly.
• Physical educators make every effort possible to create a
safe learning environment for students (e.g., safety consid-
erations and plans are a part of every daily lesson plan).
Routines and rules are developed with safety in mind.
• Activities are carefully selected to ensure that they match
the ability level of the students and are also safe for all of
the students regardless of their ability level.
• Facilities and equipment are maintained and closely in-
spected daily for safety hazards (e.g., free of glass, proper
ground cover under equipment).
• The physical educator creates an environment that is inclu-
sive and supportive of all students regardless of their race,
ethnic origin, gender, sexual orientation, religion, or physical
ability. These differences are acknowledged, appreciated,
and respected.
• All children (boys and girls, all skill levels) have equal
opportunities for participation and interaction with the
teacher (e.g., leadership, playing “skilled” positions, teacher
feedback).
• All children, regardless of developmental level and ability,
are challenged at an appropriate level.
• Both boys and girls are encouraged, supported, and
socialized toward successful achievement in all of the
content that is taught in physical education (e.g., dance
is for everyone).
• Physical educators use gender-neutral language
(e.g., students).
• Clear goals and objectives for student learning and per-
formance are communicated to students, parents, and
administrators.
• Physical educators form pairs, groups, and teams in ways
that preserve the dignity and self-respect of every child
(e.g., randomly, by fi tness or skill level when necessary,
or by a class system such as birthdays, squads, colors,
numbers).
Inappropriate Practice
• The environment is not supportive or safe. As a result,
some children feel embarrassed, humiliated, and generally
uncomfortable in physical education class (e.g., teacher
makes degrading or sarcastic remarks).
• Only the highly skilled or physically fi t children are viewed
as successful learners. Students are overlooked and /or
ignored by the teacher and peers if they are not highly
skilled or physically fi t.
• Children behave appropriately because they are fearful of
receiving a poor grade or other “punishment” if they do not
follow the rules of the teacher.
• The rules are unclear and may vary from day to day.
• Verbal or nonverbal behavior that is hurtful to other children
is overlooked and ignored.
• Teachers allow or ignore unsafe practices that occur in their
classes. Children are permitted to ignore the safety of oth-
ers in the class (e.g., pushing, shoving, or tackling children
in ball games) or use equipment unsafely (e.g., swinging
bats in close proximity to others).
• Human target games (dodgeball) and /or drills that allow
aggressive behaviors toward other students are permitted.
• No regular facility safety inspection occurs. Dangerous,
broken, or outdated equipment is used.
• The physical education environment supports highly skilled
children more fully than children who have less skill devel-
opment (e.g., posters on display are predominantly of male
professional athletes from the “major” sports).
• Teachers inadvertently promote exclusion by allowing
student captains to pick teams or by arbitrarily separating
teams by gender or skill level (e.g., popular or highly skilled
students are chosen fi rst and cliques are evident).
Source: National Association for Sport and Physical Education,
Appropriate Practices for Elementary School Physical Education:
A Position Statement of the National Association for Sport and
Physical Education, 3rd ed. (Reston, VA: NASPE, 2009). Reprinted
with permission.
Selected Appropriate and Inappropriate Physical Education Practices
CHAPTER 9 Establishing an Environment for Learning 129
teachers, Marzano and Marzano (2003) found three
aspects that contributed to the teacher – student rela-
tionship. First, teachers who had positive relationship
with youngsters displayed teacher dominance. While
sounding negative, this is actually a positive trait,
meaning that teachers provide a clear purpose and
strong guidance in content and behavior by establish-
ing clear expectations and consequences as well as
clear learning goals and the assertive behaviors to
accomplish those goals. Second, appropriate levels of
cooperation (characterized by strong feelings of mem-
bership, engagement, and commitment; Wehlage et al.
1989) were documented in classrooms where real
learning occurs. To create these levels of cooperation,
the teacher provided students with fl exible learning
goals, took a personal interest in students, and used
positive and equitable (not equal) classroom behaviors.
Finally, the teacher – student relationship was enhanced
by the teacher’s awareness of high-need students (in-
cluding those who were passive-aggressive, had atten-
tion problems, were perfectionists, or were socially in-
ept). It is this atmosphere that we must create in the
gym if we want all children to be attracted to being
physically active for a lifetime.
It is our belief that few teachers would argue with the
notion of creating an environment that empowers chil-
dren; however, the act of doing it is more diffi cult. Sev-
eral strategies may help make your gym a place that
attracts children to physical activity for a lifetime while
helping them become self-directed, responsible learners.
1. Change, challenge, choice. Stiehl, Morris, and Sinclair
(2008) employ the practices of change, challenge,
and choice as a way to differentiate instruction and
to ensure that the gymnasium is a place where all
learners feel competent, useful, potent, optimistic,
and empowered. Though slightly modifi ed here, the
premise of their work is that any aspect of an activity
can (and should) be changed so that the learner is
allowed to be successful at the appropriate level. For
example, equipment, space, or the task itself can be
modifi ed (see Chapter 11 for intratask variation ex-
amples). The challenges listed in Chapters 19 through
28 allow tasks to be adapted so as to more appropri-
ately challenge all children. Choice empowers and
intrinsically motivates children by allowing them in-
put that meets their needs (Mowling et al. 2004).
Choice can be offered in anything from the type of
equipment used to how far apart partners stand. The
technique of teaching by invitation (Chapter 11) pro-
vides a mechanism for allowing choice in activities.
2. Use positive interactions. This means that positive
reinforcement and praise need to dominate interac-
tions with children. Unfortunately, the reverse is
usually true. Subtle nagging statements such as: “I
am waiting for you to be quiet,” and “Anytime
now” are more often heard than “I like the way you
came in and began your warm-up,” or “Thanks for
listening; it makes my job easier.”
3. People are not for hurting. Children should be psy-
cho logically safe as well as physically safe in physical
education. Hurting refers to everything from physi-
cal safety to inappropriate practices, such as games
that pinpoint and demean (e.g., dodgeball and the
like) to name-calling and making fun.
4. Never use sarcasm. As adults we have become used
to sarcasm. Children take it literally. It has no place
in the gym.
5. There are no stupid questions. As a friend of ours
puts it, “It is OK not to know, but it is not OK to
continue not knowing” (Stiehl 2002). The implica-
tion is that we need to make our gymnasiums places
where children are free to ask questions.
6. Physical education is for everyone. Sports are for
those who choose to participate in them. They are
usually dominated by the highly skilled and aggres-
sive children. Physical education is an educational
activity that is designed for every child of every skill
level. This means multiple forms of equipment,
multiple types of games at the same time, and inter-
task variation (see Chapter 11).
7. Walk your talk. We chose to be teachers. We are
role models.
8. Decorate. For many, the gym is a scary place. Make
your gym an attractive place to be — decorate the
walls, paint with bright colors, keep the gym spar-
kling clean, and make sure the lights are bright.
It is wise to check yourself regarding these practices on
a weekly basis to make sure that you haven’t slipped
into an unproductive pattern.
Some educators use the terms developing a learning
environment and discipline as if they were synonymous,
but we don’t. Creating a learning environment is pro-
active; discipline is reactive. Discipline is required
when a child’s behavior is disruptive and the teacher
needs to prevent the disruption from occurring again
(see Chapter 10). When establishing a learning envi-
ronment, the teacher focuses on fostering acceptable
behavior and creating an atmosphere appropriate for a
physical education class. Some discipline may be re-
quired in a physical education class, as in any class.
However, an established, consistent, positive environ-
ment in the gymnasium and appropriate tasks allow
students to know exactly what is expected of them,
reduce the need for discipline, and stimulate enthusi-
asm for learning. The remainder of this chapter deals
with ways teachers have been successful in developing
130 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
both managerial and instructional components to esta-
blish a productive learning environment. Remember,
you can’t maintain a learning environment if it has not
been established.
The Managerial Component
The managerial component establishes structures or
protocols through which the physical education class
becomes predictable and operates smoothly (Rink
2006; Siedentop and Tannehill 2000). The managerial
component essentially consists of two aspects: the
creation of the learning environment (this chapter)
and the maintenance of the learning environment
(Chapter 10). The creation involves the development
of protocols, the rules and routines that allow the gym-
nasium to function.
When they begin school, most children have few
preconceptions about how a physical education learn-
ing environment will be structured. Within a short
time they learn to function according to the teacher’s
expectations. The managerial component establishes
the limits for behavior and the teacher’s expectations
for the students. Because of our belief in children de-
veloping responsibility for themselves and our dislike
for constantly feeling as if it is our job to “control”
students, the managerial components we develop
focus not only on establishing an appropriate learning
environment, but also on having students take more
and more responsibility for that environment. If young-
sters are allowed to develop unacceptable behavior in
physical education class, the teacher will fi nd it in-
creasingly diffi cult to alter their behavior. For this rea-
son it’s crucial that teachers establish an appropriate
learning environment during their very fi rst lessons
with the students. How well they do this sets the tone
for the remainder of the year. We’ve found the follow-
ing techniques helpful in developing and holding
students accountable for managerial components.
Developing Protocols
Research indicates that effective teachers develop gym-
nasium protocols that help their gyms run smoothly
and minimize disruptions, thus maximizing students’
learning time ( Jones and Jones 2007). These protocols
consist of both rules and routines. Rules identify gen-
eral expectations for behavior that cover a variety of
situations. Though rules are intended to address both
acceptable and unacceptable behavior, they quite of-
ten focus on inappropriate behavior. A concept that
some teachers have found useful in changing to a pos-
itive focus is explaining rules as guidelines to help
children examine their behavior and attitudes as they
affect themselves and others ( Jones and Jones 2007).
Routines are procedures for accomplishing specifi c
duties within a class. They are different from rules in
that they usually refer to specifi c activities and are
usually aimed at accomplishing tasks rather than for-
bidding behavior. Evidence has shown that effective
teachers spend the fi rst few days of the year teaching
protocols to their classes (Brophy and Good 1986; Fink
and Siedentop 1989).
Protocols generally stay in effect for the school year
(unless you fi nd one that isn’t working or discover that
something has been neglected). It is frustrating and
time consuming to repeat the protocols for new stu-
dents or for students who were absent when they were
taught. Thus we have found it valuable to videotape
the lessons at the beginning of the year when proto-
cols are presented and taught. When a new student
joins the class, the videotape can be used either at
school or at home to orient that student to the proto-
cols of your gymnasium. The tape is also a useful re-
source to share classroom procedures with parents at
parent – teacher meetings or, if needed, to document
the teaching of safety procedures, rules, and routines
to a class. This is also a good way to remind students of
safety procedures.
Establishing Rules and Expectations That
Refl ect a Positive Environment
The establishment of rules does more than provide
the “laws” of the gymnasium; it also sets the general
atmosphere of the gym and conveys the teacher’s be-
liefs about control and responsibility. If, for example,
all the rules are developed by the teacher, are written
as a series of “don’ts,” and are narrow and punitive,
this sends the message that the teacher is the ultimate
control fi gure and children are merely people to be
control led. If, however, children provide input and
the rules are guiding and broader, allowing children
some part in the decision making, then the message
is that children are people learning to be responsible;
they are capable of making decisions and have self-
worth. These messages may appear subtle, but they
are powerful to students. Therefore our choice in the
development of rules and routines is to be broad and
guiding rather than narrow and restricting. They are
essentially guidelines by which our classes have
agreed to operate.
Children who understand the expectations within
which they are to function are less likely to test the
teacher’s fl exibility and more likely to cooperate. A
few rules stated clearly and adhered to consistently
by the teacher can be helpful to everyone. One set of
CHAPTER 9 Establishing an Environment for Learning 131
the whole idea of trying hard (even when you might
not want to), giving 100 percent, and similar ideas.
Interestingly enough, these two guidelines alone en-
compass most of the rules we are accustomed to seeing
in the gymnasium. The third and fourth guidelines in
Figure 9.1 provide an extension that we consider im-
portant in our teaching. The third indicates that stu-
dents should be able to work on their own, without
the teacher’s constant attention — a concept most of us
relish. The fourth is one of our ultimate goals — that
students care for and help each other. This can include
actions as small as handing stray balls back to their
owners or as broad as helping another student learn a
skill. We have found that when we establish these
types of guidelines and constantly adhere to them, stu-
dents learn to manage themselves and develop the
concepts of personal and social responsibility that we
desire as outcomes of our programs. With such a man-
agerial compo nent developed and in place, we fi nd
that we are “managing” less, have more time for teach-
ing, and have more fun teaching because we do not
need to behave like police offi cers.
Rules are necessary for group well-being and devel-
opment. The picture on page 138 shows another set of
gymnasium rules that teachers have found successful
in eliciting the learning environment they desire. You
Responsibility Levels
Level I: Respecting the Rights and Feelings
of Others
Self-control
The right to be included
The right to peaceful confl ict resolution
Level II: Participation and Effort
Exploring effort
Trying new things
A personal defi nition of success
Level III: Self-Direction
On-task independence
Personal plan
Balancing current and future needs
“Striving against external forces”
Level IV: Caring about and Helping Others
Prerequisite interpersonal skills
Compassion
Contributing member of the community and beyond
Without rewards
Level V: Going Beyond
Being responsible at home and school, with friends
Positive role model
Source: D. Hellison, Teaching Responsibility through Physical
Activity, 2nd ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2003). Used
with permission.
Box 9-2 Gymnasium Rules
Be nice to classmates, the teacher,
and the equipment.
Try everything——and try hard.
Do what you are supposed to do,
even when the teacher isn’t looking.
Help others.
Figure 9.1 Translation of Hellison’s (2003) responsibility levels
into rules.
guidelines that we have found effective — that help
children examine their behaviors and attitudes — is an
adaptation of Hellison’s fi ve levels of responsibility
(Hellison 2003; see Box 9-2 ). These guidelines are broad
enough to encompass the aspects necessary for safe
group survival in the gym while guiding students well
beyond simple compliance into responsibility.
Figure 9.1 shows how these guidelines can be trans-
lated into class rules. A discussion of the guidelines
can cover many things that are normally included in
narrower rules. For example, respect for the rights and
feelings of others can include all aspects of pushing,
stopping and looking when the teacher talks, sports-
personship, interrupting, use of equipment, and the
like. Participation and effort is broad enough to include
132 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
may wish to establish different rules; if so, the follow-
ing general guidelines may help you:
• Explain why the rules are necessary. Children are far
more cooperative with rules that make sense to them
than with seemingly arbitrary regulations. In some
cases, children can help make the necessary rules.
• State rules positively. Whenever possible, avoid using
the words don’t, not, and no. In essence, it is more
productive to tell children what to do than what
not to do.
• Keep the number of rules to a minimum. A good
guide is to state no more than fi ve rules.
• Post rules in an attractive fashion so they can be
seen and read easily.
• Make sure the children understand the rules. To
teach rules most effi ciently, fi rst describe and dem-
onstrate the desired behavior, then have the chil-
dren rehearse the correct behavior (this usually takes
more than one rehearsal), and fi nally provide feed-
back, especially the fi rst time you ask the children
to use a routine (the fi rst days of school).
• Design, teach, post, and practice the consequences
of breaking the rules.
• Especially in the beginning, prompt students to-
ward appropriate behavior, and reinforce appropri-
ate behavior. Let students know when they’ve done
something correctly.
One of the obvious questions, although students
don’t always ask it, is, What happens when one of the
rules is broken? No matter how well we teach, some
of the children will break some of the rules, so we fi nd
it helps at the outset of the year to describe the conse-
quences for breaking a rule. These consequences are
for relatively minor offenses; major offenses are dis-
cussed in Chapter 10.
The teacher needs to develop consequences ap-
propriate to the particular teaching situation. Many
teachers use a series of consequences similar to the
following, which allow children to fi rst take responsi-
bility for their actions before the teacher does.
1. The fi rst time a child violates a rule — for example,
the child fails to stop and listen — give the child a
verbal prompt.
2. The second time a child violates a rule in the same
class period, ask if the child “needs to sit out for a
while.” The child’s response to this question is usu-
ally amazingly honest, and the question places the
responsibility on the child for his or her actions.
The child can reenter class when ready without
consulting the teacher.
3. The third time a child violates a rule, tell the child
to take a time-out. As in the previous step, the child
may reenter class when he or she feels ready.
4. The fourth time a child violates the same rule,
have the child sit out until a personal plan can be
developed regarding his or her actions (see Chap-
ter 10). This usually means the remainder of the
class. Although sitting out the remainder of the
class may seem a bit harsh, as teachers we need to
be able to teach. A continually disruptive child
takes our attention away from other children who
deserve it just as much. Be aware that some lapse
in following rules may be minor or a nonproblem,
whereas other actions are major problems that can
escalate. Be sure not to overreact to minor prob-
lems so that children do not respect the actions
taken. See Chapter 10 for further discussion of main-
taining the learning environment.
As much as possible, the consequences for violating
a rule should be noninterruptive. We try to deliver a
consequence with a word or two and avoid interfering
with the learning experiences of the rest of the class.
One fi nal comment about time-outs: Time-outs are
effective when the children fi nd the lesson interesting.
If the lesson is uninteresting, dull, or inappropriate for
a child, then the time-out becomes a reward rather
than a consequence for off-task behavior.
Establishing Gymnasium Routines
Routines are protocols designed to help the gymna-
sium run smoothly and effi ciently. Remember, rou-
tines are specifi c ways to accomplish certain tasks
within a lesson; they should remain consistent as
much as possible. Routines also refl ect what we feel
is important. Here are key areas in which physical
education teachers fi nd routines to be effective: entry
to and exit from the gymnasium /playground; ways
to obtain, handle, and return equipment; signals for
attention and starting and stopping activity; the use
of space; boundaries for work spaces; and “house-
keeping” items such as going to the restroom, getting
drinks, and leaving the room.
Routines do much to refl ect what we think of stu-
dents and what we believe about them and thus send
clear messages to students. By the nature of how they
are implemented, routines can tell students that they
are competent and capable or dependent and not to
be trusted. Martinek (1988) found that teachers devel-
oped learned helplessness in students by creating low
expectations for them. Conversely, Herbel (1996)
found that students, when given and taught seem-
ingly high expectations for things such as responsibil-
ity and their own learning, lived up to them. Although
some of the actions may be subtle, the difference in
the two scenarios appears to center around how much
perceived control the students have over some basic
CHAPTER 9 Establishing an Environment for Learning 133
decisions. Routines that rob students of basic deci-
sions or allow no alternative seem to cause resentment
and let the students transfer responsibility for their
actions to the teacher. Alternatively, routines that al-
low students some fl exibility and decision making
seem to empower them. You might want to use some
of the following suggestions as routines are developed
for your classes.
Entering and Leaving the Gym We have found it benefi cial to have a standardized way of entering
and leaving the gym. It is helpful to have the class-
room teacher bring students to the gym, and to have
a set routine when the students get to the gym. Some
teachers have children sit on the center circle or line;
others post an initial activity; still others have chil-
dren in predetermined groups go to a predetermined
part of the gym to warm up on their own. Children
need to have something to do when they arrive or
they will make something up themselves. Exiting
should be the same as entering. Most schools re-
quire that students walk quietly in lines to and from
places in the school. It is helpful if teachers pick their
classes up.
Stopping and Listening Skills In a successful learning environment, noise rarely exceeds a reason-
able level that can be thought of as “productive noise.”
Hollering, shrieking, and yelling, although appropri-
ate at recess, are not appropriate in physical education.
The children shouldn’t be expected to be silent, but
they should be able to hear a teacher speaking in a
reasonable tone, considerably below a shout.
One of the seemingly hardest routines to teach chil-
dren in physical education is to stop activity quickly
and listen to the teacher. When a teacher must spend
time quieting the children so that the entire class can
hear an explanation or comment, the amount of time
left for activities is decreased. Thus it’s imperative that
children learn to respond quickly and appropriately to
the teacher’s signal for quiet. We have seen teachers
use a variety of signals, including dimming of the
lights, verbal cues such as “freeze,” turning music off
and on, a hand drum or tambourine, or simply the
raising of a hand. Regardless of the signal, it should be
clear what the students are to do when the signal is
given —hands on knees, eyes on teacher, equipment
on fl oor, and the like. Listening games ( Box 9-3 ) can be
used to teach children to listen as they move and to
respond quickly to the teacher’s signals.
You might initially assign a criterion of fi ve sec-
onds as a reasonable amount of time for the children
to stop and listen after they hear the stop signal. If
the entire class stops and listens in fi ve seconds or
less, praise them. If they don’t, explain that taking
more than fi ve seconds is too slow and have them
practice again. Gradually raise the standard as the
children become more profi cient. The children often
view these races against the clock as fun games and
delight in praise from the teacher when they perform
well. They also enjoy trying to beat their own records.
This approach provides far more time for activity and
instruction. As the children learn the value of spend-
ing less time on management tasks, you can elimi-
nate these races against the clock. Teachers must be
clear, concise, and to the point. As a general rule,
once a class has begun, we try to keep our verbal ex-
planations to less than one minute. Although this
isn’t always possible (or even appropriate), it does
help to increase the children’s willingness to stop and
listen to us.
Equipment Getting and putting away equipment seems to be one of the biggest issues in class. We have
found several things to be helpful. Have equipment
ready before class starts and available in various loca-
tions. For example, hula hoops create great storage
areas for balls, but be sure to have multiple locations
so that all children are not going to one place to get
equipment. It is also important that youngsters walk
to get equipment rather than running and pushing.
The same is true for returning equipment at the end
of activity; they need to walk and place it in its spot —
not shoot from the center of the gym. Another
method is to have selected groups of students — all
those wearing red, for example — go to get equipment,
and then other groups go. The two least effective ways
to get equipment are to hand it out individually and to
have it all in one place.
Once children get equipment, they need to know
what to do with it. Tell them, for example, “Walk, get
a paddle and ball, carry it to your space, and wait for
directions,” or “Walk, get a ball, carry it to your space,
and begin throwing and catching by yourself.” As with
entering the gym, if you don’t tell them what to do,
children will make it up themselves, and it usually is
not what you had in mind.
The fi nal aspect of equipment is what to do with it
when the teacher is talking. Children, like adults, have
a hard time holding on to equipment without playing
with it. Many teachers will ask students to place the
ball on the fl oor, to hold it like a pro under one elbow,
or even to hold it on their heads. Regardless of the
technique, they need to have something to do with
the equipment when the teacher is talking.
Partners and Groups When choosing partners or teams, the more we as teachers choose partners
for children, the more we disenfranchise them. It is
important to have children learn how to appropriately
134 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Box 9-3
While using movement concepts and skills as the physical
activity, these listening games are really management activities
designed to help the children learn to stop and listen quickly.
As you use them, do not single out children who are slow to
respond, and don’t use penalties as a form of discipline. Em-
barrassment and punishment are both counterproductive; you
want children to enjoy exercise, not to think of it as unpleasant.
Remember, learning management protocols takes the same
practice as learning motor skills.
Stop and Go
Children travel in general space in a scattered formation. Once
the children are able to (1) walk without touching others and
(2) stay far away from others as they walk, you can begin to
play Stop and Go. When you say “Stop,” the children should
stop and freeze instantly. When you say “Go,” they should begin
to travel again. Don’t shout the signals —speak them, so the
children become accustomed to listening for your voice at a
reasonable level. Vary the time of each movement segment,
usually keeping the movement time to no more than about
10 seconds. This should be a very lively activity.
Hocus Pocus
One of the cleverest variations of Stop and Go that we have seen
recently was the use of the phrase “hocus pocus” by Jessica
Segura and Cristian Sarmento. Whenever students were prac-
ticing and heard the phrase “hocus pocus,” they responded with
“time to focus,” put their equipment on the fl oor, hands on knees
and eyes on the teacher. Youngsters seemed to love saying
“time to focus,” and the protocol worked like a charm.
Body Parts
This game focuses on the different body parts. Once the chil-
dren have adjusted to Stop and Go, they enjoy the challenge
of touching the fl oor with different body parts — elbow, seat,
knee, wrist, waist, left hand, or right foot — as quickly as they
can when you say “Stop.”
Traveling
Once the children have learned to travel using different loco-
motor patterns, variations in these patterns are appropriate.
Call out different ways of traveling — skipping, hopping, crab-
walking, galloping — and challenge the children to change from
one to another as rapidly as possible. You can increase the
challenge of this game by combining traveling and the concept
of direction — for example, gallop backward or hop to the right.
Listening Games
Shapes
This game can be played on a painted playground surface or in
a gymnasium. Before class, draw circles, triangles, squares,
and so on the ground. The object is for the children to move
as quickly as possible to the shape you name; for example, if you
call out “circle,” the children stand on a circle as quickly as
possible. You can use colors instead of or in combination with
shapes if the surface you’re using is painted various colors. The
terms you use will be determined by your pupils’ knowledge of
colors and shapes.
Numbers
In one version of this game, the children stop with the appro-
priate number of body parts touching the ground. For example,
if you call out “three,” the children should stop with three body
parts touching the ground.
In a second version, the children stop in groups. The num-
ber the teacher calls determines the size of the group. This
game is helpful when you want the children to form into groups
of three, four, or fi ve in a hurry.
Combinations
As children learn each variation, they fi nd it challenging and fun
to play several games at once. For example, you might call out
a body part or a color or a locomotor pattern or a number.
Children thrive on increasingly diffi cult games.
Switch and Rotate
The purpose of this game is primarily to teach listening, but it’s
more appropriate for older children. The object of the game is
to stay so close to a partner that when the teacher says “Stop”
and the players freeze, the follower can still touch the leader.
When the teacher says “Switch,” the partners change roles,
and the follower becomes the leader.
You can make this game more diffi cult by increasing the
size of the group to three, then four, then fi ve. The object of
the game remains the same: each child should be able to
touch the person in front as soon as you say “Stop.” When
you add the challenge “Rotate,” the leader goes to the end of
the line and becomes a follower. Children fi nd the challenge of
listening and responding instantly while trying to remain close
to the children in front of them fascinating. You can make this
game more challenging by varying the locomotor patterns —
for example, from walking to skipping to hopping to galloping
to running.
CHAPTER 9 Establishing an Environment for Learning 135
choose their own partners. Box 9-4 has routines for
choosing partners that have worked for us.
Other Routines Other helpful routines involve
getting water, responding to accidents, using the
bathroom, and dressing appropriately. Table 9.1 com-
pares gymnasium routines that enable and don’t en-
able students to show responsibility. Any decisions
we can help students learn to make on their own
build independence, competence, self-worth, and
confi dence, thus reducing behavior problems. Taking
away decisions students are capable of making fosters
dependence and usually creates behavior problems.
The key factor is fi rst teaching students to make deci-
sions competently. The net result of this instruction
is that we as teachers are freed from trivial decisions
that detract from our ability to teach — and we have a
classroom that manages itself.
Getting Off to a Good Start
Typically, the fi rst day a class meets, the teacher goes
over the logistical and organizational rules and proce-
dures she or he feels are essential for effective class
functioning. Many times we’ve seen this done only in
the fi rst lesson via a lecture; the rules and procedures
are never taught and never reviewed again unless
something goes wrong.
It has become increasingly obvious how important
the fi rst few days of school are (Brooks 1985; Brophy
Box 9-4
Though the days of having a class divide into two teams and play
against each other are largely over in physical education, on many
occasions children need to form partners or small groups. In
some classes, the act of fi nding a partner creates many behavior
problems. Children argue over who is going to be whose partner,
other children are left out, the time used in deciding partners takes
longer than the task itself, and then children want to change part-
ners. The same problems occur, even more so, when dividing
children into groups. We’ve found the following techniques helpful
in avoiding such problems as much as possible.
Getting Partners
• Put a time limit on how long children can take to choose
partners, such as “by the time I count from fi ve to one.”
• Put restrictions on who may be partners—for example, “some-
one you’ve never worked with before,” “the person sitting next
to you,” “the person who sits next to you in class,” or “some-
one you know you can work with in a productive manner.”
• Decide ahead of class who’ll be partners.
• Hand out color codes (pieces of paper, stickers, or
marking-pen marks on the hand) at the beginning of
class; the children who match up are partners.
Dividing into Groups
• Have children choose partners; then put one partner on
one group and one on another. This works well for making
groups equal.
• Assign each student a color or number (the number of
colors or numbers equals the number of groups you
desire) at the beginning of the year or month. When
groups are to be formed, simply say, “Reds here,” “Blues
here,” “Purples here,” and “Greens here.” (This is also
an effi cient way to take roll in your class.) Be sure to
change colors or numbers by grading period so the
groups are varied.
• Divide teams by certain generic characteristics, such as
eye color, month of birth, number of siblings, or number of
letters in fi rst name.
• Divide groups ahead of time.
• Create a deck of cards that has the number of groups you
desire. For example, if you want groups of four, confi gure
the deck so that you use four aces, four kings, four queens,
four jacks, and four 10s. Pass out the cards randomly and
have the four that match become a group.
Whatever you do, don’t take more than 60 seconds and, most
important, don’t alienate anyone. Under no circumstances
should selecting partners or dividing children into groups be a
popularity contest.
Forming Partners or Groups
Students don’t need to be fearful of teachers to listen
to them.
— MARK MURDOCK , practicum student,
after his fi rst time teaching sixth grade
136 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
and Good 1986; Krouscas 1996): The fi rst days estab-
lish the environment for the entire year. The students
learn what behavior and attitude are appropriate in
the gymnasium and what will be expected of them in
physical education. It is then that they learn the class
rules, both stated and unstated. When a situation arises
and is consistently treated the same way, the students
know the teacher means what has been said. This es-
tablishes the behavior and attitude that will typify a
class for the remainder of the year. We’ve found the
following suggestions helpful for getting off to a good
start, and Figure 9.2 provides a checklist to ensure that
you’re ready for the beginning of the school year. For
those of you who are reading this book and are about
to begin a fi eld experience, your beginning of the year
is the fi rst day you see your students. While you will not
want to vary much from what your cooperating teacher
does, you can use the same suggestions for letting stu-
dents know that you know what goes on in the gym.
• Ready the gym Be certain that your gymnasium and
materials are ready before the beginning of the year. • Plan protocols Even if it is your plan to have stu-
dents provide input into the rules and routines of
the gymnasium, decide before you meet your stu-
dents what general rules and routines are important
and necessary for you. What is the general atmo-
sphere you wish to create? In what ways can you
guide students? Teachers who have the students
decide on protocols often come prepared with
Table 9.1 Routines That Promote (and Don’t Promote) Decision Making
Task Promotes Doesn’t Promote
Getting equipment Spread equipment and have students walk to Hand out equipment.
pick it up.
Entering the gymnasium Post initial activity; students begin to practice Students line up, waiting for the teacher.
as soon as they enter.
Choosing partners Students choose partners with whom they can Teacher assigns partners.
practice productively.
Dress Students choose appropriate clothing that allows Students wear uniforms.
them to participate freely.
Getting water/bathroom Students get a drink or use the restroom when Drinking and /or restroom use is permitted only
they need it, if no one else is at the drinking before or after class.
fountain or in the restroom.
Spreading equipment out and
providing equipment options are
two routines that promote student
responsibility.
CHAPTER 9 Establishing an Environment for Learning 137
generic guidelines (such as participation; treatment
of others—students and teachers; safety; equipment)
for operation of the gym. Students can then form
specifi c rules within those guidelines. If you decide
to develop the rules of the gym yourself, determine
what proce dures students need to follow for your
gymnasium to run smoothly; decide what behav-
iors are acceptable and unacceptable; and develop a
list of rules before the students’ arrival. Regardless of
how the rules are established, post them.
• Establish consequences As with rules, consequen ces
need to be established for appropriate and in appro-
priate behavior. These, too, can be developed jointly
or independently. They need to be communicated
to students and followed through on consistently
(see the next section for more about rules and
consequences).
• Plan beginning-of-school activities Develop activi-
ties for the fi rst few days of physical education that
will involve students at a high success rate and have
a whole-group focus (see Chapter 13). This gives
you an opportunity to see who follows directions
and to reinforce appropriate behavior and attitudes.
Don’t begin independent work until you are certain
that individuals know what is expected of them.
Teach the rules of behavior and expected attitudes,
as well as classroom routines (e.g., what to do when
arriving in class; how to take out, set up, and take
CHECKLIST FOR THE BEGINNING OF SCHOOL
Item
Check When Done Notes
Are your teaching areas and equipment
ready?
Have you decided on your class protocols?
Are you familiar with the parts of the school
that you may use (halls, cafeteria, multi-
purpose room, etc.) and any procedures
associated with their use?
Do you have complete class rosters for each
class you teach?
Do you have file information on your
students, including any comments from
previous teachers and information on
health problems?
Do you know if you have any students with
disabilities who should be accommodated
for in your instruction?
Do you have an adequate amount of
equipment for your students?
Have you established the procedure for the
arrival and departure of the students from
the physical education area?
Are the children's name tags ready? Do
you have some blank ones for unexpected
students?
Do you have your first day's plan of
activities?
Do you have rainy-day activities planned?
Have you inspected all facilities for safety
issues?
Do you have a letter ready to send home to
the parents with information about the
school year and expectations?
Do you know how to obtain assistance from
school staff members (e.g., school nurse,
office personnel, and the custodians)?
Figure 9.2 Checklist for the
beginning of school.
Source: Adapted from C. Evertson,
E. Emmer, and M. Worsham,
Classroom Management for
Elementary Teachers, 7th ed.
(Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2009).
138 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
down equipment; what to do in a fi re drill). You can
most easily do this by planning what the routines
will be, designing situations that allow students to
practice the routines, and teaching those routines
“in the gym.” Spending time teaching behavior and
attitudes at the beginning of the school year allows
you to spend more time during the rest of the year
teaching skills and much less time repeating what
should already have become habit.
• Communicating with parents Many teachers fi nd it
valuable to communicate via a written newsletter or
fl yer the expectations of physical education class as
well what to expect in terms of learning in the gym.
The newsletter can include what themes will be
taught and when, a bit about special events, the safety
rules of the gym and playground, and how to contact
you. Some teachers leave a place for comments on
the fl yer and request that a signed copy be returned.
• Developing strategies for potential problems Antici-
pate problems both in terms of content (e.g., what
will be too hard for some students) or gymnasium
routines (e.g., how might students potentially mis-
understand a certain routine), and develop ways to
prevent or reduce those problems.
• Monitoring In the early days, routinely check with
students individually to determine how they’re settling
in and to gain other information that may be relevant
to the physical education and school setting.
• Creating accountability Develop procedures that
help students learn to be responsible for their work
(Chapter 14) and their actions (Chapter 10).
Teaching Skills for Establishing a Learning Environment
The preceding sections emphasized the importance of
a managerial component, as well as the tasks necessary
to create it. A number of generic teaching skills are also
used by effective teachers to help create and maintain
a component. Such skills include teaching the proto-
cols, setting performance standards, and maintaining
consistency.
Teaching Protocols
When children are learning psychomotor skills, we
commonly give them much practice, and when they
make mistakes, we provide feedback. We would never
think about punishing a child who did not learn to
throw correctly, especially after one try. The same is
true with teaching rules and routines. For children to
learn rules and routines, you should teach them just as
you would teach content —using the same effective
teaching skills. The following four aspects are some of
the most important when teaching protocols.
1. Describe, demonstrate, and expect the desired
behavior. Some people call this setting performance
standards. Effective teachers set high but reasonable
expectations for students and communicate them
to the children. We’ve found that an easy way to
do this is to teach with a critical demandingness
(Brophy and Evertson 1976), which means that we
set standards and consistently adhere to them so
that the children know exactly what is expected.
For example, we’ve established performance stan-
dards for many of the daily management tasks, such
as putting away equipment or lining up to go back
to the classroom. Performance standards are really a
way for teachers to communicate exactly what they
expect. When these expectations are clear, the chil-
dren understand what the teacher desires.
You should use both words and actions to convey
what specifi c behaviors are acceptable. For example,
do not simply tell children you want them to display
good sportspersonship, but tell them what good
means—say thank you to others, walk to get equip-
ment, put equipment down and listen when the
Attractively posting classroom rules is an effective way to guide
children’s actions.
CHAPTER 9 Establishing an Environment for Learning 139
Teaching Protocols with Group Practice: Ring the Bell
Equipment
For an average-size class:
• Four sets of large cards, each with a protocol practice
activity written on one side (see below). Each set of cards
should be a different color.
• Four medium bells.
• Any equipment necessary to practice the card
activities.
Organization
After protocols have been explained and demonstrated,
divide the class into four groups. Give each group a color
to match the cards. All cards are spread out facedown
in the middle of the gym and mixed. When instructed,
one member of each group retrieves a card for his or her
group, takes it to the group, and they complete the
activity. One member then returns to the middle, rings the
cowbell, hands the card to the teacher, and retrieves
another card. The activity continues until all cards have
been completed.
Sample Card Activities
• At the regroup area, fi nger-spell your fi rst name.
• Go get a drink of water. One at a time, please.
• Go to the blue neighborhood and do 10 push-ups of
any kind.
• Go to the planning-time area (see Chapter 10) and review
the rules with each other.
• Measure the length of the gym using your bodies. Lie
down on the fl oor head-to-toe.
• Go to the bathroom pass area and show your group your
favorite safe balance.
• Go to the red neighborhood, get a ball, and dribble it
15 times with your right hand and 15 times with your left
hand.
Assessment
This would be an opportune time to check for understanding
by using a student drawing or an exit slip (see Chapter 14)
asking about one or two protocols.
Source: Adapted from material by Chet Bunting, Riverside
Elementary School, Thornton, CO. Used with permission.
Box 9-5
teacher or others are talking, walk around others to
retrieve lost equipment. Second, demonstrate what
each behavior looks like. Many children will have a
different idea than you do about what walking means.
Setting performance standards helps defi ne the at-
mosphere of the classroom and maintain safety.
2. Practice the behaviors. Practice serves to help chil-
dren learn the appropriate behavior and at the
same time allows you the opportunity to see if the
youngsters understand and can follow a procedure.
Box 9-5 gives an example of a practice activity for
rules and procedures. Note that the primary pur-
pose of this activity is to help students learn the
protocols of the gymnasium by performing a vari-
ety of activities. All the activities involve working
together productively as a group, which focuses on
the atmosphere of the gym itself.
3. Provide feedback. Protocols, just like motor skills,
are learned, and children don’t often get them right
the fi rst time. After students have successfully prac-
ticed the protocol for the fi rst time, be sure to tell
them they did it correctly and then praise them. If
improvement is needed, tell them exactly what is
needed and practice again. Even after youngsters
seem to know a protocol, be prepared to prompt
and give feedback if they forget.
4. Maintain Consistency. When establishing a class-
room atmosphere, to avoid slippage (letting the
children become lax as the year progresses), it’s im-
portant that teachers be consistent in what they
expect from one day to the next.
Students learn best when the gymnasium is a
predictable place to be. Rules and routines must be
followed in a habitual fashion. For example, if chil-
dren are allowed to take out equipment mats by
dragging them across the fl oor on one day, but on
the next day four people are required to carry each
mat, what Doyle (1979) calls ambiguity exists: the
students really don’t know what is expected of them
and are actually confused. Therefore, after behav-
iors have been described and taught (performance
standards set), the protocols practiced, and feedback
given, you must be consistent with your actions as
teacher if youngsters are to really understand the
expectations.
The Instructional Component
It is not enough to create a reasonable place in which stu-
dents are able to learn; we must also teach so students can
learn. Learning motor skills and fi tness concepts is the
unique goal of physical education. It provides the focus
that guides our actions as teachers and directs student
140 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
attention as well as participation and attitudes. Student
learning is therefore an important consideration in how
we organize and maintain order in the gymnasium. Stu-
dents are more likely to learn when expectations about
organization, management, and learning are communi-
cated. Although many of us are accustomed to these
expectations as part of the managerial component, they
also are a component of the instructional component.
Simply, more learning occurs when students understand
and value learning goals; when the task is appropriate
and has a defi nite aim or focus; and when content is
made personal, concrete, and familiar.
If students are to be held accountable for learning
expectations that we have set, it is essential that they
accomplish the task as intended. Accountability in a
managerial component is clear: if a student is asked to
walk and instead runs, he or she is asked to start over
again and walk. Accountability also exists with motor
performance, but the strategies differ. Typically we
have used testing as the major accountability compo-
nent for learning in physical education. Unfortunately,
testing occurs infrequently and only at the end of a
unit. Alternative assessment practices have helped al-
leviate that problem (see Chapter 14). Yet, to truly
learn and understand, students need ongoing account-
ability components. Effective teachers utilize a variety
of accountability practices to create effective instruc-
tional components that keep students on task, focused,
and motivated to improve their performance. These
are thoroughly developed in Chapter 11, and they are
summarized here to reinforce the interrelatedness of
the learning environment.
Varying the type of task builds accountability into
the instructional task. The use of challenges on a regu-
lar basis gives students the opportunity to focus their
work, as well as informally assess their learning be-
tween tests. Though there is no magic number or mix,
we have found that a varied pattern of tasks works
well. It has been our fi nding that appropriate, chal-
lenging content eliminates about 90 percent of the po-
tential behavior problems in class.
Learning cues also provide students with an instruc-
tional accountability mechanism. Cues are simply
short phrases or words that focus the learner on the
critical elements of the skill to be practiced. Usually
one cue is all that students can remember at one time.
If for every task presented, the last thing the teacher
did was to repeat the cue(s) for the task, many students
would be highly focused. Major cues are provided at
the beginning of each control- through profi ciency-
level task in the skill theme chapters.
Providing specifi c congruent feedback about students’
performance increases the accountability for learning.
Specifi c congruent feedback means feedback that is
directly related to the cues given with the task and noth-
ing else. If a teacher provides such feedback, student per-
formance is then more directed and focused.
Whatever the strategy, in order to learn, students must
have a focus for the activity and be held accountable for
realizing the focus. Without focus and accounta bility,
students will lack motivation, will not learn the intended
content, and will begin to behave inappropriately.
Safety
Although teaching safety procedures could logically
be included within the managerial component, it is
so important that we have chosen to address it sepa-
rately. We discuss it in generic terms here, but we also
include specifi c safety aspects in each skill theme
development chapter: these are coded with the safety
icon .
A major responsibility of every physical education
teacher is to provide students with a safe learning envi-
ronment, both physically and psychologically ( Siedentop
and Tannehill 2000). You as a teacher are entrusted with
the safety of students in your class. The legal terminol-
ogy is “in loco parentis.” In other words, when a child is
with you, you act in place of the parent. The commonly
accepted defi nition of this type of responsibility is that
while a child is in a teacher’s care, the teacher should act
in a reasonable and responsible manner with respect to
the child’s welfare and safety. Reasonable behavior has
been interpreted by the courts as what one would expect
of a person with ordinary intelligence, ordinary percep-
tion, ordinary memory (Koehler 1987), and specifi ed
academic and professional credentials. This means that
teachers are held to the standard of the reasonably pru-
dent “teacher” with all the pertinent credentials and ex-
perience that this teacher possesses (that is, if teacher X
has more than the basic knowledge, certifi cations, and
so on, teacher X is held accountable for that knowledge).
Teachers are held to the standard of the reasonably pru-
dent teacher, not that of just any adult.
Elements of Negligence
When a teacher does not act in a reasonably prudent
manner, negligence can occur. Negligence has four
separate elements — duty, breach of duty, proximate
cause, and injury — that all must be met to prove that
someone is liable.
Duty The fi rst element is established duty. This in-
volves the relationship that exists between a teacher
CHAPTER 9 Establishing an Environment for Learning 141
and students. By virtue of being a teacher, we have a
duty to the students in our classes.
Breach of Duty Duty requires that teachers main- tain a certain standard of care regarding the students
in their classes. A teacher is required (1) to anticipate
foreseeable risk in any activity; (2) to take reasonable
steps to prevent injury; (3) to provide a warning that
risk is inherent in the activity; (4) to provide aid to the
injured student; and (5) to prevent an increase in the
severity of the injury. This standard of care is arrived at
through expert testimony and other information that
sets standards of practice. If an incident goes to court,
the defendant’s behavior will be compared to what the
“reasonably prudent teacher” would have done in
those circumstances to see if there was a breach of the
standard of care. This is a critical issue because all ex-
perts in a fi eld may not always agree upon the accepted
standard of care. For example, most would say that
children should be warned and taught about the dan-
gers of raising hockey sticks above the waist, but what
about playing dodgeball as part of the physical educa-
tion curriculum? Breach of duty, or of the standard of
care, is the second element of negligence.
Proximate Cause The third element of negligence is proximate cause, meaning that the teacher’s behavior
was the cause of the injury. An example might involve
a student who has a documented medical problem
that precludes participation in certain activities. The
teacher requires the student to participate anyway,
and the student suffers an injury directly related to
the medical problem. What the teacher did was the
main factor in the injury.
Injury Injury is the fi nal element of negligence. This element requires that the injury must have oc-
curred because of the breach of duty. For example, if a
student falls from gymnastics equipment that has no
mats under it and breaks a leg, an injury has occurred.
If, however, a student falls under the same circum-
stances and no injury has occurred, then there is no
case for negligence.
Areas in Which Negligence Might Occur
The four elements of negligence might occur in a vari-
ety of situations, but the three most common involve
facilities and equipment, the conduct of the activity,
and supervision.
Facilities and Equipment Two major areas in which facilities and equipment are subject to negligent
behavior are (1) upkeep and general safety of the equip-
ment, and (2) facilities and the appropriateness of the
equipment for the child. All students have the right to
participate in an environment that is safe and develop-
mentally appropriate. Keeping facilities and equipment
safe and in “good working order” is the obvious aspect of
this domain. Standards for equipment and facilities are
available from most school districts as well as the Ameri-
can Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation
and Dance (NASPE 2009). Grounds should be inspected
regularly for potential hazards such as sprinkler heads,
holes, rocks, and ants. If a faci lity or equipment needs
attention, it can only be attended to if reported. Make
sure the right people know what needs to be repaired
and follow up on it. The less obvious aspect of this do-
main is that equipment should be matched to the child,
or, in educational terms, it should be developmentally
appropriate. All equipment must be of the appropriate
size and weight for the child. Thus in one class you may
have multiple types of balls or rackets available to chil-
dren. For example, to ask most six-year-olds or beginners
of any age to use a regulation bat is not appropriate.
Supervision The teacher must be in the room or on the playground with the class and must be paying at-
tention, and there must be enough supervisors for the
participants present. This implies that you do not leave
during class to do something else, even if it is to get
equipment out of the equipment room. When present,
teachers must actively observe the class (see Chapter 12)
and be cognizant of what is occurring. If misbehavior,
off-task behavior, or unsafe behavior exists, teachers
have the obligation to respond to such behavior. Have
all equipment out before class, and answer phone calls
on breaks. In many schools, teachers going outdoors
with children now carry walkie-talkies and /or cell
phones for emergencies.
Conduct of Activities The conduct of the activ- ity may be the least obvious negligence area. Four
aspects are important here: (1) how children are
taught to perform the skill, including proper progres-
sion; (2) how they are instructed to use equipment;
(3) what safety precautions are taken by the teacher;
and (4) whether the inherent risk is explained to the
children and whether emergency medical procedures
and protocols are developed. The last two aspects of
safety and risk are the two that are most often the
focus of teachers.
Safety precautions need to be stated as part of the
general instructions to the children for every activity
they undertake. These can be as simple as having stu-
dents wait until everyone has thrown at a target before
142 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
collecting the equipment and reminding them to walk
around groups when collecting stray equipment; or
safety instructions can be more formal, such as posting
specifi c safety rules for activities that involve hockey
sticks. Children and parents also need to know the
risks involved in physical education classes. This can
be done by sending communications home at the be-
ginning of the year so that parents can inform teach-
ers of medical conditions of which they should be
aware. General safety procedures can easily be taught
at the beginning of the school year by incorporating
them with other gymnasium rules and routines. These
safety procedures must be explained and then taught,
as well as practiced.
We’ve found that special safety procedures, ones
that deal with specialized equipment or unique situ-
ations, are most effectively taught at the time that
situation arises. Again, the procedures shouldn’t be
glossed over; students should thoroughly understand
them before you proceed. When specifi c safety rules
are presented and taught, it is again a good time to
videotape the teaching — for students who may be
absent, for those who tend to forget, or in case of
legal action.
It’s benefi cial to explain why selected behaviors are
inappropriate and why safety procedures are necessary.
Explaining the possible harmful consequences of ac-
tions helps children understand the need for stated
practices. As with all ongoing gymnasium rules, the
consequences of breaking safety rules must be stated;
they might easily be included in the general rules for
behavior. The children need to understand that safety
is their responsibility as well as the teacher’s when ac-
tivity begins. Student safety should be the fi rst thing
the teacher observes for when the children begin a task
(see Chapter 12).
The fi rst and second aspects regarding the conduct
of activities —how children are taught to perform skills
and how they are taught to use equipment — are
equally critical. First, children need to be taught the
appropriate use of all equipment in class. For example,
jump ropes are for jumping over and using as nets, but
not for slinging around the head as they are picked up.
When equipment is not used appropriately, the risk of
injury is far greater. It cannot be assumed that all chil-
dren know the appropriate use of equipment.
Finally, all children are entitled to instruction that is
appropriate. Proper task progressions are critically im-
portant to the safety of students. A student must pos-
sess all the prerequisite skills before beginning a new
task. A teacher who skips from the precontrol level to
the profi ciency level when students are still at the pre-
control level, or from tasks to challenges without
teaching critical cues, has not followed a proper pro-
gression. The teacher, in this case, is simply asking for
safety and legal problems. Accurate records of lesson
and unit plans allow teachers not only to establish
proper progressions, but also to document them. Di-
rections should be clear and thorough to the point
that students know exactly what they are to do and
how, but not to the point of giving so much informa-
tion that children are confused. Critical cues need to
be provided for each task given, accompanied by an
unambiguous demonstration.
Students need to behave safely in a safe environ-
ment. They also need to feel safe about what they are
doing in class. Students who feel comfortable about
what they are doing and are willing to participate fully
by experiencing appropriate task progressions tend to
behave safely, because they are challenged by the task
at hand yet feel able to accomplish it.
This is a brief overview of some of the safety and
legal issues teachers face. It is not intended as a com-
pendium source. For more information, you may want
to read Sport, Physical Activity, and the Law (Dougherty,
Goldberger, and Carpenter 2007) or Law for Recreation
and Sport Managers (Cotton, Wolohan, and Wilde 2007).
Be sure to check with your school district regarding its
safety policies and procedures.
As physical educators, we have always been conscious
of safety, but in today’s world of increasing legal action
against teachers, we simply have to become more cau-
tious and thorough in all that we do. To do anything
less risks student injury as well as legal action.
Summary
The establishment of a learning environment is the
fi rst thing a teacher must do to have an effective
physical education program. The learning environ-
ment consists of two components: the managerial
component and the instructional component. The
managerial component involves all those activities
that are noninstructional, and the instructional com-
ponent involves all activities that are designed to
increase student learning. The teacher’s attitude and
beliefs permeate both components. The types of com-
ponents that are set up are a direct refl ection of the
teacher’s attitudes and beliefs about children, educa-
tion, and physical education. Figure 9.3 may help you
to visualize the components of establishing a learning
environment. Designing components that (1) involve
students in decision making, (2) view children as
CHAPTER 9 Establishing an Environment for Learning 143
Sample Web Site
PE Central A physical education Web site with a plethora of
information on all aspects of physical education, including
classroom management ideas; www.pecentral.org.
Atmosphere
Managerial Instructional
Establishing a learning environment
Rules Routines
Post Start/stop Enter/ leave
Equipment Etc. Minimum positive
Consequences
Beginning of year
Teaching skills
Describe and demonstrate
Practice Provide
feedback Maintain
consistency
Bathroom
Maintaining a learning environment
Development/teaching of protocols
Figure 9.3 Establishing a
learning environment.
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. What is meant by the phrase “Management is a
neces sary, though not suffi cient, condition for
learning”?
2. What are the two major components in the estab-
lishment of a learning environment, and how do
they differ from each other?
3. What is discipline? How does discipline differ from
establishing a learning environment?
4. How do teachers’ beliefs about children impact the
learning environment?
5. What is the role of atmosphere in the establish-
ment of a learning environment?
6. Describe and explain the three aspects that contrib-
ute to a productive teacher – student relationship.
What are your thoughts as to their importance and
seemingly contradictory nature?
7. What are protocols? What two aspects make up
protocols, and how do they differ?
8. What are three activities you can use to teach chil-
dren to listen in a physical education environment?
capable and able, and (3) are consistent with clear
learning expectations and appropriate tasks usually
creates an environment that is conducive to student
learning and eliminates much off-task behavior. The
teacher is able to teach and does not have to be a
police offi cer.
144 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
References /Suggested Readings
Brooks , D. M. 1985 . The fi rst day of school. Educational Leadership 42(8): 76 –78 .
Brophy , J. , and C. Evertson. 1976 . Learning from teaching: A developmental perspective. Boston: Allyn & Bacon .
Brophy , J. , and T. Good . 1986 . Teacher behavior and stu- dent achievement. In Handbook of research on teaching. 7th ed. M. Wittrock, pp. 328 –75 . New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston .
Cotton , D. J. , J. T. Wolohan , and T. J. Wilde . 2007 . Law for recreation and sport managers. 4th ed. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/ Hunt .
Deutsch , D. 1999 . The coaching club. Master’s thesis, Uni- versity of North Dakota, Grand Forks.
Dougherty , N. J. , A. S. Goldberger , and L. J. Carpenter . 2007 . Sport, physical activity, and the law. 3rd ed. Champaign, IL: Sagamore Publications .
Doyle , W. 1979 . Making managerial decisions in class- rooms. In Classroom management: Seventy-eighth yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part 2, ed. D.L. Duke. Chicago: University of Chicago Press .
Doyle , W. 1980 . Student mediating responses in teaching effectiveness. Denton: North Texas State University . (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 187 698.)
Ennis , C. 1995 . Teachers’ responses to noncompliant students: The realities and consequences of a nego- tiated curri culum. Teaching and Teacher Education 11(5): 445 – 60 .
Evertson , C. , E. Emmer , and M. Worsham . 2009 . Class- room management for elementary teachers . 7th ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon .
Fink , J. , and D. Siedentop. 1989 . The development of routi nes, rules, and expectations at the start of the school year. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 8(3): 198 – 221 .
Galvan , C. 2004 . Investigating the impact of a service learn- ing course on teacher candidates and underserved youth. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Northern Colorado, Greeley.
Hastie , P. , and D. Siedentop . 2007 . The classroom ecology paradigm. In Handbook of physical education , ed. D. Kirk, D. Macdonald, and M. O’Sullivan, pp. 214 –25 . London: Sage .
Helion , J. 1996 . If we build it, they will come: Creating an emotionally safe physical education environment. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 67(6): 40 – 44 .
Hellison , D. 2003 . Teaching personal and social responsibility through physical activity. 2nd ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Herbel , K. 1996 . Youth, basketball, and responsibility: A fairy tale ending? Unpublished master’s thesis, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks.
Herbel , K. , and M. Parker. 1995. Same story, different set- ting: A case study of a program for at-risk youth. Paper presented at the Northern Rocky Mountain Educational Research Convention, Jackson Hole, WY.
Jones , V. , and L. Jones. 2007 . Comprehensive classroom management. 8th ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon .
Koehler , R. W. 1987 . Law, sport activity and right management. Champaign, IL: Stipes .
Krouscas , J. 1996 . No substitute for the fi rst day of school. Strategies 10(1): 5 – 8 .
Martinek , T. 1988 . Confi rmation of the teacher expec- tancy model: Student perceptions and causal attributions of teacher behavior. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 59: 118 –26 .
Marzano , R. J. , and J. S. Marzano. 2003 . The key to classroom management. Educational Leadership 61(1): 6 –13 .
Mowling , C. , K. Eider , S. Brock , and M. Rudisill . 2004 . Stu- dent motivation in physical education. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 75(6): 40 – 45⫹ .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2004 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. 2nd ed. St. Louis, MO: Mosby .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2009 . Appropriate practices for elementary school physical education. 3rd ed. Reston, VA: National Associa- tion for Sport and Physical Education .
Parker , M. , J. Kallusky , and D. Hellison . 1999 . High impact, low risk: Ten strategies to teach responsibility in physical education. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 70(2): 26 –28 .
9. List fi ve guidelines for establishing rules of behav-
ior in the gymnasium.
10. What four things can a teacher do to help students
learn protocols?
11. Why are the fi rst lessons of the year so important?
List fi ve suggestions for those lessons.
12. Identify and describe three aspects of teaching
protocols.
13. Defi ne accountability measures. List three account-
ability measures for each of the components in
physical education.
14. What are the four aspects of negligence, and in
what areas of teaching are they most likely to
occur?
CHAPTER 9 Establishing an Environment for Learning 145
Parker , M. , and J. Stiehl . 2005 . Personal and social respon- sibility. In Standards-based physical education curriculum, ed. J. Lund and D. Tannehill, pp. 130 –53 . Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett .
Rink , J. 1987 . The learning game: A baseball theory of teacher effectiveness. Unpublished manuscript.
Rink , J. 2006 . Teaching physical education for learning. 5th ed. St. Louis, MO: Mosby .
Sagor , R. 2002 . Lessons from skateboarders. Educational Leadership 60(1): 34 – 38 .
Siedentop , D. , and D. Tannehill . 2000 . Developing teaching skills in physical education. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill .
Stiehl , J. 2002 . Course outline SES 444: Teaching diverse populations . Greeley, CO: University of Northern Colorado, School of Sport and Exercise Science .
Stiehl , J. , G. S. Morris , and C. Sinclair. 2008 . Teaching physi- cal activity: Change, challenge, choice. Champaign, IL: Hu- man Kinetics .
Tousignant , M. , and D. Siedentop. 1983 . The analysis of task structures in physical education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 3(1): 45 –57 .
Wehlage , G. G. , R. Rutter , G. Smith , N. Lesko , and R. Fernandez . 1989 . Reducing the risk: Schools as communities of support. Philadelphia: Falmer Press .
Xiang , P. , R. McBride , and J. Guan . 2004 . Children’s moti vation in elementary physical education: A longi- tudinal study. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 75(1): 71– 80 .
146 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
146
C H A P T E R
10
Maintaining Appropriate Behavior The thing that worries me is my lesson may not be good enough and students will get bored and be
disruptive.
The only thing I am anxious about is if they [the students] decide to go berserk.
I am most worried that the students won’t want to work as a team, that they will want to just mess
around.
I am most worried that the students won’t give full participation —won’t listen — and I will revert
back to the typical militaristic-like style.
I am anxious about discipline.
—UNIVERSITY STUDENTS BEFORE TEACHING SIXTH GRADE FOR THE FIRST TIME
CHAPTER 10 Maintaining Appropriate Behavior 147
T he concerns expressed by the students in the
statements that introduce this chapter probably
refl ect what many teachers feel: Will I be able to
handle my students? Will they do what is right? What
will I do when they don’t?
Helping children learn to be accountable for their
behavior can be considered to be one of the least en-
joyable tasks of teaching, but it is something that all
teachers must do. The notion that only poor teachers
have to hold children accountable is simply not accu-
rate. Yet holding children accountable is less likely to be
a problem when effective managerial and instructional
task components are in place.
• The maintenance of the established learning environment
is something that must be consciously cultivated.
• Appropriate behavior is not the mere absence of inappro-
priate behavior.
• If a learning environment is not effective, before blaming
the students, assess your teaching behaviors to see if
your actions have contributed to the nonfunctioning
environment.
• Three hierarchical aspects are paramount to maintaining
a learning environment: increasing appropriate behavior,
decreasing inappropriate behavior, and dealing with
whole-class problems.
• Both proactive and reactive strategies can be used to
increase appropriate behavior.
• Proactive strategies include positive interaction with
children, prompting correct responses, and eliminating
differential treatment of students.
• Behavior problems can be classifi ed as a nonproblem,
minor problem, major problem, or escalating problem.
• Ignoring inappropriate behavior when it is inconsequential
or a nonproblem, keen use of nonverbal interactions, and
person-to-person dialogue are strategies that allow
teachers to appropriately react to student behavior.
• To decrease inappropriate behavior, teachers can use
desists, positive practice, time-outs, planning time, be-
havior contracts, letters to parents, and, as a last resort,
can involve the principal.
• Entire class behavior can be maintained by developing
personal and social responsibility, class rewards, and
token systems.
• A variety of teaching strategies can be used to maintain
the class environment.
Key Concepts
Consistently maintaining the environment de-
signed and established for the class is second only to
establishing it. Some call this discipline, but the word
discipline has so many varied, and mostly negative,
connotations that we have chosen to avoid it. Disci-
pline most often implies punishing some type of inap-
propriate behavior. That, for us, is the last resort. From
our viewpoint, the establishment and maintenance of
an environment supportive of learning is a more posi-
tive and appropriate perspective. We follow a positive
approach to dealing with behavior and attitudes that
are inappropriate, an approach that lets a teacher both
create a positive atmosphere and teach students appro-
priate behavior for the gymnasium. In such a situa-
tion, the teacher’s primary tasks are, fi rst, to employ
techniques that create the likelihood of appropriate
behavior and, second, to use techniques that reduce
inappropriate behavior.
We defi ne appropriate behavior as student behavior
that is consistent with the educational goals of a speci-
fi c educational setting (Siedentop and Tannehill 2000)
Appropriate behavior is not the mere absence of inap-
propriate behavior; rather, it is itself a set of behaviors
or actions. These positive behaviors or actions must
replace the inappropriate behavior.
It’s normal for all teachers to be concerned about
how to hold students accountable for what they are
“supposed” to do. Our experiences with beginning
and experienced teachers, as well as our own teaching
experiences, suggest that most teachers ask themselves
questions about responding to student behavior. The
difference between so-called good teachers and poor
teachers is not their concern about holding children
accountable — all teachers encounter deviant and dis-
ruptive behavior and must fi nd ways of dealing with
it. Rather, the more successful teachers are able to
minimize the amount of time they devote to dealing
with inappropriate behavior and to do so in a largely
positive manner.
Even the teacher who develops managerial and in-
structional components, establishes and explains rules
of behavior, prompts and provides feedback for appro-
priate behavior, and teaches with a critical demanding-
ness can’t be sure that a class will perform as expected.
In many classes, there will be some children who fi nd
it diffi cult to function in a school environment, not
only in physical education, but in other classes as well.
Occasionally an entire class has diffi culty adhering to
the behavioral boundaries that have been established.
Whether it is one, several, or most of the children
who are unable to abide by the rules, your fi rst response
might well be to examine your performance as a teacher.
When children react in unexpected ways, you may,
upon refl ection, fi nd that their reactions are justifi ed.
148 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Children are incredibly honest. A teacher may not want
to know or believe that a lesson is a dud, but the chil-
dren will let the teacher know. Occasionally it’s the
teacher’s behavior, rather than the children’s, that
needs to be changed. For example, when children have
problems with equipment or don’t understand or hear
the teacher’s directions, rather than ask for help, they
will participate at their own level, “doing their own
thing.” Likewise, if a task is too boring or involves a
practice situation that might provide better practice if
changed (e.g., number of hits before switching roles),
children will often change the task to meet their needs.
Therefore it doesn’t look like the task that the teacher
gave, and the children will be perceived as off task.
The class proceeded through its parody of education,
following a formula validated in a thousand class-
rooms I have visited and countless thousands I have
not. The fi rst step in the formula is an assumption, an
untested hypothesis which becomes valid merely be-
cause (and as soon as) it is assumed. Children who
do not easily take the imprint of their teacher’s own
education and values, who are not ductile enough to
be drawn wire-thin so that they may slip through tradi-
tional holes in the fabric of society — these are not
“promising children” and the best that can be hoped
for from them is good behavior (silence) and early
withdrawal (dropout). Since silence is their most posi-
tive attribute, they should be left unmolested during
the class hour so long as they practice that virtue.
Perhaps worst of all the many dreadful aspects of
this assumption is that the children know it. They
know — and will tell you, as they told me, if they are
asked — that a few of them are regarded as “good
material” and the rest are nothing: “ever’ time I go to
her class, she make me feel like I was nothin’.” Snapper,
Rubbergut’s half brother, said it. He said it for all the
children who drown in the well of silence.
—DANIEL FADER, The Naked Children
If you determine that the lesson is appropriate and
your performance as a teacher is satisfactory, you can
then look for other causes for disruptive behavior. Try
not to view disruptive behavior as a personal affront. A
fi rst step is to assess the behavior. Evertson, Emmer,
and Worsham (2009) describe four possible categories
of disruptive behavior: nonproblem, minor problem,
major problem but limited in scope and effects, and
escalating or spreading problem.
A nonproblem is a behavior that any attempt to re-
act to it would consume too much energy and interrupt
the lesson and detract from the classroom atmosphere.
Such things as brief inattention, a little talking while
others are talking, and short pauses while working are
nonproblems.
A minor problem includes those things that run
counter to classroom protocols but do not, when occur-
ring infrequently, disrupt the class activities or seriously
interfere with other students’ learning. An example
would be excessive talking during group work. These
behaviors are minor irritants as long as they are lim-
ited to a few students and are brief, and we would not
give them much attention except that, unattended,
they might persist and spread. Not responding might
cause an appearance of inconsistency and potentially
undermine the management component, and student
learning might be adversely affected.
A major problem includes activities that interfere
with the learning of others. The occurrence may be
limited to a single student or perhaps a few students
not acting in concert. Chronically off-task behavior,
constant movement around the space, or refusal to do
any work would fi t here. This category also includes
violations of school rules or any kind of behavior that
involves striking another student.
Major escalating problems constitute a threat to the
learning environment. Roaming around at will, con-
tinual calling out or interference, and refusal to coop-
erate are examples.
Having assessed the behavior, you can deal with it
in two phases: reacting appropriately in the short term
and seeking to understand the cause in the long term.
The remainder of this chapter is largely about short-
term responses, as the behavior must be addressed
before a long-term solution can be sought. Once short-
term behaviors are addressed, effective teachers will
individually address long-term causes and solutions, if
needed, in an effort to create a learning environment
that is student centered.
Comparing a referee’s or an umpire’s job with the
teacher’s need to hold children accountable places a
teacher’s job in perspective. Those referees respected
by players and coaches share the following characteris-
tics: they’re fair, consistent, accurate, and not emo-
tionally involved. As teachers, we should keep these
good characteristics in mind as we refl ect on how to
help children work within our guidelines.
Although a referee’s job is less enjoyable than a player’s
or coach’s, it’s an important aspect of organized sport.
Similarly, maintaining the learning environment is an
important role for a teacher. In physical education, as in
sports, there will be violations and infractions.
Our goal is to help children become intrinsically
motivated so that they can benefi t from and enjoy
physical activity. In some situations this motivation
CHAPTER 10 Maintaining Appropriate Behavior 149
comments about their behavior. Catching them in the
act of doing something right and praising them for it
can dramatically change their behavior (Siedentop and
Tannehill 2000).
But praise shouldn’t be contrived and meaningless,
offered with no genuine feeling, as is often the case.
Give praise frequently but not so profusely that it seems
trivial. And give it only when a child actually displays
appropriate behavior. All children are capable of receiv-
ing some type of praise— catch them being good!
This sounds like common sense, but research and
our experiences have shown that this isn’t the preva-
lent mode of operation in the gym. In 1984, Siedentop
and Taggart wrote that “punitive and corrective inter-
action” were the most frequent forms of communication
(p. 105). Almost 20 years later, it was found that although
teachers espoused a positive form of classroom man-
agement, they relied almost exclusively on rewards
and punishment (Kulinna, Cothran, and Garrahy
2002). In other words, little has changed. You can
stand at many gymnasium doors and hear statements
like these: “I’m waiting for you!” “Ssshh!” “Ben, when-
ever you sit down, we’ll start,” or “Kari, carry the ball.”
Although these statements aren’t openly negative,
they in fact reinforce the inappropriate behavior of
certain children and ignore the appropriate behavior
of a large majority of students. They are what might be
called nagging behaviors. The following list includes
examples of positive verbal and nonverbal interac-
tions. For an idea of how you’re doing, have a student
make a simple tally of your interactions or videotape a
class and critique your own behavior.
Verbal Positive Nonverbal Positive
Statements Interactions
Good High fi ve
Terrifi c Smiling
Right Clapping
Nice job Thumbs up
Way to go Winking
That’s it Pat on the back
Thank you Shaking hands
Great Giving an OK sign
You did it this time
Beautiful
Excellent
Nicely done
OK
All right
Eliminating Differential Treatment Often a stranger can walk into a classroom and after a few min-
utes pick out the “discipline problems” or the “really
good ones” in a group of children he or she has never
will occur naturally, and thus few of the techniques
described will be necessary. In other teaching situa-
tions, however, many of the techniques will be needed.
In either case, the goal is to use fewer and fewer of
these techniques so that the children participate in
physical education because they like it and feel it is
valuable rather than because of an external reward or
motivator. Our explanation of effective techniques for
helping children work within our guidelines is divided
into three steps: increasing appropriate behavior, de-
creasing inappropriate behavior, and maintaining
whole-class appropriate behavior. Remember, your ac-
tion as a teacher should match the magnitude of the
problem. Overreacting will soon result in a negative
class atmosphere and be similar to “calling wolf”—
children will cease to respond. Underreacting creates
an atmosphere of physical and psychological unsafety
and nonlearning.
Increasing Appropriate Behavior
When behavior doesn’t conform to the expectations
established for the specifi c setting, a teacher’s fi rst strat-
egy would likely be to increase appropriate behavior. Six
techniques teachers have found useful for increasing
appropriate behavior are positive interaction, eliminat-
ing differential treatment, prompting, ignoring inap-
propriate behavior, nonverbal teacher interactions, and
person-to-person dialogue. Most of these techniques
would be considered “soft skills” as they are noninva-
sive and subtle in nature. Three of the techniques are
proactive—that is, they are to be used in the absence of
inappropriate behavior. The other three are reactive, to
be used in response to inappropriate behavior.
Proactive Strategies
Teachers can do many things to increase the likelihood
of students’ behaving appropriately. And many of
these things can be done proactively to increase the
likelihood that appropriate behavior will prevail.
Positive Interaction As discussed in Chapter 9, one of the most powerful things a teacher can do to
create an environment in which students want to be is
to make the gymnasium a positive place. One of the
most convincing means of creating a positive environ-
ment is to interact with students in a positive way
when they behave in an appropriate manner. In es-
sence, this approach emphasizes the positive rather
than the negative. Many children who are known
throughout the school as “discipline problems” have
become accustomed to hearing nothing but negative
150 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
seen before. Frequently these are the children whose
names the teacher is constantly calling out: “Rico, are
you listening?” “Sarah, sit down, please,” or “Brady,
that’s great,” “Abby, you’re awesome.” It is not uncom-
mon to see the same children singled out repeatedly.
Typically these children are masters of their craft — they
know exactly how far they can go without actually be-
ing held accountable or conversely exactly what to do
to gain the teacher’s praise. Because they covet adult
attention, these children persist in their behavior (and
as long as we reinforce their behavior by acknowledging
it, they become even more skilled at it). So, avoid sin-
gling out these children whenever possible.
complete your tallies, if you fi nd that you single out
the same few children and /or interact either positively
or negatively with a select few, you know you need to
take steps to change your teaching behavior.
Prompting Prompting is a teacher behavior that re- minds students what is expected of them. Some teach-
ers fi nd themselves prompting appropriate behavior
only after inappropriate behavior has occurred. This,
however, is not the most effective way to use prompts.
Prompts should be used as a positive tool as often as
possible rather than as a negative interaction. For ex-
ample, it is more benefi cial to say, “Remember to walk
as you go to pick up equipment” than “I told you to
walk!” or even “Can’t you remember by now that you
are supposed to walk?” Used as in the fi rst statement,
prompting is a proactive response rather than a reac-
tive response. Remember, many of the behaviors you
want students to demonstrate are learned (just like
motor skills), so initially you should prompt students
quite frequently about what behavior is appropriate;
later, you will probably need to prompt only when a
new or different situation arises.
Juan
Sue
Rich
Jesse
Don
Billie
Name called Reprimand Positive Interaction
Figure 10.1 Chart for identifying differential treatment of students.
Talking to Equipment
A teacher recently shared with us a creative and effec-
tive way to prompt students toward appropriate use of
equipment — talking to the equipment. When a youngster
fi nds it hard to hold equipment still or place it on the fl oor,
the instructor simply picks up the piece of equipment and
directs the appropriate behavior and his comments toward
the equipment. For example, he might pick up the hockey
stick and say, “I thought we agreed that you were supposed
to be on the fl oor while I was talking. So that others can
hear and I can talk, I really need you to be on the fl oor. Do
you understand?” He says the children think he is a bit
crazy, but it works.
Reactive Approaches
Interacting positively, eliminating differential treat-
ment, and prompting are all proactive strategies for
increasing appropriate behavior and thus are a means
of preventing inappropriate behavior before it hap-
pens. The three strategies that follow are reactive
strategies designed to increase appropriate behavior.
They are intended for use after the inappropriate be-
havior has occurred — as a means of reacting to it.
Ignoring inappropriate behavior and using nonverbal
interactions and person-to-person dialogue are strat-
egies teachers can use as responses to inappropriate
behavior; each is designed to increase appropriate
Every person needs recognition. It is expressed
cogently by the lad who says, “Mother, let’s play
darts. I’ll throw the darts and you say ‘Wonderful.’ ”
—DALE BAUGHMAN
One way to spot differential treatment of students
in your classes is to audio-record a few lessons. This
can be done by placing an audio recorder in the gym-
nasium, attached to your arm, or in a pocket. (This ob-
servation and analysis technique is discussed further
in Chapter 15.) After you’ve taped several lessons, lis-
ten to the tapes and record the number of times you
call each child’s name and the number of reprimands
or desists as well as positive comments you issue to
individual children.
A simple way to record your tally is to use a copy of
the class roster that has three columns to the right of
the names (Figure 10.1). The fi rst column is a tally for
each time you call a child’s name; the second column
is a tally for each time you reprimand or interact nega-
tively with a specifi c child; and the third column is for
tallying positive comments or interactions. After you
CHAPTER 10 Maintaining Appropriate Behavior 151
behavior, especially when the problem is a nonproblem
or minor problem.
Ignoring Inappropriate Behavior The opposite of emphasizing appropriate behavior with positive
interactions is ignoring inappropriate behavior. Many
of us fi nd that praising appropriate behavior is hard but
that ignoring inappropriate behavior is even more dif-
fi cult. Inappropriate behavior can be ignored as a non-
problem when it meets the following three criteria:
1. It is of short duration and is not likely to spread or
persist.
2. It is a minor deviation.
3. Reacting to it would interrupt a lesson or call
attention to the behavior.
Student behaviors that could be ignored in a physi-
cal education setting include occasional calling out
during discussions, brief whispering, short periods
of inattentiveness or nonpractice, and occasional
continuation of activity after the stop signal. Unless
a behavior is harmful to other students, causes a
safety problem, or seriously disrupts other students,
reacting to it would consume too much of your en-
ergy, interrupt your lessons constantly, and detract
from your classroom climate.
To be completely effective, teachers should ignore
minor inappropriate behavior and simultaneously
praise appropriate behavior. Yet, when we’ve become
accustomed to saying, “Ssshh!” “Hurry up!” “I’m wait-
ing for you to get quiet,” or “Tommy!!!” it’s not easy to
change to phrases such as, “Jody was quiet when she
heard the stop signal,” “Terrifi c, you were ready to go in
10 seconds today,” and “Jimmy, you showed thought-
fulness when you helped Jay up after he fell down.”
Such interactions, which can create appropriate be-
haviors in children, imply, for many of us, that the
teacher is letting Tommy or the students who aren’t
yet quiet get away with inappropriate behavior. For
many of us, this is a risky action because the perceived
implication is that our control is in jeopardy. In reality,
the teacher who ignores simple inappropriate behavior
while praising appropriate behavior is teaching children
what desired behavior is while creating an atmosphere
that is warm and conducive to learning.
There’s a subtle message about what merits attention
in this scenario of praising appropriate and ignoring
inappropriate behavior. If a teacher instead used both
sets of examples (praising appropriate behavior and re-
acting verbally to inappropriate behavior) described in
the previous paragraph, what message would the stu-
dents receive? The answer is confusion. Students would
assume they could receive reinforcement and adult atten-
tion for either appropriate or inappropriate behavior.
Ignoring inappropriate behavior is for many of us
an uncomfortable and awkward act. A good way to
assess your skill in praising the good and ignoring the
inappropriate is to audio-record your lessons and count
how often you say something positive and the number
of times you say something negative. Remember that
even little things such as “Hurry up!” and “Ssshh!”
count as negative interactions. Don’t be surprised at
what you fi rst discover about your behavior; look at it
as an opportunity to improve.
Nonverbal Teacher Interactions A number of sim- ple nonverbal techniques are often suffi cient to prompt
appropriate student behavior when the behavior is a mi-
nor problem. Sometimes just the physical proximity of
the teacher will solicit the desirable behavior from some
students. For example, when giving directions or speak-
ing to the class as a whole, the teacher merely stands
near the student displaying inappropriate behavior. An-
other technique for increasing appropriate behavior is to
borrow the equipment the student is using for purposes
Person-to-person dialogue allows a teacher to know students on an
individual basis.
152 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
of demonstration. Finally, even less obvious actions of-
ten work. For example, simple eye contact or a signal,
such as nodding the head, will redirect the student.
Person-to-Person Dialogue Another successful technique for increasing appropriate behavior with
minor problems is the person-to-person dialogue.
Arrange a time to meet with a child away from the
class (though not immediately before or after). You
might say to the child, “Robby, you don’t seem to be
enjoying our physical education class. I’d like you to
come to my offi ce after school today so that we can
talk about it.” The purpose of this meeting is to try to
determine the reasons for the child’s behavior in your
class. This is not a time for a lecture; instead, it should
be an open and honest conversation between the
teacher and student. We’ve found that a statement
such as the following enables many children to begin
a discussion of their concerns: “Robby, I’d like to talk
to you about physical education class. Is there some-
thing I do that bothers you?”
This statement takes the focus from the child and
places it on the teacher. Many children are quite candid
about what’s bothering them. Remember, this is a dia-
logue. Explaining to the child something about how
and why you teach is constructive and often produc-
tive. Lecturing the child about behavior or threatening
the child with future punishments is counterpro-
ductive. This dialogue is not teacher-to-child but
person-to- person. Often the temptation to lecture, ac-
cuse, or blame a child is strong, but succumbing to this
temptation is the quickest way to destroy any rapport
between student and teacher. If a child trusts you
enough to talk candidly about personal concerns and
you threaten or lecture, communication ceases. Many
children — especially those who need individual atten-
tion the most —have been betrayed before, so they’re
likely to be sensitive and wary. Use of teacher power in
this situation reinforces a child’s belief that teachers
are untrustworthy and that being honest only gets him
or her into more trouble.
Some children never want to participate in physi-
cal education class. A person-to-person dialogue is of-
ten helpful here, as is a conference with the child’s
other teachers. Some children may be afraid of par-
ticipating in physical activity because they’ve already
had unsatisfactory experiences at home or on the play-
ground. Other children may have “issues” with class-
mates that are easily manifested in activity-oriented
settings. Still others may be unmotivated and antiso-
cial. Regardless, if a child has a legitimate reason, we
respect the child and attempt to create a satisfactory
alternative. Further, if a child is unmotivated and/or anti-
social, person-to-person dialogue can act as a beginning
point for seeking a solution to something that may be
a problem beyond physical education. Transferring
the child to another physical education class or arrang-
ing a one-to-one teaching situation often leads, in
time, to participation with the regular class. Forcing a
child to participate in physical education classes with-
out fi rst understanding the reason for the reluctance
may not be in the child’s best interests. Once you un-
derstand why a child is reluctant to participate, you
can make an informed decision about the most ap-
propriate action.
Decreasing Inappropriate Behavior
Although our fi rst approach in dealing with inappro-
priate behavior is to attempt to increase appropriate
behavior, this doesn’t always work. At times, with major
problems or with those behaviors that may escalate into
major problems, a teacher must decrease inappropriate
behavior. When this is necessary, the teacher should
have a repertoire of strategies— often called hard skills as
they are deliberate and obvious—available. Teachers in
physical education have found the following techniques
useful: positive practice, desists, time-outs, planning
time, behavior contracts, letters to parents, and involv-
ing the principal. Note that many of the techniques fi t
the psychological de fi nition of the term punishment—
they decrease the likelihood of an inappropriate behav-
ior recurring by applying undesirable consequences to
the behavior. These techniques should not be emotion-
ally laden, associated with acts of anger, or said in a
raised voice. Also, any action the teacher takes to de-
crease inappropriate behavior should be accompanied
by actions to build appropriate behavior.
Nowhere in our discussion will you fi nd strategies
that advocate physical exercise as a technique to re-
duce inappropriate behavior. Physical activity (sit-ups,
push-ups, running laps, etc.) should never be used as a
technique to hold children accountable for their
behavior. Besides being deemed an inappropriate prac-
tice by professional organizations like the National
Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE
2009), the use of physical activity as punishment is
counterproductive to what we want to happen as a
result of physical education. Our goal is that children
acquire the skills and the desire to be physically active
for a lifetime. The use of physical activity as punish-
ment may temporarily reduce the off-task behavior
that is being punished; but the long-term result is of-
ten the reduction of any participation in the physical
activity that was used as punishment. Instead of learn-
ing to love activity, children will hate activity because
of its association with punishment. The following are
all techniques that can be used to react to inappropri-
ate behavior in an attempt to reduce and eliminate it.
CHAPTER 10 Maintaining Appropriate Behavior 153
change. Kounin (1970) established several conditions
that must be present for a desist to be effective:
• A desist must be clear. “Ellen, stop doing that” isn’t
enough. The desist must contain exact information
about what the student is doing wrong. For exam-
ple, “Ellen, stop hitting the basketball with the
tennis racket” is clear and specifi c. The student
knows exactly what she is doing wrong.
• A desist must be fi rm. Firmness is the degree to which
the teacher follows through on the desist, making
sure the student knows that the teacher means what
was said. Brooks (1985) found that teachers who
giggled or laughed after they delivered desists weren’t
taken seriously. Moving a bit closer to the student,
looking the student momentarily in the eyes, and
keeping a straight face when delivering the desist all
communicate the teacher’s fi rmness.
• A desist must be well timed. The behavior must desist
immediately, before it’s allowed to spread to other
students, and before a child forgets what was done.
• A desist must be appropriately targeted. It must be
directed at the original offender, not a second or
third party.
• A desist mustn’t be harsh. Kounin found that rough
desists simply upset children and weren’t effective.
Firmness doesn’t mean harshness or punitiveness; it
is simply meaning what you say.
Time-outs
A time-out is much like a penalty box in hockey. How-
ever, unlike the penalty box, our use of time-outs is
designed to help children take responsibility for their
own behavior and thus may differ slightly from what
you have been accustomed to. During a time-out, a
child, either through choice or at the request of the
teacher, withdraws from class until ready to return and
function according to the class rules. When ready to
return to class, the child simply rejoins the activity.
Teach the time-out procedure with all other procedures
at the beginning of the year so you can subsequently
give a time-out as a standard penalty without disrupting
the rest of the class. Here are some other considerations
for effective use of time-outs:
• The student must fi nd physical education enjoy-
able; if not, the time-out may be a reward instead of
a punishment.
• The time-out area should be a clearly designated place
where social contact with classmates isn’t possible.
• To make time-outs something designed to enhance
student responsibility and decision making, we
advocate a four-step progressive approach. The fi rst
time that a student displays a behavior that might
result in a time-out, prompt him or her toward what
Positive Practice
Positive practice is a technique that requires the stu-
dent, group, or class to practice the acceptable or
desired behavior after the demonstration of an inap-
propriate behavior. An example would be when stu-
dents are asked to walk and get equipment and they
run instead. Most of us would remind them to walk or
ignore the behavior. An acceptable way to have them
learn to walk is positive practice. Stop the students,
and have them go back to where they started and
repeat the activity of getting equipment — this time
walking. You may even have them repeat it several
times. Do this every time students run when you say
“walk,” and soon they will learn to walk.
Desists
Sometimes it is impossible to ignore inappropriate
behavior, especially when safety is an issue. When that
is the case, one of the most common and useful ways
to react to the behavior is with a desist. A desist is a
verbal statement that tells a child to stop doing some-
thing. Using desists effectively can result in behavior
A time-out temporarily removes a child who is off task from activity.
Inappropriate Physical Education Practices
The document Appropriate Practices for Elementary School
Physical Education: A Position Statement of NASPE refers to
using physical exercise as punishment in the following way:
Component: Exercise as Punishment
Inappropriate Practice. Teachers use activities /exercises for
misbehavior (e.g., run laps, pushups).
—NASPE 2009
154 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
is appropriate. The second time, ask if the student
needs a time-out. (Some children are amazingly hon-
est here.) If they elect to go to time-out, they can
return when ready. The third step in the sequence is
“You need a time-out.” Once again, students can re-
turn when they are ready. The fourth step is not
only “You need a time-out,” but the student needs to
stay there until a conversation between the teacher
and the child can take place.
Some teachers have developed a version of time-out
that allows students to refl ect on their behavior. In
these situations, students react in written format to
what they did and what they should do. Older students
often write their time-out refl ections (Figure 10.2A);
younger students may draw theirs (Figure 10.2B). While
this strategy removes the child from activity for a
longer amount of time, the results are that the child
rarely ends up in time-out again.
Planning Time
Planning time (DeLine 1991) is a peer-directed alterna-
tive to time-outs. It is designed for inappropriate be-
havior involving two students interacting with one
another. When students sit alone, as in a time-out,
they do not have the opportunity to discuss or resolve
their problems. Planning time, by contrast, provides
students who do not demonstrate appropriate behav-
ior a chance to resolve their confl ict. During planning
time, students who have confl icts go to a small area of
the gymnasium designated as the “planning area,”
where they are required to sit together and develop a
resolution. To be allowed to rejoin class, they must
present to the teacher a verbal (or written) plan on
how to work together or how to change their behavior.
In other words, No Plan, No Play!
Be aware that, as with any educational strategy,
students need to be taught how to use planning time
effectively. Cues and questions (Box 10-1) can be
posted on the wall or on a written sheet similar to the
ones used in time-out to prompt students toward
appropriate behavior (Figures 10.2A, 10.2B). Students
can then read and review the prompts to assess the
nature of their behavior and to develop an alterna-
tive. Essentially, planning time allows students who
are “in trouble” to get “out of trouble.” As with any
new technique, learning to do it takes time, but the
result is a class that cooperates more and students
who learn to resolve their differences.
Behavior Contracts
Have you ever tried to lose weight without some “deal”
with yourself or reward at the end of losing so many
pounds? The same is true with some isolated children
in your class. Some children need a written “deal” with
the teacher to make things happen. They need it as
a prompt. A behavior contract provides that. It is a
written agreement between a student and the teacher
regarding behavior in the physical education setting.
Although it may seem like overkill, a contract can be
done quietly, simply, and privately, to provide some
students with the necessary focus to enjoy physical
education and allow others to enjoy it.
Name: _____________________________________
Date: ______________________________________
Rules
1. Be safe. 2. Be honest.
3. Let others learn. 4. Let teachers teach.
5. Respect yourself and others. 6. Respect property.
1. What rule did you break?
2. How did you break this rule?
3. Who was involved?
4. What problem did this cause you?
5. What problem did this cause your classmates?
6. What problem did this cause your teacher?
7. Do you wish to discuss this problem with your teacher?
Yes ____
No ____
8. On the back of this paper write out a plan for yourself to help you to not break this rule again.
9. Who can help you to put your plan into action?
Figure 10.2A Time-out refl ection form for upper grades.
CHAPTER 10 Maintaining Appropriate Behavior 155
Possible Cues and Questions for Planning Time
The problem in our own words . . .
When and where the problem took place . . .
Strategies we used to try to avoid the problem . . .
Our behavior affected others by . . .
What we will do to prevent the problem from occurring again . . .
Follow-up actions we will take now . . .
This should happen if the problem occurs again . . .
Box 10-1
Name: _____________________________________
Date: ______________________________________
Rules
1. Be safe. 2. Be honest.
3. Let others learn. 4. Let teachers teach.
5. Respect yourself and others. 6. Respect property.
Draw a picture of what you did
Draw a picture of how you can change it
Figure 10.2B Time-out refl ection form for lower grades.
The contract includes a statement of the desired be-
havior, the conditions (how much, for how long), and
the rewards that will be earned if the behavior and the
conditions are met (Siedentop and Tannehill 2000).
When using a behavior contract, remember that stu-
dents must have a role in defi ning all three aspects of
the contract: behavior, conditions, and rewards. After
all three have been agreed upon, it is important that
both parties (sometimes a third party as a witness) sign
the agreement. The student should be made aware of
the importance of the agreement and, just as the
teacher does, view it as a formal agreement, not to be
taken lightly. Figure 10.3 gives an example of a behav-
ior contract with one student.
Letters to Parents
Desists, time-outs, planning time, and behavior con-
tracts work with some children but not with others.
When a child continues to misbehave and present
problems, a written report to the parents can be effec-
tive in obtaining that child’s cooperation. But this
technique should be used only after other approaches
have proved unsuccessful.
The written report lists specifi c behaviors (Fig-
ure 10.4). The child is to have the report signed by a
parent and then return it to you. Such a report is usu-
ally followed by improvements in behavior. When
that occurs, you should send home another report, as
soon as possible, that enumerates the improvements
as clearly as the earlier report catalogued the viola-
tions. This second report congratulates the child on
improved behavior and, like the fi rst one, requires a
parent’s signature.
This is not to suggest that the written report to par-
ents need be used only as a measure to decrease inappro-
priate behavior. The teachers of St. Andrew’s Episcopal
School in Austin, Texas, found that a “good letter”
(Figure 10.5) was one of the most effective strategies in
their program for increasing support for the program
and generating good will with parents (D. Lambdin,
personal communication, July 1991). In the St. Andrew’s
program, a “good letter” was sent home with every de-
serving student during one marking period each year.
The response from parents was gratifying. Many parents
commented on how wonderful it was that teachers took
time to let them know about good behavior.
Involving the Principal
Sending a disruptive child to the principal may or may
not be successful. When you send a child to the prin-
cipal, you’re acknowledging — to yourself and to the
child —your inability to cope with the situation. You’re
also placing the child in a situation you can’t control.
156 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Some principals are positive and helpful in working
with disruptive children. Others use threats or corpo-
ral punishment, techniques likely to temporarily im-
prove the child’s behavior but permanently damage
the child’s enthusiasm and trust.
Only when you’ve tried every other possible tech-
nique to deal with behavior detrimental to the child
and his or her classmates should you send that child to
the principal. If you must do this, we hope yours is a
principal who can help you and the child to better
understand each other’s needs and situations so that
you can work together more successfully.
Maintaining Appropriate Behavior in Entire Classes
The scene: May in the Southeast, a fourth-grade class
with a student teacher teaching and two cooperating
teachers observing. The setting: An old school, no
air-conditioning, all the windows open in the second-
fl oor gym. The unit: Throwing and catching. The
equipment: Beanbags. The task: Some version of throw-
and-catch with a partner. The result: The students
thought the better task would be to throw the beanbags
Kim Thomas and Mr. Diller agree that the following plan will be in effect for the next two weeks.
Starting date Ending date
Kim will
1. Not interrupt other students' work by trying to knock their equipment away
2. Not disturb class by talking while the teacher is talking
3. Participate in all activities and try hard to improve her skills in throwing
Mr. Diller will
1. Give Kim individual help on throwing
2. Count one point for each day that Kim meets the three points stated above
3. Let Kim help with the physical education equipment for one week if she earns five points during the two weeks of the contract
Signed
BEHAVIOR CONTRACT
Figure 10.3 Typical behavior
contract.
CHAPTER 10 Maintaining Appropriate Behavior 157
out the windows and see if they could hit the sidewalk
below. The larger result: The teacher was befuddled,
unnerved, and demoralized. (This is a true story from
one of the three authors of this book!)
The moral of the story: All teachers at some time
experience entire classes that test their ability to main-
tain the preferred learning environment. At this point,
two things can happen. Either you can write the class
off as “bad” (it was tempting) and resign yourself to
the role of a police offi cer trying to keep control of a
group, or you can assume the role of a teacher and
guide and try to fi nd a mutually acceptable solution to
the problem.
In this section we offer three approaches. The fi rst
and second, class rewards and individual rewards, are
clearly “behaviorally” oriented and are designed to
remedy the problem and then fi nd out why it existed.
They are for use when nothing else seems to work. The
last approach, developing personal and social respon-
sibility, is a more detailed reiteration of establishing a
learning environment and brings us back to where we
started in Chapter 9. While we are not advocating that
developing personal and social responsibility is a man-
agement system, we include this approach again here
because its use results in children who are active
learners and capable partners in their educational
Figure 10.4 Behavior report for
parents. ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
PHYSICAL EDUCATION BEHAVIOR REPORT
NAME DATE
Educational research has consistently shown that when a teacher spends class time
managing discipline problems, less teaching and student learning occur. Disruptive
behavior, therefore, is a primary reason for poor student achievement.
We regret to inform you that your child exhibited the following misbehavior
during physical education class today:
Fought with others Refused to participate
Argued with others Was lazy; had no hustle or energy
Mistreated equipment Was late to class
Disrupted the work Was disruptive in hallway
of others
Was discourteous to others Was continually off-task; did not
follow teacher's directions
Frequently clowned, Spoke using foul language
acting foolish and silly
Talked while teacher Did not listen to
was talking teacher
Teacher's Comments:
Please discuss today's incident with your youngster. We are concerned about the
harm your child's behavior is causing himself/herself and his/her classmates. We will
keep you informed of your child’s behavioral progress during the coming weeks.
Thank you for your cooperation.
TEACHER
PARENT'S SIGNATURE
158 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Figure 10.5 “Good” letter for
parents.
experiences (Hellison 2003; Parker and Stiehl 2005;
Stork and Sanders 2002). The personal-and-social-
responsibility approach promotes children as com-
petent decision makers, and as such, “management”
becomes almost a nonissue.
Reward Systems
Rewards can serve to reduce inappropriate behavior
and help build a positive climate. The improvement
occurs because children are attracted to the rewards
and thus direct their behavior toward appropriate
behavior and away from inappropriate behavior. If you
decide to implement a reward system, consider the
following guidelines:
• Check your school and district policies to see if any
rewards are prohibited. For example, parties with
food are not allowed in some schools, and others
restrict off-campus trips.
• Make sure the rewards are attractive to the students.
Successful rewards to be earned in physical education
have included public recognition (name boards,
photo boards, names in school newsletter), extra
physical education time, free-choice time (at the end
of class or the end of the week), special privileges
(helping the teacher with other classes or before
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PHYSICAL EDUCATION BEHAVIOR REPORT
Name Date
Educational research has shown that when a teacher spends class time managing discipline problems, less teaching and less learning occur. Therefore, when disruptive behavior is nonexistent in a class situation, greater student achievement is likely to result.
We are glad to inform you that (child’s name) consistently exhibits the following exemplary behaviors in physical education class:
Listens to the teacher Is courteous to others
Is on-task, following Treats equipment with directions care
Is eager to participate Plays safely
Your child is doing a wonderful-terrific-dynamite job in physical education and we are proud of him/her. You are to be commended for preparing your youngster to function so well in school. We are more effective teachers because of your efforts.
Thank you for your cooperation.
TEACHER
CHAPTER 10 Maintaining Appropriate Behavior 159
school), fi eld trips, equipment use (borrowing equip-
ment to use at home and on weekends), and T-shirts.
Regardless of what reward is established, its effective-
ness is based on the children having had a part in the
decision. The easiest way to do this is to ask them.
• The rewards should target the behavior you are af-
ter. If you want children to stop activity and listen
when asked, then the rewards should be for those
specifi c behaviors.
• Design a reward system in which it is not too diffi cult
to achieve the reward (which will frustrate students)
or too easy (which will lose their attention).
• Make record keeping easy. You do not want a
syst em that creates enormous amounts of paper-
work for you.
One caution regarding reward systems: research is
fairly clear that extrinsic rewards can reduce intrinsic
motivation (Deci and Ryan 1985). That is, if students
work only for the reward, they will not be motivated
to continue that same behavior when the reward is
withdrawn. When using reward systems, be thought-
ful about their use. No purpose is served by reward-
ing activities that are already motivating to students.
With any reward system, the goal is to eventually be
able to withdraw the reward and have student be-
havior remain appropriate. Thus, when creating a re-
ward system, also develop strategies for its eventual
nonuse — for example, increasingly longer times or
increasingly more displays of appropriate behavior
before receiving rewards.
Two reward systems, one for a class and one for in-
dividuals, are described below.
Class Rewards With class rewards, the class as a whole has the opportunity to earn rewards for abid-
ing by the class rules. The fi rst step is to establish a
reward. When an entire class does well for a day
(week, month), it receives the reward. For example, if
a class consistently does better than the performance
standards established for management tasks over a
given period of time, it receives a poster or banner to
display in its room. Some teachers provide a reward
for a “class of the week.” We prefer, however, that re-
wards not be exclusionary. Every class should be able
to earn a reward every week. Competition should be
limited to the class against a standard, not the class
against other classes.
Token Systems Time-out penalizes disruptive be- havior; a token system rewards desirable behavior. A
token system is a program with academic, organiza-
tional, or managerial outcomes accompanied by a
system in which students can earn “tokens” that can be
exchanged for various rewards (Siedentop and Tannehill
2000). The intent is to reward appropriate behavior and
thereby encourage all children to behave appropriately.
The teacher initially explains to the class that a par-
ticular rule or procedure is being violated or not being
accomplished as effi ciently as possible. In doing this, the
teacher must clearly defi ne the behaviors that are to be
improved. After the behaviors have been defi ned, rewards
must be developed. This is best done with the students’
input by having them rank the awards the teacher has
offered according to their desirability. The higher the
ranking, the more the students will be motivated by the
reward; the lower the ranking, the greater the probabil-
ity it won’t do much to encourage children to change
their behavior.
Once the behavior has been specifi ed and the re-
wards agreed upon, then it must be decided how many
tokens it will take to earn a certain reward. For exam-
ple, fi ve minutes’ free time at the end of class might
cost 3 tokens, whereas a T-shirt might cost 50 tokens.
Just as in a store, different merchandise costs different
amounts, and if you don’t have the money (tokens),
you can’t buy it. It is also important to specify ahead of
time when the tokens can be redeemed — for example,
only on Fridays.
After all aspects of the token system are in place, the
project begins. For example, the teacher explains to the
class that some students aren’t stopping and listening
as soon as they hear the signal. Beginning today, the
teacher explains, he’ll check off on a class list the names
of the students who don’t stop and listen within fi ve
seconds after the signal is given. Students who have
less than fi ve checks during class will earn one token.
As the project progresses, in an effort to get classes
off the token system, the teacher gradually increases
the number of tokens it takes to receive an award and /
or increases the length of time between token redemp-
tions. Once children have learned to abide by the rules
that are vital for the successful functioning of a large
group, the token system becomes unnecessary.
Developing Personal and Social Responsibility
Because physical education largely focuses on the
development of motor skills and fi tness, teachers quite
often ignore social and personal development — the
very thing that is usually needed when an entire class
seems unable to respond appropriately. Hellison (2003)
states that it is usually assumed that students will be
under control and that cooperation will automatically
result in stability. As we know, such bliss does not occur
automatically.
Personal and social responsibility involves much
more. In a basic sense, the concept can be defi ned as
160 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
“personal acceptance of being answerable for our
conduct concerning others, our surroundings, and
ourselves” (Parker and Stiehl 2005, p. 133). Although
these attributes occur naturally to some extent, to de-
velop fully and appropriately they must be learned,
just like a motor skill. Thus they must be taught and
practiced, at the developmentally appropriate time
and with developmentally appropriate opportunities
(Brustad and Parker 2005). There is much debate about
whether teaching responsibility is curriculum (what
we teach) or instruction (how we teach). Regardless,
the basic premises involve including all children;
inviting and making use of student input; providing
choice; having students practice making choices;
allowing for refl ection; and being student centered
(Parker and Stiehl 2005). Don Hellison is the most
widely known advocate for developing personal and
social responsibility. In his book Teaching Responsibil-
ity through Physical Activity (Hellison 2003), he pro-
vides fi eld-tested instructional strategies for fostering
responsibility through physical activity (curriculum).
In terms of instruction, he offers students guidelines
for their behavior, outlines expectations, and invites
greater participation in learning. Regarding curricu-
lum, he identifi es personal and social responsibility
in terms of principles or goals: respect for the rights
and feelings of others, participation and effort, self-
direction, helping others, and leadership. These goals
are then presented in a hierarchy of levels that repre-
sent an informal progression.
These ideas, the philosophy underlying the estab-
lishment of a learning environment presented in
Chapter 9, are presented here specifi cally for use with
classes that have a hard time accepting responsibility
for their own actions. This approach is not a quick fi x
for class problems, but rather a shift in thinking and
action that permeates all activities in class. It is a
philosophical approach to teaching that places the
focus on creating personal and social responsibility
using physical activity as the medium for all that is
done. For many youngsters, this type of empower-
ment shifts their focus from one of fi ghting “the sys-
tem” to actively becoming part of creating a system
that works.
It is through the interaction of teaching and responsi-
bility content that students begin to develop more re-
sponsibility for themselves and for the well-being of
their classmates. The description given here is not suffi -
cient to implement the social responsibility model. If
you are interested in implementing this approach, please
see Hellison’s 2003 text, Teaching Responsibility through
Physical Activity, or the Parker and Stiehl (2005) chapter
“Personal and Social Responsibility” in Standards-Based
Physical Education Curriculum Development.
Corporal Punishment
We’re unalterably opposed to corporal punishment.
Besides being against the law in many states and school
systems (check with yours), corporal punishment, like
dodgeball, powerfully indicates that it is acceptable to
hit another person. For some teachers, a spanking or a
paddling seems to be — inappropriately — a cathartic
act that may help the teacher but is more likely to
harm the child. There are times when the temptation
to paddle or strike a continually misbehaving child is
almost overwhelming. And yet, according to our ob-
servations, it is the same few children who receive the
vast majority of the paddlings. Obviously, this shows
that for many children, paddling doesn’t achieve the
desired result. Simultaneously, it proves to these chil-
dren that physically striking another person is a legiti-
mate alternative when no other course of action
appears effective. Interestingly, many of the children
who repeatedly receive corporal punishment are being
punished for fi ghting or hitting others. Occasionally a
fi rst paddling achieves the desired result. But the result
is only temporary and has little effect on long-term
behavior; in fact, corporal punishment could become a
negative reinforcer. One cannot help but wonder about
the long-term impact of such an experience on a child.
Use of corporal punishment is inhumane, ineffective,
and an admission of failure.
Teaching Skills to Maintain a Productive Learning Environment
Near the end of Chapter 9, we talked about various
teaching skills that could be used to help establish a
learning environment (e.g., defi ning and demonstrat-
ing the desired behavior, practicing the behavior, pro-
viding feedback). Several other skills can be employed
to help maintain the environment as well. One major
reason beginning teachers struggle with classroom
management is that they are so preoccupied with other
things that they simply do not see the inappropriate
behavior, or if they do see it, they aren’t quite sure how
to approach it. The following strategies have been
found useful in monitoring and reacting (or not) to
student behavior, allowing you to be consistent in
what you do.
• Keep movement patterns unpredictable. Vary the way
you circulate through the class during activity. Stand
in various places in the gym when you give directions
or speak to the whole class. It has been our experience
that many teachers always “talk” from the same
place—for example, next to the stereo system.
CHAPTER 10 Maintaining Appropriate Behavior 161
• Maintain the quality of appearing to have eyes in the
back of your head or, as some call it, “with-it-ness”
(Kounin 1970).
• Attend to two tasks simultaneously. Forty-some years
ago Kounin (1970) called this skill “overlapping”;
today the language could easily be “multitasking.”
For example, you should be able to provide feedback
to one group practicing their self-designed game
while at the same time being aware that one child
has left the gym to use the restroom.
• Avoid dangles or issues left in midair (Kounin 1970).
Statements or directions left “unfi nished” tend to
confuse students. Not knowing what to do, they make
up what they think may be an appropriate response.
• Avoid fl ip-fl opping (terminating one activity, starting
another, and returning to the fi rst) (Kounin 1970).
• Use targeting, or directing your interactions toward
the appropriate students (Siedentop and Tannehill
2000).
• Display the skill of timing. As a general rule, the shorter
the lag time between student action and teacher
behavior, the better (Siedentop and Tannehill
2000). If, when a class is practicing balance and
rolling, you see a student push another student off-
balance, effective timing means reacting immedi-
ately to the incident rather than waiting to see if
the student is pushed to the fl oor again.
If you practice these techniques consistently and
regularly, the functioning of the gymnasium is more
likely to progress in a manner that enhances learning.
Inappropriate behavior problems, although they won’t
vanish, will be curtailed.
• Scan the class frequently to “catch students being
good.” To scan, stop, quickly look across the class in
a predetermined direction, usually right to left, at
regular intervals.
• Make sure all students can see and hear you. Prac-
tice giving instructions in situations where you
face the distractions, not the students — for exam-
ple, students face away from the sun or other
groups. Make sure that you can see all students
before you start.
• Provide clear and concise directions, and repeat
them at least once for clarity; then ask for questions
to check for understanding. For example, after pro-
viding the direction “Walk, choose a ball or beanbag
to use to practice tossing and catching, and carry it
to your self-space. I will know you are ready when I
see you standing in your space, holding the equip-
ment,” ask a student what he is supposed to do and
have him repeat it back to you.
• Separate the organization aspects of directions from
the content aspects (Rink 2006). For example, for a
throwing-and-catching task, you might say, “When
I say ‘Go,’ each of you should walk, pick up a ball,
and fi nd a space on a poly spot. I will know you are
ready when I see each of you on your own spot with
the ball at your feet.” After this organizational aspect
is accomplished, then add the content: “On the
signal, we will be practicing throwing to the wall. As
you throw, concentrate on stepping forward on the
opposite foot. Does everyone understand? Ready.
Begin.” By your separating organization from con-
tent, children are able to clearly focus on the
different parts of the task.
Summary
The key to maintaining a learning environment is the
presence of appropriate behavior that supports the edu-
cational goals of the specifi c situation. During the time
needed to establish a learning environment, behavior
inappropriate for the setting may occur. When it does,
the teacher should fi rst make certain that the lesson
plans are pedagogically sound. If they are, then it is
appropriate to focus on the students’ behavior. It’s im-
portant to understand that problems with inappropri-
ate behavior are normal; all teachers will encounter
some children who are off task.
There are two phases to managing inappropriate
behavior: the immediate (short-term) response to the
situation and the long-term strategy. The long-term
strategy involves recognizing the need to prevent the
recurrence of the behavior by fi nding out what trig-
gered it and developing ways of helping students
learn more constructive means for dealing with inap-
propriate behavior. Short-term techniques give a
teacher practical skills to use instantly when undesir-
able behavior occurs. Only after the teacher has ac-
quired and consistently used these techniques with
positive results is she or he comfortable with address-
ing the long-term aspects of inappropriate behavior.
The techniques are simply a way of dealing with the
immediate inappropriate behavior; as a learning
environment is developed and students accept the re-
sponsibility for their own behavior, such techniques
should no longer be needed and can gradually be
phased out.
162 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
When inappropriate behavior fi rst occurs, the
teacher should use the techniques for increasing
appropriate behavior: positive interaction, eliminating
differential treatment, prompting, ignoring inappro-
priate behavior, nonverbal teacher interactions, and
person-to-person dialogue. For those times when
teachers fi nd it necessary to decrease inappropriate be-
havior, successful techniques include positive practice,
desists, time-outs, planning time, behavior contracts,
letters to parents, and involving the principal. Remem-
ber that strategies to reduce inappropriate behavior
should always be accompanied by techniques to in-
crease appropriate behavior. At no time should physi-
cal activity or hitting a child be used as a punishment.
Techniques for refocusing an entire class that is off task
include class rewards, token systems, and incorporat-
ing a system for developing student responsibility.
Monitoring and reacting strategies can be used to help
maintain an environment conducive to learning.
Figure 10.6 may help you visualize the interaction and
relationship of the class management strategies pre-
sented in this chapter as well as in Chapter 9.
Principal Letters
Atmosphere
Managerial Instructional
Establishing a learning environment
Development and teaching of protocols
Rules Routines
Post Start/ stop
Etc. Minimum positive
Consequences
Clear directions
Target No dangles
Beginning of year
Teaching skills
Overlap No flip-flops Timing See and
hear
Separate organization and content
With-it-ness
Vary movement
patterns Scan
Bathroom
Increase appropriate
(soft)
Decrease inappropriate
(hard)
Entire class
Proactive
Desists
Time- outs
Reactive
Dialogue
Eliminate differential treatment
Prompt
Positive interaction
Ignore Nonverbal
Positive practice
Behavior contracts
Planning time
Teaching responsibility
Rewards
Maintaining a learning environment
Figure 10.6 Conceptual map of establishing and maintaining the class environment.
CHAPTER 10 Maintaining Appropriate Behavior 163
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. What should your fi rst step be when you fi nd most
of the students in your class misbehaving? Why?
2. Why have we chosen not to use the word discipline?
3. What does it mean to say that appropriate be havior
is not the mere absence of inappropriate behavior?
4. What is the fi rst strategy for maintaining an effec-
tive learning environment in the gymnasium? What
techniques can be used to accomplish this goal?
5. Why are positive interactions with students so im-
portant, especially at the beginning of the year?
6. When should you ignore inappropriate behavior?
7. What does differential treatment of children
mean? How can you determine whether you are
doing this?
8. What is the major point to remember in a person-
to-person dialogue with a student?
9. What is the second strategy for handling inappro-
priate behavior in the gymnasium? What tech-
niques can you use to accomplish this goal?
10. What are the characteristics of an effective desist?
11. What is a time-out? What points should you re-
member when using a time-out? When is a time-
out not effective? How does planning time differ?
12. When is a letter to parents useful? What should
you include in the letter?
13. What is one strategy for dealing with an entire
class that isn’t able to work productively?
14. Why should physical activity not be used as
punishment?
15. Why should many of the techniques discussed
in this chapter not be used as the school year
progresses?
16. Explain the relationship between the develop-
ment of personal and social responsibility and
management.
References /Suggested Readings
Brooks, D. 1985. The fi rst day of school. Educational Lead- ership 42(8): 76 –78.
Brustad, R., and M. Parker. 2005. Enhancing positive youth development through physical activity. Psychologica 39: 75 – 93.
Deci, E.L., and R.M. Ryan. 1985. Intrinsic motivation and self- determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum Press.
DeLine, J. 1991. Why can’t they get along? Developing cooperative skills through physical education. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 62(1): 21–26.
Evertson, C., E. Emmer, and M. Worsham. 2009. Class- room management for elementary teachers. 7th ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Fader, D. 1971. The naked children. New York: Macmillan.
Hellison, D. 2003. Teaching responsibility through physical activity. 2nd ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Kounin, J. 1970. Discipline and group management in class- rooms. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Kulinna, P., D. Cothran, and D. Garrahy. 2002. Teachers’ perspectives on classroom management. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport Supplement 73(1): A72 –73.
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2009. Appropriate practices for elementary school physical education. 3rd ed. Reston, VA: NASPE.
Parker, M., and J. Stiehl. 2005. Personal and social respon- sibility. In Standards-based physical education curriculum, ed. J. Lund and D. Tannehill, pp. 130 –53. Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett.
Ratey, J.J., and E. Hagerman. 2008. Spark: The revolutionary new science of exercise and the brain. New York: Little, Brown.
Rink, J. 2006. Teaching physical education for learning. 5th ed. St. Louis, MO: Mosby.
Siedentop, D., and A. Taggart. 1984. Behavior analysis in physical education and sport. In Focus on behavior analysis in education, ed. W. Heward, T. Heron, B. Hill, and J. Trap- Porter. Columbus, OH: Merrill.
Siedentop, D., and D. Tannehill. 2000. Developing teaching skills in physical education. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Stork, S., and S. Sanders. 2002. Why can’t students just do as they’re told?! An exploration of incorrect responses. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 21(2): 208 –28.
Tannehill, D. 2001. Using the NASPE content standards. Journal of Teaching Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 72(8): 19.
[USDHHS] U.S. Department of Health and Human Ser- vices. 1996. Physical activity and health: A report of the Sur- geon General. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Preven- tion and Health Promotion.
[USDHHS] U.S. Department of Health and Human Ser- vices. 2005. School health index for physical activity and healthy eating: A self-assessment and planning guide for ele- mentary school. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Available for free download from www.cdc. gov/nccdphp/HealthyYouth.
164
C H A P T E R
11
Developing the Content Elementary school students should develop basic motor skills that allow participation in a variety of
physical activities. Students’ mastery of and confi dence in motor skills occurs when these skills are
broken down into components and the tasks are ordered from easy to hard. In addition, students
need opportunities to observe others performing the skills and to receive encouragement, feedback,
and repeated opportunities for practice during physical education class.
—NATIONAL CENTER FOR CHRONIC DISEASE PREVENTION AND HEALTH PROMOTION, 1997
In order to maximize the development of self-esteem, it is important to create learning opportunities
that match the task diffi culty with the learner’s developmental capabilities. Children love to be chal-
lenged. Succeeding at a task that is too easy gives little pleasure. In contrast, causing children to
work just a bit beyond their current skill can produce optimal growth. In order to do that, teachers
should sequence tasks in a developmental order before presenting them to children as challenges.
— LINDA BUNKER
CHAPTER 11 Developing the Content 165
I provide the children with a cue? Are they getting
bored? How can I change this task to make it more
interesting? Are the children benefi ting from this task?
We have attempted to assist you with writing lesson
plans and developing the content during actual les-
sons by organizing the movement concept chapters
(Chapters 16 –18) and the skill theme chapters (Chap-
ters 19 –28) in developmentally appropriate progres-
sions based on the generic levels of skill profi ciency
(Chapter 7). These chapters are helpful guidelines, but
as you plan, you will no doubt want to add addi-
tional tasks and modify some of the suggested activi-
ties to better match your particular teaching situation
(Chapter 5). We don’t intend that you use the progres-
sions we have suggested in these chapters exactly as
written, especially if you are an experienced teacher.
We know, however, they are extremely valuable for
novice teachers and those who are new to the skill
theme approach. Because you will be changing some
of these tasks as you teach, as well as providing chil-
dren with cues and challenges during a lesson, it is
important that you understand the system we have
used to develop the content in each of these chapters.
In the fi nal part of this chapter, we describe two tech-
niques, teaching by invitation and intratask variation,
that refl ective teachers use to adjust for differences in
ability within the same class of children.
Overview of Content Development
In the content development process created by Rink
(2006), a teacher performs four functions during a
lesson to help children learn the various concepts and
skills that constitute the content of the program:
1. Informing the children — that is, providing informa-
tion about the concepts or skills and describing how
the tasks are to be done.
2. Extending tasks — that is, making the activities
(drills, games) that will be taught in a lesson easier
or harder according to the ability of the children.
3. Refi ning tasks — that is, providing children with
cues , or “critical elements,” that will help them be-
come more effi cient in performing a skill or task.
4. Applying the task by inventing challenges designed
to motivate the children to continue practicing or
to show them how the task can be applied.
We have adapted Rink’s system of content develop-
ment and refer to extensions as tasks, refi nements as
cues, and applications as challenges throughout this
book. In the following sections we defi ne and give
examples of each of the four aspects of content devel-
opment, beginning with informing students.
O ne major responsibility of a teacher is to select
and sequence the activities (content) to be
taught in a lesson (Chapter 8). During the
actual lesson, the refl ective teacher determines how
effectively the tasks or activities are helping the stu-
dents accomplish the goals of that lesson — and makes
changes accordingly. Tasks or activities that are too
diffi cult for the children often lead to frustration,
resulting in off-task behavior. Tasks that are too easy
often lead to boredom, again resulting in off-task
behavior (Csikszentmihalyi 2000). One challenge for
the physical education teacher during the lesson,
then, is to carefully select tasks (activities) from the
plan created beforehand (Chapter 8) that will allow
children to feel successful — and that will result in
learning and improvement.
Teaching would be much easier if lesson plans
worked perfectly, exactly as designed. Refl ective teach-
ing, however, is a dynamic process — the teacher is con-
stantly making decisions: Is this task too hard? Should
• Developing the content refers to the process teachers
use to provide a sequential series of learning experiences
for children. It is based on effective observation.
• Developing the content has been subdivided into four
parts. The fi rst is informing children about the lesson and
safety.
• The second part of content development is the careful
selection of tasks (extending) that provide the most
benefi cial, and interesting, learning experiences for
youngsters.
• Cues (critical elements) are the shortcuts to learning
that are provided by expert teachers (refi ning) to assist
youngsters in learning the skills more quickly and
correctly than by trial and error.
• Refl ective teachers encourage youngsters to continue
practicing a task by using challenges (applications) that
make the activity more interesting and appealing to the
children.
• Refl ective teachers adapt tasks to accommodate
differences in abilities (GLSP— generic levels of skill
profi ciency).
• Teaching by invitation is a technique that allows the
children to adapt a task to better match their skill level.
• Intratask variation is a technique used by teachers to
change a task for individual students based on their
observation.
Key Concepts
166 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Informing
Effective teachers are good communicators (K.C. Graham
et al. 1993; Rink 2006). They provide clear and inter-
esting explanations and descriptions so that the chil-
dren can easily understand the information. As you
will see in the movement concept and skill theme
chapters (Chapters 16 – 28), each section (activity)
begins by providing the children with some informa-
tion about how a particular task is to be done — for
example, the equipment needed, the space in which
the activity will occur, the rules, and whether the chil-
dren will be working alone or with others. These are
considered informing tasks and for that reason are not
designated as tasks, cues, or challenges. Ideally, the
informing part of the lesson is both brief and clear so
that the children can quickly begin practicing the
starting task with few questions.
When we provide this information we also try to
follow the KISS principle.
The KISS Principle The KISS principle (Keep It Short and Simple) is a good guideline to follow when
talking to children. The problem we face as teachers is
that we have much to tell the children about a concept
or skill, but the children aren’t really interested in
listening for long; they want to move. Although there
are exceptions, we try to limit our instruction to just
what the children need to know.
One trap teachers easily fall into is spending fi ve or
more minutes telling (and demonstrating) all they
know about a skill or activity. There is a lot to tell the
children — the problem is that the children can’t possi-
bly remember all that information when it is provided
in a single minilecture. Think of a skill or exercise you
know well. It would be easy for you to talk for fi ve
minutes on how to hit a ball with a bat, or the correct
way to do a “crunch,” for example. The children won’t
remember all of this, however. If you don’t believe it,
try an experiment with one of your classes. Give them
a minilecture. During the following class, use the Help-
ing Murgatroid technique (see Chapter 14, page 208)
to see what they actually are able to recall from your
lecture. We believe you’ll fi nd that information pro-
vided in small bits throughout a lesson is more effec-
tive than long-winded explanations that children
don’t remember.
Demonstrations In addition to keeping our explanations brief and to the point, we also try to
demonstrate whenever possible (G. Graham 2008;
Rink 2006; Sharpe, Hawkins, and Wicgand 1989;
Southard and Higgins 1989). This is helpful to the chil-
dren who are visual, as opposed to auditory, learners,
and it’s necessary for the increasing number of children
in our classes who do not speak English. Demonstra-
tions of motor skills need to be done correctly, and they
must emphasize the part or parts that the children
Teacher demonstration provides
youngsters with a visual image of
the important parts of a skill.
CHAPTER 11 Developing the Content 167
progression of tasks (extensions) for children. The tasks
are marked with the symbol T .
Tasks that are “just right” allow children to succeed
at the task about 80 percent of the time (Berliner 1984;
Brophy 1983; Rosenshine 1983; Siedentop and Tannehill
2000). The 80 percent success rate is a rough estimate,
but it provides a guideline for determining whether to
make a task easier or harder. High rates of success typi-
cally motivate children to keep trying and working at
the task. Tasks that are too easy or too hard prompt off-
task behavior or questions like “When can we do some-
thing else?” “When do we get to play the game?”
Cues (Refi nements)
Once a task is judged to be appropriate (not too easy or
too hard), the teacher can provide cues (or refi nements)
to help the children perform the skill more effi ciently.
Cues are also referred to as critical elements. Providing
cues is one of the most valuable roles a teacher can
perform (G. Graham 2008; Landin 1994; Masser 1987,
1993; Rink 2006). Cues help children understand how
to perform a skill and shortcut the learning process as
well as encouraging the children to practice proper
techniques. In the overhand throw for distance, for
example, it is important that children learn to step
with the foot opposite the throwing hand. When land-
ing from a jump, it is important that the children learn
to bend, not only at the knees but also at the hips and
ankles. These tips or cues (refi nements) help children
learn skills more effi ciently than they would by trial
and error. The cues (critical elements) are listed at the
beginning of each series of tasks in the skill theme
chapters (Chapters 19 –28). ( Figure 11.1 , taken from
Chapter 27, shows how the tasks, cues, and challenges
are presented in the skill theme chapters.) These sug-
gestions are designed to help you determine which cue
or refi nement will best help the children to improve
their skill performance. In addition to helping the chil-
dren learn the correct ways of performing a skill, em-
phasizing cues can also provide the children with a
checklist of the important critical elements that they
will need when they decide to play a sport on their
own outside of school. Children who attend physical
education class for an hour or less a week obviously
don’t have enough time to reach the utilization or pro-
fi ciency level. We do know, however, that they can
learn the critical elements, so at least they will recall
how to perform a skill appropriately (Manross 1992).
When you begin to read and use the information
in the skill theme chapters, you will notice that no
cues are provided with the tasks at the precontrol
level of the generic levels of skill profi ciency (GLSP;
need to pay attention to — the instep, the elbow, the
shoulder, the hands — so that children can clearly see
how that part is to be used and how it fi ts into the
total movement. This seems obvious, yet it is amazing
to see how often teachers don’t provide the children
with a demonstration or fail to demonstrate slowly
enough or to emphasize a part, so that the demonstra-
tion is just not helpful to children. If you videotape
some of your lessons, as we suggest in Chapter 15, you
will be able to ascertain quickly the effectiveness of
your demonstrations.
Pinpointing There are times when we choose not to demonstrate or are unable to demonstrate a skill for
the children. In these instances, pinpointing — inviting
several children to do the demonstration — can be an
effective technique (G. Graham 2008). The children
are encouraged when they see that their peers can
demonstrate the skill or technique. When possible, we
try to select two or more children to do the pinpoint-
ing; in this way we avoid placing children who are
uncomfortable performing in front of other children
in a solo situation.
As you will see in the movement concept and skill
theme chapters (Chapters 16 –28), each section (activity)
begins by providing the children with some infor-
mation about how a particular task is to be done — for
example, the equipment needed, the space in which
the activity will occur, the rules, and whether the chil-
dren will be working alone or with others. These are
considered informing tasks and for that reason are not
designated as tasks, cues, or challenges. Ideally, the
informing part of the lesson is both brief and clear so
that the children can quickly begin practicing the
starting task with few questions.
Tasks ( Extensions)
Once the children have been provided with a starting
task or activity, the next step in the development of
the content is to observe the children to determine
whether the task is too easy (the children are able to do
it easily with no apparent challenge); too hard (the
children are only occasionally successful, but many are
unable to do the task with success); or simply unpro-
ductive (the children just aren’t benefi ting [learning]
from doing the task). In any of these cases, the teacher
will want to change the task so that more of the chil-
dren can be successful. Chapter 8 outlines the process
for developing a progression of developmentally
appropriate tasks as part of lesson planning (Box 8-1).
In addition, each of the movement concept and skill
theme chapters (Chapters 16 –28) provides a suggested
168 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Chapter 7). This is because youngsters at that level
have had minimal experience with even attempting a
given movement. We want them to fi rst explore the
skill until they have at least a general idea of how it
feels and what is required to do it successfully
(Schmidt and Wrisberg 2008). For example, if you
have never attempted a movement, being told four or
fi ve cues will have little meaning, and probably won’t
stick with you. Obviously we must emphasize safety,
but explanation and demonstration of the critical
elements can begin once youngsters have a basic
understanding of the movement and are at the con-
trol level. At this point in the learning curve, they are
often more receptive to learning the cues because
they have discovered that they are not adept at the
skill and would like to know how to do it more effi -
ciently and effectively.
You will also notice that there is a progression of
cues from the control to the utilization and then the
profi ciency level. This is because the movements are
different at each of the GLSP. For example, young-
sters at the profi ciency level in landing from a jump
do not need to be told to “bend their knees”— they
learned that when they were at the control level. So
just as the tasks change for each of the GLSP, so do
the cues.
Each of the movement concept and skill theme de-
velopment chapters provides numerous cues that the
children will fi nd helpful for enhancing the quality of
their movements. The challenge for you as a teacher is
to select the cue that will be most helpful for the class
you are teaching. Much of this analysis is completed as
part of the lesson planning when you develop the pro-
gression of tasks and the appropriate cues (Chapter 8).
Beware of the temptation to tell the children too much
at once. As suggested in the National Association for
Sport and Physical Education’s National Standards
(NASPE 1995; 2004), we want the children not only to
hear the cues, but also to recall and apply them them.
Box 11-1 provides one example of how you might as-
sess your children to determine how well they are
learning the critical elements.
STRIKING WITH BOTH SIDES OF THE PADDLE
Setting: Each child with a paddle (foam or wood) and a ball (foam, dead tennis ball), and a carpet square or some other way to defi ne self- space
Cues
Flat Paddle (Place your paddle fl at on the fl oor. Now pick it up and see if you can keep it as fl at as it was on the fl oor—the same angle.)
Stiff Wrist (Pretend you have a cast.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T In tennis or racketball or badminton, players use both sides of the paddle. Let’s try this. Keep hitting the ball up. Try to hit the ball with one side of the paddle, then the other.
T If this is easy, see if you can use both sides of the paddle and both sides of the body. Try not to always strike the ball when it is right in front of you.
T Can you make a rainbow with the ball—hit it on one side of your body and then the other so that the ball travels in a rainbow shape? Remember, if you miss the ball and have to chase it, go back to your self-space before you start striking again.
C How many rainbows can you make? Each time the ball goes over your head, it counts as one. Five rainbows without a miss would be excellent.
Figure 11.1 Sample presentation of tasks, cues, and challenges
for striking with rackets and paddles.
Fourth-Grade Assessment Example for Throwing
Standard 1: Movement Forms
Peer Observation
Have partners observe the preparatory phase of a desig-
nated skill in an attempt to ascertain the correct use of criti-
cal elements. For example, student A will throw a ball toward
a target fi ve times using the overhand pattern while student
B observes the performance, focusing on a single critical
element during the preparatory phase (e.g., opposite foot
forward, side to target, arm pulled way back). The observing
student gives a “thumbs-up” if the critical element is correct;
if it is incorrect, the observing student tells what is needed
to improve the movement.
Criteria for Assessment
a. Thrower displays the critical element that is the focus of
the observation.
b. Observer makes an accurate judgment on the
performance.
Source: NASPE 1995, p. 33.
Box 11-1
CHAPTER 11 Developing the Content 169
child’s batting swing. The feedback analysis checklist
(Figure 15.1) is one tool to help you analyze the type
of feedback you provide to the children, and the mod-
ifi ed checklist in Figure 15.5 helps you analyze to
whom you provide it.
Challenges (Applications)
In addition to informing (providing information to
the children), presenting a logical progression of tasks
and activities, and providing cues, a teacher may also
present challenges (applications) to the children to
maintain their interest in a task. Even when children
are doing a task and succeeding at high rates, there
comes a time when they become disinterested and are
ready to move on to another task. The problem is that
as teachers we are not always able to provide another
task that is just a little bit harder; in some instances, a
task is much harder, and if we ask the children to do
this task before they are ready, many of the children
will fail. Many of the challenges that will motivate the
children to continue practicing are “invented” as part
of the planning process (Chapter 8). The important
point to remember is that the task stays the same, but
the challenge is designed to motivate the children to
keep practicing that task.
Let’s take the example of batting. A logical progres-
sion from striking a ball from a batting tee is to strike a
pitched ball (Chapter 28). Hitting a pitched ball is
much more diffi cult for the children, especially at
young ages when the throwing (pitching) skills of
many children are not yet refi ned. The right challenge
at the right time, however, will motivate the children
to continue practicing batting from a tee. This will al-
low the teacher time to continue providing feedback
about the way the children are (or aren’t) stepping
with the lead foot when they bat. The following list
gives some examples of batting challenges. You will
note that all the tasks still require the children to keep
batting from a tee, the task they had been working on
before the teacher decided to provide a challenge to
the children:
“If this is easy for you, you may want to try batting
a smaller ball; if it is hard for you, you may want to
try batting a larger ball.”
“Every time you bat the ball without hitting the tee
with the bat, say a letter of your last name. Try to
spell your whole name.”
“See how many times in a row you can hit the ball
without hitting the tee or missing the ball.”
“Try to hit the fence (wall) with the ball on a fl y
three times in a row.”
One Cue at a Time Generally we try to focus on one cue at a time in our instruction, demonstration,
and pinpointing. For example, to a class of second
graders we might provide instruction and demonstrate
the cue of stepping with the lead foot when batting
(Chapter 28). We would then ask the children to con-
tinue the same task—batting off a tee against a wall or
fence, for example —while we circulate and provide
feedback.
If you can imagine this setting, you realize that the
children may need several other cues. Some, for ex-
ample, will not be swinging in a horizontal plane;
some may not be swinging the bat appropriately on
the backswing or following through. The problem,
however, is that children at this age (and many adults,
for that matter) can concentrate effectively on only
one cue at a time. By focusing on one cue at a time, we
heighten the chances that the children will learn this
cue (G. Graham 2008; Rink 2006; Rink and Werner
1989). Once the children are actually using this cue —
that is, when they are actually stepping with the lead
foot as they swing —we move on to another cue. We
may change the task, as suggested in the batting pro-
gression in Chapter 28, but the cue remains the same.
Or in some cases, the cue remains the same for several
different tasks.
Congruent Feedback As the children practice a task, the teacher circulates among them, providing
feedback. Again, there are many cues the teacher might
provide in the form of feedback. We try, however, to
provide congruent feedback— that is, feedback that is
consistent with what we told (explained and demon-
strated) the children to focus on when practicing the
skill (Belka et al. 1991; G. Graham 2008; Rink 2006;
Rink and Werner 1989). For example, during instruc-
tion (informing), we might ask the children to think
about stepping with the lead foot as they are batting;
the feedback we provide, therefore, would be about
how they are (or are not) stepping with the opposite
foot. We might say:
“Jackie, good step.”
“Nick, don’t forget to step when you swing.”
“Verenda, remember to step.”
“Tommy, way to step.”
Interestingly, both the children and the teacher
seem to benefi t from this type of feedback. The chil-
dren hear a consistent message — and are able to recall
and apply the cue. The teacher is able to focus quickly
(Chapter 12) on a specifi c part of a movement while
moving among the children, rather than attempting
to analyze all of the critical elements for every
170 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
The challenges are marked in the movement con-
cept and skill theme chapters (Chapters 16 –28) with
the symbol C . These challenges do not substantively
change the task; rather, they are designed to maintain
the children’s interest in that task. In gamelike set-
tings, a challenge of keeping score, either coopera-
tively or competitively, would be a logical application
for that task.
Some teachers fi nd it easier to use challenges in their
teaching than others. As we increase our understand-
ing of how children at different ages think— and their
sense of humor — it becomes easier to create challenges
for them. Preschool children, for example, can be chal-
lenged simply by being asked to perform a task with a
ball, hoop, or carpet square of a different color. Some
middle school children enjoy the challenge of compet-
ing against a friend to see who can be more successful.
Others enjoy seeing if they can surpass their previous
personal records. We have provided a few examples of
challenges in the subsequent chapters, but the best
ones are those you create as you come to know the
children you are teaching.
Assessing Your Content Development
The fi nal chapter in Part 2 — Chapter 15, “ Understanding
Your Teaching”—provides you with a way to determine
how you are developing the content (see Figure 15.2).
Ideally, you will fi nd that your lessons include a number
of cues that relate to the tasks the children are doing
in that lesson. Lessons that consist entirely of tasks
followed by challenges are considered undesirable
sequences. Desirable task sequences consist of a more
varied pattern that includes a mix of tasks, relevant
cues, and challenges as needed (Belka and Short 1991).
In other words, there is not a formula that can be used
for content development (task, cue, challenge). It always
depends on the abilities and interests of the class being
taught—as well as the amount of time and effort the
teacher has spent on planning interesting, enjoyable,
and worthwhile lessons.
Planning Format
Chapter 8 discussed planning and the various aspects
of a lesson that teachers typically include in their
plans. Now that you understand the process of content
development, we want to share an alternative way to
plan that some teachers have found effective (Rink
2006; Siedentop, Herkowitz, and Rink 1984). This
alternative relates specifi cally to how a teacher writes
the activities for the day. Essentially, a three-column
format is used — tasks are listed in the fi rst column,
cues in the middle column, and challenges in the last
column. For each task, the teacher writes at least one
cue and one challenge in the same row; the cue(s) and
challenge(s) are designed to correspond to the task the
children will be practicing.
Table 11.1 provides an example of part of a lesson
that was planned using this format. This format for
planning is especially useful for beginning teachers
and those who are new to this process of content
development. Rather than carrying the entire plan with
them as they teach, some teachers briefl y summarize
Table 11.1 Sample Part of a Lesson Plan Using a Content Development Format
Children’s objectives: Children will learn to swing their arms on the takeoff and bend their knees when they land from a jump.*
Tasks T Cues Challenges C
Jump over your rope, taking off and landing Swing both arms —hard! Make a different shape with your rope. Con-
on two feet. See how high you can get. tinue two-foot takeoff-and-landing jumps.
Jump using a one-foot takeoff and two-foot Bend your knees when you land. See if you can land perfectly still— frozen
landing. on three landings in a row.
Make your rope into a circle. Let’s try a Bend your knee when you land. How many times can you hop into and
hop — one foot to the same foot — into out of your rope circle without touching
and out of the circle. the other foot to the ground? (Then try
the other foot.)
Lay your rope in a straight line. Stand next Swing both arms —hard! Now get a piece of masking tape from the
to your rope. How far away can you jump wall. Lie on the fl oor. Touch your feet to
from it? (Two-foot takeoff and landing.) the rope. Put the masking tape near your
head. Can you jump your own height?
Now run and jump. Take off (one- or two- Swing your arms as you get ready to take Move the masking tape to where your feet
foot), and land on two feet. Try to take off. Bend your knees when you land. fi rst hit the fl oor on your landing. See if
off very close to your rope. you can jump even farther next time.
*This progression is taken from Chapter 21. “Jumping and Landing.”
CHAPTER 11 Developing the Content 171
in which they choose to participate. As in every in-
stance, there will be a few children who, in your judg-
ment, make questionable decisions. Overall, however,
we think you will fi nd that your children will choose
tasks that allow them to be successful— and yet are not
too easy (Csikszentmihalyi 2000).
Intratask Variation
Teaching by invitation allows the children to make
decisions about the task they prefer to work on. Intra-
task variation, by contrast, is a technique in which the
teacher decides to extend a task for individuals or
small groups within the class (G. Graham 2008). The
teacher bases this decision on specifi c knowledge of
the children’s abilities and interests. Typically, intra-
task variation is a rather private interaction between
one or more children and the teacher, who makes a
task easier or harder to better match the skill level of
the children. The following are examples of intratask
variation:
“Eldridge, why don’t you try striking a balloon in-
stead of a ball?”
“José, you may want to practice dribbling behind
your back and between your legs.” (Other children
are practicing dribbling and staying in self-space.)
“Gloria and Tanisha, why don’t you two make up a
partner sequence that has rolling and transferring
weight in it.” (Other children are practicing rolling
in backward directions.)
“I would like the four of you to move over to the
next fi eld and make up a game that has kicking and
dribbling with your feet in it.” (Other children are
practicing dribbling with their feet; these four have
been playing soccer for several years and are adroit
at kicking and foot-dribbling. They move to the
other fi eld and quickly begin a two-against-two soc-
cer game.)
Unfortunately, intratask variation is not a 100 per-
cent guaranteed panacea that will allow you to adjust
tasks satisfactorily to meet the needs of every child in
a class. As with most teaching techniques, intratask
variation is effective with some children in some classes
some of the time.
A teacher can heighten the potential success of
intratask variation by explaining to the children, before
using the technique, that sometimes during a lesson,
various students will be asked to do different things.
Understanding why this is being done — the children
are already aware that there is a wide range of skill
levels within the class —will enable the children to
realize that the teacher is not “playing favorites” but
the lesson by writing a key word or two for each of the
tasks, cues, and challenges on a 5-by-8-inch card,
which can easily be carried in a pocket for quick refer-
ence during a lesson.
Just as we provide choices to children, we also want
to provide you with planning choices. Box 8-1 and
Table 11.1 provide two examples that illustrate the
planning process. Ultimately you will need to decide
which process is most effective for you.
Accommodating Individual Differences
We have described a process for developing the con-
tent that enables children to truly learn and benefi t
from physical education lessons (Rink 2006). As you
know, however, the process is made even more com-
plicated by the fact that children in our classes have
different skill levels and interests. Although we have
no magical solutions, we do want to suggest two
techniques that can help you to accommodate indi-
vidual differences within a class — that is, to match
the challenge of a task with the ability of the child
(Csikszentmihalyi 2000; G. Graham 2008). We have
termed these two techniques teaching by invitation
and intratask variation.
Teaching by Invitation
One of the ways a teacher can adjust for individual dif-
ferences is by inviting the children to decide some para-
meters of a given task. The teacher makes the statement
to the entire class, and each child in the class then de-
cides which task he or she wants to participate in. The
following are examples of teaching by invitation:
“You may want to continue dribbling in self-space,
or you may want to begin dribbling and walking in
general space.”
“Working alone, or with a partner, design a
sequence . . .”
“You may want to continue batting from the tee, or
you may want to work with a partner, taking turns
pitching a ball to each other.”
“You may want to continue striking a ball with
your paddle, or you may want to try striking a
shuttlecock.”
“You decide how far away you want to be from the
goal when you kick.”
“In groups of two or three, make up a game . . .”
If you use this technique, you will fi nd that most of
the children make intelligent decisions about the tasks
172 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
rather helping children benefi t more from physical
education class by adjusting tasks for children with
differing abilities.
When using intratask variation, the teacher can also
make the point that children at the higher skill levels—
utilization and profi ciency (Chapter 7)—have most
likely acquired these skills because of the activities they
pursue after school and on weekends. This also pro-
vides an excellent opportunity to explain that students
who are at the utilization and profi ciency levels for
various skill themes have practiced those skills count-
less times in a variety of settings. In most physical
education classes, there is just not enough practice
time to attain the top two levels of the GLSP. This
explanation will be especially helpful to those young-
sters who may be under the mistaken impression that
the more skilled youngsters in a class were born that
way. They weren’t! They have just had more practice.
References /Suggested Readings
Belka , D. E. , K. C. Conner , and G. R. Bowyer . 1991 , January. Quality and congruency of task presentations and teacher verbal feedback in preservice peer teaching episodes. Paper presented at the International Association for Physical Edu- cation in Higher Education World Congress, Atlanta, GA.
Belka , D. E. , and C. J. Short . 1991 , January. Implementing a content sequencing model in physical education instruction. Paper presented at the International Associa- tion for Physical Education in Higher Education World Congress, Atlanta, GA.
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. Can children simply play games and, as a result,
learn the basic motor skills? What about children of
differing abilities and interests?
2. Defi ne developing the content, and explain why it is
an important part of teaching physical education.
3. Pick a skill or movement concept with which you
are familiar. Provide several examples of tasks de-
signed to help children learn that skill or concept.
Be sure to provide both easier and harder tasks in
your progression.
4. Why is providing cues an important teaching skill
for physical education teachers? What might be the
result when a teacher provides no cues or does so
ineffectively?
5. Refer to Table 11.1. Using the skill or concept you
chose in Question 3, write at least fi ve tasks in one
column. In a second column, write alongside each
task a cue that you might use when teaching that
task. In a third column, write a challenge for each
of the tasks in the fi rst column. Remember that the
task, the cue, and the challenge need to work
together — that is, they need to complement one
another.
6. As a teacher, do you think you are more likely to use
teaching by invitation or intratask variation? Ex-
plain your answer.
Summary
One of the truly important tasks for a physical educa-
tion teacher is to develop the content in ways that
allow children to learn and benefi t from the activities.
This chapter defi nes and illustrates four functions that
teachers might use in developing the content. The fi rst
function is informing, or presenting information to
children — ideally in brief instructional episodes
accompanied by demonstration and /or pinpointing.
Once an initial task has been presented, the teacher’s
next function is to decide whether to make the task
easier or harder. The rate of success (ideally 80 percent)
is one measure to use in such decisions. The third
function in content development is providing cues to
children that heighten their understanding and effi -
ciency at performing a given skill or activity. Teachers
should provide only one cue at a time and ensure that
the feedback they provide is congruent (is about that
cue). The last teacher function is providing challenges
to the children to maintain their interest in a task,
rather than moving on to a harder task. Teachers can
use two techniques to adjust lessons for individual dif-
ferences. In teaching by invitation, the teacher allows
the children to make decisions, whereas in intratask
variation, the teacher decides which tasks are most
appropriate for children of different skill levels.
CHAPTER 11 Developing the Content 173
National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. 1997 . Guidelines for school and community programs to promote lifelong physical activity among young people. Journal of School Health 67(6): 202 –19 .
Rink , J. E. 2006 . Teaching physical education for learning. 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill .
Rink , J. E. , and P. H. Werner . 1989 . Qualitative measures of teaching performance scale (QMTPS). In Analyzing physi- cal education and sport instruction, 2nd ed., ed. P.W. Darst, D.B. Zakrasjeck, and V.H. Mancini. Champaign, IL: Hu- man Kinetics .
Rosenshine , B. 1983 . Teaching functions in instructional programs. Elementary School Journal 83: 335 –51 .
Rosenshine , B. , and R. Stevens . 1988 . Teaching functions. In Handbook of research on teaching, ed. M.E. Wittrock, pp. 376 – 91 . New York: Macmillan .
Schmidt , R. A. , and C. A. Wrisberg . 2008 . Motor learning and performance. 4th ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Sharpe , T. L. , A. Hawkins , and R. Wiegand . 1989 . Model/ practice versus verbal/rehearsal introductions of systems skills within an individually prescribed instructional sys- tem. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 9(1): 25 – 38 .
Siedentop , D. , J. Herkowitz , and J. Rink . 1984 . Elementary physical education methods. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall .
Siedentop , D. , and D. Tannehill . 2000 . Developing teaching skills in physical education. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill .
Southard , D. , and T. Higgins . 1989 . Changing movement patterns: Effects of demonstration and practice. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 58(1): 77– 80 .
Werner , P. , and J. E. Rink . 1989 . Case studies of teacher effectiveness in second grade physical education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 8(4): 280 – 97 .
Berliner , D. 1984 . The half-full glass: A review of re- search on teaching. In Using what we know about teaching, ed. P. Hosford. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development .
Brophy , J. 1983 . Classroom organization and manage- ment. Elementary School Journal 83(4): 265 – 86 .
Bunker , L. K. 1991 . The role of play and motor skill develop- ment in building children’s self-confi dence and self-esteem. Elementary School Journal 91(5): 467–71 .
Csikszentmihalyi , M. 2000 . Beyond boredom and anxiety: Experiencing fl ow in work and play. San Francisco: Jossey- Bass .
Graham , G. 2008 . Teaching children physical education. 3rd ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Graham , K. C. , K. Hussey , K. Taylor , and P. Werner . 1993 . A study of verbal presentations of three effective teachers [Abstract]. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 64: 87A .
Landin , D. 1994 . The role of verbal cues in skill learning. Quest 46(3): 299 – 313 .
Manross , M. 1992 . What children think, feel, and know about the overhand throw. Unpublished master’s thesis, Virginia Tech.
Masser , L. 1987 . The effects of refi nement on student achievement in a fundamental motor skill in grades K through 6. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 6(2): 174 – 82 .
Masser , L. 1993 . Critical cues help fi rst grade students’ achievement in handstands and forward rolls. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 12(3): 301–12 .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 1995 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. St. Louis, MO: Mosby .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2004 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. 2nd ed. Reston, VA: NASPE .
174
C H A P T E R
12
Observing Student Responses It is vital for a teacher to observe children, whatever the subject or situation. It is through observation
that the successful teacher assesses the moods, attributes, needs, and potential of individuals and
groups.
— E. MAULDON AND J. LAYSON
CHAPTER 12 Observing Student Responses 175
L ocke (1975) provided the following description of
a two-minute segment of a class of 34 fourth-
grade students:
Teacher is working one-on-one with a student who has an
obvious neurological defi cit. She wants him to sit on a
beam and lift his feet from the fl oor. Her verbal behaviors
fall into categories of reinforcement, instruction, feedback,
and encouragement. She gives hands-on manual assis-
tance. Nearby two boys are perched on the uneven bars and
are keeping a group of girls off. Teacher visually monitors
the situation but continues to work on the beam. At the far
end of the gym a large mat propped up so that students can
roll down it from a table top is slowly slipping nearer to the
edge. Teacher visually monitors this but continues work
on the beam. Teacher answers three individual inquiries
addressed by passing students but continues as before. She
glances at a group now playing follow-the-leader over the
horse (this is off-task behavior) but as she does a student
enters and indicates he left his milk money the previous
period. Teacher nods him to the nearby offi ce to retrieve the
money and leaves the beam to stand near the uneven bars.
The boys climb down at once. Teacher calls to a student
to secure the slipping mat. Notes that the intruder, milk
money now in hand, has paused to interact with two girls
in the class and, monitoring him, moves quickly to the
horse to begin a series of provocative questions designed
to reestablish task focus.
After painting this picture of the complexity of teach-
ing, Locke aptly reminds us:
That was only 120 seconds out of the 17,000 the teacher
spent that day in active instruction. A great deal of detail
was unobserved or unrecorded over those two minutes,
and nothing in the record refl ected the invisible train of
thought in the teacher’s mind.
That scenario provides us with glimpses of establish-
ing a learning environment (e.g., much student choice
and independence in activities); maintaining the envi-
ronment (e.g., standing near students who are off task);
and developing content (e.g., providing reinforcement,
instruction, feedback). It also provides us with the com-
plexity of teaching physical education. To become a
refl ective (and effective) teacher who meets the needs
of your students it is essential that you see and are then
able to react to the responses of your students, both
behavioral responses and responses to learning tasks —
while you are teaching. (Locke had the luxury of sitting
on the sidelines and seeing when he wrote this!) There
are multiple reasons to observe in the gym. In Children
Moving we have chosen to focus on two that we deem
most important – observing the movement responses of
children and observing teacher actions related to effec-
tive teaching. While we treat these as two separate and
distinct skills serving two different purposes, they are
inextricably related to each other. There are effective
teaching skills not related to the observation of chil-
dren’s movement, yet the ability to be an effective
teacher without observing children’s movement is im-
possible. Rink (2006) most poignantly communicates
this when she indicates that the teaching cycle of
teacher task, to children’s movement response, to sub-
sequent teacher task is at the heart of the learning pro-
cess. Without acute and accurate observation of the
children’s movement responses, it is impossible to cre-
ate appropriate follow-up tasks. The observation of
teaching skills is dealt with in Chapter 15. In this chap-
ter we focus on the observation of children and their
movement responses.
• Refl ective teachers are effective observers.
• Accurately analyzing classes of students in a physical ac-
tivity setting is a pedagogical skill that is acquired through
practice and experience.
• Teachers must continually assess their classes to be cer-
tain they are, and remain, safe.
Key Concepts
The ability to observe — to see with understanding —
is critical for a refl ective teacher. It is especially critical
for teachers of physical education because the result of
our teaching is a fl eeting movement that happens in
the space of only a few seconds. In contrast to math or
English classes, where written products exist that allow
the teacher to provide feedback and make decisions as
to the next instructional move after carefully studying
a permanent artifact, we have to make those same de-
cisions based on a movement that we may have seen
once or twice. There are few permanent products as a
result of our teaching. It is impossible to provide a safe
Be gentle with yourself. Don’t be disappointed initially
if, in the relative tranquility after you’ve fi nished teach-
ing, you fi nd that you made some apparently obvious
errors. Observation appears easy to the spectator, but
the complexity of teaching and observing movement
can be fully appreciated only when one assumes the
role of the teacher. In time and with practice, you’ll be-
come increasingly satisfi ed with your ability to observe
and analyze movement.
176 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
environment, offer feedback to students about their
performance, or make decisions about what task to
present next unless you can observe and accurately
determine what students are doing. Thus the teacher
who designs and implements a successful physical
education program must be able to observe percep-
tively, accurately, and continuously and then trans-
late the information gained from the observation into
usable material.
Coaches will easily and readily talk of observing
very detailed movements of their players in both
practice and game situations. When coaches and
players with no formal training have been compared
with physical education teachers on their ability to
observe and analyze movement, the coaches and
players scored signifi cantly higher than the teachers,
who had degrees in physical education (Hoffman
1977).
Accurate observational analysis is diffi cult in a non-
teaching or poorly managed environment. The com-
plexity increases considerably, however, when the
teacher attempts to observe the movement and behav-
ioral characteristics of individual children and simulta-
neously monitor the work of an entire class during a
physical education lesson (Barrett 1977, 1979, 1983).
Beginning teachers should not be dismayed by the
complexity of the observation tasks; not only can the
skills be learned, but they also become easier as the
teacher becomes more comfortable with the content
and the teaching environment.
The process of observation can be divided into two
aspects: what to observe and how to observe.
• What to observe: This aspect includes four cate-
gories: safety, on-task behavior, class movement
patterns, and individual movement patterns.
• How to observe: Observational techniques are ge-
neric, regardless of what is observed; they include
positioning, knowing what to look for, and having
an observational strategy.
The remainder of this chapter introduces you to these
two aspects of observation.
What to Observe
When teaching physical education, a person is con-
stantly bombarded by seemingly hundreds of ideas
in just a few seconds, so here we’ve provided a pro-
cedure that we’ve found valuable for observing and
understanding all that goes on in our classes. Because
teaching is so complex, it’s important that a teacher
know what to look for in a particular lesson before
conducting the lesson itself. This requires some plan-
ning (Chapter 8). When we don’t plan, we often fi nd
it diffi cult to decide what to observe during a lesson,
so our lessons lack focus or direction. It’s almost as
if we were just “doing things” with children rather
than actually teaching. For this reason, when we
plan, it is helpful to divide our observation into four
categories: (1) safety, (2) on-task behavior, (3) class
movement patterns, and (4) individual movement
patterns.
Safety
The teacher’s initial and constant attention must al-
ways be directed toward the children’s safety. When-
ever you observe an unsafe situation, remember that
safety must always take priority over everything else
going on in the lesson. If you have stated a task in such
a way that the children are responding unsafely, stop
the class, and restate the task. If equipment is unsafe or
being used unwisely, stop the class to make the use of
the equipment safe. Safety is the initial focus of any
lesson and must be the uppermost consideration as
you work with children.
We also teach the children about safety so that
they’re able to understand some of the hazards they
may encounter if they aren’t careful. Initially, we ex-
plain the reasons for our safety procedures to enable
children to better understand and make intelligent de-
cisions about their own safety. That’s not enough,
however. We need to constantly be aware of unsafe
conditions. The following are several of the safety pre-
cautions we constantly keep in mind as we observe the
classes. Certain of these precautions are also described
in Chapter 9.
• It is essential that children work independently
without pushing, shoving, tripping, or otherwise
interfering with other children.
• A working knowledge of self-space is obligatory.
Children must work in a space a safe distance from
others. When the youngsters get too close—for exam-
ple, when striking with rackets —we stop the lesson
and make them adjust their space.
• Depending on the surface, our children work in ten-
nis shoes or barefoot. We don’t allow stockinged
feet, especially on hardwood or tile fl oors, because
they’re so slippery. Children enjoy sliding, but this
is a defi nite hazard.
• In lessons on skill themes, such as rolling, transfer-
ring weight, and balance (gymnastics context), we
don’t allow I Dare You and Follow the Leader games
or touching and pushing.
CHAPTER 12 Observing Student Responses 177
• Unless otherwise indicated, in lessons in which
gymnastics apparatus is being used, we allow only
one child on the equipment at a time. This condi-
tion might change once the learning environment
has been effectively established.
Legal liability is an increasing concern of teachers,
particularly those of physical education. We strongly
encourage you to be certain to teach safety rules simi-
lar to those just described and to include the rules in
the written lesson plan so that they’re part of a perma-
nent record in the unfortunate event you have to doc-
ument safety precautions. Most of these safety rules
should be taught in the fi rst few weeks of school
(Chapter 9) and then reinforced throughout the year.
Again, as you observe, make sure safety is constantly
the forefront of your focus.
On-Task Behavior
Once you’ve determined that the environment is safe,
your next focus is to decide whether children are on
task. Are they actually doing what you asked them to
do? For example, if you asked your class to throw and
catch with a partner, are they doing so? Or are they
kicking the ball, running around chasing one another?
Or, more subtly, are they not working with a partner
but in groups of four or fi ve? If so, these are off-task
behaviors, and you need to attend to them immedi-
ately. Stop the lesson!
There are three reasons why children may be off
task:
1. The children are trying, but the task was stated un-
clearly. You must restate the task.
2. The task is too hard or too easy. If it’s too easy,
many children will become bored and thus off
task. If it’s too hard, many children will become
frustrated — and thus off task. Determining the
success rate of the students is one way to check
the diffi culty of the task. A guideline for the right
success rate is 80 percent — in other words, the
students you observe should be successful 80 per-
cent of the time. Figure 12.1 provides an example
of an observation sheet that can be used to assess
task diffi culty. In situations in which the task is
too hard or too easy, or was not stated clearly,
children will most often make up their own task.
Rarely will young children come to the teacher
and say, “Teacher, the task is too hard,” or “Teacher,
I didn’t understand.”
3. The children haven’t yet learned to be on task. If so,
you’ll need to practice the appropriate behavior in
physical education class. It is impossible to teach
without fi rst managing. The time spent on manage-
ment is well worth it later when your class is running
smoothly. If you don’t spend time on management
early, you will fi nd yourself constantly managing
later. As the old saying goes, “An ounce of preven-
tion is worth a pound of cure.”
The reality of teaching, unfortunately, is that often a
class has one or two children who tend to be off task
more than others. What do you do with them? After all,
their behavior interferes with your right to teach and
other youngsters’ right to learn. Refer to Chapters 9 and
10 for ideas about working with these students.
Class Movement Patterns
When you’ve determined that the class is working
safely and on task, begin observing the entire class to
see how students are accomplishing the task. Con-
stantly be on the alert, however, for unsafe and off-
task situations.
As you scan the entire class to see how children
are moving, observe one cue at a time. Based on that,
you’ll make one of four decisions according to what
you observe the majority of the children doing. Your
choices are to: (1) leave the task the same and let
the students continue practicing, (2) change the task,
(3) provide a cue, or (4) present a challenge to the
children without changing the task. If you decide to
modify the task in any way, Chapter 11 discusses the
four content development decisions in detail. We
mention them here to emphasize that these content
development decisions need to be based on what you
observe, not on an arbitrary time allotment that
doesn’t take into account, for example, the abilities
and interests of the children.
As part of making the decision, you will also want
to ask if the task is really helping the students learn
what they need to know (Rink 2003). If, for example,
your goal for a lesson is to guide children to reach the
National Association for Sport and Physical Eduction
content standard such as “demonstrates understand-
ing of concepts, principles, strategies, and tactics as
they apply to the learning and performance of physi-
cal activities” (NASPE 2004, p. 12) and the skill you
have chosen is the use of “large extensions in weight
transfer,” then you will want to be sure that the way
the children have understood and are practicing the
tasks is really leading to the use and understanding
of large extensions. As if the observation of the chil-
dren’s responses were not diffi cult enough, the ap -
propriate teacher response to what is seen is even
harder — especially with a class of 30 children.
178 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Figure 12.1 Practice attempts
recording sheet. Practice Attempts Recording Sheet
Teacher: _______________________ Date: __________ Content: _________________
Lesson Starting /Ending Time: _________________ _________________
Students: 1. _________________ 2. _________________ 3. _________________
4. _________________ 5. _________________ 6. _________________
Charting Instructions: Note each task and record the number of practice attempts provided (choose two students to observe for each task and record their total practice attempts). Indicate successful (effi cient) tries by circling the tally marks for that try.
Totals (Student 1)
a. # of attempts (all tasks) ⫽ __________
b. # of successful attempts (all tasks) ⫽ __________
c. % of attempts successful ⫽ __________
d. Rate of attempts per minute (# of attempts/# of minutes) __________
Totals (Student 2)* (Total attempts for all students in the same manner.)
e. # of attempts (all tasks) ⫽ __________
f. # of successful attempts (all tasks) ⫽ __________
g. % of attempts successful ⫽ __________
h. Rate of attempts per minute (# of attempts/# of minutes) __________
Task # of Skill Attempts Totals (attempts/successful attempts)
1. Student 1:
Student 2:
2. Student 3:
Student 4:
3. Student 5:
Student 6:
4. Student 1:
Student 2:
5. Student 3:
Student 4:
CHAPTER 12 Observing Student Responses 179
Let’s take another example. Say that for this lesson
you’ve decided that your second graders need practice
throwing overhand and your goal is to begin to teach
four characteristics of a mature throw. You select a se-
ries of tasks from Chapter 25. You also decide that your
major focus for this lesson will be the use of opposition —
that is, that the children learn to step with the foot
opposite their throwing arm. Once you’ve defi ned the
task and explained the cue (“Throw the ball as hard as
you can against the wall. Remember to step with the
foot on the other side of your body from your throw-
ing arm”), observe to see which children are using op-
position and which ones aren’t. If you observe that
most of the children aren’t using opposition, stop the
class and remind them to use opposition (or remind
children individually). You may also demonstrate the
correct performance yourself or pinpoint as models
several children who are using opposition. Then the
children can return to their practice. Be sure to observe
the responses of the children to determine whether
they are performing as the cue indicates. Remember
that the cue (opposition) is what you actually expect
the children to learn in this lesson. This cycle of teacher
task /student response /teacher observation and deci-
sion about subsequent task is the heart of teaching for
student learning in physical education (Rink 2006).
Without the ability to observe astutely, it is impossible
to teach for student learning.
Individual Movement Patterns
After observing for safety, on-task behavior, and class
movement patterns, it is time to look at the movement
patterns of individuals. Observing individual movement
patterns can yield two types of results — information
that will assist a teacher in helping individual stu-
dents, and information that the teacher might record
on checklists and anecdotal records for future use
(see Chapter 14).
Teaching children individually is something we try
to do as teachers. Obviously, however, it’s not an easy
job. Chapter 11 describes two approaches to working
with individuals: teaching by invitation and intratask
variation. Use of these approaches involves the ability
to observe individuals and yet maintain the focus on
the entire class. This may sound easy; it isn’t.
We encourage teachers to focus initially on the en-
tire class using the scanning technique described in
the next section of this chapter. By working with indi-
viduals too early, the teacher may lose focus on the
entire class. We’ve seen this happen frequently with
beginning teachers. The teacher becomes so involved
helping an individual child that he or she loses focus
on the entire class and may suddenly look up to fi nd
When we work with individuals, we use essentially
the same process we use for the entire class. We vary
the task for different children, or we provide challenges
(intratask variation). If you ever have an opportunity
to watch a master teacher, you’ll see that this teacher is
constantly using intratask variation as he or she travels
from child to child while remaining conscious of the
entire class, safety, and on-task behavior. Now you can
better understand why it’s so important to spend time
establishing a learning environment at the beginning
of the year.
When presented separately, the four aspects or
categories of observation — safety, on-task behavior,
class movement patterns, and individual movement
patterns — seem quite simple and rather easy to
follow. When teaching, however, a teacher is rarely
able to focus on any one aspect at a time. As Locke’s
vignette suggests, the teacher must concentrate si-
multaneously on the four aspects. To aid in your ob-
servation, Figure 12.2 provides a fl ow chart of the
questions we use to guide our observation of classes.
Note that the arrows between the questions go both
ways, indicating that the observation focus isn’t lin-
ear, but that there’s a constant interplay between the
questions. Note, too, that this observation may all
happen within 60 seconds! Remember, whenever a
new task is given, always start over with the fi rst two
questions: Are the children working safely, and are
they on task?
that a number of children are off task or that an unsafe
condition has developed. This is not to suggest that
teachers shouldn’t work with children individually —
we certainly should and do. But teachers must make
sure that they don’t become so involved with one child
that they forget to concentrate on the whole class. As
Locke’s vignette at the beginning of the chapter sug-
gests, doing so is a real challenge.
Recently I observed a teacher attempting to teach a
child how to run and kick a stationary ball. The child
was unable to adjust her run to enable herself to
arrive at the ball in a proper kicking position. After
each unsuccessful attempt (the ball barely moved;
the child appeared almost to step on the ball rather
than kick it), the teacher would say to the child, “No,
that’s not it!” The child knew she had failed as she
watched the ball erratically dribble away from her
foot, and yet the teacher offered no prescription for
improvement. Rather than stating results the student
can readily observe, the successful instructor offers
a prescription for practice — that is, a cue.
180 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
How to Observe
Once you have decided what it is that you want and
need to observe, the next step is actually observing so
that you see. As we indicated earlier, observation is a
learned skill and one that can improve with practice.
Birdwatching provides an apt analogy here. Nonbird-
watchers who see a bird might think, “There is a big
bird.” Novice birdwatchers will say, “There is a big bird
with a white head and dark body.” Intermediate bird-
watchers, with binoculars, might note a large bird with
a dark body, white head, and white on the tail. An ex-
pert, with binoculars, will identify the bird as a bald
eagle. It takes practice to become an expert observer,
but the result is rich and detailed information about
what you have seen and hence where to proceed. Three
techniques seem helpful in learning to observe with
insight (Rink 2006):
1. Positioning
2. Knowing in advance what you are looking for
3. Having a strategy for observing
Positioning
Positioning in the gym is essential. To return to the
birdwatching analogy, if you are standing behind a
tree, you might not be able to see the bird at all; if you
are standing behind the bird, you might only see the
tail; and if you are standing too close, you might
frighten the bird. Thus positioning is important from
three perspectives: being able to see, being able to see
important aspects, and how you affect the performance
of the learners (Rink 2006).
First, for safety purposes, never spend long in a
position where you are unable to observe all the stu-
dents in your class. While there are a variety of tech-
niques useful in facilitating the observation of the
whole class, we have found the back-to-the-wall
technique the most useful for seeing all students. Us-
ing the back-to-the-wall technique, the teacher stands
outside the area in which the children are working, so
that she or he can see the entire class. When the
teacher enters the middle of an instructional area, he
or she is unable to see part of the class ( Figure 12.3 )
and should consequently limit the time spent in the
middle. The ability to observe all that is going on,
particularly with classes that are diffi cult to manage,
is important both for effective classroom manage-
ment and for comprehensive observation. Once the
teacher is sure that a class is capable of working with-
out constant monitoring, he or she can reduce the
use of the back-to-the-wall technique, except when
using it to observe the whole class.
Second, your position must allow you to see the
critical aspects of the skill on which the lesson is
focused. For example, if your lesson is focused on
absorbing weight through the back of the head and
shoulders and keeping the body round while rolling
forward, the logical observation point would be from
the side of the child. If observing from the back, you
would not be able to see the critical characteristics
you were looking for. When teaching, be sure to
choose observation positions that permit you to see
what you need to see.
Finally, whether we like to admit it or not, where you
stand affects the performance of the children. Children
tend not to work in the area immediately around where
the teacher is standing. So if you always stand in the
same place to give directions or observe, some children
will always manage to be in the back corner, where you
do not have a clear view of them. Thus to be able to see
better and increase on-task behavior, you should con-
stantly move around the space and refrain from having
one position that becomes your “home base,” from
which you always give directions or talk to the class.
Are the children
working safely?
Are the children
on task?
Should the focus
be changed for
the entire class?
For which individuals
should the focus
be changed?
Stop the
lesson—
correct the
problem
Go to next
question
Go to next
question
Stop the
lesson—
correct the
problem
ChallengeTask Cue
No Yes No Yes No Yes
ChallengeTask Cue
Keep
practicing Restate
task
Figure 12.2 Questions refl ective teachers use to guide observation.
CHAPTER 12 Observing Student Responses 181
Children the teacher is not visually monitoring
Teacher’s position
Teacher’s focus
Figure 12.3 Ineffective teacher
position for observation.
The chart in Figure 12.4 allows you to assess your
movement patterns. Have an observer trace your
movement patterns, marking an X at the start of each
pathway and an O for each place you stood to give di-
rections. You can also teach the observer to make a
mark on the pathway each time you interact individu-
ally with a child.
The fi rst time I taught the whole class [26 children]
I had a great deal of trouble seeing individuals in
the class. All I saw, no matter how hard I tried, was
a mass of individuals. I couldn’t see individual
performances.
— FRAN MCGILLAN (as a junior in college)
Knowing What to Look For
Although being in a good position to observe is a pre-
requisite to observation, it does not guarantee you
will see what you need to. To see, you need to know
what it is that you want to see. The complexity of a
dynamic environment without permanent products
adds to the diffi culty of this task. Filtering for the crit-
ical elements of safety and skill helps to focus your
observation.
Obviously, safety is the fi rst aspect to observe, but
what makes a safe environment? The elements are usu-
ally included in class protocols — not interfering with
others, following directions, and so on. You must iden-
tify what that looks like. For example, what does not
interfering look like if you have asked students to
“throw and catch with a partner in a space that matches
your abilities”? What would be the fi rst safety aspect
to observe? For us, it would be, Are the students spread
out so that they do not interfere with each other? In
other words, are partners not throwing across another
group of partners, and do they have enough space
between groups? For a different task, to “jump over a
low hurdle or cane, make a wide shape in the air, land,
and roll,” our fi rst observation might be that the stu-
dents were actually landing before they rolled rather
than diving over the hurdle. At the same time, we
might check the following: Is only one student on a
mat at a time? Is there enough space between the mats?
Are no students pushing each other?
After safety, our focus goes to on-task behavior. For
the rolling task just mentioned, this would again in-
clude whether students are jumping, landing, and roll-
ing. (This is both a safety and an on-task focus because
being off task here is unsafe.) Are students remaining
at their own mats or traveling around the room? Are
they simply rolling and forgetting to jump? Are they
jumping but without wide body shapes?
Finally, our focus turns to the quality of students’
skill. How do we decide what to look for in terms of
skill? The obvious answer is the critical aspects of the
skill being taught. But there are so many of them
that it makes this task incredibly diffi cult. We have
182 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
found that if we limit our observation to one aspect at
a time, it not only focuses our observation, but the
learners as well. The easiest way we have found to ac-
complish this focus is to list specifi c cues that are the
focus of your lesson on the lesson plan and to stick to
them. One teacher who was having diffi culty remain-
ing faithful to the cues she had chosen actually wrote
them on her hand or the inside of the drum she used
as a stop/start signal to remind herself. This aspect of
observation is compounded by your knowledge of the
content you are teaching as well as the complexity of
the task. For example, a forward roll on a mat from a
squatting position requires the observer to know the
cues for the forward roll and what they look like in
practice. The task is fairly controlled, so the observa-
tion is simplifi ed. However, a forward roll from a
balanced position during a routine on a piece of equip-
ment requires the observer to know cues that relate
to making the transition from a balance to a roll and
to performing a roll on a different surface and in a
much more complex situation. As you plan lessons, it
helps to identify specifi c cues (in the skill theme chap-
Teacher Pathway
Teacher Date Class
Unit
Sample:
Use one continuous line in charting teacher’s path. Change boxes every three minutes. X marks beginning of movement.
Teaching Environment
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
10 11 12
Figure 12.4 Teacher pathway
observation.
CHAPTER 12 Observing Student Responses 183
ters, these are identifi ed at the beginning of every task)
and to focus on those cues one at a time.
Strategies
Even though a teacher is in a position to observe,
has planned ahead, and knows what to observe, it
doesn’t mean that he or she is necessarily observing
effectively. It’s not unusual to become so focused
on the movement or behavior of a particular indi-
vidual or group that you become oblivious to other
children within the class. The two strategies of scan-
ning and limited selection are presented here to help
you observe.
Scanning The teacher who wants to observe the class as a whole can maintain an appropriate focus by
scanning (Siedentop and Tannehill 2000). Using a
left-to-right sweep, the teacher can glance at an entire
class in just a few seconds and accurately assess how
all the children are working. For example, if you want
to determine the number of children who are actively
practicing a given movement, you could quickly ob-
serve the class from left to right, counting as you scan.
By comparing the number practicing a particular
movement with the total number of children in the
class, you can rapidly (in no more than 15 seconds)
assess the way the class is working. This observation
technique can be used for obtaining information
about the appropriateness of the movement, the be-
havior of an entire class, or the behavior of individu-
als within the class.
Limited Selection The technique of limited selec- tion allows you to observe only select aspects at one
time. There are three ways in which we accomplish
this: (1) limiting the number of students to observe;
(2) limiting what we look at; and (3) limiting the area
in which we observe.
Limiting the number of students simply means that
you observe only a few representative students. The
easiest way to limit the number of students observed
while getting a representative idea of what is occur-
ring is to choose students of different skill levels to
observe and have them act as your barometer for the
lesson. To do this, choose three to fi ve students of
varying skill levels prior to class, and throughout that
class observe those students fi rst to “get a feel” for
what is occurring. (By the way, it has been fairly well
substantiated that three to fi ve students of varying
skill levels are representative of the class.) The next
time the class meets, choose three to fi ve different stu-
dents. Record or mark in your records the date you
observe each student until you have rotated through
the entire class.
The second aspect to limit is the number of things
you are looking for. Just as we suggest giving children
one cue at a time on which to focus, we suggest ob-
serving one cue at a time. For example, if students are
practicing the overhand throw, you might fi rst watch
for side to the target, then opposition, then rotation,
and then follow-through. Trying to observe all cues at
once becomes a bit overwhelming. Limiting your ob-
servational focus also makes it easier to provide spe-
cifi c congruent feedback to the students, as described
in Chapter 11.
Finally, similar to limiting the number of students
observed is the idea of limiting the area in which you
observe intently. The way many experienced teachers
use this technique is to divide the gym into sections
and observe only one section at a time, never trying to
observe all sections during one lesson. Many teachers
use this idea when they are trying to make the more
specifi c observations that lead to written records. To
limit the observation area, they observe only one part
of the gym, making sure the same students are always
in the same section of the gym. For example, one
teacher we know uses “neighborhoods” that are color
coded; all students are assigned a neighborhood. At
various times he will ask students to go to their neigh-
borhood to practice (not always during observation).
That way he knows exactly which children are in what
area. Another teacher has her students in specifi c quad-
rants of the gym for the initial activity of the lesson
and that is when she does her observation.
When observing for written records:
1. Make sure your observation has a focus. To do that,
make sure the students have a specifi c focus for
their work. This is most often evident through the
use of cues. If the students don’t have a focus for
their practice, you will have little focus for your
observation.
2. Develop a checklist that contains the skill and cues
listed clearly on the top of the form and the students’
names listed down the left side. (See Figure 12.5 for
an example of a blank checklist and Figure 14.2 for
an example of a completed checklist.)
3. Determine a manner of rating the skill— for exam-
ple, “achieved,” “developing,” “not yet.”
4. Observe the class. Remember to observe one cue at
a time and to observe only the cues you have taught,
even if you see other things; stick to your focus.
Some teachers have found it helpful to reserve two
or three minutes at the beginning or end of the
class simply for observation.
184 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Skills: Cues (Critical Elements)
Dribbling
Student Names
Z o n
e 1
Z o n
e 2
Z o n
e 3
p a d
s, p
u sh
– not yet ~ developing + achieved
f/ b
s ta
n c e
h e a d
s u p
w it
h t
ra v e l
w a is
t h
ig h
Figure 12.5 Sample of a blank checklist
for observing skill.
Summary
Observing — the ability to see with understanding — is
a crucial skill for the refl ective teacher. Successful ob-
servation can be learned and involves knowing what
and how to observe. What to observe includes, fi rst,
safety, followed by on-task behavior, class move-
ment patterns, and individual movement patterns.
Although presented hierarchically, these four aspects
continually interact with each other and may all be
observed within a 60-second time frame. How to
observe involves the positioning of the teacher, know-
ing what to look for, and observational strategies.
Teacher positioning infl uences what a teacher is able
The information gathered with checklists over a pe-
riod of time lends itself to a myriad of uses. The infor-
mation is useful for planning future instruction, either
adding additional cues or revisiting previous ones. It
also provides information as to where to begin when
skill themes are revisited. Additionally, it can be used
as assessment information for the student and parents
(see Chapter 14).
Although limiting allows a teacher to observe with
a narrowed focus, a teacher must never lose sight of
the entire class. As you watch individual movement
patterns, be sure to continually scan the whole class.
CHAPTER 12 Observing Student Responses 185
References /Suggested Readings
Barrett , K. R. 1977 . We see so much but perceive so little: Why? Proceedings: 1977 National Conference of the National College for Physical Education for Men and the National Asso- ciation for Physical Education of College Women. Chicago: University of Illinois, Offi ce of Publications Services .
Barrett , K. R. 1979 . Observation for teaching and coaching. Journal of Physical Education and Recreation 50(1): 23 –25 .
Barrett , K. R. 1983 . A hypothetical model of observing as a teaching skill. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 3(1): 22 – 31 .
Hoffman , S. J. 1977 . Toward a pedagogical kinesiology [Monograph 28]. Quest: 38 – 48 .
Locke , L. F. 1975 , Spring. The ecology of the gymnasium: What the tourist never sees. Southern Association of Physi- cal Education for College Women Proceedings.
Mauldon , E. , and J. Layson . 1965 . Teaching gymnastics . London: MacDonald & Evans .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Education. 2004 . Moving into the future: National stan- dards for physical education . 2nd ed. Reston, VA: NASPE .
Rink , J. E. 2003 . Effective instruction in physical educa- tion. In Student learning in physical education , 2nd ed., ed. S. Silverman and C. Ennis, pp. 165 – 86 . Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Rink , J. E. 2006 . Teaching physical education for learning . 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill .
Siedentop , D. , and D. Tannehill . 2000 . Developing teaching
skills in physical education . 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill .
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. In refl ective teaching, what is the purpose of
observation?
2. Why is observation in physical education so
diffi cult?
3. In your own words, explain the key aspects of
safety that a refl ective teacher watches for.
4. What does off-task behavior look like? Give three
examples.
5. Imagine you are teaching children to kick a ball to
a partner. Briefl y describe what you might observe
that would cause you to change the task to make it
easier or harder.
6. In the same imaginary situation, describe what
you might observe that would cause you to pro-
vide a kicking cue rather than to change the task.
7. Again, assuming the same teaching situation, de-
scribe what you might observe that would cause
you to provide a kicking challenge rather than
changing the task or the cue.
8. What is the best position for observing the place-
ment of the nonkicking foot? The use of fi nger
pads while dribbling? The ball in striking with
golf clubs or hockey sticks? Tightness of muscles
in balancing?
9. How can a teacher avoid having children’s perfor-
mance affected by her position in class?
10. For the skill of dribbling with the feet in general
space, what would you look for as a teacher?
11. If observing the cue of wide base of support while
balancing, how can a teacher limit the obser vation?
to see, whom the teacher is able to see, and how the
student performs a task. The teacher’s knowledge of
content affects the accuracy of what he or she is able
to see. Two strategies, scanning and limited selection,
aid teachers as they attempt to observe the movement
responses of learners.
186 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
186
C H A P T E R
13
Instructional Approaches I am convinced that specifi c methodologies are used because of what the teacher believes about
children and the process of education, not because of what he believes about course content.
— KATE BARRETT
CHAPTER 13 Instructional Approaches 187
S kill themes are most often referred to as a curricu-
lar model (Lund and Tannehill 2005), yet skill
themes also embrace certain pedagogies, or ways
of teaching. These ways of teaching or, as we refer to
them, instructional approaches (also at times called
teaching strategies or teaching styles), are planned
interactions between the teacher and the students that
are designed to result in the accomplishment of a specifi c
set of learning outcomes (Byra 2006). One approach can
be distinguished from another by the actions and deci-
sions made by the teacher; the actions and decisions
made by the student; and the objectives that the rela-
tionship accomplishes (Mosston and Ashworth 2002).
In other words, instructional approa ches defi ne the dif-
ferent ways that a teacher organizes for the delivery of
instruction—rather than what is delivered (Rink 2006;
Siedentop and Tannehill 2000). This chapter focuses on
six instructional approaches—interactive teaching, task
teaching, guided discovery, peer teaching, cooperative
learning, and child- designed instruction—that we have
found to be most useful in our teaching of elementary
school physical education. Each approach is unique in
• Instructional approaches address the issue of how content
is delivered to students.
• The instructional approaches presented in this chapter
range from direct to indirect instruction, and are all designed
to move students toward being more independent learners.
• When using the interactive teaching approach, the
teacher infl uences the responses of the students by
telling them what to do, showing them how to practice,
and directing their practice.
• The instructional approach of task teaching involves dif-
ferent students (often individually or in pairs) practicing
different tasks at the same time.
• In peer-teaching approaches, the teacher designs and
communicates the task, and students assume the roles
of providing feedback and assessing.
• Guided discovery instructional approaches, either con-
vergent or divergent, are designed to let students think
and solve problems.
• In cooperative learning approaches, group interdepen-
dence and individual responsibility are promoted without
compromising the integrity of motor skill learning.
• Child-designed instruction, in the form of child-designed
tasks or contracts, allows children to structure their own
learning.
Key Concepts
the way that content is delivered to the students and, at
times, in its organizational format.
The uniqueness of the delivery of the content is
centered around the degree students are involved in
the decision making that takes place in a lesson. This is
often referred to as the directness of instruction. Sim-
ply put, in direct instruction the teacher makes most
of the decisions, whereas in indirect instruction the
students share more of the decisions with the teacher.
It is easiest to view the directness of instruction as a
continuum of direct to indirect. At the direct end of the
continuum, the class environment involves highly active
teaching; focused, goal-oriented, academic learning; struc-
tured learning activities; immediate, academically ori-
ented feedback; and student accountability (Rink 2006).
Research in education and physical education has indi-
cated that students are more likely to learn specifi c
content when direct instruction is used (Byra 2006).
On the other hand, indirect instruction is charac-
terized by content being presented holistically and ex-
panding the students’ role in the learning process so
that the student’s thinking, feelings, and interactions
are built in. In indirect instruction, individual student
abilities, interests, and needs receive more attention.
Indirect instruction may lead to more transfer of skills
and the development of cognitive (Rink 2006) and
affective goals, such as interaction skills, positive
interdependence, and inquiry skills (Byra 2006), result-
ing in more meaningful learning.
The obvious questions are, “Do I use direct or indi-
rect instruction?” “Which is best?” The answer is, “It all
depends.” Effective teachers should be able to use both
direct and indirect instruction based on a number of
variables. The teacher’s beliefs about the ultimate pur-
pose of education and the goal of a lesson should play a
vital part in the type of instruction used in a class, yet
both must be tempered by other aspects. The skill and
preference of the teacher, the characteristics of the
students, the nature of the content, and the context in
which the teaching is taking place (Siedentop and
Tannehill 2000) all affect the directness of instruction
for a certain class at a certain time.
The six approaches outlined in this chapter range
from direct to indirect while serving the dual purpose of
delivering the content of physical education effectively
and moving children toward becoming more responsible
for their own learning and their interactions with others.
See Box 13-1 for how instructional approaches are used
in the National Standards for Physical Education.
Your teaching skills, as well as your personal pre f-
erences, should be a major though not a controlling
factor in the instructional approach you choose to use.
Your “comfort zone” is a legitimate ingredient in how
you choose to deliver content to the children. This is not
188 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
to say you shouldn’t ever stretch your limits, but teach-
ers generally are more effective when they are using
strategies that “fi t” them. As teachers grow and develop,
they acquire new ideas and see a need for new approaches
to accomplish the goals they have set for their classes.
The characteristics of the children in your classes
have a signifi cant impact on the instructional approach
that you choose. How much responsibility is the class
ready for? How many decisions are the students capable
of sharing? Will the lesson fail if the students are allowed
to choose among several activities? These are some of
the other considerations a teacher must take into ac-
count. For example, if the teacher believes students
should be responsible for their own decisions and
should direct their own learning, then direct instruction
might seem to be contradictory to the teacher’s goals.
But for children who have never been given the respon-
sibility to make decisions about their own learning or
have never been taught any self-direction, a child-
designed program would most likely lead to chaos. In-
stead, the teacher might choose to use direct instruction
while giving children limited or structured choices, thus
teaching them how to make responsible decisions.
Different content may lend itself to different in-
structional approaches. When you are trying to teach
a basic skill, a direct instructional strategy may be the
most effective. When the children are asked to design
complex routines and sequences, a child-designed or
guided discovery strategy may be more effective.
The environment or context in which the learning
is occurring is an additional factor that infl uences the
instructional approach used. This is especially true of
facilities and equipment. If a task or lesson requires
that students be spread out over a large space (such as a
fi eld), making it diffi cult to provide continuous feedback
to and maintain verbal communication with the chil-
dren, a task-teaching strategy may be appropriate. In a
situation in which safety is a paramount issue, as in a
fi rst experience with large apparatus in gymnastics,
direct instruction may be more appropriate.
Whatever instructional approach is chosen, it
should be based on careful consideration of the goals
of the lesson, the skills and preferences of the teacher,
the characteristics of the children, the content, and
the context. One approach is better than the other
only for a particular situation ( Table 13.1 ).
Here is Edward Bear, coming downstairs now,
bump, bump, bump, on the back of his head,
behind Christopher Robin. It is, as far as he knows,
the only way of coming downstairs, but sometimes
he feels that there really is another way, if only he
could stop bumping for a moment and think of it.
— A. A. MILNE
Interactive Teaching
Interactive teaching is by far the most common approach
used in physical education classes. It has been called by
a variety of names; active instruction (Siedentop and
Tannehill 2000) and direct instruction (Byra 2006) are
two of the best known. In an effort not to confuse the
notion of the directness of instruction with the name of
a teaching approach, we have chosen to use the term
interactive teaching (Rink 2006). Interactive teaching is
very direct in that the teacher guides the responses of
the students by telling them what to do, showing them
how to practice, and then managing their practice. Stu-
dents usually work as a whole class or in small groups.
As children practice, the teacher evaluates what they are
doing and provides more instruction. Each teacher deci-
sion (instruction) is based on the responses the students
give to the previous task. The content is communicated
by the teacher, and the pacing of the lesson is controlled
Instructional Approaches in the National Standards for Physical Education
The instructional strategy of peer teaching is referenced in
the National Association for Sport and Physical Education’s
National Standards for Physical Education (NASPE 2004) as
a sample performance outcome for grades K– 2 under Stan-
dard 5: “Exhibits responsible personal and social be havior
that respects self and others in physical activity settings.”
The sample performance outcome states: “Assists partner
by sharing observations about skill performance during
practice” (p. 40). The approach is also cited as a grade 3 – 5
sample performance outcome under Standard 2: “Demon-
strates understanding of movement concepts, principles,
strategies, and tactics as they apply to the learning and
performance of physical activities.” That sample perfor-
mance outcome states: “Accurately recognizes the critical
elements of a catch made by a fellow student and provides
feedback to that student” (p. 23).
The use of child-designed instructional strategies is iden-
tifi ed as a grade 6 – 8 sample performance outcome under
Standard 1: “Demonstrates competency in motor skills and
movement patterns needed to perform a variety of physical
activities.” The sample performance outcome states: “Designs
and performs gymnastics (or dance) sequences that combine
traveling, rolling, balancing, and weight transfer into smooth,
fl owing sequences with intentional changes in direction,
speed, and fl ow” (p. 18).
Box 13-1
CHAPTER 13 Instructional Approaches 189
by the teacher. Usually the entire class practices the
same task or a variation of that task.
Interactive teaching is effective when the teacher’s
goal is to have students learn a specifi c skill and per-
form that skill correctly in a specifi ed manner. For ex-
ample, if your goal is to teach the underhand throw,
you want children to step with the foot opposite the
throwing hand, extend the arm, and follow through.
At this point, interactive teaching would be an appro-
priate instructional choice — some children might
learn the correct way of throwing without your
assistance, but many would not. However, interactive
teaching is not an appropriate approach for children
who are at the precontrol level of skill development
and not developmentally ready to produce a mature
skill pattern. These children need to explore a skill (see
the guided discovery section that follows).
Interactive teaching utilizes all the components of
effective teaching, but fi ve are particularly important:
1. Initially the teacher gives the student a clear idea of
what is to be learned. The teacher or a student c orrectly
demonstrates the skill, along with the important cues.
For example, the teacher who is focusing on landing
from a jump emphasizes in the demonstration that
for a soft, quiet landing, the ankles, hips, and knees
must be fl exed before landing.
2. The second aspect is to give explanations and in-
struc tions clearly and repeat the cues often. At the
end of a lesson, we often ask the children to repeat
the cues so that we know whether we’ve been effec-
tive. The answers to the question “What are the
important things to remember when you’re trying
to land softly and quietly from a jump?” will tell
you whether the children have really remembered
your teaching cues related to soft, quiet landings.
3. Next, the teacher gives specifi c feedback. In our ex-
ample, the children now practice fl exing their knees,
hips, and ankles before landing; the teacher specifi -
cally tells them how well they’re fl exing their knees,
hips, and ankles. The teacher tells the children
exactly what they are (or are not) doing correctly so
that they can improve. Once the children have the
“big” idea — soft, quiet landings — the teacher helps
them land softly and quietly by structuring appro-
priate tasks and giving them information about how
well they perform. The teacher proceeds in small
steps, but at a brisk pace.
4. One of the most important and obvious factors in in-
teractive teaching is often overlooked. Children need
considerable opportunities for practice if they’re actu-
ally going to learn to land softly and quietly. For this
reason we always try to structure the learning situa-
tion so that the children have plenty of practice. Most
of the time we’re able to arrange the environment so
that children rarely, if ever, have to wait. We try to
ensure that all the children are active a minimum of
60 percent of the lesson, more when possible.
5. High success rates are also important for learning,
especially the basic skills. We try to provide tasks
that allow children to be successful about 80 percent
of the time. This motivates the children and allows
Table 13.1 Characteristics of Six Instructional Approaches
Instructional Student
Approach Goal Teacher Skills Characteristics Content Context
Interactive Effi cient skill learning Clarity Control-level learners Specifi c skills Whole class
teaching New students
Task teaching Skill learning ⫹ Ability to monitor Independent working Already-learned skills; Large spaces
independence multifaceted skills self-assessment;
environment product-oriented
tasks
Peer teaching Skill learning ⫹ Active monitoring Independent working Simple, clear cues; Large spaces
cooperation skills limited performance Large groups
Guided Skill learning ⫹ Questioning Precontrol-level Exploration Whole class
discovery transfer problem learners
solving All learners with new Concept learning
content
Cooperative Skill learning ⫹ group Ability to design Independent working Complex sequences; Groups
learning interdependence; meaningful tasks skills basic skills
individual
responsibility
Child-designed Skill learning ⫹ Ability to guide and Ability to use time wisely; Application of learned Groups
instruction self-responsibility monitor independent working skills skillsIn d
ir e c t
D ir e c t
190 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
them to grasp one skill before moving on to the next
level. If children can’t land softly and quietly when
they jump from the fl oor, for example, then obvi-
ously they won’t be able to land effectively when
they jump from a bench or a wooden box.
Each of these components is developed and explained
in more detail in Chapter 11. Table 11.1 in Chapter 11
is an example of interactive teaching.
Interactive teaching calls for a specifi c response, the
one the teacher is looking for and helps the children to
produce. Just any response is not acceptable. For example,
if you want to teach the children to use opposition when
they throw overhand, you’ll need to give them plenty of
practice opportunities and feedback to be certain that
they step with the opposite foot before moving on to an-
other aspect of the overhand throw. If you don’t require
the children to practice stepping with the opposite foot
until the movement is overlearned, they will quickly for-
get the concept of opposition once the task changes. Then
you’ll fi nd yourself continually reminding children,
“Step with the opposite foot when you throw.” The proof
of this statement can be found in any high school soft-
ball class: watch the students play a game and see how
many are ineffi cient throwers who’ve never learned the
concept of opposition when they throw. They were
taught the concept, but never to the point of learning it.
Interactive teaching works well for beginning teachers
or teachers who haven’t worked with a group of students
for a long while. Once the teacher has established a pro-
ductive learning environment, teaching by invitation or
intratask variation (Chapter 11) is helpful for changing
the tasks to meet the needs of individual students within
the interactive approach. This strategy also requires less
time for organization than the other approaches, an im-
portant consideration for teachers who meet with their
students only once or twice a week.
Task Teaching
Task teaching is a less direct instructional approach
that allows different students to practice different tasks
at the same time. This approach is often called station
teaching and /or self-check (Mosston and Ashworth
2002). In our approach, task teaching includes both
stations and task sheets. With either option, different
students practice different, specifi ed tasks, often at their
own pace, often gauging their performance against
predesigned criteria throughout the lesson.
Stations provide several activity areas (or learning
centers) in the teaching space, each with a different
task, through which students rotate during the class.
See Figure 13.1 for an example of arrangement of
stations that could be used to practice a variety of skills
during one lesson. The sequence for Striking at High
and Low Targets in Chapter 27 (page 550) is an example
of tasks that might be used at stations.
Task sheets provide another task-teaching option
that allows children to practice at their own pace. Each
child is given a task sheet ( Figure 13.2 ), which contains
a progression of activities and criteria for completion.
Using the direct instruction
approach this teacher can effec-
tively communicate specifi c content
to the class as a whole. Teaching
the class as a whole is an effective
method of organizing instruction.
CHAPTER 13 Instructional Approaches 191
After successfully completing each task, the student
records it on the task sheet with that day’s date and
then asks the teacher, a parent, another student, or an
older child to observe the accomplishment and sign
the sheet. Initially we have entire classes work on the
same task sheet at the same time. As children learn to
use task sheets, we let them pick from task sheets on
several different skill themes.
Task teaching provides students with a structured
opportunity to work on their own or with partners,
but it can create management problems. Four hints
seem to make task teaching more effective.
1. Explain all the stations and task sheets to the class
before sending students out to practice. Tell the
children what they are supposed to do and, if they
are to have activities verifi ed, who is to do the veri-
fi cation (teacher or another student).
2. Make sure the managerial aspects are explicit. Desig-
nate the areas in which activities are to occur or where
specifi c stations are located. Design, explain, and
teach a rotation system between stations or areas.
With stations, we initially have children change
stations on a signal. Once children are able to
function using this strategy, they can be allowed to
choose the stations at which they’d like to work
(though we usually limit the number of students at
any one area or station). Eventually students can
rotate from one station to another at their own
discretion. Post the necessary cues and directions
at each station or practice area. This technique
substantially reduces the time spent in providing
additional instruction.
3. Check with students frequently to see how they are
doing; move around the room.
4. Start slowly, with only a few (maybe three) stations or
a small task sheet (maybe fi ve items) at the end of the
lesson. It has been our experience that children enjoy
working on task sheets and in stations, especially as a
culminating activity, but they need guidance if this
approach is going to succeed for them and you.
With task teaching, children won’t all be involved in
the same activity simultaneously; they and the teacher
need to be ready to have more than one activity happen-
ing at the same time. Effi cient task teaching demands
complex organizational and managerial skills on the
part of the teacher. To benefi t from the task-teaching ap-
proach, students need to have good independent work-
ing skills and to be able to function without close teacher
supervision. Stopping when asked, rotating systemati-
cally, and not interfering with others are skills that
students need to practice before they can use stations
effectively.
A task instructional approach works well when stu-
dents are practicing skills that have already been
taught, are doing self-assessment, or are performing
product- oriented tasks. The approach is not very
effective for introducing new or complex skills. Task
teaching works best with simple tasks that can be
clearly and complete ly described and that have a clear
goal— for example, “Make 10 throws that hit the tar-
get and then take a step back.”
One advantage of the task-teaching approach is that
it allows you to set up areas that don’t require students
to wait in line for turns, thus making up for limitations
Bench
Bench
Mat
Box (1 level)
Box (3 levels)
1
Benches
4
6
Box (2 levels) 5
2 3 Figure 13.1 Arrangement of stations (learning
centers) in the teaching space.
192 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
in space and equipment. If, for example, in a balance
unit you have a limited number of balance boards and
balance beams, you can design tasks for each piece of
equipment and have students rotate among the
stations. Task-teaching instructional approaches also
work well when children have to be spread out over a
large space and verbal communication is diffi cult.
Peer Teaching
Peer teaching provides an indirect experience that
meets multiple educational goals: it provides an effec-
tive medium for children to learn a skill— they receive
multiple practice opportunities, plentiful feedback,
and a chance to cognitively analyze skill— and at the
same time they learn to work with each other. This
instructional approach uses peers teamed in pairs or
small groups to actively teach one another. In peer
teaching, the teacher plans the tasks and communi-
cates them to the children; the children assume the
roles of providing feedback and assessing. Demonstra-
tion of the skill is shared between the children and the
teacher. Often the teacher will demonstrate initially
and the children, as peer teachers, will repeat the
demonstration as necessary.
A simple example of peer teaching would be using
peers to help teach the overhand throw. The teacher
Name Teacher
BALANCE TASK SHEET Date
Accomplished
Partner
Check Challenge
I am able to walk forward the entire length without falling off.
I am able to walk leading with my right side the entire length without falling off.
I am able to walk leading with my left side the entire length without falling off.
I am able to walk backward the entire length without falling off.
I am able to walk forward (with my hands folded on my head) the entire length without falling off.
I am able to walk forward the entire length with an eraser balanced on my head.
I am able to walk backward the entire length with an eraser balanced on my head.
I am able to walk along the beam, pick up a beanbag, and walk to the other end without falling off.
I am able to walk along the beam, balance on one knee, and walk to the other end without falling off.
I am able to walk the entire length of the balance beam without falling off, keeping
my eyes closed all the way.
I am able to bounce a ball across the beam without a miss.
I am able to roll a ball along a beam without either the ball or myself touching the ground.
I am able to walk along the beam, do a complete turn on one foot only, and walk to the end without falling off.
I am able to walk along the beam twirling a hoop on one arm, without falling off.
I am able to walk along the beam balancing a wand in one hand without falling off.
I am able to hop along the beam on one foot without falling off.
I am able to throw a ball back and forth to a partner ___ times without a miss, while standing on the end of the beam.
I am able to jump rope on a balance beam ___ times without a miss.
I am able to do a forward roll on the beam.
I am able to jump onto the beam from a spring board without losing my balance.
I am able to . . . .
I am able to . . . .
I am able to . . . .
Figure 13.2 Task sheet.
CHAPTER 13 Instructional Approaches 193
Guided Discovery
Guided discovery — an approach some call teaching
through questions (Siedentop and Tannehill 2000),
a cognitive strategy (Rink 2006), inquiry learning
(Harrison et al. 1996), or problem solving — is designed
to facilitate critical thinking skills in children, as re-
fl ected in their movement responses (Cleland 1994),
and to let them solve problems rather than copy the
teacher’s or another student’s correct performance.
Guided discovery also serves to enhance student interest
and motivation (Chen 2001). In this student- centered
approach, the teacher typically gives the task by asking
questions. The teacher most often describes how the
task will be practiced and some way to measure suc-
cess, but exactly how to perform the task is left to the
child to explore and interpret. For example, the teacher
may say, “From your spot on the fl oor, try to kick the
ball to the wall both in the air and on the ground.”
The child knows how to practice (from the spot on the
fl oor, kick) and a little about success (to the wall, in
the air, and on the ground), but the rest is left up to
the child. We use two versions of guided discovery,
convergent and divergent. One asks children to fi nd
multiple answers to a task, whereas the other encour-
ages children to fi nd a single answer.
Convergent Inquiry
Convergent inquiry encourages children to discover the
same answer(s) to a series of questions the teacher asks.
The teacher guides the children toward one or more cor-
rect answers. Several educators (Doolittle and Girard
1991; Thorpe and Bunker 1989; Werner and Almond
1990) have successfully adapted this approach to teach-
ing game skills and strategies. Itis the fundamental
principle underlying teaching games for understanding
or the tactical approach to teaching games (Griffi n,
Mitchell, and Olson 2006). Mosston (1981) suggested
that children can discover ideas, similarities, dissimilari-
ties, principles (governing rules), order or system, a
particular physical activity or movement, how, why,
limits (the dimensions of “how much,” “how fast”), and
other elements. When we want children to learn one of
these elements, we often use the discovery approach to
increase their involvement.
The following sequence illustrating Mosston’s (1981)
classic slanty rope technique is a very good example of
convergent inquiry encouraging children to fi nd ways
to avoid eliminating others from activity. This excerpt
is from page 166 of his work.
Step 1: Ask two children to hold a rope for high
jumping. Invariably they will hold the rope
might say, “For this next task you will get to teach
another classmate how to throw. Each of you will get
to be the player and the coach. When you are the
player, you will throw fi ve times against the wall.
Your partner, the coach, will watch to see if you bring
your arm way back, step forward on the opposite
foot, and follow through. If you do it correctly, your
coach will give you a “thumbs-up”; if you still need
some practice, your coach will tell you what to cor-
rect for the next throw. After fi ve throws, change
roles. This is how it will look and sound.” At this
point the teacher would demonstrate the entire task
while providing sample feedback to the thrower. The
peer assessment card for cuts and pivots while drib-
bling in Chapter 14 (Figure 14.9) provides an exam-
ple of peer teaching.
For peer teaching to be an effective instructional
approach, several key points should be followed.
• The skill should be simple, the cues for observation
very clear, and the performance easily measured.
• Post the cues either on the wall or on individual cue
cards so that the “peer” teachers can remember them.
• Start small. You might consider including one peer-
teaching task in a lesson and then expand.
Children must be able to work cooperatively and
independently for peer teaching to be a success. They
must be responsible enough to take seriously the task
of teaching another student. Children are asked to
provide feedback as well as analyze performance; there-
fore they must know the cues and what the skill looks
like. The teacher’s role in terms of feedback changes;
instead of providing feedback to the child perform-
ing the skill, the teacher provides feedback to the coach
about what he or she is seeing and saying to the
performer.
Peer teaching can work with any content, but it
works best when the skills are simple, there are clear
criteria for observation, and the performance is limited
and easily measured. For example, peer teaching works
well with basic skills but is much more diffi cult with
dynamic and strategic skills.
Children thoroughly enjoy being the teacher, but
for the strategy to be successful, they must be able to
both analyze skill and provide feedback— something
the teacher can help them learn through her or his
presentation of the task.
Teaching was easy. All you did was tell them and they
did it.
—Fourth grader after teaching a self-designed
game to another group
194 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
horizontally at a given height (for example,
at hip level).
Step 2: Ask the group to jump over. Before they do
so, you might want to ask the rope holders to
decrease the height so that everybody can be
successful.
Step 3: After everyone has cleared the height, you ask,
“What shall we do now?” “Raise it!” “Raise it!”
is the answer — always! (The success of the fi rst
jump motivates all to continue.)
Step 4: Ask the rope holders to raise the rope just a
bit. The jumping is resumed.
Step 5: “Now what?” “Raise it!” the children will
respond.
Step 6: Raising the rope two or three more times will
create a new situation, a new reality. Some
children will not be able to clear the height.
In traditional situations, these children will
be eliminated from the jumping, and only
some will continue; there will be a constantly
diminishing number of active participants.
The realization of individual differences be-
comes real; the design for opportunity for all
has not yet come about.
Step 7: Stop the jumping and ask the group, “What
can we do with the rope so that nobody will
be eliminated?” Usually one or two of the
following solutions are proposed by the
children: (a) Hold the rope higher at the two
ends and let the rope dip in the center.
(b) Slant the rope! Hold the rope high at one
end and low at the other.
The effectiveness of convergent inquiry is largely
dependent on the questions asked by the teacher. We
can offer three suggestions for making the questions
work successfully.
1. Formulate in advance the questions to be asked so
you can determine the correct sequence of questions
that will lead children to the answer you desire.
2. Ask questions in relatively small steps, rather than
spanning too large a gap.
3. Wait for an answer (even 10 to 15 seconds; count to
yourself ), rather than becoming impatient and
giving the answer.
The Throwing to a Moving Target sequence in
Chapter 25 (page 491) is an example of convergent
inquiry used to teach the concepts of throwing to an
open space and leading a receiver.
Divergent Inquiry
In divergent inquiry, the teacher outlines a problem
and then challenges the children to fi nd many an-
swers. This technique encourages children to fi nd
Posting instructions for task
teaching allows children to take
more responsibility for their work
and increases time spent in
activity.
CHAPTER 13 Instructional Approaches 195
movement alternatives. A typical divergent question is
“Find at least three different ways to travel under the
hoop (supported on cones) and at least three different
ways to travel over the hoop.”
In the divergent inquiry approach, the teacher must
be careful not to impose personal values on the
children’s responses. The emphasis is on obtaining a
variety of responses, not a single answer. For this
reason, Mosston (1981) warned of two verbal behavior
patterns that we try to avoid when using divergent
inquiry. “You can do better than that” in response to
a child’s movement indicates that the teacher doesn’t
really value the response or that the teacher has a
particular response in mind. Another counterproduc-
tive verbal behavior is a statement such as “Stop.
Everyone watch Penny.” After Penny fi nishes her
movement, the teacher says, “Terrifi c, Penny.” This
behavior by the teacher, although perhaps innocent
in nature, suggests to students that there’s a right
answer and therefore encourages the children to at-
tempt to fi nd a correct answer (convergent) rather
than searching for a variety of alternatives, the goal
of divergent inquiry.
In contrast, two productive verbal behaviors might
include such statements as:
“Now that you have found two ways, try to make
the third one quite different.”
“Stop. Everyone watch this half of the class. Good!
Now, let’s watch the other half. Great.”
These two statements allow the teacher to provide
feedback while encouraging creativity and diversity of
responses.
We have found the following points helpful in our
use of divergent inquiry:
• Provide feedback that encourages exploration
and problem solving rather than a single right an-
swer (see the Mosston examples in the preceding
paragraphs).
• Structure questions (tasks) that challenge children in
small, sequential steps. These questions are based on
a detailed knowledge of the content and knowing
what should come next.
• Become a master at providing children with prompts—
encouraging them to keep practicing by trying differ-
ent ways or looking for different solutions.
• When demonstrations are used, be sure to provide
multiple demonstrations of different answers to the
task. If a single demonstration is used, children are
likely to copy it.
The Jumping to Form a Body Shape During Flight
sequence in Chapter 21 (page 363) is an example of
divergent inquiry.
We’ve found guided discovery especially helpful for
encouraging children to think on their own to dis-
cover new and different approaches to performing
skills and to solve questions related to teamwork and
strategy. Guided discovery is also important for those
children who aren’t developmentally ready to learn a
mature version of a skill, and simply need opportuni-
ties to explore the movement. It is often the strategy
we use at the precontrol level when students are ex-
ploring a new skill. It provides children a chance “to
try things out” without a specifi c focus or direction.
Teachers have to learn how to provide transitions for
their pupils. It is not possible for most young people to
make choices after fi ve or six years of being told what to
do every minute they are in school. It is equally hard for
them to share resources, help other students, or decide
what they want to learn after years of being expected
to hoard, compete, and conform. Transitional situations
often have to be provided. Some students need work-
books for a while; others want to memorize times tables
or have weekly spelling tests. Young people are no dif-
ferent from adults. When faced with new possibilities
they want something old and predictable to hold onto
while risking new freedom. Inexperienced teachers often
make the mistake of tearing down the traditional atti-
tudes their students have been conditioned to depend
upon before the students have time to develop alterna-
tive ways of learning and dealing with school. In their im-
patience they become cruel to students who do not
change fast enough or who resist change altogether.
One just cannot legislate compassion or freedom.
Teaching as a craft involves understanding how people
learn; as an art it involves a sensitive balance between
presenting and advocating things you believe and step-
ping away and encour aging your students to make their
own sense of your passion and commitment.
— HERBERT KOHL , On Teaching
Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning is an indirect instructional ap-
proach designed to promote group interdependence
and individual responsibility while teaching content.
There are three common cooperative learning formats:
pairs-check, jigsaw, and co-op (Kagan 1990).
In pairs-check, children are in groups of four with
two partner-pairs in each group. Each pair practices a
task, teaching each other as in peer teaching. The two
pairs then get together to assess each other to see if
they are achieving the same outcomes, to provide
further feedback, and to practice. For example, the
196 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
inquiry, multiple demonstrations of possible responses
are needed. Feedback initially takes the form of helping
groups work together to solve group issues and to an-
swer the task, followed by skilled feedback once the
groups have designed their response.
Cooperative learning strategies provide a chance for
skill learning and teach responsibility. However, a word
of caution must be issued here. The goal of skill learning
should not be sacrifi ced when using cooperative learn-
ing activities. The primary purpose of some cooperative
learning activities, especially from adventure education,
is group development and problem solving. These
activities have their place and are often fun; however,
they do not teach the primary content of physical edu-
cation. For cooperative learning to be a viable part of
physical education, it needs to integrate psychomotor,
cognitive, and personal-social responsibility goals. It
must provide what Rink (2006) calls a rich learning ex-
perience. The cooperative learning activity must teach a
psychomotor goal while addressing the other goals.
Dyson (2002) has suggested the following ideas for
teachers who want to successfully use cooperative learn-
ing approaches. First, make sure that as a teacher you
communicate clearly both the academic and social goals
for the activity. Second, teach the children the roles
they will need in the group. For example, if students
need to provide feedback to others, teach them what
feedback to provide. Third, an assessment or account-
ability system (see Chapter 14) should be designed so
that the children are responsible for the end result or
product as well as the process. Fourth, students need to
learn how to communicate with each other. In other
words, it is not enough to be able to provide feedback;
they must learn how to deliver it so it is heard by others
and not hurtful. Finally, cooperative learning takes time.
Like any instructional format that calls for problem
solving and student input, allow ample time for the
children to work through the process of the task.
Child-Designed Instruction
Child-designed instructional approaches are student
centered, indirect approaches that allow the child to
be the center of the learning activities. In these strate-
gies the teacher serves as a guide or mentor.
Child-designed instructional approaches allow chil-
dren to actively take the major responsibility for their
learning. When used with careful planning and patience,
these approaches empower children. Children become
engaged and most often design activities that are appro-
priate to their level of development. Although it is not
always easy and is often messy, we are committed to chil-
dren designing their own experiences. There are several
pairs-check strategy could be used to teach dribbling
with the hands. After the initial task is given, each pair
works together, focusing on using the fi nger pads, hav-
ing the knees bent, and keeping the hand on top of the
ball. Then, when both members of a single pair think
they have mastered the task, they come together to
check the other pair. In this sense, pairs-check is much
like peer teaching.
In the jigsaw format, children are usually in “home”
groups of three or four. Each child becomes an “expert”
on one aspect of a skill or task by working with the
children who are experts from other groups. Children
then return to their home group and teach their group
their piece of the skill. The jigsaw format can be used
quite effectively to teach activities with multiple parts
and simultaneously develop interdependence.
For example, the jigsaw approach could be used
when creating a simple dance routine in involving
traveling, balance, and space concepts. The class is
divided into home groups of four. At the beginning
of class, four stations are set up — one on traveling,
incorporating different levels; one with traveling in dif-
ferent pathways; one with twists and turns; and another
with balances with different extensions. One person
from each home group goes to each station and designs
a sequence with their group to meet the criteria at the
station. Each child then returns to his or her home
group as an expert on that sequence and teaches it to
the group. The group then puts the sequences in order
to form their dance.
Co-op is a cooperative learning format in which
small groups are used to create a project with many
components (Grineski 1996). Each small group is re-
sponsible for one component of the larger project. The
co-op format can be used to have children create a dance
sequence in which several elements are to be portrayed.
For example, in the dance depicting African American
heritage described in Chapter 29 (page 620), one group
might develop the concept of slavery, another the
concept of freedom, another the concept of strength as
a people, another dispersal, another gathering, and
another respect. Each group would then bring their
piece to the full dance.
Cooperative learning works equally well with chil-
dren who have highly developed responsibility skills
and with children who need to team to work together.
Research shows that cooperative learning has affective
as well as cognitive benefi ts (Slavin 1990). However, for
such benefi ts to be achieved, the teacher’s role must
change from the interactive teaching used in structured
approaches to facilitation and indirect teaching. First,
the teacher must be skilled in designing tasks that are
meaningful to children. Second, the teacher’s role regard-
ing demonstrations and feedback shifts. As in divergent
CHAPTER 13 Instructional Approaches 197
child-designed strategies; child-designed tasks and con-
tracts are the two we use most often. We have found that,
with guidance and direction, older ele mentary students
are fully capable of designing personal contracts, and the
use of child-designed tasks such as games and routines
can begin with eight-year-olds. Child-designed games or
routines ask students to create their own “game” or
“routine” within certain parameters. The game, dance,
or gymnastics routine is based on the skill theme being
studied and allows students to apply what they have
learned in a setting that matches their interests and
abilities. See the Self-Designed Racket Games task in
Chapter 27 (page 562) for an example of a child-designed
game. See Chapters 29, 30, and 31 for explicit details
about how to develop child-designed activities in dance,
gymnastics, and games contexts.
As children become accustomed to working on their
own, the teacher can use independent contracting to
make instruction more personal. A teacher who uses
independent contracting is saying to the students, “I
trust you to make intelligent and responsible decisions
about what you need to practice.”
We’ve used the written contract illustrated in Fig-
ure 13.3 . Each child writes down the skill or activity she
or he will be practicing or playing, the goal to be achieved,
the time to be spent practicing each activity, and (when
appropriate) the name of a practice partner. Recognizing
the dynamic nature of a physical education class, we let
the children change their contracts during class, provided
that they write down all changes. We encourage the chil-
dren to save time by coming to physical education class
with their contracts already completed for that day. In
the fi nal few minutes of a class, we ask the children to
evaluate their accomplishments for that day.
Contracts can be used in physical education classes in
a variety of ways. When you fi rst use independent con-
tracting, it is wise to restrict each child to a single skill
theme or even a certain aspect of the skill theme or unit.
For example, some teachers have used contracts as a cul-
minating activity to let students decide how they want
to complete their learning on a specifi c topic. The se-
quence Throwing for Distance and Accuracy in Chap-
ter 25 (page 492) is an example of a modifi ed contract.
For teachers who want to try to incorporate child-
designed approaches in their teaching, but aren’t sure
where to begin, we have found the following sugges-
tions helpful.
• Employ moderation and structure as the keys to
success. Give specifi c directions. The results can be
disastrous if you simply say, “Make up your own
game; it has to include throwing and catching,” or
“Write a contract about what to do in physical educa-
tion.” We know from experience. Try to give children
more specifi c instructions for designing activities that
include the exact focus of the activity and what the
fi nal product is to be, such as:
“Design beginning and ending movements for
the balance, roll, balance sequence you’ve been
practicing.”
Peer teaching provides the opportunity for children to analyze and
teach a skill while learning to work with others.
I recently walked into a large multipurpose room full of
30 second graders. As I sat to watch, I noticed that
six very diverse activities were taking place: striking
with hockey sticks in a game situation, doing pull-ups,
jumping rope, shooting at targets, wall climbing, and
jumping and landing using a vaulting horse. The
teacher was walking around from group to group talk-
ing to the children, offering feedback and encourage-
ment, but no instructions or managerial directions. At
this point, I started to look more closely. All the chil-
dren were active and on task. The noise level was
productive; there was no screaming or yelling. Chil-
dren were moving from activity to activity as they saw
fi t. Some were recording scores on wall charts. The
teacher was never asked to make the decisions of a
referee in the game. Children calmly retrieved stray
equipment without interfering with other activities or
sending the mob to chase a stray ball. These were
seven-year-olds. I then asked the teacher how this sit-
uation came to be. His response: “I taught them at the
beginning of the year the rules for Fridays (the desig-
nated day for choice activities), and we practiced.”
198 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Name
Contract for
COMMENTS:
1) How do you know you accomplished your goal? Or didn’t accomplish it?
2) What do you need to work on during the next class?
3) Do you want to tell me about the class?
Time Allowed
Activity
(Date)
Goal Partner
for the Day
Figure 13.3 Individual contract.
“You’ve been practicing fi ve movements: leap-
ing, spinning, sinking, exploding, and freezing.
Use them in a sequence that fl ows together
smoothly.”
“We’ve been practicing dribbling for the past few
lessons and will continue to do so for another
week. Design a contract that tells what you will
do each day for the fi rst fi ve minutes of class to
practice your dribbling skills.”
• Provide the managerial aspects of the task, such as
how large the space can be and where; when the
task should be completed; how long before they
should be practicing; the maximum and minimum
number of people in the group; and the equipment
available.
• Check with groups often to see how they are doing
(especially those who seem to be having a diffi cult
time getting started). Move around the area. Ask
questions about their activity. Prompt.
• Provide feedback while resisting telling children
how to practice. Teacher responses to child-designed
activities need to encourage children to stay on task
while at the same time providing reinforcement for
the decisions the students are making.
• Allow enough time. Designing instruction takes
time. We usually fi nd that it takes the majority of a
CHAPTER 13 Instructional Approaches 199
lesson (and sometimes two lessons) for children to
design and implement self-designed activities.
• Find ways for children to be accountable for what
they are doing. A variety of assessment options —
such as exit slips that ask students to explain their
creation (Chapter 14), refl ection on the process of
the development in journals (Chapter 14), or teach-
ing their game or routine to another group — allows
children to be accountable for the learning process.
It also lets children think about how much effort
they put into accomplishing their independent
tasks. (See Chapter 14 for more options.)
To function productively with a child-designed ap-
proach, children need to be highly motivated, to be
self-directed, and to have the skills to work indepen-
dently. They need to be knowledgeable about using
the time and materials available to them. The teacher
must be skilled in designing the initial task— and
then must let the students work on their own, mak-
ing their own decisions and their own mistakes. This
is very hard for many of us to do. Child-designed
strategies work well after the basic skill has been
learned. They are especially useful with dynamic situ-
ations, when children are at different skill levels, and
as culminating activities.
A Final Thought
Regardless of the instructional approach used, it is im-
portant to carefully observe the children’s responses to
the task and make your next decision as a teacher
based on what you observed. For example, suppose
that while using the direct approach you have the chil-
dren focus on dribbling using their fi nger pads, and
observe they are not doing that. The next step is to
stop and redirect the task to the use of fi nger pads.
However, if you’re using a peer-teaching approach to
teach the same skill and the children are not using
their fi nger pads, you would refocus the peer teachers
on what to look for. In any case, careful observation of
how children are responding to the task should guide
your response and feedback to them.
Summary
An instructional approach can be defi ned as planned
interactions between the teacher and the students that
are designed to result in the accomplishment of a spe-
cifi c set of learning outcomes. The uniqueness of each
instructional approach revolves around the extent to
which students are involved in the decision making
that takes place in a lesson. The six instructional ap-
proaches described in this chapter range from direct to
indirect instruction. One of the myriad of questions
that a teacher must answer is which instructional ap-
proach to use. The answer depends on a number of
factors; the primary one is the teacher’s goal for a par-
ticular lesson or series of lessons. Six instructional ap-
proaches (summarized in Table 13.1) can be used to
deliver the lesson content to students.
The interactive approach is effective when students
are to learn a specifi c skill technique. A task-teaching
approach is helpful when having students practice a
skill they have already learned. Peer teaching fosters co-
operation and provides repeated practice and feedback
for children. The guided discovery approaches stimu-
late thinking and students’ involvement on a cognitive
level. Cooperative learning develops group-relation
skills, as well as stimulating cognitive involvement.
Child-designed approaches encourage creativity and
inventiveness; they involve children in creating their
own learning experiences.
Each approach has its strengths, and each requires
different student and teacher skills. Which strategy to
select depends on the teacher’s goals. One of the chal-
lenges refl ective teachers face is analyzing both their
students’ and their own needs and skills and matching
them with the goals of the lesson. Ideally, over a period
of weeks, both the teacher and the children learn to
work effectively, no matter which instructional strategy
is selected.
Regardless of the approach used, the progression of
the learning experience is always based on the students’
response to the task they were given. Thus, the ability
of the teacher to observe (Chapter 12) is critical.
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. What is the implication of the quote from Kate
Barrett on the opening page of the chapter? How
does it relate to the content of this chapter?
2. What is an instructional approach? How does the
concept of direct or indirect instruction relate to
instructional approaches? Explain the differences
200 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
among the six instructional approaches presented
in this chapter.
3. What criteria might the teacher use in selecting a
particular instructional approach for use with a
class?
4. Using the skill of punting, give examples of conver-
gent and divergent inquiry, written in the actual
form in which they would be stated.
5. Select a skill theme from one of the skill theme
chapters (Chapters 19 –28) and develop a task sheet
similar to the one in Figure 13.2. Include at least six
different tasks, ranging from precontrol through
utilization levels.
6. Why do we say that an interactive approach may
not be the best for children who are not develop-
mentally ready?
7. Using the skills of throwing and catching against a
defense, design a task sequence using the jigsaw co-
operative learning strategy.
8. What strategies can a teacher employ to begin to
use child-designed approaches for instruction? Give
an example of how one strategy might be devel-
oped for a group of 11- or 12-year-olds.
9. How can different instructional approaches be used
to help students meet various national standards
for physical education?
References /Suggested Readings
Barrett , K. 1973 . I wish I could fl y: A philosophy in motion. In Contemporary philosophy of physical education and athle- tics, ed. R. Cobb and P. Lepley. Columbus, OH: Merrill .
Byra , M. 2006 . Teaching styles and inclusive peda- g ogies. In The handbook of physical education, ed. D. Kirk, D. Macdonald, and M. O’Sullivan, pp. 449 – 66 . Thous and Oaks, CA: Sage .
Chen , W. 2001 . Description of an expert teacher’s con- structivist oriented teaching: Engaging students’ critical thinking in creative dance. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 72: 366 –75 .
Cleland , F. 1994 . Young children’s divergent movement ability: Study II. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 13: 228 – 41 .
Doolittle , S. , and K. Girard . 1991 . A dynamic approach to teaching games in elementary PE. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 62(4): 57– 62 .
Dyson , B. 2002 . The implementation of cooperative learn- ing in an elementary physical education program. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 22: 69 – 88 .
Griffi n , L. , S. Mitchell , and J. Olson . 2006 . Teaching sports concepts and skills: A tactical games approach. 2nd ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Grineski , S. 1996 . Cooperative learning in physical education . Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Harrison , J. , C. Blakemore , M. Buck , and T. Pellett . 1996 . Instructional strategies for secondary school physical educa- tion. 4th ed. Dubuque, IA: Brown & Benchmark .
Kagan , S. 1990 . The structural approach to cooperative learning. Educational Leadership 47(4): 12 –16 .
Kohl , H. 1976 . On teaching. New York: Schocken .
Lund , J. , and D. Tannehill . 2005 . Standards-based physical education curriculum development . Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett .
Milne , A. A. 1926 . Winnie the pooh. New York: Dutton .
Mosston , M. 1981 . Teaching physical education. 2nd ed. Columbus, OH: Merrill .
Mosston , M. , and S. Ashworth . 2002 . Teaching physical education. 5th ed. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Education. 2004 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. 2nd ed. Reston, VA: NASPE .
Rink , J. 2006 . Teaching physical education for learning. 5th ed. St. Louis, MO: Mosby .
Siedentop , D. , and D. Tannehill . 2000 . Developing teaching skills in physical education. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill .
Slavin , R. 1990 . Research on cooperative learning: Consen- sus and controversy. Educational Leadership 47(4): 52 –55 .
Thorpe , R. , and D. Bunker . 1989 . A changing focus in games teaching. In The place of physical education in the schools, ed. L. Almond. London: Kogan Page .
Werner , P. , and L. Almond . 1990 . Models of games educa- tion. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 61(4): 23 –27 .
201
C H A P T E R
14
Assessing Student Learning The primary goal of assessment should be seen as the enhancement of learning, rather than simply
the documentation of learning.
—NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR SPORT AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION (NASPE 2004)
202 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
from the kind of assessment most of us remember. As-
sessment for learning is more teacher- and student-
friendly. Its purpose is to “determine if and to what
extent a student can demonstrate, in context, his/her
understanding and ability relative to identifi ed standards
of learning” (Lambert 1999, p. 6)— in other words,
what was learned and how well was it learned. This
idea of assessment contains several key pieces critical to
the overall understanding of the process: what was
learned; how well it was learned; and in what context
the demonstration of learning took place.
Understanding Assessment
Let’s explore these ideas a bit further. The idea of demon-
strating what was learned implies that the student com-
pletes some type of performance that can be evaluated by
others. How well something is learned implies that the
performance of the student is evaluated against preset
criteria that are known ahead of time. This performance
with its evaluation criteria should take place in an au-
thentic or real setting as far as possible. Finally, the perfor-
mance, the criteria, and the setting should directly refl ect
a previously identifi ed standard (goal) to be achieved.
An example may help. One of the grades 3 –5 sam-
ple performance outcomes under the National Associa-
tion for Physical Education’s Standards (NASPE 2004)
is to dribble and pass a basketball to a moving receiver.
This is a potential indication of learning for Standard 1
at these grade levels. A possible demonstration of the
ability to dribble and pass might be to have students
receive and throw a basketball pass to a partner on the
move. The preset criteria for determining how well
this ability was learned might be: the student receives
and passes in one motion; the student passes ahead of
the moving players (so that the receiver does not have
to stop to receive the pass); and the receiving student
cuts into the space to receive the pass. Students would
be considered “profi cient” if they could meet all three
criteria; “almost there” if two were accomplished; and
“still working on it” if they could accomplish only one
of the criteria. To use a “real” context, the whole class
might perform the task while the teacher walks around
with a checklist evaluating the criteria. This assessment
might occur over several days.
In the current vernacular, the assessment learning
as just described is called, variously, alternative assess-
ment, performance assessment, outcome assessment, or
authentic assessment. Though each of those terms has a
slightly different meaning, we have chosen to use as-
sessment for learning to represent them all. This may
shortchange some of the subtleties involved in each,
but it makes our discussion much simpler.
M any of us can vividly remember fi tness tests in
the fall and spring, with a few cognitive tests on
rules and history thrown in during the year. But
are isolated fi tness scores and rules and history what we
really want students to learn from our classes? Are the
“age-old” ways of measuring that knowledge really
the best way? Assessment can be defi ned as the gather-
ing and collection of information framed by how that
information is used (Hay 2006; Melograno 1994). Assess-
ment information can be used in two ways—assessment
for learning and assessment for accountability (Hay
2006). While the two ways of using assessment informa-
tion are not distinctly separate, they are different and
serve different purposes. Assessment for accountability
is most often seen in large-scale standardized testing.
Assessment for learning is about contextually relevant
or meaningful tasks that develop higher-order knowl-
edge and skills that can be transferred outside the
classroom setting (Hay 2006). Assessment for learning
focuses on the learner and assumes that assessment
should provide feedback to the learner.
It is assessment for learning that Children Moving
endorses, and this kind of assessment is much changed
• Assessment is the gathering and collection of information
framed by how that information is used. Assessment can
be classifi ed as assessment for learning or assessment
for accountability.
• Assessment for learning shares the following characteris-
tics: it is linked directly to instruction; it views the student
as the primary client; it is meaningful; it happens as part
of instruction; and students know what it is they are sup-
posed to learn ahead of time.
• Teacher observation, exit slips, student journals, home-
work, peer observation, self-assessment, event tasks,
videotape and digital analysis, student drawings and dis-
plays, and student portfolios are all viable assessment for
learning items in physical education classes.
• Holistic or analytic rubrics are used to distribute assess-
ment criteria to students and subsequently evaluate
student performance.
• Assessment should occur in cognitive, affective, and psy-
chomotor domains of learning.
• When student achievement is reported to parents, they
should be made aware of what students have learned in
physical education and where students are with respect
to essential learning.
Key Concepts
CHAPTER 14 Assessing Student Learning 203
What are the characteristics that separate assess-
ment for learning from previous types of assessment
(skill tests, knowledge tests, and the like)? Although
assessment for learning has many distinctions that
separate it from traditional assessment, we have elected
to focus on fi ve:
1. Assessment and instruction are linked.
2. The student is the primary client of assessment, not
the teacher.
3. Assessment is an ongoing part of teaching, not an
end or an afterthought.
4. Assessment comprises meaningful tasks performed
in context.
5. The criteria for evaluation are distributed to the stu-
dents ahead of time.
These ideas for assessment for learning are supported
by the Appropriate Practices document of the National
Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE
2009; see Box 14-1 ).
Linking of Assessment and Instruction
Based on learning theory, assessment for learning con-
tends that assessment as feedback and meaningful tasks
is simply another part of effective teaching and that the
two are inextricably tied to each other. In fact, neither
one is very good without the other. Assessment is part
of the whole learning process. It allows children and
teachers not only to see that something has been learned
but also to actually demonstrate it. This aspect is becom-
ing critical to education. This new idea is beginning to
change the relationship between teachers and students,
as well as student outcomes. It addresses how we teach,
as well as student achievement. It is said that if assess-
ment and teaching are done well, the student should
not know the difference between the two. It may be like
the Friday night basketball game: Is the game an assess-
ment of what was learned in practice during the week,
or is it just another activity in which to participate?
Student as Primary Client
How many times have you been told that the purpose
of a midterm exam was to help you as a student? It is
much like being told that a punishment hurts your par-
ents more than it hurts you. It may be true in your
parents’ or teachers’ minds, but it is rarely true for you.
Assessment for learning strives to view the child or stu-
dent as the person who benefi ts most from the assess-
ment (remember that assessment is supposed to be
a learning experience). First and foremost, assessments
should provide feedback to the student — feedback they
can use and make sense of. (Failing a midterm, without
feedback, simply tells you that you failed — either you
didn’t guess well, or the teacher didn’t ask the ques-
tions you knew, or others did better than you did — it
doesn’t tell you how well you know something.) What
Appropriate and Inappropriate Physical Education Practices
Component: Assessment
Appropriate Practice
• Formative and summative assessments are an ongoing
and an integral part of the learning process for all stu-
dents, including students with disabilities.
• Physical educators systematically teach and assess all
domains (cognitive, affective, and physical) using a variety
of assessment techniques.
• Assessments include clearly defi ned criteria, which are
articulated to children as part of instruction prior to the
assessment (e.g., a rubric is provided and explained
during instruction).
Inappropriate Practice
• Assessment is rare and random and only occurs in the
context of grading.
• Teachers only assess physical fi tness.
• Assessments are not clearly defi ned and /or do not relate
to program goals or objectives.
• Children are not sure what exactly is being tested /
measured. They are not clear about what they are
expected to do or know.
• Assessment is not multifaceted but addresses only a
single performance score on fi tness.
Source: National Association for Sport and Physical Educa-
tion, Appropriate Practices for Elementary Physical Education,
3rd ed. (Reston, VA: NASPE, 2009). Reprinted with
permission.
Box 14-1 Authentic assessment strikes me as being quite inter-
esting. The reason for this involves my current experi-
ences as an eighth-grade basketball coach. When
choosing players for the team during tryouts, I evalu-
ated players mostly on drills. However, I have realized
that while they do quite well during drills, many of
them do not utilize these skills in a game situation.
Next time, I believe I will use much scrimmage time
to evaluate my players.
—ANDY BARRY, sophomore physical education
major and fi rst-year basketball coach
204 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
demonstrated by a series of skills tests. One of the skills
tests for soccer involved kicking a ball to a wall from a
certain distance a certain number of times in an allotted
amount of time. The soccer player failed the skills test
twice. On the third and fi nal attempt, he failed again. As
he left, he turned and said, “I can play soccer— come
watch me on the fi eld—but this has nothing to do with
soccer.” Today he is a professional soccer player.
That scenario is telling. Assessment for learning calls
for assessment to be more meaningful and relevant.
Assessment should provide students with information
that will fuel their interests (Questioning 1996). A
good assessment model supports students’ desire to
learn. Such an assessment model calls for us as teachers
to relinquish some of the control we have held over
assessment and to give it to the students.
Assessment for learning employs tasks that make
sense, that are in context, that are real. Assessment
for learning does not ask children to demonstrate
skills in situations that don’t relate to what they are
supposed to be learning. These real contexts may be
either contrived or natural, but they are as close to
the actual situation in which the skill is used as pos-
sible. In other words, no more wall volleying in vol-
leyball (since when do you get to use the wall in a
volleyball game?).
Distribution of Criteria
How would you feel if you knew ahead of time what
material you were going to be assessed on? If you didn’t
have to guess what you were supposed to learn? Assess-
ment for learning does that: it provides children with
the assessment criteria (called scoring rubrics ) before
they actually start the learning or assessment. This is
especially true with summative assessment options
that are used for reporting.
Making It Work
We realize all this sounds wonderful (especially if you
are a college student and can get your instructors to
accept it). Yet the larger question remains: How do we
do this type of assessment? This is where a map anal-
ogy from Chapter 8 really helps. We have adapted the
work of Leslie Lambert (1999) and expanded to eight
the number of planning steps listed in Chapter 8 of
Children Moving to assist you in making assessment for
learning not only happen, but also work the way it
should (as part of learning). The steps are:
1. Decide on the standard or learning goal. This comes
from the standard (or goal) you have set for what you
would happen if a teacher provided many little checks
before a test that let you know how you were doing but
that weren’t recorded as part of your fi nal grade? Assess-
ment for learning is laden with those little checks.
What this also means is that assessment is not grading.
The primary purpose of assessment for learning is to give
information to the students that they can use to enhance
learning. The secondary use of assessment for learning is
for reporting or grading purposes. This idea requires us
to change the view of assessment that has been ingrained
in our thoughts for our entire educational career, but it
is the “new” view of assessment.
Because the student is the primary client of all assess-
ment, assessment should be designed to improve
performance, not just monitor it.
— GRANT WIGGINS , Assessing Student Performance
Ongoing Process
How many of you have been in a class, physical educa-
tion or otherwise, in which assessment (testing) was
done at the end? Sometimes this was at the end of a
unit and other times at the end of the course. Does this
type of information provide you, as a student, useful
information that you are able to use in your learning
or improving your skill or knowledge? More than likely
not. Assessment for learning is an ongoing and con-
tinuous process, not an afterthought, and includes
both formative and summative tasks. Assessment for
learning is a means to an end, not an end in itself. This
aspect makes assessment for learning largely formative
(or ongoing)— not always used for grading, but brim-
ming with feedback. Summative assessment (that done
at the end) is part of assessment for learning, but it is
done only after an immense amount of formative feed-
back. In assessment for learning, summative assess-
ments can be considered celebrations of learning where
children are given the opportunity to uniquely display
all they have learned, more often than not assessing all
three learning domains simultaneously. Assessment
for learning is not a mere collection of items or tasks to
give to students. It is a planned part of the ongoing
route to student learning. It should provide meaning-
ful feedback to the learner on an ongoing basis.
Meaningful Tasks
There once was a student who was a Division I varsity
soccer player. The university at which he played allowed
students to “test out” of activity courses if they showed
a profi ciency level of skill. Profi ciency was always
CHAPTER 14 Assessing Student Learning 205
want students to learn. Although many of us are
tempted to skip this stage, by doing so we often fi nd
ourselves on a trip to nowhere or anywhere. Judy
Rink (2006) uses the analogy of a car without a driver
to describe programs that do not have defi ned goals.
Prusak and Vincent (2005) make the point that we
always encourage students to set goals and work to-
ward achieving them. These goals serve as a starting
point, a point of reference, and a place to return when
things get complicated. If this is sound advice for stu-
dents, it must certainly be good for teachers as well.
2. Decide on the content that will be learned and
applied toward attaining the goal. This content
should realistically refl ect your teaching situation
and what you are able to accomplish. It may be
infl uenced by geography, weather, facilities, equip-
ment available, or even your comfort zone (see
Chapters 8 and 13).
3. Establish performance outcomes at various points to
determine if your students are achieving the goal.
Although we label these as performance outcomes,
you will also see them referred to in the literature as
benchmarks, checkpoints, and performance indica-
tors. Again, as with the names of the “new” assess-
ment, there are subtle differences between each of
the terms, but for simplicity and usefulness we have
decided to use performance outcomes. These per-
formance outcomes are in fact intermediate progress
points on the way to the fi nal goal. Figure 14.1 gives
an example of one school district’s grade-level per-
formance indicators for the skill theme of jumping
and landing.
4. Select and develop assessment methods, strategies,
and criteria for use in judging student learning
regarding the standard.
5. Select rich, developmentally appropriate instruc-
tional progressions aimed at student learning of
the goal.
6. Teach the progressions with lots of student practice
and feedback.
7. Use the assessment strategies developed in Step 4.
8. Use the assessment results to help students correct
themselves, to evaluate student learning, to im-
prove instruction, and to refi ne the learning goal.
If you use the National Standards for Physical Education
(NASPE 2004) to outline essential learning of standards
or goals for all students in physical education, Step 1 is
accomplished. The skill theme chapters in Children Mov-
ing provide possible content selections for meeting those
standards. Your task will be to choose which content to
teach and how to order it—this is your scope and se-
quence. Step 3 is accomplished once you have developed
yearly plans as discussed in Chapter 8. See the Appendix
for possible yearly plans. Our next task is Step 4, choosing
the types of assessment items we want to use.
Assessment is just like instruction. It needs a plan to
guide the process and to give direction and focus to the
various assessment pieces. If we pursue the trip anal-
ogy from Chapter 8, Steps 1 and 2 require us to choose
both a destination and a means of travel. In Steps 3
and 4 we determine if we are really on the route and
how we are progressing in getting there. For example,
if we want to travel to Chicago by fl ying (destination
and method) to see a Chicago Bears game, as we travel
we need to check to be sure we are really on our way to
Chicago by plane. At the airport, the ticket agent will
check us in and reaffi rm that we are going to Chicago.
When we get to the gate, the sign reads “Chicago.”
The gate agent takes our ticket for the Chicago fl ight,
and on the plane the pilot announces that this is the
fl ight to Chicago. In reality, we have just experienced
four assessments to make sure we are on the right
route. So how will you fi gure out if your students are
on the right route to their goal?
A variety of options exist. Although the topics of
deciding on the goal and content as well as developing
and teaching instructional progressions are dealt with
elsewhere in this text, they are mentioned here to rein-
force how assessment is linked to instruction. The re-
mainder of this chapter provides options for selecting
and developing assessment items that meaningfully
assess student learning (the “how to and in what con-
text to assess” piece) and how to develop the criteria
for use in judging the student performance (the “how
well” piece). Suggestions will also be provided about
what to do with the results.
What Has Been Learned? Selecting Assessment Options
Our task, at this point, is to design and select assess-
ment options that match our student learning goals.
For convenience and clarity, we present assessment op-
tions separately from material on instruction, but keep
in mind that they are nearly inseparable from instruc-
tional tasks.
Many instructional tasks are in reality informal as-
sessments. For example, throughout the skill theme
chapters, challenge tasks are presented as part of the
progression of tasks. Although these tasks are designed
primarily to maintain interest and focus, they also
serve as a “minicheck” on how well a child is progress-
ing toward a goal. The challenge task of “See how
many times in a row you can hit the ball without hit-
ting the tee or missing the ball” provides children, as
well as the teacher, with feedback. If most of the class
206 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Figure 14.1 Sample performance indicators: jumping and landing.
Source: Austin Independent School District, Austin, TX. Used with permission.
SAMPLE PERFORMANCE INDICATORS JUMPING AND LANDING
By the end of sixth grade students should be able to:
• Design a repeatable rope-jumping routine using a variety of relationships with a partner or group (behind, beside, mirroring, matching).
• Perform a rope-jumping routine using a variety of relationships with a partner or group.
• Demonstrate an approach, a takeoff, fl ight, and controlled landing (with running long jump, spring board jump).
By the end of fi fth grade students should be able to:
• Demonstrate an approach, a takeoff, fl ight, and controlled landing (with running long jump, spring board jump).
• Jump (smooth and rhythmical) a self-turned rope using more than fi ve different foot patterns.
• Design a repeatable rope-jumping routine with a partner or a small group using various jumping skills (with or without music).
• Perform a repeatable rope-jumping routine with a partner or small group using various jumping skills (with or without music).
By the end of fourth grade students should be able to:
• Jump for distance (controlled bent-knee landing).
• Jump for height (controlled bent-knee landing).
• Jump on and off low equipment; land on feet with control.
• Jump (smooth and rhythmical) a self-turned rope using at least fi ve different foot patterns (single bounce).
By the end of third grade students should be able to:
• Jump and land (controlled, bent-knee) from a low or medium level.
• Demonstrate correct rope turning using a self-turned rope.
• Demonstrate correct rope turning using a long rope (for group jumping).
• Jump a self-turned rope (smooth, rhythmical jumping) and perform the following: Single bounce forward and backward.
Double bounce forward and backward.
• Jump a self-turned rope (smooth, rhythmical jumping) using at least three different foot patterns (e.g., side to side, straddle, hop).
By the end of second grade students should be able to:
• Jump off the ground or low level equipment (with different body shapes; (e.g., “T,” “knee-slapper”) and land in a controlled bent knee position.
• Jump a self-turned rope and perform the following with yielding landings: Single bounce forward and backward or double bounce forward and backward.
• Jump an overhead turning long rope with a double bounce and yielding landing.
By the end of fi rst grade students should be able to:
• Jump and land using a variety of takeoffs and landings (in, out, over) in relation to various equipment (e.g., hoops, low hurdles, rope shapes).
• Jump (single or double bounce) a swinging rope (long or short) with yielding landings.
• While jumping, demonstrate correct rope-turning (self-turned).
By the end of kindergarten students should be able to:
• Jump and land using a variety of takeoff and landing patterns (two feet to two feet, one foot to two feet).
• Jump over a line or rope using two feet to two feet pattern (double or single bounce).
can hit the ball only once or twice, the teacher knows
he or she needs to provide more practice before mov-
ing on. Likewise, if most of the class is successful with
continuous hits and an individual student can hit it
only once or twice, the teacher knows he or she needs
to work with that student. Students can also measure
their ability to hit in the same manner.
Alternatively, the Checks for Understanding
distributed throughout the skill theme chapters are
informal mini cognitive assessments. Checks for
CHAPTER 14 Assessing Student Learning 207
Understanding ask children to show their under-
standing of a particular aspect of the lesson that has
been taught (Graham 2008). For example, the Check
for Understanding of locomotor actions provided on
page 402 of Chapter 23 would allow the teacher to
informally ascertain whether children understood
the differences among skipping, jumping, and hop-
ping regardless of whether they were actually able to
skip, hop, and jump. Checks for Understanding can
be in the form of quick questions to the entire class at
the end of a lesson and may call for verbal or physical
answers or just a show of hands or a simple thumbs-up
or thumbs-down.
The assessment options that follow are more formal
assessments. Our purpose in these assessments is to see
what students have learned: Are they on the road to
their goal, or have they achieved their goal? Of the
multitude of assessment options available, we outline
11 here that are designed to provide feedback to the
teacher, as well as the student. These are broader than
the challenges and the Checks for Understanding, of-
ten assessing the cognitive domain (knowledge base)
and affective domain (values and feelings), as well as
the psychomotor domain. With the exception of the
student journal, these assessment options can provide
either formative assessment to students or a summa-
tive product that can be scored for reporting. In the
skill theme chapters we include suggestions (identifi ed
with the assessment icon ) as to when these assess-
ments might be used. The examples show how we
make assessment part of our daily teaching, not a sepa-
rate entity at the end of a unit. Although we focus on a
limited number of assessment options here, many more
are available. We hope these suggestions will allow you
to develop other options that are specifi c to your situa-
tion. When you fi nd an assessment option that really
works, we invite you to share it with us.
There are two key points to remember as you are
choosing or designing any assessment option: (1) you
cannot assess it if you didn’t teach it; and (2) you can’t assess
without a goal. The fi rst point, to teach before assessing,
is largely self-explanatory — children have to have been
taught precisely what it is that you want to assess, or
the assessment won’t yield information that promotes
student learning. The second point, to assess with a
goal, essentially says that your assessment needs to
match your learning goal. For example, a goal for
throwing and catching at the precontrol or control
level might be to demonstrate the mature form of the
skill in an isolated situation. When performance moves
toward combining skills and skill performance in dy-
namic situations (utilization /profi ciency), the skill will
be performed in an environment more closely resem-
bling the actual environment in which the skill will be
used. A goal might be to throw and catch with a part-
ner while on the move by demonstrating leading the
partner at an appropriate distance. Assessment should
be done in a context appropriate to the skill and assess
aspects of the goal that were being taught — the use of
throwing to lead a partner. This assumes that the skill
of throwing has already been mastered and assessed.
Skill themes develop from the simple to the complex,
or from the mastery of basic skills, to combinations of
skills, to use of skills in a more complex and dynamic
environment. Assessment should follow the same
guidelines. Assessments at the early control level should
assess the elements critical to the mature pattern in an
isolated situation. As children progress to later control
and early utilization levels, assessment will focus on
the use of the skill in a variety of contexts and combi-
nations. Later, utilization- and profi ciency-level assess-
ments will focus on the use of the skill in changing
environments. Additionally, at each level of skill devel-
opment, cognitive understand ing needs to be assessed,
as does the affective dimension of our work.
Teacher Observation
Teacher observation is the most common form of as-
sessment utilized in physical education classes. It is
generally employed to assess psychomotor perfor-
mance but can be applied to the affective domains
well. It is highly appropriate for assessing the acquisi-
tion of critical elements of skill that together form a
mature motor pattern. Figure 14.2 shows a teacher
checklist used to assess the critical elements of drib-
bling (Standard 1, NASPE 2004). Suggestions for de-
signing and using such checklists are included in
Chapter 12, “Observing Student Responses.” The key
factors involved in designing checklists that yield the
information you want are identifying the critical ele-
ments (or goals, at this point) and designing the
checklist so that it is usable. A fi nal hint for using
checklists is to observe one cue or element at a time.
Just as we teach children by using one cue at a time,
we should observe one element at a time.
Exit (or Entrance) Slips
Exit slips are short written pieces given at the end (or
beginning) of a lesson and designed to assess cognitive
(Standard 2, NASPE 2004) and affective (personal-social)
(Standard 5, NASPE 2004) goals. They are developed to
assess learning outcomes specifi c to the lesson just
taught. The slips, often printed on half pieces of paper,
contain two or three questions or ask the student to
write in some form about specifi c learning cues or affec-
tive goals for the lesson ( Figure 14.3 ).
208 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
side of the room, lunch tables are permanently set up. Be-
fore beginning the lesson, the teacher places pencils and
pieces of paper on the lunch tables, enough for each child
in the upcoming class. The lesson begins as normal. At
some point, the teacher stops the lesson and says to the
children, “Remember several weeks ago we were practicing
throwing? What I want you to do now is sit at one of the
lunch tables so that you each have a piece of paper and
a pencil. Then I want you to write a note to your friend
Murgatroid. Murgatroid is not a very good thrower. List
fi ve cues that might help Murgatroid become a better
thrower. As soon as you are fi nished, you can return to
the other side of the ‘gym’ and continue working on your
jumping-and-landing sequence.”
Figure 14.4 provides three examples of Helping
Murgatroid cues written by fi fth graders. Which set of
responses would you be satisfi ed with? The entire pro-
cess of exit slips takes less than fi ve minutes, but it can
The Helping Murgatroid technique provides an-
other format for exit slips. Following is how we use
Helping Murgatroid; modify the instructions to fi t
your situation:
The lesson is being taught in a multipurpose room that
becomes a cafeteria from 11:30 a.m. to 1:00 p.m. On one
Skills: Critical Cues
Dribbling
Teacher Name
Kuba C.
Sam C.
Neshia C.
Erica D.
Lauren D.
Maria E.
A. J. E.
Yun-Sik G.
John M.
Jordan M.
Sarah M.
Marc O.
Lynsa O.
Nishma R.
Brittany R.
Austin T.
Ben T.
Lacie T.
Crystal U.
Shadon Y.
Matt Y.
Z o n
e 1
Z o n
e 2
Z o n
e 3
p a d
s, p u sh
– not yet mastered ~ beginning to master the cue, not yet consistent + mastery of the cue
f/ b
s ta n
c e
h e a d
s u p
w it
h t
ra v e l
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
- -
+ +
- +
- -
+ +
w a is
t h
ig h
Matt R.
Figure 14.2 Teacher observation checklist.
Source: S. Holt /Hale, Assessing Motor Skills
in Elementary Physical Education: (Reston,
VA; American Alliance for Health, Physical
Education, Recreation and Dance, 1999).
Assessment Examples in the
Skill Theme Chapters
The assessment strategies of journals, event tasks, home-
work, peer observation, videotaping, student drawing, stu-
dent displays, teacher observation, self-assessment, and
portfolios are all referenced in the National Standards for
Physical Education (NASPE 1995). Examples of these tech-
niques from the National Standards can be found throughout
the skill theme chapters.
CHAPTER 14 Assessing Student Learning 209
Draw the pathway beside the word.
Straight
Curved
Zig Zag
How did you work in physical education today?
great good not-so-good bad
great
Practice Plan — Throwing Game
To be done as a team.
1. Think back about how your team played today.
2. What did you do well?
3. What do you need more practice doing?
4. For the first 10 minutes of our next class you will have a chance to practice with your team what you need to improve upon. Your job now is to design a task (or 2) that you can use to help your team get better. The task(s) must focus on the cues we used. You have 10 minutes for practice, so design your task to fit into that amount of time.
Name ______________________ Date _________________
Throwing and Catching
1. Using stick figures show what a student would look like performing the four steps of throwing.
2. Circle the student that is using correct form when performing the three steps of catching. a. Should the student catch with their hands or trap the ball with their body?
b. Should the student reach for the ball or wait for it to get to their body?
c. Should the student keep their eyes on the ball or take their eyes off the ball?
3. In each situation, circle the spot where the thrower should throw the ball if the other student is on the run.
(The player with the arrow is the catcher.)
Name ______________________ Date _________________
Throwing and Catching
Figure 14.3 Exit slips.
210 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Figure 14.4 Sample fi fth-grade responses to the question “What
cues would you suggest to help Murgatroid become a better overhand
thrower?”
be enormously helpful in assessing what the children
remember from past lessons.
Student Journals
Student journals, like diaries, are written records of par-
ticipation, results, responses, feelings, perceptions, or
refl ections about actual happenings or outcomes (NASPE
1995). Student journals provide a wonderful opportu-
nity to assess the affective domain (Standards 5 and 6,
NASPE 2004) of our teaching (Cutforth and Parker
1996). Students can be asked simply to write down their
feelings, or they can be asked to respond to structured
questions to assess more specifi c goals ( Figure 14.5 ).
Remember, the purpose of journals is for students to
refl ect on their feelings, growth, frustrations, joys, and
successes regarding physical activity and physical edu-
cation ( Figures 14.6 and 14.7 ). Students have to feel
safe in doing that. One sure way to stifl e the honesty
and refl ectivity of the students is to grade journals. This
is one assessment piece that is used almost solely as a
nongraded assessment. The purpose of journals is to
give students a venue for writing honestly and freely.
The use of journals and exit slips appears time con-
suming. (See Box 14-2 for suggestions as to how to man-
age them.) It has been our experience that although they
may take some time, they yield invalu able information
Teacher Question: How do you feel about today's tournament compared to the others, when you were playing with smaller teams?
Aoi: I liked the two-on-two game better than the tournament.
Justin: Bad, it's harder to win.
Dustin: It was the best tournament I played in.
Amos: It was funner than others because you [could] play the whole thing.
Beau: It sucked. Because too many people and the teams sucked and I got in a fight.
Figure 14.5 Sample journal question with student responses.
Source: Steve Sorenson and Brad Rempel, as quoted in N. Cutforth
and M. Parker, Promoting affective development in physical education:
The value of journal writing, Journal of Physical Education, Recreation,
and Dance 67, no. 7 (1996): 22. Used with permission from American
Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance.
CHAPTER 14 Assessing Student Learning 211
Box 14-2
From the teacher’s perspective, the management of journals
and exit slips is the key to their success (or lack of it). Four
guidelines may help:
• Determine the major purpose of the journal or exit slip. Limit
the scope initially. Focus on learning cues, on behavior, or on
students’ thoughts about the lesson — choose one. Expand
the scope when you feel comfortable.
Managing Journals and Exit Slips
• Decide on a format for writing. Because students are
not accustomed to writing in physical education, their
writing may initially be shallow and unfocused. We have
therefore found it useful to provide students with a question
to answer. As students become accustomed to writing,
the level of the question may be increased to ask for more
open-ended responses.
• Organize writing procedures. To effectively respond to jour-
nals, many teachers use journals with only two or three
classes at a time and then switch to another group of
classes at the end of a marking period. We have found it
most effective to keep the journals in containers in the gym
(or sometimes with classroom teachers) organized by
class. This way you can read them when you get the
chance and don’t have to hunt them down. One of the
best ways to encourage children to keep a journal is to let
them personalize it (Figure 14.6). We have used everything
from college blue books to manila folders to laminated con-
struction paper. Usually we have students write for about
three minutes at the end of class (Figure 14.7). Some
teachers prefer the beginning of class if they want students
to refl ect on their previous journal entry before class.
• Read and respond. One key aspect of journals and exit slips
is providing feedback to students. Teachers need to respond
to student writing. Responses can be short, snappy phrases
(e.g., “Good job!”) or longer, probing questions. Generally, it
takes less than a minute to respond to each student’s entry,
but the minutes add up. To manage the time, some teachers
have students do journals or exit slips only once a week;
others have the children do them for every lesson but review
them only once a week; still others use them with selected
classes only.Figure 14.6 Personalized second-grade journal cover.
Figure 14.7 Fourth-grade child’s class journal.
212 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
After School/Weekend Exercise Records
Activity
Jump Rope
Jogging/Walking
Soccer
Basketball
Football
Swimming
Dancing
Hiking
Gymnastics
Biking
Tennis
Other (_______)
Did Nothing
After School/Weekends After School/Weekends
Parent Signature
Date: ___/___/___
Parent Signature
Date: ___/___/___
cut cut
cut
c u t cu
t c u t cu
t
cut
Instructions:
1. When your child does an activity for at least 20 minutes, draw around the box to
highlight it (more than 20 minutes still only counts as one activity credit).
2. Write which day the activity was done in the box. Use the letters M, T, W, R, F, or S.
3. Sign and date the record, and cut it out for your child to bring to school.
Figure 14.8 Homework assignment: fi tness.
Source: B. Entzion et al., Super active kids program instructor’s manual (unpublished manuscript). Grand Forks:
University of North Dakota, Department of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, 1991. Used with permission.
about what students are understanding in class and how
they feel about being in physical education class.
Homework
In most schools today, the time allocated to physical
education does not allow for the learning we would like
to help students achieve. Homework can be used to
supplement in-school physical education. Essentially,
homework is work a student completes outside of the
physical education class. Some teachers use homework
to enhance cognitive understanding (Standard 2,
NASPE 2004); yet active homework (Smith and Claxton
2003) can be used to enhance psychomotor learning
(Standard 1, NASPE 2004) and to promote physical
activity (Standard 4, NASPE 2004). This homework
can be “fun” and personalized in that it allows chil-
dren to choose their own activities. Furthermore, it
can produce records of student progress, process, and
participation.
Figure 14.8 illustrates a homework assignment
that documents regular participation in physical
CHAPTER 14 Assessing Student Learning 213
activity. We often ask parents to verify the work.
Physical education homework is similar to reports of
reading done at home, and we have found homework
quite useful, especially in terms of fi tness or activity
participation.
Peer Observation
Peer observation of students by other students can be
used to assess competence in performance of skills
and demonstration of selected critical elements
(Standard 1, NASPE 2004) as well as cognitive under-
standing of what the demonstration of a selected cue
looks like (Standard 2, NASPE 2004). Peer observation
is easily built into tasks by asking students to work
as partners and to provide each other with selected
feedback regarding performance. For example, while
working on dribbling with the hands, one student
can be asked to watch the other and see if the partner
uses the fi nger pads, bends the knees, and has a stag-
gered stance. To more fully tie assessment to instruc-
tion and learning, the partner can provide feedback
(Standard 5, NASPE 2004) to the performer to help
him or her improve. On a more formal basis, stu-
dents can record their observations for later use by
the teacher.
Children enjoy peer observations (and peer teach-
ing), but a few key points help in making the task more
successful. First, the cues must be defi ned clearly
enough so that the partner can observe and comment.
Second, structure the task so that children observe
only one cue at a time. Remember, doing peer observa-
tion requires practice and independent learning skills
(see Chapter 13). Start small and simply. Figure 14.9
provides examples of peer assessments for dribbling
with the hands (third grade) and for striking with long-
handled implements and dribbling (fourth grade).
Self-Assessment
Self-assessments can be used to assess psychomotor
(Standard 1, NASPE 2004), cognitive (Standard 2,
NASPE 2004), and affective (Standards 5 and 6, NASPE
2004) aspects of children’s work. Although peer and
teacher observations are a useful tool for assessment
of the critical cues for skills, self-assessments provide a
unique opportunity to evaluate larger components of
a skill or the beginning use of a skill (Holt/Hale 1999).
For example, in the case of learning to dribble, we might
ask children if they could dribble and pivot using the
preferred hand, the nonpreferred hand, while walk-
ing, while traveling at a jog, without a defensive
player, and with a defensive player. Figure 14.10 pro-
vides an example of a self-assessment designed to ask
questions like these. Self-assessments may be used at
the end of a unit to have students assess their achieve-
ment. Alternatively, the self-assessment may be used
throughout a unit as each of the components is intro-
duced and practiced; each individual assessment
would be dated and would provide a record of the
child’s achievement of the various components. In
this instance, self-assessment would be an extension
of a task sheet (Figure 13.2). Regardless of when self-
assessment is used, children need to have ample op-
portunity to practice the various components before
completing it. If it is used at the end, children should
have a chance for a brief practice period before com-
pleting the assessment.
Another version of self-assessment that can be used
with older children is a self-rating scale ( Figure 14.11 ).
The self-rating scale contains the same skill categories
as the self-assessment, but the rating scale provides
Peers can provide meaningful and relevant feedback to each other.
214 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Name: Who I am observing:
Partner Evaluation— Striking with Long-Handled Implements
Directions: Choose one person from the other pair to observe. Circle the appropriate answer. 4 Stars = Always, 3 Stars = Usually, 2 Stars = Sometimes, 1 Star = Never.
1. The person I am observing passes the ball by pushing it instead of slapping it.
2. The person I am observing follows through and points to his/her partner when passing.
3. The person I am observing fields the ball by cushioning each pass instead of just holding their stick out.
4. The person I am observing gains control of the pass by dribbling the ball 3 times after fielding it.
5. I respected and cooperated with my partner and the other group I worked with.
Always Usually Sometimes Never
Always Usually Sometimes Never
Always Usually Sometimes Never
Always Usually Sometimes Never
Always Usually Sometimes Never
B
Physical Education—Dribbling Coach's Check
Coach:
Cut:
Ball in same hand as planted foot yes no sometimes
Ball changes hands yes no sometimes
Player goes the other way yes no sometimes
Pivot:
Ball in other hand than pivot foot yes no sometimes
Turn to back yes no sometimes
Ball changes hands yes no sometimes
Player:
A
Figure 14.9 (A) Fourth-grade
observation card. (B) Partner eval-
uation of striking with long-handled
implements (fourth grade).
Source: Rourke Sisson,
EDFE 444 work sample. Used
with permission.
CHAPTER 14 Assessing Student Learning 215
students an opportunity to assess themselves on a nu-
merical scale. The key to this is providing descriptors
for the numbers so children are able to anchor their
self-assessments on clear criteria. Self-rating scales can
be appropriately used for assessment before teaching
as well as after.
Self-assessments can also provide a glimpse into chil-
dren’s feelings and attitudes. Some children’s ratings
may be signifi cantly higher or lower than the teacher’s
observations. At this point, the self-assessment becomes
an opportune place to begin discussions with individ-
ual children. Another option is to ask children directly
on self-observations how they feel about performing
certain skills.
Some teachers often voice concerns about the hon-
esty of children when doing self- and peer assessments.
We have found that children are incredibly honest when
assessing their own skills and those of others (they take
the assessment of others very seriously). Some children
may initially infl ate scores, but if self-assessments are a
regular part of instruction and children become aware of
their role in the evaluation process and of the purposes
of assessment, infl ation is short-lived (Holt/Hale 1999).
Event Tasks
Event tasks are performance tasks that can be com-
pleted in one class period or a portion of it. The task is
Name:
1. Dribbling and pivoting with preferred hand
2. Dribbling and pivoting with other hand
3. Dribbling and pivoting while walking
4. Dribbling and pivoting while jogging
5. Dribbling and pivoting at full speed
6. Dribbling and pivoting against a defense
Test for Understanding
1. The critical cues for dribbling are ,
,
Teacher Comments:
Homeroom: Date:
Dribbling and Pivots
Self-Evaluation of Dribbling and Pivots
I still need
to practice
at this skill.
I'm good
at this skill.
I would like
my teacher
to see this skill.
,
.
Figure 14.10 Example of a stu-
dent self-assessment.
216 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
designed broadly enough so that there are multiple
solutions. The task might be entirely psychomotor
(Standard 1, NASPE 2004), or it may include cognitive
(Standard 2, NASPE 2004) and affective (Standard 5,
NASPE 2004) aspects as well. Event tasks that we use
frequently are self-designed games (see Chapter 31),
or self-designed gymnastics and dance routines (see
Figure 14.12 ). Other tasks might be having students
design a presentation for a parent-teacher conference
on the skills they have been learning, or having them
prepare to make a presentation to younger students
on the critical pieces of a skill. Figure 14.13 shows an
example of a role play used as an event task. The suc-
cess of event tasks depends on the attractiveness of
the task (whether it captures children’s attention) and
the structure the teacher provides. Event tasks require
independent and group working skills. See Chapter 13
for ways to determine when children and teachers
might be ready use those skills.
Videotape /Digital Pictures
Though not accessible in all schools, videotape or
digital pictures can provide a fi nal, permanent prod-
uct for gymnastics sequences, dances, or self-designed
games. These formats can also let students display
their knowledge and skill with respect to critical as-
pects of a skill. One possible task is to have students
Name:
1. Dribbling and pivoting with preferred hand
2. Dribbling and pivoting with other hand
3. Dribbling and pivoting while walking
4. Dribbling and pivoting while jogging
5. Dribbling and pivoting at full speed
6. Dribbling and pivoting against a cone
Teacher Comments:
Homeroom: Date:
Dribbling and Pivoting Self-Rating
Rating Comments
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 – 3 I still need to practice this skill. 4 – 6 I am pretty good at this skill. 7 – 8 I am very good at this skill. 9 – 10 This is my best skill. * This is my favorite skill.
7. Dribbling and pivoting against a passive
defense
8. Dribbling and pivoting against an active
defense
9. Dribbling and pivoting without breaking
stride
10. Dribbling and pivoting while keeping
head up
11. Dribbling and pivoting in a game situation
You may add comments if you wish.
Figure 14.11 Example of a stu-
dent self-rating scale.
CHAPTER 14 Assessing Student Learning 217
Directions: Find a group of 2 or 3 with whom you can work productively; choose one scenario card. Read your
card, you will have 15 minutes to develop a role play that solves the problem on your card. When you think you
are ready, I will videotape your role play. Remember, all group members must be involved in the skit; all critical
elements must be explained/demonstrated; and the quality of the presentation must be fi rst-rate — memorized,
practiced, and done without prompting.
Omar is having trouble playing catch with his buds during recess. He is so scared of being hit by the ball that he
turns his head whenever someone is throwing him the ball. Andy is embarrassed and ready to quit the game. How
would you encourage Andy to keep playing and improve his ability to catch?
You are a group of fi refi ghters called to a fi re at an apartment building. Several small children are trapped inside
and will have to jump. Absent-minded Alfred forget to make sure the landing net was on the fi re truck, so it looks
like everyone is groing to have to catch the children. The chief needs to instruct everyone how to catch so the
children can be rescued safely.
April is having trouble throwing to her partner and is getting upset. As her partner, you want to make her feel
better. You also want to help her throw better. What tip did you learn in PE that you can tell to help April throw
better? What will you say to April to encourage her?
Bernice is playing fl ag football during physical education class and she cannot seem to catch the ball! Every time
the quarterback throws to her, the football bounces off her hands. What tip did you learn in your PE class that
could help Bernice? Why would you tell Bernice that it is important to keep trying?
Vladimir has just moved to the United States from Russia and is a new student to the class. Not only does he not
speak English, but he has never been taught to throw overhand. You and your group must teach him to throw
overhand and to try to hit a wall target. Remember, Vladimir doesn’t understand English.
Figure 14.13 Example of role play used as an event task.
Source: Adapted and expanded from PECentral by Jessica Segura and Cristian Sarmento, SES 440 —Teacher Worksample. University of Northern
Colorado. Used with permission.
Gymnastics Sequence
Student Name
Task: Design a gymnastics sequence that includes a balance, a roll, and a traveling action on your mat.
Using a stick figure draw your beginning shape.
Describe in sequence the rest of your routine:
1. Forward roll. 2. Balance into a V seat legs straddled. 3. Sideways pencil roll to a front support. 4. Tuckjump to a stand. 5.
6.
Definite beginning and ending position
At least one roll
At least one balance
At least one traveling action
Smooth transitions
Appropriate for my skill level
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
Grade DateShannon M. 4 2-20-03
Using a stick figure draw your ending shape.
Check for:
Figure 14.12 Self-designed
gymnastics sequence.
218 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Figure 14.14 Second grader’s drawing assessing the cue of
using the shoelaces to kick.
Whenever a value is set forth which can only be
attained by a few, the conditions are ripe for wide-
spread feelings of personal inadequacy. An out-
standing example in American society is the fi erce
competitiveness of the school system. No educational
system in the world has so many examinations, or so
emphasizes grades, as the American school system.
Children are constantly being ranked and evaluated.
The superior achievement of one child tends to
debase the achievement of another.
—MORRIS ROSENBERG, Society and the
Adolescent Self-Image
videotape or take pictures of each other performing a
certain skill and then analyze the critical cues for that
skill. Likewise, students can videotape each other and
provide “color commentary” (ongoing narrative as in
sports announcing) regarding the performance. An-
other videotape assessment might require students to
develop an infomercial about a certain skill or fi tness
activity.
For video/digital analysis to be successful, the criteria
for the task must be made explicit and a suffi cient
amount of time must be allotted. When they know what
they are looking for, children love to watch themselves
on tape. It is initially helpful to provide children with
checklists (see Figure 14.2) or observation cards (see Fig-
ure 14.9) to guide their observations. Children may also
combine video analysis with homework, thereby elimi-
nating the need for multiple playback units.
Student Drawings
Children love to draw, and we have found drawing
one of the most rewarding assessment tools. The op-
tions for student drawing are endless. Children can be
asked to draw about themselves, what a sequence looks
like, what a skill looks like, or what they liked best.
Figure 14.14 shows a student drawing used as an as-
sessment piece demonstrating the understanding of a
critical Standard 2 (NASPE 2004) element.
Student Displays
Student displays are public displays of student work
that communicate what the children have learned
(Stan dard 2, NASPE 2004) or value (Standard 6, NASPE
2004). These displays can take a variety of forms, from
posters on which students have drawn a person display-
ing a skill and have labeled the cues, to photographs, to
bulletin boards, to maps of where they pursue physical
activity.
Portfolios
Some researchers have said that to be truly effective, as-
sessments must not only measure current achievement
but also monitor and report students’ achievement over
time (Wolf and White 2000). Portfolios do this. Portfo-
lios are systematic collections of student work over time
that show progress, achievement, and effort in one or
more areas of learning (Melograno 1994). They may as-
sess one or multiple learning standards and relate to a
single unit, an entire school year, or students’ whole
elementary careers. Some have likened a portfolio to a
trophy case of a child’s accomplishments (Wilson and
Roof 1999). Portfolios are powerful because they help
students learn about their learning (Davies 2000). They
provide an opportunity for students to share the respon-
sibility for collecting proof of their learning. Addition-
ally, they provide a rich resource for reporting to both
teachers and parents.
The fi rst consideration with a portfolio is its pur-
pose. It is quite diffi cult to select items without a sense
of purpose. Common purposes include keeping track
of progress, providing students a way to assess their
own accomplishments, and determining the extent to
which learning objectives have been achieved. For
example, if one of the purposes of your physical educa-
tion class is helping students practice a healthy life-
style, their portfolios might include various pieces that
attest to their knowledge of fi tness, activities they do
to stay fi t, and indications of how they value fi tness.
CHAPTER 14 Assessing Student Learning 219
Many of the products of the assessment options discus sed
in this chapter could be included in a portfolio. For
example, a fi tness portfolio might include some of the
following artifacts: results of a health-related fi tness
test given at the beginning of the school year; goals set
as a result of that test; activities in which the student
participated to achieve the goals set; weekly homework
sheets that document physical activity; a written fi tness
report; results of a fi tness test later in the year; an indi-
cation of how well personal goals were met; and, fi nally,
goals for the summer. The teacher may specify some
items in the portfolio, but because the portfolio is a
personal record, the student should be allowed and
encouraged to decide which items will most strongly
“make the case.”
A portfolio communicates more when the reader
knows why pieces have been chosen for inclusion. When
children are including certain pieces, they might use
categories such as “my best work,” “the hardest skill I
can do now,” and “my most improved skill.” By having
criteria regarding the inclusion of items, students under-
stand better what they are to learn and how to talk about
it. Thus portfolios serve as a powerful link from instruc-
tion and assessment to learning.
The development and use of portfolios seems in-
timidating. Davies (2000) has the following sugges-
tions for beginning portfolio work with children:
• Maintain a clear purpose.
• Keep the portfolio process simple. Start small.
• Remember that there is no one best way to do
portfolios. Decide what is right for you and your
situation.
• Include more than written work. Video or digital
analysis is helpful here.
• Ask children to explain and record why they chose
each piece of work.
• Ensure that children have involvement and owner-
ship. Portfolios document their learning.
Hoerr (2000) has suggested having “portfolio days” on
which students share their portfolios with parents in
lieu of the traditional parent-teacher conference.
Assessing How Well Something Was Learned
Not all assessment items will (or need to) be scored.
Any of the assessment options listed previously could
be done with students and simply used to provide
feedback to them. For example, the peer coach’s
check in Figure 14.9 could be given to the student by
the coach or the teacher with some feedback that the
child needs to practice this aspect more. But some
items do need to be scored for children and teachers
to know to what extent the goal has been achieved.
To return to our travel analogy, did we get to the
Bears game or just to Chicago? Or to the Chicago
airport? Or did we ever get on the plane? Remember,
though, that what is assessed must match the task,
what was taught, and what was expected to be
learned.
Rubrics (evaluation matrices) describe varying lev-
els of quality or achievement for a specifi c task. Their
purpose is to give students informative feedback
about their work and to give detailed assessment of
the fi nal product. The development of rubrics takes
time, but the results make learning expectations clear,
provide feedback, and support learning and the de-
velopment of skills and understanding (Andrade
2000).
Writing Rubrics
There are three components to a rubric: (1) the crite-
ria, or essential components to be assessed; (2) the
steps of quality, or the rating scale; and (3) the descrip-
tors that illustrate how each of the steps is related to
the criteria.
1. Criteria The criteria match those asked for in a
task. They are the essential elements determined
necessary to achieve the specifi ed goal. It is not
necessary or feasible to include every possible ele-
ment, so select ones that are appropriate for the
level of development. For example, at the control
level, the essential elements might be the critical
cues of the mature motor pattern; at the profi -
ciency level, essential elements would be the use
of a variety of skills in a game situation. For stu-
dents, this can often be translated into “what
counts.”
2. Quality The steps of quality, or the rating scale,
identify various levels of the standard that might be
achieved or various levels of competence. These can
be thought of as steps or stops along the way to the
fi nal goal. These steps can be called by a variety of
names — for example: 1, 2, 3, 4; “excellent,” “above
average,” “needs improvement,” “incomplete”; Ju-
nior Olympian, Bronze Medal, Silver Medal, Gold
Medal; Little League, Minor League, Major League,
Coach; and so forth. Regardless of the scale used, it
must distinguish one level of achievement from
another.
3. Descriptors The last aspect of a rubric, descriptors il-
lustrate or describe what the scale looks like at each
level for each criterion. This is the aspect that lets
220 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
4 3 2 1
Steps
Rubric for
Criteria
Dribbling Routine
Dribbling Skill
My routine includes all 7 criteria: 2 different levels, 2 different places, both hands, eyes up, knees bent, firm flexible wrists and hand on top of ball.
My routine includes 5 out of 7 criteria, but I forgot 2.
I didn't do 4 out of the 7 criteria, but I did do at least 3.
I did a dribbling routine, but it didn't match the criteria.
Routine Memorized
Written Work
Figure 14.15 Example of an
analytic rubric.
rubrics are time consuming but provide invaluable infor-
mation for the teacher and the student (Schiemer 2000).
Rubrics can also be holistic. Holistic rubrics assess
children’s performance as a whole. They combine a
variety of essential performance elements to determine
an overall level of achievement. The result is then re-
fl ected in a single score. Holistic rubrics are easier to use
and are effective in assessing large numbers of students.
They use the same set of components as analytic rubrics,
but all descriptors for a certain level are listed together;
to achieve that level, the student must accomplish all
aspects of the criteria at the level indicated. A holistic
rubric for the Chicago trip might be: 4 ⫽ getting on the
right plane, getting off the plane in Chicago, getting
downtown, acquiring tickets for a Bears game, and at-
tending the game; 3 ⫽ getting on the right plane, getting
off in Chicago, and getting downtown, but being un-
able to get tickets to a Bears game; 2 ⫽ getting on the
right plane and getting off in Chicago, but being unable
to fi gure out how to get downtown or to a Bears game;
1 ⫽ getting on the right plane, but getting off at the
wrong destination; and 0 ⫽ not getting on the right
plane or any plane. As you can see, this assessment
looks at the whole process of getting to the Bears game,
not just the one aspect of getting on the right plane.
children know specifi cally what is expected. One au-
thor (Andrade 2000) proposed the following scale:
4 ⫽ yes (I did all the aspects of the criterion); 3 ⫽ yes,
but (I did X and Y criteria but didn’t do Z); 2 ⫽ No, but
(I didn’t do X and Y criteria but did do Z); and 1 ⫽ no
(I didn’t do X, Y, or Z criteria). Using our travel anal-
ogy, one criterion might be getting on the right
plane. The possible scale or steps might be the fol-
lowing: 4 ⫽ checking in at the ticket counter, going
to the right gate, giving the ticket to the gate agent,
and getting on the right plane; 3 ⫽ going to the
right gate, giving the ticket to the agent, getting on
the right plane, but not checking in at the ticket
counter; 2 ⫽ giving the ticket to the gate agent and
getting on the right plane, but forgetting to check
in at the ticket counter and going to the wrong gate
fi rst; 1 ⫽ getting on the right plane, but not checking
in, going to the wrong gate, and giving the wrong
ticket to the agent; and 0 ⫽ not getting on the right
plane.
Figure 14.15 illustrates a rubric written for the skill
aspect of a dribbling routine using the same format.
These rubrics are called analytic rubrics, as performance
is analyzed with respect to pieces of the whole. Analytic
CHAPTER 14 Assessing Student Learning 221
Figure 14.16 illustrates a holistic rubric for the throwing
and catching role play.
Regardless of the type of rubric chosen, here are
some strategies to make designing them easier:
• Look at models of well-written rubrics.
• Initially develop rubrics for content areas in which
you have the most expertise.
• List the criteria; then relist and relist them until
they don’t overlap and they indicate the learning
you want to see achieved.
• Have a friend review your rubric.
• Revise the draft. Be ready to write and rewrite. Creat-
ing good rubrics takes time.
• Try out the rubric with one class.
• Revise again.
Rubrics take time (and patience), but the end result
clarifi es student learning and your teaching. The time
is well spent.
Finally, a technique that we fi nd helps immensely
with the evaluation of complex assignments that
contain a variety of components, such as event tasks
and portfolios, is to create an assessment checklist that
designates each of the components. The teacher devel-
ops this assessment checklist in advance, showing all
components of the assessment, with space for record-
ing student data and comments. For written work like
portfolios, the assessment checklist can be stapled to
the student item. This way, a teacher can simply fi ll
out slips when projects are successful. The teacher as-
sessment checklist in and of itself is not an assessment,
but it allows you to organize and manage large assess-
ment projects. Figure 14.17 shows an assessment
checklist for the role play.
Assessing All Three Domains
We do not teach only motor skills and fi tness. For us,
there are clear affective and cognitive goals in our pro-
grams. Therefore we must also assess those goals. The
examples provided in the previous section include as-
sessment ideas in all three domains. Assessments for
Role Playing Assessment Form
Names of Group Members: Group Score: _____________
1. ____________________________________________
2. ____________________________________________
Scenario/Skill: __________________________________________
Scoring Rubric
3. Most critical elements of the skill are clearly explained/demonstrated All group members are active participants in scene Top-notch amateur presentation—ready for center stage!
4. All critical elements of the skill are clearly explained/demonstrated All group members are active participants in scene Top-notch, professional presentation—ready for Broadway!
2. Some critical elements of the skill are clearly explained/demonstrated Most group members are active participants in scene Top-notch school presentation—ready for local cable TV!
1. Few critical elements of the skill are clearly explained/demonstrated Some group members are active participants in scene Could be a top-notch presentation—practicing for a school assembly!
Figure 14.16 Holistic rubric for
throwing and catching role play.
222 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
motor skills and fi tness include homework and peer
observation. Assessment of the affective domain can
occur in the form of student journals or in the form of a
teacher checklist (see Figure 14.18 ). The affective domain
can be a bit tricky to assess — remember, if you want to
assess something, there must be a goal, and it must be
taught. Therefore, if you have affective goals, they
need to be clear to students — for example, “Say some-
thing positive to your partner”— and children must
have time to practice the goals — for example, “When
you fi nish observing your partner, tell them one thing
they did well.” Figure 14.19 provides an exit slip used
to assess feedback to and from partners. The cognitive
domain can be assessed through exit slips (e. g., Helping
Murgatroid) or simply by checking for understanding
with questions during class, identifi ed in skill theme
chapters by the Check for Understanding icon .
The move to assessment for learning has provided
teachers with noninvasive, instructional ways to assess
all three domains.
Fitness Assessments
In Chapter 4 we discuss in depth the use of fi tness assess-
ments in physical education. We encourage you to refer
to that chapter when conducting fi tness assessments.
The assessment of fi tness should follow the same guide-
lines as all other learning in physical education. The
potential downfall of fi tness scores is that, although they
are easy to collect and report, often they are not an indi-
cation of learning in physical education. As with other
types of assessment, we must have taught the content of
Throwing and Catching Role Play Assessment Slip
Date:
Video completed:
Critical cues:
Group members involved:
Quality of presentation:
Comments:
Figure 14.17 Teacher assess-
ment checklist for throwing and
catching role play (Figure 14.13).
Alicia
Bersava
Juan
Miguel
Natalia
Jasmine
Daisy
Respect
Rubric
Participation CommentsRespect
Description of Cues
Level 4 = Always Level 3 = Mostly Level 2 = Sometimes Level 1 = Rarely
Listen to others; encourages others; willingly works with anyone in class; does not distrupt the learning environment
Returns equipment, stays on task (even when the teacher is not looking)
Maintains a positive attitude throughout all activities: tries new things without complaining and saving “I can't”
Self-Directed
Participation
Self-Directed
Figure 14.18 Teacher observa-
tion affective checklist and rubric.
Source: Adapted from Jeanette
Easter and Carla Sassano. SES
440 — teacher work sample.
University of Northern Colorado.
Used with permission.
CHAPTER 14 Assessing Student Learning 223
fi tness with clear goals throughout the physical educa-
tion program; must have used multiple formative assess-
ments along the way; and must have provided much
activity and practice. Otherwise, fi tness reporting does
not provide an indication of achievement in physical
education. Readers sometimes think we are antifi tness
due to the stand we take on formal exercises/calisthenics
and fi tness testing for children. We believe very strongly
in personal health-related fi tness for children; we also
believe in fi tness as a process and as a product of quality
physical education programs.
A Word about Assessing Movement Concepts
As you might have noticed, our discussion of assess-
ment has largely focused on skill themes. Some might
ask, “What about assessing movement concepts?” If
you remember, movement concepts are always per-
formed with a skill theme; therefore it is diffi cult to
physically separate the skill from the concept. You will
fi nd some assessment options in the movement con-
cept chapters, but they are largely cognitive. Cognitive
understanding of the concepts (and skills) precedes ap-
plication of the concepts in children’s movement. Early
assessment of the concepts, therefore, centers on cogni-
tive understanding — for example, checking the class
for understanding; asking for partner-to-partner recall
(two students sharing key points of the lesson with
each other); or using exit slips. As movement skills de-
velop, concepts and skills are used in combination — for
example, striking to send a ball to the right or left; using
easy force for the drop shot; or free-fl ow rolling in gym-
nastics. While it is hard to separate the understanding
of a concept from the ability to do the skill, the use
and understanding of concepts can be assessed when
there is a reasonable level of achievement with the skill.
For example, if a child can travel at a medium speed
without diffi culty, the assessment of the use of path-
ways and changes of direction would be reasonable.
However, if the child was asked to dribble a ball at the
same time and the child’s skill with dribbling was at the
control level, you would not be able to discern the non-
use of pathways from the lack of skill in dribbling.
Assessment of Students with Disabilities
Assessment for learning offers a unique opportunity
for the teacher of the child with disabilities to provide
feedback and guidance to that child. Experts (Block,
Lieberman, and Connor-Kuntz 1998) have strongly
suggested the use of assessment for learning for chil-
dren with disabilities to counteract the pitfalls of tradi-
tional assessment with these children. They contend
that traditional assessment is misused for determining
individualized education programs (IEPs) because it
has no functional relevance, doesn’t help deter mine
instructional techniques, may be inaccurate, and
doesn’t communicate much to parents. They claim that
assessment for learning in adapted physical education
allows a direct link between assessment, programming,
and instruction and promotes measurement of perfor-
mance in a variety of settings, including real-life
functional settings. They suggest using rubrics with
certain modifi cations to accommodate children with
disabilities. First, the rubric should be extended to ac-
commodate more levels of development. Second, rubrics
Name ___________________________________________________
Classroom Teacher's Name ________________________________
1. Circle 3 of the cues that we used today:
Soft passes Guide the ball
Kick / stop with inside of foot Use finger pads
2. Name of the person to whom you gave good comments:
3. What did you say?
4. Name of the person who gave good comments to you:
5. What did he or she say?
Passing a Ball to a Partner with the Feet
Figure 14.19 Exit slip — partner
feedback.
224 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
within rubrics (or analytic rubrics) should be designed
to accommodate specifi c goals included on the IEP,
such as social behavior. For example, if a child is in
a gymnastics unit, items can be added that include
social behavior as part of the gymnastics rubric. Third,
individual rubrics may be needed for children with
more severe problems. Alternative assessment, espe-
cially with the use of appropriate rubrics, may well
help teachers more fully and appropriately include
children with disabilities in their classes. For further
information, see Block, Lieberman, and Connor-Kuntz
(1998).
A second option for assessing students with disabili-
ties is to develop a grading contract based on the stu-
dent’s IEP (Henderson, French, and Kinnison 2001). The
grading contract lists the goals and objectives that the
child is to achieve in physical education. The student is
evaluated based on the extent to which these goals are
achieved. The objectives should be graduated so that
they lead to the desired goal. See Figure 14.20 for an
example of a grading contract.
Assessment for Accountability
While this chapter has focused on assessment for learning,
the National Association for Sport and Physical Education
has recently developed a document that allows for assess-
ment for accountability. PE Metrics: Assessing the National
Standards (NASPE 2009) provides validated and reliable as-
sessment items for NASPE Standard 1. The assessment
items in the book provide detailed information regarding how
to assess various sample performance outcomes as well as
validated rubrics for grades K– 5.
Annual Goals Specific Educational
Services Needed Present Level
of Performance Person Delivering
Service
Short-Term Objectives
SIGNATURES AND TITLES OF APPROPRIATE TEAM MEMBERS: (Signatures indicate approval of this IEP)
Date Completed
Special Instructional Methods and/or Materials Grade
Goal 1. Trevor will improve abdominal strength.
Special physical education consultant services.
Performs eight bent-leg sit-ups with assistance.
Morgan Stewart, special physical educator
Morgan Stewart, special physical educator
With a tennis ball, Trevor hits a 2'x2' target five feet away on 2 of 10 trials.
Special physical education consultant services.
Goal 2. Trevor will improve throwing skills.
1. In the gym, with assistance, Trevor will perform 10 bent-leg sit-ups.
Goal 1. Objectives
10-21-01 mat; social praise; a performance graph
C
B
A
same
same
11-7-01
Progressing; can do 21
2. In the gym, without assistance, Trevor will perform eight bent-leg sit-ups.
3. In the gym, without assistance, Trevor will perform 25 bent-leg sit-ups.
1. With a tennis ball, Trevor will hit a 2'x2' target 5 feet away on 6 of 10 trials.
Goal 2. Objectives
11-14-01 tennis ball and target C
B
A
same
same
11-21-01
12-10-01
2. With a tennis ball, Trevor will hit a 2'x2' target 10 feet away on 6 of 10 trials.
3. With a tennis ball, Trevor will hit a 2'x2' target 20 feet away on 8 of 10 trials.
(Parent) (Teacher) (Administrator/Supervisor)
Figure 14.20 Sample grading contract.
Source: H. Henderson, R. French, and L. Kinnison, Reporting grades for students with disabilities in general physical education, Journal of Physical
Education, Recreation and Dance 72, no. 6 (2001): 50 – 55.
CHAPTER 14 Assessing Student Learning 225
What to Do with the Results of Assessment, or Summarizing and Reporting Progress
At some point, teachers are required to summarize and
report children’s progress to parents and others. This
summative evaluation provides parents and children
with an indication of what the child has learned and
where he or she is with respect to the essential learning
in physical education. It also provides teachers with
information about their program —what has been
accomplished and what needs to be worked on. For
physical education teachers, reporting has always been
nothing short of a nightmare because of the sheer
numbers of children we teach. The systems discussed
here have made reporting practical and formative, and
provide an ongoing record over time.
Two Practical Systems
Austin Independent School District The reporting form ( Figure 14.21 ) used in this district is
grade-level specifi c and emanates directly from the
district standards and the performance outcomes for
each grade. It allows for one year of reporting on
one form and explains the exact nature of the perfor-
mance required to meet the standard. Figure 14.22
is the teacher observation sheet containing the criti-
cal performance cues used to collect the information
reported on the Assessment Report. Notice that this
report corresponds to the third-grade level of the
jumping and landing performance outcomes in
Figure 14.1.
Linden Elementary The system used at Linden Elementary School in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, is similar
to the Texas system except that the report cards are
individually designed for each class or grade level based
on their units of study ( Figure 14.23 ). This allows you
to adapt the report to the various performance out-
comes taught at each grade level while providing a bit
more detail.
Similarities Both of these reporting systems in- volve multiple assessments — at least two and some-
times more — for each theme studied. Most often the
assessments include at least one teacher observation of
critical elements of the skill, one event task, and one
self-assessment. Often the reliability of self-assessments
is questioned. The teachers using these systems found
that student self-assessment was not only accurate and
honest but also increased student learning while inte-
grating instruction and assessment. The assumptions of
these systems are that when children think about their
own learning, they attend more carefully to that learn-
ing. All teachers found that students are good and hon-
est at assessing their own abilities. Additionally, the
approach helped these teachers — even though they
kept lots of records — fi nd the time, energy, and ability
to assess each child more accurately. Note that none of
these systems reported student learning as “grades” per
se: all the teachers found that grading did not commu-
nicate much to the parents or the students. In fact, the
Linden system led to the study and redesign of the
school report card.
Appropriate and Inappropriate Physical Education Practices
Components: Test Procedures and Grading
Appropriate Practice
• Test results are shared privately with children and their
parents /guardians as a tool for developing personal goals
and strategies for developing and improving skills and
health-related fi tness.
• Physical educators provide regular reports of student
progress to students, parents, and /or guardians using a
variety of continuous, formative evaluations and assess-
ments (e.g., heart rate monitor printouts, pedometer step
sheets, skill assessments, knowledge tests, portfolios).
• Grades in physical education are based on thoughtful
identifi ed components that are aligned with course goals
and national standards.
• Students know the component criteria included in their
grade and the rationale for each.
Inappropriate Practice
• Individual scores are publically posted where compari-
sons are made between student scores.
• Parents /guardians never receive information about
program content and their child’s progress beyond a
letter grade on a report card.
• Grades are based on a single opportunity to perform;
formative assessment is not used (e.g., children receive a
grade in physical education based on their scores on a
standardized fi tness test or the number of times they can
continually jump rope).
• Teachers use subjective measures to assign grades
(e.g., grades are based solely on effort, participation,
and /or attitude).
Source: National Association for Sport and Physical Education,
Appropriate Practices for Elementary School Physical Education,
3rd ed. (Reston, VA: NASPE, 2009). Reprinted with permission.
Box 14-3
226 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Figure 14.21 Sample reporting from.
Source: Austin Independent School District, Austin, TX. Used with permission.
AUSTIN INDEPENDENT SCHOOL DISTRICT
Physical Education Assessment Report
THIRD GRADE
Listed below are the AISD Physical Education Content Standards and Benchmarks developed by the National Association for Sport & Physi-
cal Education, Texas Essential Knowledge & Skills, and the AISD Physical Education Curriculum Framework. These standards cover a wide range
of movement, skill themes, social and health concepts, as well as motor skills that are developmentally appropriate for each grade level.
(Please note that spaces on the assessment report will remain blank until that standard has been formally assessed. There are two spaces
beside each content standard: 1) initial assessment, 2) demonstrates improvement when appropriate.)
The content standards have been assessed using the following rubric:
BASIC SOCIAL AND HEALTH PROMOTION SKILL &
CONCEPTS
__/__1. Develop positive self-management and social skills needed
to work independently and with others.
__/__2. Identify and develop personal goals.
__/__3. Show evidence of developing strength, endurance and
fl exibility.
__/__4. List the effects of smoking on physical activity and health.
CHASING, FLEEING AND DODGING
__/__1. Move in a variety of ways that focus on accelerating and
decelerating speed.
__/__2. While moving within a boundaried area dodge stationary
opponents and/or objects.
JUMPING AND LANDING
__/__1. Jump and land (controlled, bent-knee) from a medium level.
__/__2. Jump a self-turned rope using at least three different foot
patterns. (e.g., side to side, straddle, hop)
__/__3. Jump a self-turned rope forward and backward using double
and single bounce landings (smooth, rhythmical jumping).
__/__4. Demonstrate correct rope turning using a self-turned and
long rope.
BODY ROLLING, WEIGHT TRANSFER AND BALANCE
__/__1. Perform a forward roll and fi nish in a tucked or standing
position.
__/__2. Transfer weight across the mat (upright and inverted) in a
variety of ways with large extensions.
__/__3. Transfer weight (hands-on, feet-over) over low equipment
or apparatus. (e.g., beam, bench, box, mat)
__/__4. Design and perform gymnastic sequences involving
changes in directions, levels, pathways and extensions.
EDUCATIONAL DANCE/RHYTHMS
__/__1. Travel and smoothly change directions or movements in a
3 or 4 beat pattern.
__/__2. Move in various ways using defi nite contrasts of bound
and free-fl owing movements.
__/__3. Use “matching or mirroring” and “meeting or parting”
to design and perform dance sequences with a partner or
small group.
BASIC EYE-HAND COORDINATION
Throwing and Catching
__/__1. Throw a ball overhand using varied amounts of force and
speed.
__/__2. Catch a ball tossed by a partner at different levels (high,
medium, low).
__/__3. Manipulate various pieces of equipment. (e.g., hoops,
wands, sticks)
Dribbling with the Hands
__/__1. Dribble a ball and change direction on cue.
__/__2. Dribble a ball and change speed (slow, medium, fast)
on cue.
EYE-HAND COORDINATION WITH EXTENSIONS
Volleying
__/__ Strike a lightweight ball (tossed by a partner) using a
forearm pass (bump) to return the ball to partner.
BASIC EYE-FOOT COORDINATION
Kicking, Dribbling and Trapping
__/__ 1. Run and kick an incoming rolled ball.
__/__2. Use the inside and/or outside of each foot to dribble
the ball.
__/__3. Dribble a ball safely while changing pathways and direc-
tions (straight, curved, zigzag, forward, sideways).
__/__4. Dribble and trap a ball in a boundaried area without losing
control of the ball or colliding with others.
STRIKING WITH AN IMPLEMENT
Striking with Short-Handled Implements
__/__1. Using a forehand motion, continuously strike a rebounding
ball with a lightweight paddle or racket.
Striking with Long-Handled Implements
__/__1. Strike a ball off a tee with a bat.
__/__2. Travel slowly in different directions and dribble a variety of
objects using a variety of long-handled implements.
__/__3. Strike a ball or puck along the ground to a stationary part-
ner using a hockey stick.
CONDUCT AND EFFORT
(4 = Consistently, 3 = Frequently, 2 = Occasionally, 1 = Rarely)
Willingly participates; shows consideration of self, others, and
equipment; listens and follows directions; stays on task.
NINE-WEEK AVERAGE
1st 9 wks. 2nd 9 wks. 3rd 9 wks. 4th 9 wks.
4 = (Excellent) Student is performing the skill using all the cues taught and demonstrating all the cues correctly without reminders.
3 = (Accomplished) Student is performing the skill demonstrating most of the cues taught with occasional reminders of a particular cue.
2 = (Developing) Student is performing the skill demonstrating some of the cues taught with reminders of several cues.
1 = (Just Beginning) Student is showing the beginning stages of learning the skill with constant reminders of all cues.
Student’s Name _______________________________________________ Physical Education Teacher ____________________________
Classroom Teacher _____________________________________________ School Year _________________________________________
CHAPTER 14 Assessing Student Learning 227
TEACHER OBSERVATION
Third Grade: Jumping and Landing
Jump a self- Jump a self-turned Demonstrate
turned rope using rope forward and correct rope turning
Jump and land at least three backward using using a self-turned
from a medium different foot double and single and long
level. patterns. bounce landings. rope.
Student
Names: Date: Date: Date: Date: Date:
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
CUES CUES CUES CUES CUES
Controlled, Side to side, Smooth, Elbows close to
bent knee straddle, hop, skip, rhythmical jumping body
Land on balls step, fast, running Keep elbows Smooth turns
of feet skip step, forward, close to body Rhythmical (turn
backward Make small jumps rope with large,
Swing rope back- smooth, swings)
ward forward
Figure 14.22 Sample teacher observation sheet.
Source: Austin Independent School District, Austin, TX. Used with permission.
228 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Physical Education Grade Three
End-of-Year Report
Child's Name
Listed below are the major themes of study for this semester. The following codes have been used in evaluating your child's progress in skill development:
(SP) Still Practicing—Children have been introduced to the skill. They cannot consistently demonstrate the skill or show very little understanding of the concept. (S) Satisfactory—Children are making satisfactory progress in the development of the skill appropriate for third grade. Some errors still occur, but teacher correction is at a minimum. (M) Mastery—Children demonstrate mastery of the skill or concept at the third grade level. They can apply the skill correctly and independently.
Skill: Jumping and Landing (Preparation for Gymnastics)
Lands safely (knees bent, no crash landings)
Combines jumps with turns and shapes in the air
Jumps and lands safely off gymnastics apparatus
Combines jumps with balances and/or rolls in a gymnastics sequence (see attached)
Homeroom
SP S M
SP S M
Skill: Gymnastics
Balances on different bases of support
Maintains stillness in balances
Works safely on gymnastics apparatus
Skill: Dance and Rhythms
Demonstrates designated dance steps and movement patterns
Performs dances representative of different cultures
Creates a gymnastics sequence on chosen apparatus with an approach, balances, and dismounts from the apparatus (final project)
Combines dribbling with traveling and shooting baskets for lay-ups
Skill: Dribbling and Shooting Baskets
Dribbles and travels at moderate speed with control of ball and body
Shooting set-shots as in basketball (self-evaluation attached)
Skill: Striking with Rackets (Mini-Tennis)
Skill: Jump Rope (see attached checklist)
Overall Health-Related Fitness: (see attached report)
Serious Concern
Serious Concern
Serious Concern
Needs Improvement
Satisfactory
Satisfactory ExcellentOverall Motor Skill Development:
Daily Work Habits
Listening
Independent Task Completion
Cooperative Work with Others
Excellent
Figure 14.23 Report card
based on units of study.
Source: From Shirley Holt / Hale.
Used with permission.
Grading
We have often been asked about “grading.” To many,
assessment and grading are synonymous. In reality,
there are subtle but signifi cant differences. Assess-
ment essentially involves how teachers fi nd out what
students know and can do in relation to the standards
or learning goal. Grading, on the other hand, involves
procedures for compiling data so that an evaluation
can be made for reporting to parents or others (Franklin
2002). All the report systems that we have shown re-
CHAPTER 14 Assessing Student Learning 229
port progress and achievement linking the content to
standards and reporting student progress toward
achieving the standard. We think that grades with-
out an indication of what the standard is do not
communicate meaningful information to parents or
others. After all, what does an “A” say about what a
child can do or has learned? We would much rather
provide information that can be used as feedback
and guidance. However, we realize that some school
districts require you to grade. If that is the case, we
fi rst recommend specifying as clearly as possible
what each grade means in relation to the standard (as
on rubrics). Then assess exactly the same thing as
specifi ed. Translate your scales from the rubrics into
grades and report to parents. For example, Austin’s
ratings —“just beginning,” “developing,” “accom-
plished,” “excellent”— could be translated into 1, 2,
3, 4 or D, C, B, A. Remember, though, as with all
assessment, there should be many assessment oppor-
tunities and options. Grades should be a result of all of
these. If at all possible, we suggest reporting progress
and achievement in ways that are the most meaningful.
Grades rarely indicate such. Box 14-1 indicates appropri-
ate and inappropriate assessment and grading practices.
Finding the Time for Assessment
Time has always been an issue in physical education.
One concern voiced by many physical education
teachers is that these assessment for learning options
take time (and we have little time as it is in physical
education). In recent years it has become increas-
ingly obvious to us that physical education programs
that are limited to one or two days a week have less
impact on children than daily programs of physical
education (Graham, Metzler, and Webster 1991).
That is true, but it has also become clear that what is
not assessed is not valued (Rink and Mitchell 2002).
Indeed, the marginalized status of physical education
can, in part, be attributed to the lack of assessment
(Hay 2006). Thus the future of physical education
may, to some extent, lie in how well we can docu-
ment what it is that students learn in our classes.
Remember, assessment for learning links instruction
and assessment by providing meaningful learning tasks.
Well-designed assessment tasks thus enhance learning.
The development of assessment items, like good
teaching, takes time. No instructor who teaches several
hundred children each week— as many physical edu-
cation instructors do —has time to use all the assess-
ment techniques described in this chapter. But a refl ec-
tive teacher is aware of these techniques and uses them
with different classes for different purposes. Perhaps
you’ll have one class at a time keeping logs. And you
may be able to send only one written report a year to
parents.
Select from the various assessment techniques those
that are most appropriate; each technique provides a
different type of information. For example, journals
provide fascinating insights into how children are pro-
gressing in designing their own games or dances, but
a checklist would be far less appropriate for that pur-
pose. In contrast, a checklist is useful for assessing
children’s individual abilities in a new situation — for
example, for a class of kindergarten children or during
a teacher’s fi rst year in a new school. To simplify that
process we encourage you to use examples that you
fi nd here and to modify examples you fi nd elsewhere.
PE Central ( www.pecentral.org ) is a wonderful source
of possible assessment items.
Even when you narrow the assessment options to
be used with your classes, time can still be an issue. For
example, it’s counterproductive to assess one child
while the others stand in line waiting their turn. There
are several ways to minimize the waiting time for chil-
dren during assessment:
• Set up stations or learning centers (Chapter 13). Stay
at one of the stations, and use that as the assess-
ment station. If you plan to do this, be certain the
children are familiar with the other stations so that
you can devote most of your time to helping with
the assessments rather than explaining procedures
at the other stations.
• Ask the classroom teacher (or another teacher, para-
professional, parent, or high school student) to assist
with the class. The assistant can either help some
children while you work with the other children or
supervise most of the class while you work with a
few children at a time.
• Videotape the children so that you can make your
judgments about skill levels and progress during
your planning time or after school.
• Use a tape recorder as you teach, and use the class
list as a guide for observing each child; then record
your comments about the child’s ability level and
improvement as you move about.
• Divide the gym into sections, and have students begin
each day in a home section that is consistent. Design
the fi rst task children are to do as an assessment task—
for example, “Dribble with your dominant hand using
the cues we have practiced.” Using a teacher observa-
tion checklist, observe one or two groups each day
until you have observed all children.
The recent surge of handheld computer assessment
programs that you can use to download results into
desktop computers makes assessment much less time
consuming. Many programs allow you to record “on
230 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
the spot” children’s scores and the results of assessment
tasks and then enter them automatically into various
record-keeping programs. These programs and comput-
ers have become much more affordable, accessible, and
user-friendly. This information changes on almost a
daily basis, but we suggest you check Bonnie Mohnsen’s
book Using Technology in Physical Education (2008) or
your district’s technology department for more infor-
mation on these programs.
Handheld computers could easily revolutionize as-
sessment practices because of the reduction of paper-
work and increased effi ciency they provide. However, as
indicated in the Chapter 4 box Technology in Fitness/
Wellness Education (page 49), although we encourage
the use of technology to enhance your physical educa-
tion program, do not confuse the increased use of
technology with effective teaching.
Although it may not be possible for children to
reach utilization or profi ciency level in a skill such as
throwing in the limited time allotted to physical edu-
cation, it is realistic to expect that children can at least
learn the key cues for the points that we emphasize in
our programs. Although that is not totally satisfactory,
it does represent progress. It is encouraging to realize
that even though all the children in our program are
not throwing at the utilization level, they do know
how to throw correctly if, and when, they choose to
throw on their own. The time issue will not go away,
but it is our belief that the use of time for assessment is
well worth the investment. The information gathered
from and provided by assessment is critical to children’s
learning, to instructional decisions that meet the needs
of the child, to the design of the program, and maybe
even to the retention of the program. The assessment
movement has aligned goals and evaluation with in-
struction. They are no longer separate entities but
pieces of the same puzzle. Assessment is an ongoing
process that occurs in every lesson, simply by the na-
ture of the tasks students do. Assessment is instruction.
Assessment is simply teaching well.
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. What is assessment for learning? How does it differ
from assessment for accountability and traditional
assessment modes?
2. What are the purposes of assessment in physical
education?
3. What does it mean to tie assessment to instruction
and the whole learning process?
4. What are fi ve options available for assessment for
learning?
5. What is the purpose of having children keep a jour-
nal? How does the journal differ from the other
assessment options?
6. What are scoring rubrics? How do they work?
7. What is the difference between assessment and
grading?
8. Select one of the reporting systems and provide an
argument for using that system as opposed to the
others. Imagine you are actually teaching as you
write your answer.
9. Explain why assessment is necessary in children’s
physical education.
Summary
Assessment can be defi ned as determining if and to
what extent a student can demonstrate, in context, his
or her understanding and ability relative to identifi ed
standards of learning. This defi nition alludes to three
critical elements: It includes a performance of learning
in a real setting against previously set standards.
Assessment also provides a direct measure of teach-
ing effectiveness. No longer is assessment an “end-of-
the-unit thing”; now it is an ongoing process that
happens on a daily basis in physical education classes.
This type of assessment is known as assessment for
learning. Assessment for learning is directly linked
with instruction, not separated from it. In this way,
instruction and assessment inform the whole learning
process.
Many assessment for learning options exist. The
ones we have chosen to focus on include journals, exit
slips, homework, peer observation, event tasks, video/
digital analysis, student drawings, student displays,
teacher observation, self-assessment, and portfolios.
These assessment options can be used to provide feed-
back to children, assess student learning, report prog-
ress to parents, and discover individual children’s needs
and interests. Progress reports to children’s parents are
the preferred mode of reporting student progress
whenever feasible.
CHAPTER 14 Assessing Student Learning 231
References /Suggested Readings
Andrade , H. 2000 . Using rubrics to promote thinking and learning. Educational Leadership 57(5): 13 –19 .
Block , M. , L. Lieberman , and F. Connor-Kuntz . 1998 . Authentic assessment in adapted physical education. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 69(3): 48 – 55 .
Cutforth , N. , and M. Parker. 1996 . Promoting affective development in physical education: The value of journal writing. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 67(7): 19 –23 .
Davies , A. 2000 . Seeing the results for yourself: A portfolio primer. Classroom Leadership 3(5): 4 –5 .
Entzion , B. , M. Fairchild , M. Parker , C. Pemberton , T. Steen , D. Taylor , and J. Whitehead . 1991 . Super active kids pro- gram instructor’s manual. Unpublished manuscript, Univer- sity of North Dakota at Grand Forks, Department of Health, Physical Education and Recreation.
Franklin , J. 2002 , Spring. Assessing assessment: Are alternative methods making the grade? Curriculum Update. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development .
Graham , G. 2008 . Teaching children physical education. 3rd ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Graham , G. , M. Metzler , and G. Webster . 1991 . Specialist and classroom teacher effectiveness in children’s physical education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 10(4): 321– 326 .
Hay , P. J. 2006 . Assessment for learning in physical edu- cation. In The handbook of physical education, ed. D. Kirk, D. Macdonald, and M. O’Sullivan, pp. 312 –25 . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage .
Henderson , H. , R. French , and L. Kinnison . 2001 . Reporting grades for students with disabilities in general physical education. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 72(6): 50 –55 .
Hoerr , T. 2000 . Reporting what we respect. Classroom Leader- ship 3(5): 2 –3 .
Holt/Hale , S. 1999 . Assessing motor skills in elementary physical education. Reston, VA: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance .
Lambert , L. 1999 . Standards based assessment of student learn- ing: A comprehensive approach. Reston, VA: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance .
Melograno , V. J. 1994 . Portfolio assessment: Documenting authentic student learning. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 65(8): 50 – 61 .
Mohnsen , B. 2008 . Using technology in physical education. 6th ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 1995 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. St. Louis, MO: Mosby .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2004 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. 2nd ed. Reston, VA: NASPE .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Educa- tion. 2008 . Appropriate practices for elementary school physical education. 3rd ed. Reston, VA: NASPE .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2009 . PE Metrics: Assessing the National Standards — Standard 1—Elementary . Reston, VA: NASPE .
Prusak , K. , and S. Vincent. 2005 . Is your class about some- thing? Guiding principles for physical education teachers. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 76(6): 25 –28 .
Questioning our motives. 1996 . Education Update, Associa- tion for Supervision and Curriculum Development 38(4): 5 .
Rink , J. 2006 . Teaching physical education for learning. 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill .
Rink , J., and M. Mitchell. 2002 . High stakes assessment: A journey into unknown territory. Quest 54(3): 205 –23 .
Rosenberg , M. 1965 . Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press .
Schiemer , S. 2000 . Assessment strategies for elementary physi- cal education. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Smith , M. A. , and D. B. Claxton . 2003 . Using active home- work in physical education. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 75(5): 28 – 32 .
Wiggins , G. 1993 . Assessing student performance. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass .
Wilson , S. , and K. Roof . 1999 . Establishing a portfolio process for K– 8 learners. Teaching Elementary Physical Education 10(5): 10 –14 .
Wolf , D. , and A. White. 2000 . Charting the course of student
growth. Educational Leadership 57(5): 6 –12 .
232
C H A P T E R
15
Understanding Your Teaching Of all the things teachers undertake, the most important, it seems to me, is doing the thinking of
teaching or the refl ecting about the complexities of their work. . . . Learning is continuous as refl ective
teachers engage in the work of thinking and doing. . . . In this way, learning is central to teaching.
— ANNA RICHERT
CHAPTER 15 Understanding Your Teaching 233
O ne implication of Chapter 5, “Refl ective Teach-
ing,” is that teaching is an incredibly complex
activity. As teachers we have to take into consi-
deration as we teach a variety of infl uences, including
our experience as a teacher, the facilities in which we
work, the frequency of our class meetings, the number
of students in our classes, attitudes of children toward
physical education, our beliefs as a teacher, and the like.
Beyond taking into account those infl uences, the tasks
that we perform as teachers are multiple and distinct.
We have to choose content to teach, determine how to
deliver it in the most meaningful way, deliver it to meet
the needs of all learners, and assess the results. Addition-
ally, we have to interact with children, administrators,
parents, custodians, and other teachers. We have to
comfort the fearful child and assure concerned parents.
What is more, we cultivate hope, coax curiosity, and
celebrate success. This list of “jobs” could go on and on,
and as Locke (1975) indicates, it represents only a portion
of what is necessary to do the work of good teaching. Yet
our job doesn’t end here. Equally important as doing or
attending to all these obligations is the thinking that is
associated with doing them (Richert 1995).
Some have asked us why we even include this chap-
ter in Children Moving. It is precisely because this
continuing to wonder, worry, and refl ect on what is
happening in their gymnasiums and classrooms and on
their playgrounds is what separates effective from inef-
fective teachers. Effective teachers learn by inquiring
into their practice. They think about their experiences
in order to make sense of them. When faced with a situ-
ation for which there is no easy or certain answer, they
engage in refl ective inquiry. They gather as much infor-
mation as possible about the situation that puzzles
them, and then scrutinize the information to determine
how they will act in the future. Most often this process
is informal—we all engage in it to some extent to an-
swer the millions of questions we encounter in our work
on a daily basis—yet occasionally the process is more
formal. Either way, it is the constant and ongoing pro-
cess of refl ection that provides the basis for learning in
teaching. It is this process of learning in teaching that
makes good teaching responsive to the uncertainties of
the rapidly changing world of which it is a part (Richert
1995) and allows teachers to differentiate instruction
(see Chapter 5). Refl ective teachers work to improve the
learning of their students via the improvement of their
teaching throughout their teaching careers. Unfortu-
nately, refl ection and inquiry into teaching are left
largely to the individual teacher. Historically, the cul-
ture of schools has been one of isolation and individual-
ism, where teachers work under conditions long ago
imposed by administration, school board policy, and
state guidelines and there is little instruction-related
conversation (Glickman, Gordon, and Ross-Gordan
2007). This lack of instructional sharing is often coupled
with a lack of shared technical language, diffi cult work
assignments, and unclear expectations. Compounding
the issue is the lack of meaning ful (and sometimes inac-
curate) feedback provided to teachers. For example, an
assessment based on how much the students like a
teacher doesn’t provide much useful information about
that teacher’s performance, nor does a principal’s evalu-
ation based on a fi ve-minute, once-a-year visit to the
gymnasium. Some student teachers receive feedback
from their supervisors that is both helpful and accurate.
Few teachers, however, continue to receive throughout
their teaching careers the amount and type of feedback
vital to improving teaching performance.
The notion that, upon certifi cation, a teacher knows
all there is to know about how and what to teach and
requires little, if any, assistance is quickly being
discredited (Stroot 2001). In its place is growing accep-
tance of the belief that teachers, if they are to progress in
their teaching, can benefi t from refl ection, guidance,
• Refl ection on teaching is an essential aspect of continual
growth as a teacher.
• Regular self-refl ection on teaching allows teachers to
become more effective by determining more specifi c
information to gather.
• Systematic observation allows a teacher to obtain clear
and detailed information about various aspects of teaching.
• Systematic observation techniques include unassisted
techniques, student-assisted techniques, and peer-
assisted techniques.
• Collecting information on feedback and lesson content
development are unassisted techniques.
• Student-assisted techniques that provide more observ-
able information include such things as information on
interaction patterns with students and the quantity of
practice opportunities the students have.
• Peer-assisted techniques allow for a still-higher level of
detail and include the quality and quantity of practice
opportunities and feedback, the use of time in class,
and the clarity of demonstrations.
• Observation techniques should be combined and
designed to answer the questions that teachers generate
based on their own refl ection.
• Support groups allow teachers to analyze teaching and
learning environments with the help of others.
Key Concepts
234 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
and assistance. Although some school districts provide
mentors for beginning teachers, few arrange for ongoing
assistance and development opportunities throughout
the teaching years. This chapter provides some strate-
gies and techniques for refl ecting on your teaching to
make it congruent with your beliefs about school, chil-
dren, physical education, and effective teaching and
learning environments. Chapter 12 provided you with
techniques to allow you to “see” your students; this
chapter will allow you to “see” yourself through the use
of self-refl ection, systematic observation, and the use of
support groups.
Systematic Observation
Consistent self-refl ection allows us to determine points
of exploration about our teaching; systematic observa-
tion allows us to obtain more objective information
about those points. Systematic observation is the or-
derly and focused collection of specifi c and defi ned
information about teaching. Again, in view of the usual
lack of assistance teachers receive, many of the tech-
niques we include in this chapter can be carried out on
your own or with the assistance of another teacher, a
videotape, or an “untrained” observer.
Getting Started
Regardless of who is collecting the information about
your teaching, the most important aspect is deciding
what teaching action to look at or target. Although it
may seem as if we are stating the obvious, we have seen
more than one teacher collect information about their
teaching without having a clear purpose. These “tar-
gets” may stem directly from your self-refl ection or from
the variables that have been shown to be related to ef-
fective teaching (Silverman and Ennis 2003). Box 15-1
Elementary school physical education teachers have
been observed who clocked as little as three and a
half minutes of signifi cant face-to-face contact with
other adults between the hours of 7:30 a.m. and
4:30 p.m. The teacher can be psychologically alone in
a densely populated world. The physical (architectural)
isolation of the gym located away from the political
heartland of the school and the social isolation of the
physical educator role, which may make the teacher
peripheral to the real business of the school, both
seem to sustain and intensify the feelings of isolation.
Teaching physical education in some schools is a
lonely job, awash in an endless sea of children.
—LARRY LOCKE, “The Ecology of the Gymnasium:
What the Tourist Never Sees”
Self-Refl ection
Housner (1996) suggests that ongoing refl ection regard-
ing one’s knowledge, beliefs, instructional practices, and
teaching effectiveness is essential to ongoing professional
growth. Self-refl ection allows a teacher to thoughtfully
contemplate and act upon the struggles and successes
encountered in teaching (Stroot and Whipple 2003).
Self-refl ection is best accomplished as an ongoing and
purposeful process that creates a permanent product of
your thoughts. Most often this is through a written
journal or an audiotaped log. Regardless of how self-
refl ection is accomplished, there are two keys to its
success. First, be consistent with it. Set a time frame for
self-refl ection. It might be daily, biweekly, or weekly.
But regardless of the time period you choose, do it con-
sistently. Second, whether your refl ection is written or
verbal, review it periodically. These refl ections often
lead teachers to identify concerns and begin to think
about how to reduce problems and enhance the learning
environment. When specifi c concerns are identifi ed or
interests arise, systematic observation can be employed
to obtain more formal and reliable information.
Actions of Effective Teachers
Research has shown that effective teachers —whether
classroom or physical education teachers — share similar
behaviors. Effective teachers:
• Give students time to learn by devoting a high percent-
age of time to the academic subject.
• Communicate high, yet realistic, expectations for
students.
• Establish routines and organizational structures that lead
to a positive classroom management climate.
• Present meaningful and challenging tasks in which stu-
dents are highly successful.
• Move the class forward with determined direction.
• Communicate the content clearly and hold students
accountable for completing tasks.
• Assess students’ skill progress closely and change practice
to fi t students’ needs.
• Communicate warmth through clear, enthusiastic
presentations.
Source: B. Cusimano, P. Darst, and H. van der Mars, Improv-
ing your teaching through self-evaluation, Strategies 7, no. 8
(1993): 28. Used with permission.
Box 15-1
CHAPTER 15 Understanding Your Teaching 235
Determining What to Observe
If you’re having problems with inappropriate behavior, select
one or more of the following:
• Look at your plans for potential breakdowns.
• Transcribe all your instructions to the class, and check
for clarity. Did you know what was supposed to happen?
Did you mix the organizational and content portions of
your instruction?
• Videotape a lesson to analyze your use of time. Was
there an extreme amount of management time? Waiting
time?
• Record your feedback. Did you handle inappropriate
behavior promptly and consistently, or did you nag often?
To check the atmosphere of your class, do one or more of
the following:
• Tally your feedback. Was there a large percentage of
negative feedback?
• Check student interaction patterns. Did you favor one
group over another?
To assess the instructional environment, select from the
following:
• Check your task development. Did you disperse chal-
lenges throughout the lesson or only at the end?
• Assess each student’s practice opportunities. Did
children have lots of practice chances?
• Check the general use of class time.
• Tally feedback with specifi c attention to skill feedback.
• Evaluate the quality of the demonstrations provided to
your class.
Ways to analyze your answers to these questions and obtain
some helpful insights are discussed in the remainder of the
chapter.
Box 15-2
enumerates some of the actions, gleaned from research
on teaching, of effective teachers. In Chapter 9 we
stated that establishing a learning environment is a
necessary but not suffi cient condition for student
learning and that the class environment indicates
what you believed about children and physical educa-
tion. Therefore, if nothing else seems to fi t, determin-
ing whether you have set up a learning environment
and what that environment is like may be a good
place to start. The checklists in Box 15-2 can help you
decide what to look for, based on your questions about
teaching.
Unassisted Techniques
You can learn much about your teaching without rely-
ing on others for observation, interpretation, or anal-
ysis. Unassisted analysis techniques for analyzing your
teaching performance involve either audio or video
recording. Audio recording can easily be accomplished
by attaching a recorder to your arm. Video recording
using a wireless microphone will lend itself to even
more information (without a wireless microphone,
the noise in the gym makes it almost impossible to
hear the conversations between teacher and children).
The children quickly become accustomed to seeing the
audio or video recorder, and before long they forget
about it.
A wealth of information can be gained from listen-
ing to your teaching. You can learn, for example, the
answers to such important questions as:
• What percentage of a lesson did I spend talking to
the entire class? To groups? To individuals?
• Are my verbal comments clear? Do I repeat myself
frequently?
• What percentage of my comments to the children
are positive? Negative? Neutral? Do I nag children?
• Do I interact with many children in a class? Or do
I focus on just a few, constantly calling their
names?
• How do I develop the lesson content?
These and many other questions can be answered by
making audio or video recordings. Finding the answers
involves defi ning what you want to assess, listening to
the tape, tallying the number of times each behavior
occurs or recording the length of time something oc-
curs, and then determining percentages. We often use
this kind of recording to analyze the feedback we give
to students, and to analyze how we develop content
with individual classes.
Feedback Analysis Feedback, the information the teacher provides to individual or small groups of chil-
dren about the quality of their movement or behavior,
based on observation, is one aspect of teaching that
can be analyzed from an audio or video tape. The
teacher feedback form ( Figure 15.1 ) allows you to ana-
lyze your feedback by tallying each comment you
make to children. Depending on the lesson and your
interest, you may simply want to total the amount and
type of feedback you give. You may also want to deter-
mine which children receive your feedback— and what
type of feedback they receive. If you want to analyze
total feedback, simply tally each statement, placing it
in one of the feedback categories shown in Figure 15.1,
defi ned on p. 236. (If you want to analyze feedback to in-
dividual children, see the later discussion of Figure 15.5.)
236 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
You may want to use all these categories, or just one
or two.
Your fi rst choice is specifi c versus general feedback.
Specifi c feedback has to do with either the child’s skill
or the child’s behavior. If, however, there is no way
for the child to tell (based just on your statement)
whether your comment is about skill or behavior, the
feedback is general. “Good” is probably the most com-
mon general feedback statement heard in physical edu-
cation lessons, followed closely by “OK.” If the feedback
is specifi c, the next step is to determine whether it is
about skill (movement) or behavior. Then, ask yourself
whether the child to whom the comments were pro-
vided would perceive them as positive, corrective, or
negative. In addition, you may want to determine
whether the feedback was congruent or incongruent
with the cues of the lesson—specifi cally, with what you
asked the children to think about when you last gave
instruction. Congruent feedback relates directly to what
you said immediately before the children began their
activity. Incongruent feedback, in contrast, might be
about something the children were never told or hadn’t
been reminded of for several weeks. (Note that if you
code congruent/incongruent feedback, it will be a “dou-
ble tally” in a row. One for positive, corrective, or nega-
tive and one for congruent/incongruent.) This sounds
complicated, but as the process is broken down, it will
become easier.
Assume, for instance, that the children are practic-
ing striking with paddles (Chapter 27) and the teacher
is focusing on teaching them to turn their sides to the
target so that they can swing more effi ciently. Follow-
ing are some examples of feedback and the way each
statement would be coded on the teacher feedback
form shown in Figure 15.1:
• “Marilyn, that swing was great! You really turned
your side to the target.” (specifi c, skill, positive,
congruent)
• “Terrifi c.” (general, positive)
• “Mark, remember to keep your eye on the ball.”
(specifi c, skill, corrective, incongruent)
Teacher: Date:
Grade/Activity: # of Pupils:
Start time: End time: Elapsed time:
Rate/Minute COMMENTS:
FEEDBACK
Specific
General
Total
Rate/Minute
BEHAVIOR FEEDBACK
Praise Scold Positive Corrective Negative Congruent Incongruent
SKILL FEEDBACK
Teacher Feedback
Figure 15.1 Teacher feedback form.
CHAPTER 15 Understanding Your Teaching 237
• “Christine, stay in your own space.” (specifi c, behav-
ior, scold)
• “Kakki, way to keep your side to the target.” (specifi c,
skill, positive, congruent)
• “Good side, Rosie.” (specifi c, skill, positive,
congruent)
• “Kevin, that’s wrong.” (general, negative)
• “Side, Steve.” (specifi c, skill, corrective, congruent)
• “Juan, you are facing the target; don’t do that.”
(specifi c, skill, negative, congruent)
When you tally your various feedback statements,
you will have a profi le that lets you know what type of
feedback you tend to give. Additionally, you can deter-
mine a feedback rate per minute by dividing the total
number of statements into the elapsed time to fi nd out
how much feedback you give. While the information on
the types of feedback necessary is mixed (Rink 2003) a
good pattern to strive for is skill-specifi c, corrective, and
congruent feedback to enhance learning, and positive
behavior feedback to promote an appropriate envi-
ronment. Don’t worry if your pattern doesn’t initially
appear as you would like it to be — after all, anything
we do takes practice. The good news is that adjusting
feedback is relatively easy (van der Mars 1987).
Lesson Content Another useful type of informa- tion you can collect is how content is developed in
your lesson. As described in Chapter 11, there are
three categories of information you may wish to col-
lect regarding your lessons: the tasks you give the chil-
dren, the cues you provide, and the challenges you
offer. The tasks are the activities you actually ask the
students to do. Examples might be asking the children
to bounce a ball in self-space or to bounce a ball while
traveling in general space. Cues, or critical elements,
are the hints you provide the children to help them
perform the task more effectively or correctly. Exam-
ples would be “fi nger pads” and “bend your knees.”
Cues always seek to improve the quality of the student
performance and are listed at the beginning of each
task segment in the skill theme chapters. Challenges
shift the focus to using the skill in a more demanding
or testing situation. These are most often self-testing
or competitive situations.
Figure 15.2 shows a graph you can use to deter-
mine how content is developed in a lesson. Before
fi lling in the graph, listen to your recording and write
down, in order, every task, cue, and challenge pre-
sented during the class session. Then categorize each
as a task, cue, or challenge. (For this project, record
only tasks, cues, or challenges that are given to the
entire class, not feedback or suggestions that are given
to individual students.)
After you have labeled the tasks, cues, and chal-
lenges, plot them on the graph in the order in which
they occurred. Once you have fi nished, you will have
a picture of how your lesson progressed. Although
there is no “perfect” pattern of content development,
a good rule of thumb is that the graph should refl ect a
zigzag pattern and not steps. The use of tasks, cues,
and challenges should be mixed across the lesson
rather than practice, practice, practice, game. This mix
allows children to progressively develop their skills
while staying motivated and focused.
Student-Assisted Techniques
Mature, responsible students can occasionally help
you assess your teaching performance by using tech-
niques they can learn in just a few minutes. These
methods can provide information that cannot be ob-
tained by the two unassisted techniques described
above. The determination of teacher interaction pat-
terns with students and the number of practice op-
portunities children receive are two techniques that
provide a great deal of information about the learning
environment of a class.
Interaction Patterns It’s important to interact, verbally or nonverbally, with each child during each les-
son. You can use an interaction checklist ( Figure 15.3 ) to
obtain information about your patterns of interaction
with an entire class.
Select a student who knows the names of all the
children in the class. Give that student a checklist on
which you’ve listed the names of the entire class. The
student can then make a tally, in the appropriate col-
umn, across from the name of each child you talk to,
touch, or smile at during one class period. At the
conclusion of the lesson, you can use the completed
checklist to analyze your interaction patterns and de-
termine if there is differential treatment of children.
On another level, you may be able to determine
whether there’s a disparity in your interactions with
different groups of children. Are you interacting more
with the most-skilled children than with the least-
skilled ones? Are you interacting with boys more than
girls? Are you interacting with one race more than
the others? Or do the interaction patterns indicate
some other distribution of attention? For example,
identify a most-skilled and a least-skilled group — each
group should include about 25 percent of the class.
From an analysis of the interactions with each group
and a comparison of these two interaction patterns,
you determine the group to whom you are devoting
more time.
238 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
TEACHER: DATE: GRADE: NO. OF STUDENTS:
Challenge
Cue
Task
CONTENT DEVELOPMENT
1 2 3 4 5 Activities
Definitions: Tasks: Activities that present the skill to be practiced Cues: Words that focus on the critical elements of the skill Challenges: Self-testing or competitive experiences
6 7 8 9 10
Analysis: Number of tasks, cues, or challenges/Total number of activities = % ___________ % tasks ___________ % cues ___________ % challenges
DIRECTIONS: Write down, in order, the statements made to the entire class about motor skills. At times you may need to leave out a few words, but try to get down the intent of the statement. After the lesson is over, classify each statement as a task, cue, or challenge, and then graph the statements in the order they occurred. Use the back of the sheet if necessary.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Figure 15.2 Content development graph.
CHAPTER 15 Understanding Your Teaching 239
Practice Opportunities Effective teachers give children plenty of practice opportunities. One way to
indirectly assess the number of practice opportunities
students are getting in a class is to teach a student
helper to observe and record the number of practices for
selected students ( Figure 15.4 ). You may want to select
the children to be observed, or the student helper can
select two or more children to observe. This technique
works best when the lesson focuses on discrete skills —
such as rolls, catches, or kicks — that can be written on
the form before the lesson.
Peer-Assisted Techniques
Some children could learn to use the data-gathering
systems, but for these methods it’s more realistic to seek
the assistance of a colleague who’s willing to help you
assess your teaching performance. Such an arrange-
ment can be mutually benefi cial, because the systems
described in this section can be easily adapted for use in
a classroom setting. Thus, if there’s only one physical
education specialist in the school, a classroom teacher
could work as peer assistant with the specialist. The
techniques presented here allow you to gain more de-
tailed information about practice opportunities and
feedback, to determine how time was used during the
class, and to assess the quality of the demonstrations
that were given to the children.
Practice Opportunities and Feedback Check- list This system goes a bit further than the practice opportunities checklist (Figure 15.4) and the teacher
Student's Name Talked To Total
INTERACTION CHECKLIST
Teacher: Start Time: End Time:
Smiled At Touched
Types of Interaction
Nick
Tom
Carlos
Naomi
Abbey
3
4
2
1
7
12 2 3 17 Total Interactions
COMMENTS:
Observer:
Date:
Figure 15.3 Interaction checklist.
240 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
feedback form (Figure 15.1) described in the previous
sections. Using the form shown in Figure 15.5 , a col-
league selects several children without your knowl-
edge and records their practice opportunities, circling
successful attempts. He or she also records feedback
statements you make to the students being observed.
Each statement is marked as related to the child’s
movement or behavior, and, when possible, as posi-
tive or negative. Neutral statements are not recorded
under the behavior heading. For example, the state-
ment “Nice catch, Carmelita” would be marked on
the teacher feedback part of the checklist under
“movement, positive.” The statement “Jeff, you never
listen!” would be marked under “behavior, negative.”
This observation system is relatively simple to learn
and can be used reliably after just a few minutes of
practice.
Duration Recording System Duration recording allows you to see how you use time within your physical
education class. It provides a look at what students are
actually doing and for how long. This system, which is a
bit more diffi cult to use than the teacher feedback form,
divides the use of time in class into four categories: activ-
ity time, instruction time, management time, and wait-
ing time. The total amount of time, in minutes and
seconds, is determined for each of the four categories,
allowing the teacher to see how the class spent its time.
Minutes and seconds can be converted into percentages,
so that you can compare one lesson with another.
Figure 15.4 Practice opportunities
checklist.
Name of Child
Date Teacher Observer Theme of Lesson
Practice Opportunities
OBSERVATIONAL DATA
R OL
L
C AT
CH
KI CK
TH R OW
CHAPTER 15 Understanding Your Teaching 241
The duration recording form ( Figure 15.6 ) contains
fi ve time bars, each representing 7 minutes, marked
off in 15-second increments. The form defi nes the
codes the peer assistant should use to report what is
happening: A for activity, I for instruction, M for
management, and W for waiting. The peer assistant
records the exact time the lesson begins — the time at
which the children enter the gym or playground. (Al-
ternatively, you can analyze a videotaped lesson.)
From that moment until the end of the lesson, the
peer assistant, using a watch that allows for the deter-
mination of seconds, marks the time bars to refl ect
what is happening in the class. When there is a change
in student behavior, the assistant indicates the change
by writing the appropriate letter in the next space on
the bar. At the end of the lesson, the time is recorded.
The peer assistant uses the defi nitions and examples
in Table 15.1 as guides to accurate coding. It is impor-
tant to remember to code what 51 percent (or more
than half) of the students are doing and to code what
is happening for the majority of the segment. So, if
only 10 of 25 students are active or if 15 students are
active but only for 5 seconds of the 15-second seg-
ment, a W would be recorded (if the students are
waiting for a turn).
After the lesson, the teacher uses the information
on the duration recording form to calculate what
percentage of class time was spent in each category.
The following procedure should be used: Add up the
seconds for each of the four categories. Divide each
category total by the total lesson time in seconds,
and then multiply each by 100. The calculations at the
Figure 15.5 Practice opportunities and
teacher feedback checklist.
Name of Child
Date Teacher Observer
Theme of Lesson
Practice
Opportunities
Teacher
Feedback
OBSERVATIONAL DATA
KI CK
SI NG
MARK
CARMELITA
TODD
ARIAM
SUSIE
MOVEMENT BEHAVIOR
FEBRUARY 12
WANDA JUDY KICKING AND CATCHING
CA TC
H IN
S
P OS
IT IV
E
NE G AT
IV E
P OS
IT IV
E
NE G AT
IV E
242 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Category Definition Examples
Activity Practice Time when most students (51 percent or more) are Practicing a skill; designing a game, dance, or
involved in physical movement consistent with the gymnastic sequence; participating in a group or
specifi c goals of the particular lesson. individual game; providing assistance for a partner
Instruction Time when students have an opportunity to learn. They Listening to a lecture, watching the teacher or another
may be receiving verbal or nonverbal information. Most student demonstrate a skill, participating in a class
students (51 percent or more) are engaged in cognitive discussion, answering teacher’s questions
activity about the lesson focus.
Management Time when the opportunity to learn is not present. Most Changing activities, forming groups, listening for roll
students (51 percent or more) are involved in activities call, getting out or putting away equipment, getting
only indirectly related to class learning activity. There is into line
no instruction, demonstration, or practice.
Waiting Time not defi ned by the other three categories Waiting for class to begin, or waiting for instruction
to resume when it has been interrupted by another
teacher, student messenger, parent, principal, or public
address system; waiting in line for a turn
Table 15.1 Coding Guide for the Duration Recording System
Figure 15.6 Duration recording form.
DURATION RECORDING—LEARNING TIME ANALYSIS
Teacher: Grade/Activity:
Coder: Date: # of Students:
TIMELINE
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
15 16 17 18 19 20 21
22 23 24 25 26 27 28
29 30 31 32 33 34 35
A I A I - - A - - I - - A - - - - - - - W - - I - - - -
A - - - - - - - - - M - - A - - - - - M - - - - A - - -
Codes: Activity = A Instruction = I Management = M Waiting = W
(total lesson time in seconds)
Time Analysis: No. of intervals ⫻ 15 seconds = 56 x 15 = 840
33 x 15 = 495/840 = 59% 8 x 15 = 120/840 = 14%
12 x 15 = 180/840 = 21% 3 x 15 = 45/840 = 5%
Note: Percentages don't equal 100 due to rounding.
Total Lesson Time
COMMENTS:
A = M =
I = W =
Start time: End time: Elapsed time:
CHAPTER 15 Understanding Your Teaching 243
bottom of Figure 15.6 illustrate how the percentages
for that sample lesson were determined.
In the beginning, the peer assistant may be uncer-
tain about how to code a particular event. This is not
uncommon when one is learning to use any type of
analysis system. The assistant should make a decision
and then code other such events the same way. That
will enable you to compare a succession of lessons to
determine what progress you’re making.
There are no hard-and-fast rules as to how time
should be distributed within a lesson; however, a ma-
jor consideration is the focus of the lesson. If the focus
is the learning of a motor skill, the majority of the
time in a lesson (more than 50 percent) should be
spent practicing the skill. If students are waiting or
listening, they are not able to practice. There is a bit of
a catch here — there may be such a thing as too much
practice time. If there is no instruction, it may be an
indication that students are not receiving the infor-
mation they need in order to practice correctly. Thus
practice time over 70 percent may be an indicator that
the lesson is simply a physical activity session and not
physical education.
Demonstration Checklist Peers can also assist in the analysis of the demonstrations you use. Most
young students are visual learners; therefore, the
demonstrations you provide to them often infl uence
their skill responses as well as their ability to perform
a task the way you designed it. Accurate demonstra-
tions are vital to task clarity. By analyzing your dem-
onstrations using the demonstration checklist in
Figure 15.7 , you will be able to determine if your demon-
strations are enhancing the clarity of your instruction
Figure 15.7 Demonstration checklist.
Demonstration Checklist
Teacher:
DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions "yes" or "no", based on the instructor's demonstration of the skills.
1. Was the whole skill/action shown early in the demonstration?
Components Task 1 Task 2 Task 3
2. Was the skill/action performed at correct (full) speed?
3. Was the skill performed at more than one angle?
4. Was a student used to demonstrate the skill (if practical)?
5. Did the demonstration use the same organizational format that
is required for practicing/using the skill?
6. Were the major common errors (nonexamples) shown?
COMMENTS (reference specific comments by number):
Observer: Date: Time:
Grade: Class Size: Content:
7. Were the essential, accurate cues to the performance verbalized?
8. Were the cues emphasized more than once?
9. Was noncritical information left out?
10. Was a check for understanding done?
11. Do you think students were able to form an accurate mental
image of the skill/action as a result of the demonstration?
12. Was information provided that showed why the skill should be
performed as it was demonstrated?
13. Was the demonstration done in a location similar to where
students will perform the skill/action?
244 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
and the skill of your students. If after analyzing the
information from the form you discover that the dem-
onstration was not performed in the correct manner,
it could explain why some students were off task.
Combining and Adapting Techniques
Many observation systems have been developed to
analyze the teaching performance of physical education
teachers (Darst, Zakrajsek, and Mancini 1989; Rink 2006;
Siedentop and Tannehill 2000). The preceding exam-
ples have all been about “standard” effective teaching
constructs. They may or may not fi t your needs, as
presented. You need to make the technique yours.
You can do this in a number of ways. First, you can
combine instruments and begin to code teacher and
student behavior simultaneously — for example, how
many students are off task at a particular moment or
how many positive and negative feedback statements
you make.
Second, you can develop your own coding instru-
ment based on your environment and particular
needs. For most of the questions you want to ask
about your teaching, you can develop similar, un-
complicated systems that will give you the specifi c
information you want to know. The secret to develop-
ing such systems is to defi ne the behavior (what you
want to observe or listen to) very precisely so that you
can tell when it does and doesn’t happen. It doesn’t
help very much to say, “I want to fi nd out if I was
clear or not when I talked to students”; you need to
defi ne what “clear” means to you. It could mean that
students didn’t have to ask you questions about how
to do a task after you gave the task; it could mean that
you didn’t mumble and slur your words when you
gave a task; or it could mean that you didn’t have to
turn the recorder up to 9 to be able to hear yourself.
Whatever it is, defi ne it, and then try to assess it by
listening to your tape.
Once you’ve obtained baseline data about your
teaching performance, you can measure improve-
ment over a period of weeks or months. You may
fi nd it challenging to set teaching goals for yourself:
“During this class I want to interact at least once
with every child in the class,” or “During this class I
want to make at least 80 percent of my comments
positive.” When you listen to the recording after a
class, you’ll learn whether you’ve achieved your
goal. Remember that what is measured or how it
is measured is less important than the continuing
effort to systematically assess and improve your
teaching performance. Relying on your subjective
judgment (“I think I’m getting better”) or that of a
colleague (“That lesson looked good”) is not nearly
as effective as collecting and analyzing relatively
objective data that you can refer back to in a few
days, months, or even years.
Being Observed
Because many of us are reluctant to be observed while
we teach, it may be less threatening to begin your as-
sessment process with the unassisted or student-
assisted techniques. When you’ve progressed to the
point where you want more complex data and can no
longer use students to help obtain data, be thoughtful
During instructional time, the oppor-
tunity to learn is present, but the
students aren’t active.
CHAPTER 15 Understanding Your Teaching 245
During activity time, the children
are involved in movement that is
consistent with the teacher’s
goals.
Waiting time can include the
minutes when students are waiting
in line for their turn with an activity.
about whom you ask to observe you. We’ve found it
easier and more comfortable to use a colleague who is
a friend and nonjudgmental, someone you’re willing
to expose both your good points and weaknesses to.
For most of us, it takes a while to build up to this
point — take it slowly.
Always remember that you’re obtaining this infor-
mation to help improve your teaching. The informa-
tion is yours to do with as you wish; no one else
needs to see it unless you want them to. When viewed
this way, assessing your teaching performance can be
interesting and challenging, not threatening (Hellison
and Templin 1991).
Written Instruments
A written instrument, completed by the children, can
provide information about how students perceive your
teaching. The children can circle appropriate faces
( Figure 15.8 ) to indicate their responses. You can hand
out the answer sheets and then read the questions to
246 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
the whole class. When you read the questions to the
entire class, you minimize reliance on children’s ability
to read.
Be careful in interpreting the results of such an
instrument, and remember that it is only one of many
techniques that can be used to obtain information about
your teaching performance. Judiciously employed, how-
ever, such an instrument can provide valuable insights
about the children’s reaction to your teaching.
Linking and Finding Out More
Equally as important as collecting data is knowing
what you want to collect data about. The data about
your teaching should link directly to what you want to
know about teaching, and the ability to collect such
data comes from refl ection on your teaching situation
and goals. It is useless to collect data just for the sake
of collecting data.
The observation and refl ection techniques just dis-
cussed are based to a large degree on information from
research on teaching — the things that have been
found to affect student learning of skills. Many teach-
ers may want to fi nd out more — they may desire to
know if their teaching is successfully accomplishing
the student learning they desire. To fi nd this out, you
will want to use the assessment for learning options
discussed in Chapter 14 and found throughout the
skill theme chapters. If you consistently fi nd that stu-
dents do not learn what you intend them to, you may
want to use some of the techniques outlined in this
chapter to try to discover if some of the basic con-
structs of effective teaching are not aligned in your
teaching the way you want them to be.
Additionally, many of the techniques discussed in
this chapter deal largely with student learning of
psychomotor and cognitive goals (e.g., activity time
relates directly to the learning of psychomotor goals).
The time taken to retrieve equip-
ment is considered management.
Figure 15.8 Form for assessing student reaction to teaching
performance.
DIRECTIONS: Circle the face that best describes your teacher for each statement.
My teacher gives me good directions.
My teacher will repeat his or her directions if someone misunderstands them.
My teacher gives me a second chance to learn what I need to learn if I didn't the first time.
My teacher talks to me politely and wants me to do the same to him or her and my classmates.
My teacher makes me behave.
My teacher calls on me or my classmates by name.
My teacher keeps me working during the entire class.
CHAPTER 15 Understanding Your Teaching 247
If you have affective and cognitive goals in your
lesson, you may want to revise these instruments or
devise others that allow you to discover how much
time you are spending with these goals. Again, a
number of teachers have found that keeping a teacher
journal, much like a diary, allows them to look back
on their own teaching over time and provides reveal-
ing insights into the nature of their work. The impor-
tant point to remember is to refl ect on your own
teaching in an effort to continually fi nd ways to
enhance student learning. Employing systematic ob-
servation without the purpose of improving teaching
to improve learning is a fruitless, time-consuming
undertaking that often produces only defensive
behavior.
Support Groups
The techniques described for analyzing one’s teach-
ing are effective approaches to improving perfor-
mance. But successful teaching is more than using
specifi c teaching behaviors in predetermined ways.
Teaching can never be totally reduced to specifi c formu-
las of behavior that guarantee success for all teachers
with all classes (Glickman, Gordon, and Ross-Gordan
2007). However, systematic observation can help an-
swer some questions and provide information that
can infl uence a teacher’s success. Other questions
require careful thought and analysis, and cannot be
answered through self-refl ection or solely by systematic
observation. Sometimes we need to sit down with
colleagues who’ll listen carefully and help us under-
stand (analyze) a particular situation. This is what a
support group does. Teachers form support groups to
build helping relationships between two or more in-
dividuals who’ve learned to trust one another. These
individuals share their concerns, questions, dreams,
and hopes about themselves as teachers.
If you’re not careful, teaching can be a lonely and
diffi cult profession. As a poster depicting an ex-
hausted teacher at the end of an obviously diffi cult
day reminds us: “No one ever said teaching was go-
ing to be easy.” When your teaching isn’t going well,
or when you’ve had a spectacular day, a support
group can provide comfort and encouragement or
share your excitement. It’s reassuring to have a stable
group of colleagues who’ll listen carefully, verbally
applaud your successes, and help you analyze your
concerns.
Most teachers occasionally complain about teaching
conditions, parents, administrators, or fellow teachers.
We all have our down days. Within a support group,
however, complaining is inappropriate because it’s of-
ten toxic and tends to contaminate the thinking of
others. A support group is designed to make people feel
better about their teaching, not worse.
Teaching will never be an exact, predictable science.
There will always be an art to teaching effectively. Self-
refl ection, systematic observation techniques, and sup-
port groups are three approaches to improving both
teaching performance and one’s personal satisfaction
and enthusiasm for teaching.
Summary
Teaching is a developmental process and because ef-
fective teaching involves learning, it is a continuous,
lifelong process. Teachers who want to become more
effective can use various techniques to refl ect on their
teaching. These techniques include the use of self-
refl ection, systematic observation, and the use of sup-
port groups.
Self-refl ection involves the thoughtful contempla-
tion of the act of teaching. It usually results in a perma-
nent product much like a diary or journal. Systematic
observation is the orderly and focused collection of
specifi c and defi ned information about teaching. It
can be classifi ed into three categories: (1) unassisted,
(2) student-assisted, and (3) peer-assisted techniques.
When no one is available to help, teachers can
audio- or videotape to obtain information about their
teaching performance. A teacher’s interaction patterns
and the number of practice opportunities given to
children can be documented with student assistance.
A peer can provide even more technical information
by using a feedback and practice opportunities check-
list, a duration recording system, or a demonstration
checklist. Written instruments allow children to con vey
their perceptions of a lesson.
A very different but equally valuable aid is the sup-
port group. Such a group, made up of fellow teachers,
can provide comfort and encouragement for all par-
ticipants. When a group of peers actively listens to
each other’s questions and helps clarify each other’s
thoughts, the teaching attitude of all the members is
improved.
248 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
References /Suggested Readings
Cusimano , B. , P. Darst , and H. van der Mars. 1993 , October. Improving your teaching through self-evaluation. Strategies 7(8): 26 –29 .
Darst , P. W. , D. B. Zakrajsek , and V. H. Mancini , eds. 1989 . Analyzing physical education and sport instruction. Cham- paign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Glickman , C. , S. Gordan , and J. Ross-Gordan . 2007. Super- vision and instructional leadership . 7th ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon .
Hellison , D. , and T. Templin. 1991 . A refl ective approach to teaching physical education. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Housner , L. 1996 . Innovation and change in physical edu- cation. In Student learning in physical education: Applying research to enhance instruction, eds. S. Silverman and C. Ennis, pp. 367– 89 . Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Locke , L. F. 1975 . The ecology of the gymnasium: What the tourist never sees. Southern Association of Physical Edu- cation for College Women Proceedings (Spring): 38 –50 .
Richert , A. 1995 . Introduction. In Teachers who teach teachers: Refl ections on teacher education, eds. T. Russell and F. Korthagen, pp. 1–7 . London: Falmer Press .
Rink , J. 2003 . Effective instruction in physical education. In Student learning in physical education, 2nd ed., eds. S. Silverman and C. Ennis, pp. 165 – 86 . Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Rink , J. 2006 . Teaching physical education for learning . 5th ed. St. Louis, MO: Mosby .
Siedentop , D. , and D. Tannehill . 2000 . Developing teaching skills in physical education. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill .
Silverman , S. , and C. Ennis . 2003 . Student learning in physical education: Applying research to enhance instruction. 2nd ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Stroot , S. 2001 . Once I graduate, am I an expert? Teaching Elementary Physical Education 12(2): 18 –20 .
Stroot , S. , and C. Whipple . 2003 . Organizational socializa- tion: Factors impacting beginning teachers. In Student learning in physical education: Applying research to enhance in- struction, 2nd ed., eds. S. Silverman and C. Ennis, pp. 311–28 . Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Van der Mars , H. 1987 . Effects of audiocueing of teacher verbal praise on students’ managerial and transitional task performance. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 66(1): 48 –59 .
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. Why is this chapter included in Children Moving?
What is the value of self-refl ection?
2. What is systematic observation? Identify two sys-
tematic observation techniques you can use by
yourself. What information can you obtain from
each technique?
3. What type of content development pattern would
you deem optimal in your teaching situation? How
could you use the content development form to
compare what actually happens to your desired pat-
tern? What are the various types of feedback that
can be determined from recording teacher feed-
back? What goals would you set if student learning
were the focus of your teaching?
4. What kind of analysis can you make from student –
teacher interactions?
5. How does the combined feedback and practice
opportunities checklist (Figure 15.5) work?
6. What is duration recording? What categories does it
contain? How is each category defi ned? How does a
duration recording system work?
7. Why is the use of systematic observation without a
clear purpose of improving teaching to improve
student learning counterproductive?
8. What is the weakness of using written instruments
to gain children’s thoughts about your teaching?
9. What are support groups? What is their value?
P A R T
249
The three chapters in Part 3 explain the concepts of space awareness
(Chapter 16), effort (Chapter 17), and relationships (Chapter 18) and
present ideas for teaching them to children. Because these are concepts
rather than actual skills, levels of skill profi ciency are not discussed. As
children study space awareness, effort, and relationships, they learn to
demonstrate, through movement, their understanding of the meaning of
each concept. You will fi nd many activities for each of the concepts. As a
refl ective teacher, you will want to make decisions about which tasks
will best meet the needs of your students and assist them in gaining a
functional understanding of the concepts. The range of activities sug-
gested provides a breadth of experiences related to each concept. Once
children have acquired this functional understanding, the concept is
used primarily as a subfocus — or an adverb — to enhance the range and
quality of skill development that result from the study of the various skill
themes (Part 4).
Suggested tasks are designated with the symbol C ; challenges are
designated with the symbol T ; tasks and challenges were described in
Chapter 11. In addition, you will also fi nd suggested assessments (Chap-
ter 14) to help you determine how well the children are understanding the
concepts.
When teaching the concepts it’s easy to forget that the purpose is to
have the children actually know what each concept means. Imagine that
one of us is going to teach a class of your second graders. Before teaching,
we might ask whether your children know the space awareness concepts.
If you say yes, we’d assume that the children can show movement of body parts and total body
in self- and /or general space when asked to do so. Or we’d assume the children can travel in
straight, curved, and zigzag pathways and that they can move body parts at high, medium, and
low levels. “Knowing” doesn’t mean that the concepts were taught; knowing means that the
3
Movement Concepts Defi ned
250
children are able to show their understanding through their
movement. In other words, the children have functional
understanding.
If one of us were going to teach a second-grade art class, we
might ask the teacher whether the children know their colors. If
the teacher says yes, we’d assume that the children know the
difference between red, brown, black, orange, and so forth. We’d
further expect that they can readily use these colors in the lesson
we would teach. If the teacher says the children don’t know their
colors, however, we’d design our lesson to help them learn their
colors. Functional understanding means the children know and
can use the concepts in their movement.
251
C H A P T E R
16
Space Awareness
252 PART 3 Movement Concepts Defi ned www.mhhe.com /graham8e
A ll movement occurs in space. Because children
who develop a keen space sense will be better
able to move safely as they travel through phys-
ical education environments, it’s benefi cial to focus on
the concept of space awareness at the beginning of the
physical education program.
Children can be made aware of the different aspects
of space and then challenged to think about spatial
considerations as they engage in game, gymnastics,
and dance experiences. As children move their bodies
in different ways through varying spatial conditions,
they begin to feel and understand space in new ways.
As relationships between the body and space become
clear, adeptness at controlling movements in func-
tional or expressive physical education activities is en-
hanced. For example, children learn to maneuver across
a large span of climbing equipment, traveling around,
over, and under other youngsters without bumping
any of them or losing control of their own movements.
See Box 16-1 for information on space awareness from
the National Standards for Physical Education.
Recall from earlier chapters that the movement analy-
sis framework consists of both movement concepts and
skill themes. Space awareness—where the body moves—
is one of the three categories of movement concepts
(Chapter 3, Table 3.2). The space awareness categories are
shaded in the movement analysis framework wheel ( Fig-
ure 16.1 ). The position of space awareness on the wheel
indicates that it is a movement modifi er or concept. In
other words, it describes how a skill is to be performed as
opposed to stating what skill is to be performed.
The space awareness section of the wheel is subdi-
vided into fi ve categories that delineate various aspects
of space: location, directions, levels, pathways, and ex-
tensions. In turn, each of these categories is further
subdivided into specifi c components that are the work-
ing or teachable aspects of space awareness. For exam-
ple, the location category is subdivided into general
space and self-space. Study Figure 16.1 to determine all
the subdivisions for each of the separate aspects of
space. It helps to think of the three outermost portions
of the wheel as three levels of the same idea. The fi rst
Space Awareness in the National Standards for Physical Education
The movement concept of space awareness is referenced in
the National Association for Sport and Physical Education’s
National Standards for Physical Education (NASPE 2004) un-
der Standard 2: “Demonstrates understanding of movement
concepts, principles, strategies, and tactics as they apply to
the learning and performance of physical activities.” The in-
tent of the standard is facilitation of learners’ ability to use
cognitive information to understand and enhance motor skill
acquisition and performance. At the lower-elementary level,
emphasis is placed on establishing a movement vocabulary
and applying introductory concepts. At the upper-elementary
level, emphasis is placed on applying and generalizing the
concepts to physical activity situations.
Sample performance outcomes from the National Stan-
dards include:
• Travels forward and sideways, changing directions
quickly in response to a signal or obstacle using a variety
of locomotor skills. (K– 2)*
• Designs and performs gymnastics (or dance) sequences
that combine traveling, rolling, balancing, and weight
transfer into smooth, fl owing sequences with intentional
changes in direction, speed, and fl ow. (6 – 8)*
*Grade-level guidelines for expected student learning.
Box 16-1
• Movement concepts expand the range and enrich the
quality of skills in physical education.
• Movement concepts include space awareness (location,
directions, levels, pathways, extensions); effort (time,
force, fl ow); and relationships (of body parts, with
objects, with people).
• Learning experiences in the concepts chapters are
designed to assist children to attain a functional under-
standing (cognitive and performance) of the concepts.
• Children need a wide breadth of experiences with each
concept to achieve functional understanding.
• When movement concepts are introduced to children,
the focus of the lesson is on the concept; the movement
(skill) is secondary to the concept.
• Concepts become modifi ers to skills as children move to
higher levels of performance.
• Levels of skill profi ciency are not included for movement
concepts, as they are concepts to be understood, not
skills to be mastered.
• Once children understand a movement concept, it can
be used in combination with other concepts and in
combination with skills.
• A functional understanding of concepts must be attained
before the concepts can be used in skill themes.
Key Concepts
CHAPTER 16 Space Awareness 253
level, or outside ring, describes the idea, the second
ring gives the categories that make up the idea, and the
third ring defi nes what is found in each category.
Activities in this section are planned as beginning
tasks, not only to introduce but also to teach children
the fi ve categories of space indicated in the second ring
of the wheel. Children must understand these concepts
before they attempt to apply them in conjunction with
skill themes.
S o lo
A lo
n e in
a m
a ss
Fa stSlo
wS tro
n gLig
ht
Bound
Self-space
General space
Up/down
Forward/ backward
Right /le ft
Cloc kwis
e /
cou nter
cloc kwis
e
Low
M id
dl e
H ig
h
St ra
ig h t
C u rv
ed
Z ig
za g
L a rg
e /s
m a ll
Fa r/
n e a r
R o u n
d (
c u rv
e d
)
R e la
ti o
n sh
ip s
Effort:How thebody
m oves
S p a c e
a w
a re
n e ss:
W h ere
th e
b od
y m
oves
Of b ody
pa rts
W it h
o b
je c ts
a n
d /o
r p
e o p
le
Wi th
peo ple
Time
Force
Flow
Lo ca
tio n
D ire
c tio
n s
Levels Pathw
ays (floor/air)
Extensions
C u rlin
g
S tretch
in g
Ju m
p in
g an
d lan
d in
g
Transferring
weight
Balancing
Rolling
Twi stin
g
Tu rni
ng
D od
gi ng
Fl ee
in g
C h a si
n g
G a ll o p
in g
S k ip
p in
g
H o p p in
g
R u n n in
g
W al
ki n g
Str ikin
g
wit h l
on g-
ha nd
led
im ple
me nts
Striking
with rackets
Volleying
Dribbling
Punting
K icking
C o lle
c tin
g
C a tc
h in
g
T h
ro w
in g
P a rtn
e rs
G ro
u p s
B etw
een g
ro u p s
U n iso
n /co
n trast
M irroring
/
m atching
Leading/
follow ing
Alongside
Around
Surrounding
Meeting/parting
Along/th rough
In fr ont/
beh ind
Ne ar/
far
On /o
ff
O ve
r/ un
de r
Sy m
m et
ri ca
l/
no ns
ym m
et ri ca
l Tw
is te
d
W id
e
N a rr
o w
Locomotor
Manipulative Nonmanipulative
Free
Figure 16.1 Movement analysis framework: space awareness concepts.
We usually begin by acquainting children with the
two basic orientations of location: self-space and general
space. These two ideas are crucial to all future learning;
they’re the foundation upon which everything else is
built. Self-space is all the space that the body or its parts
can reach without traveling away from a starting loca-
tion. General space is all the space within a room, an out-
door teaching space, or a boundary that the body can
penetrate by means of locomotion. At the precontrol
254 PART 3 Movement Concepts Defi ned www.mhhe.com /graham8e
level, space awareness denotes the ability to move
throughout the work/play area without bumping others.
At the utilization and profi ciency levels, the ability to see
open spaces, to move to open spaces, and to throw/kick
to open spaces is a key element in successful games play.
The remaining four categories of space describe the
relationships of the body to the space aspects of direc-
tions, levels, pathways, and extensions. Directions in
space are the dimensional possibilities into which the
body or its parts move or aim to move —up and down,
forward and backward, right and left, clockwise and
counterclockwise. Levels in space are divided into low,
middle, and high. Low level is the space below the
knees. Middle level is the space between the knees and
the shoulders when the child is in a standing position.
High level is the space above the shoulders. Pathways
in space are the fl oor patterns (straight, curved, and
zigzag) the body can create by traveling through space.
The term pathways also denotes the possible fl oor or air
patterns of a thrown or struck object — for example,
the arched fl ight of a basketball set shot or the curved
path of a pitcher’s curveball.
The category extensions includes the size of move-
ments of the body or its parts in space (for example,
small arm circles or large arm circles) and the dis-
tances from the center of the body that the parts
reach to carry out a movement. The tennis serve a
skilled player performs is a far extension, whereas the
tennis serve a beginner executes is often much closer
to the body.
The ideas for developing each space concept are stated
in direct terms. Remember, though, that the method
used to study each concept can be varied according to
your purposes and the characteristics of the children in
your class (see Chapter 13).
Developing the Concept of Self-Space
We’ve found that the best way to teach the concept of
location is to focus on its two components — self-space
and general space — separately. We fi rst teach self-space
and then proceed to general space. You should repeat
all the activities involved in teaching self-space and
general space until it’s clear that the students under-
stand the distinction between the two concepts, as
well as the need to use space effectively.
An understanding of self-space and general space
plus starting and stopping on signal are crucial for
students’ safety.
If children understand the concept of self-space,
their awareness of movement possibilities in the space
immediately surrounding their bodies increases. With-
out a keen sense of the relationship of self-space
to surrounding space, children’s range of potential
move ments is restricted. When young children are
intro duced to a wide repertoire of movement skills in
self-space, they begin to build a foundation of non-
locomotor skills (such as twisting and turning) that
can be used to enhance the development of concepts
and of other skills.
Teaching the Concept of Self-Space
To teach the self-space concept, we give the children
learning experiences they can accomplish in one loca-
tion, without traveling. The absence of loco motion en-
hances kinesthetic awareness of stretching, curling,
twisting, and swinging (nonlocomotor) movements, as
well as builds the children’s movement vocabularies.
Learning Experiences Leading to Movement
Concept Understanding
Exploring Self-Space
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T While standing in a place all by yourself, not trav-
eling anywhere else, move your arms in as many
places as possible around your body. Pretend that
you’re on an island in the middle of shark-infested
waters and that all your friends are on islands
of their own. You can’t reach your friends on
their islands, and they can’t reach you. You’re
stranded.
T This time, while in a place by yourself, move
your legs all around you. Try places that you
think are diffi cult to get to, like behind you or This young boy, appropriately challenged, is enthralled with the
prospect of exploring space.
CHAPTER 16 Space Awareness 255
way out to the side; come very close to falling off
your island.
T Once you think that you’re very good with moving
your arms and legs without leaving the space you’re
in, choose other parts you can move without leav-
ing your space. Use parts you think would be really
diffi cult to move around in your space without
moving your whole body from your island. Explore
your whole island.
The area that you’ve just explored is called
self-space; it’s like your own island or armor that
travels with you wherever you go. Your self-space
belongs to you, and no one else is allowed in it
unless you let them. Remember, too, that you’re
not allowed in anyone else’s self-space unless
they invite you.
Even with the best analogies in the world, it’s sometimes
diffi cult for children, both young and old, to understand the
concept of self-space. When this happens, we’ve used hoops,
spots, carpet squares, ropes shaped into circles, and X’s
marked on the fl oor to help children differentiate and re-
member what their self-space really looks like. As soon as
children properly understand what self-space is and are
able to consistently remain in self-space, you can remove
these prompts.
Each individual is surrounded by a self-space as
he or she travels — the possible movements into space
immediately surrounding the body will be the same
regardless of location. But children will understand
this concept most easily if they learn it while remain-
ing stationary. Staying in one location will clarify for
the children the difference between the movements
possible in the space immediately surrounding the
body and the movements possible when the body trav-
els through general space.
Curling, Stretching, and Twisting in Self-Space
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T While staying in self-space, where you can’t touch
anyone else, curl your body up very tightly so that
you look like a little ball. Now that you’re curled
up, begin to stretch, ever so slowly, until you’re
stretched as tall and wide as possible. As you stretch,
remember that you can’t leave your own space.
You’re in your own birdcage. Slowly stretch just
one arm, then the other arm. Slowly stretch only
one leg, then the other leg. Don’t forget to stretch
your fi ngers and toes while you are in self-space.
T Pretend that you’re trying to reach the cookie jar
that is on a shelf at the very top of your cage.
Stretch as tall as you can to get it. Now, just as you
have two cookies in your hand, your mother walks
in. Sink very quickly back to the fl oor and make
yourself very small to hide.
T This time, a big spider is on the fl oor of the cage,
near your feet. Stretch tall; you’re trying to reach
the top rungs of your cage to pull yourself up out
of the spider’s way. Now the spider climbs to the
top; shrink slowly to get away from the spider.
T Now that you’ve practiced your stretching and
curling actions, you’re going to add twisting ac-
tions to them. You want to twist your whole body,
not just one part. To start, make believe the cookie
jar is on the very back of the shelf, behind two
boxes; as you stretch, twist your body so you can
get to the cookie jar.
T Stretch toward the top of the birdcage (as you did to
get away from the spider). Now pretend that suddenly
Spatial awareness is critical to
working safely in group situations.
256 PART 3 Movement Concepts Defi ned www.mhhe.com /graham8e
you have an itch in the middle of your back. Hold
on to the top of the cage with one hand and try to
scratch your back with your other hand.
T Pretend that you have an itch in the middle of
your back that is impossible to reach. Twist your
body in different directions as you attempt to
reach the itch. Stretch, curl, and twist body parts
in self-space to scratch the itch.
C See how many body parts you can stretch in self-
space. How many different ways can you curl with-
out moving from your self-space? Isolate different
body parts for twisting in self-space.
Moving the Whole Body in Self-Space
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T So far, all you’ve done in self-space is to curl, stretch,
and twist; you haven’t really moved your whole body
using any kind of specifi c movement. This time, let’s
practice walking in place in self-space. Remember
that you can’t go anywhere off your island or out of
your birdcage — that’s all the area you have.
Other actions to practice in self-space: skipping, hopping,
jumping, and turning slowly like a music box dancer.
Developing the Concept of General Space
General space is all the space within a room or bound-
ary into which an individual can move by traveling
away from the original starting location (self-space).
We help the children learn different ways of travel-
ing safely through general space by providing appropri-
ate movement tasks. Once the children are able to
travel safely (without bumping or losing control) in
general space, they’re ready to experience more complex
tasks that include several concepts in combination,
such as speed, pathways, and directions. Manipulating
balls as one travels through general space is an even
more diffi cult challenge.
Teaching the Concept of General Space
The learning experiences in this section are designed
to help children learn to travel safely and effi ciently
through general space. You can increase the complex-
ity of the activities by focusing on the concepts of
speed, pathways, and directions and on the manipula-
tion of objects through general space. Traveling in
general space is an excellent warm-up activity that you
can use each day; it also provides additional opportu-
nities for practice of the various locomotor skills.
Learning Experiences Leading to Movement
Concept Understanding
Exploring General Space
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T Find a space by yourself within the boundaries of
our work area. I’ll know you’re ready when I see
you standing very still in a space where you can’t
touch anyone else. When I say “Go,” begin to
walk around the room, trying not to come near
anyone else and at the same time not leaving any
empty spaces in the room. On signal (verbal signal
or drumbeat), stop very quickly right where you
are. When you stop, you shouldn’t be able to
touch anyone else.
This area that you just moved in is called general
space; it’s all the space available for you to move in.
As you move in general space, your self-space goes
with you, like a bubble that surrounds you, so that
you’re protected.
T Let’s try the same activity again, but this time
move a little faster through general space. Remem-
ber that as you move and when you stop, you
shouldn’t be able to touch anyone else.
Increase the speed only when you observe that the
children are able to travel without bumping into
one another; for some classes this will take several
days. Always start slowly.
These youngsters are just beginning to understand the concept of
extensions.
CHAPTER 16 Space Awareness 257
T This time, instead of walking through general
space, you’re going to jog (or skip, leap, hop, gallop,
etc.) through general space. Remember to always
stay as far away from other people as you can.
Think about visiting different places in the area,
such as the corners and the middle of the area.
After you give the stop signal, you can further enhance
concept development by giving the children feedback, for
example:
• Praise youngsters who stop in isolated areas.
• Praise youngsters who stop quickly and safely.
• Point out congested or vacant spaces.
• Praise youngsters who’ve avoided collisions by trav-
eling defensively.
Pretend you have one foot glued to the ground
with sticky chewing gum; wave your arms up and
down, all around. Is this movement in self- or gen-
eral space? Now travel waving your arms as you
go, up and down, all around. Is this movement in
self- or general space?
Open Spaces
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T Travel throughout general space, constantly mov-
ing to an open space. When you arrive at that open
space, quickly move to another one when some-
one invades your open space or you see a second
or a third open space.
T Travel throughout general space looking for an
open space. When you see an open space, pre-
tend you are throwing a ball to that space; then
quickly travel to that space to “catch” the ball.
Look for another open space, “throw,” and travel
again.
T Travel throughout general space looking for an
open space. Each time you travel to an open space,
claim that space as your own by calling “yes.”
Then quickly move to a new open space.
Reducing the Size of the General Space
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
facing the teacher, who is positioned at the edge of
the general space. All the children will be moving within
the boundaries. When you want the space to become
smaller, take a step or two toward the center of the gen-
eral space — the idea is an entire wall moving forward at
one time.
Tasks /Challenges:
T Spread out and fi nd a space by yourself. On the
signal, begin to travel on your feet in general
space, not touching anyone else. The diffi cult
part this time will be that I’m going to keep mak-
ing your space smaller as you move. For me to do
that, you must always stay in front of me; I’ll
keep moving forward until your general space is
very small.
City Streets, Crowded Spaces
Setting: Children divided into two groups in a reduced
amount of general space as in the previous activity
Tasks /Challenges:
T Let’s move within this reduced amount of space as
if we were in a crowded city. We will begin walking
at a moderate speed to avoid bumping others on
the crowded streets. On signal, increase the speed
of your walking as if you were in rush-hour traffi c.
Remember, no collisions.
T Now move very slowly, because the area is con-
gested. Increase your speed again.
T Group 1, stand very still in your self-space. You
are the tall buildings in the city; you may be tall
and wide or just tall. Group 2, walk throughout
the general space without bumping other walk-
ers or the buildings. Listen for the signal to in-
crease or decrease your speed. (Switch the groups
after 30 seconds.)
Dodging in General Space
Setting: Children divided into two groups: half the chil-
dren on one side of the work area, half on the other side
Tasks /Challenges:
T Let’s practice our moving in general space in a
game. The object of the game is for both groups to
get to the other side of the area without touching
anyone else. The diffi cult part is that both groups
will be moving at the same time. Remember, all of
you in both groups are trying to switch sides with-
out touching anyone else. I’ll watch very carefully
to see if I can fi nd anyone touching.
T Now, instead of walking, you’re going to gallop
(or skip, hop, jump, etc.) to the other side.
Permit children to travel at fast speeds, such as
running, only after they have mastered stopping
on signal and moving with no collisions.
258 PART 3 Movement Concepts Defi ned www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Traveling Over, Under, and Around
Obstacles in General Space
Setting: Small obstacles (hoops and ropes on the fl oor,
milk crates, and low benches) spread out in various
places around the area
Tasks /Challenges:
T Travel around the space without touching any
piece of equipment or any other person. You may
go over, under, or around any of the obstacles, but
don’t touch anyone or anything. Remember, if
someone else is at a piece of equipment, go on to
another one; don’t wait in line.
Assessment Example
From the National Standards for Physical Education
Teacher Observation
The teacher uses a checklist to assess the degree to
which a class or individual students can identify a
“good personal space,” work in “personal space,” and
move in “general space” during a manipulative lesson.
Criteria for Assessment
a. Finds a personal space within general space that
provides maximum room to work.
b. Stays in or returns to personal space during lesson.
c. Moves with an awareness of others as well as of
space available within general space.
NASPE (1995, p. 7)
Obstacle Course
Setting: Jump ropes, wands, hoops, yardsticks, crates,
and similar small equipment placed around the edge
of the work area
Tasks /Challenges:
T Today you are going to design an obstacle course
for our traveling in general space. What is an ob-
stacle course? Right, an area to travel through
without bumping into things or going outside the
boundaries. Select two or three pieces of the small
equipment, and place them on the fl oor; you may
wish to place them so they are touching or so that
they connect with the equipment of the person
working next to you. (Allow two to three minutes for
the children to construct the obstacle course.)
Walk throughout general space, avoiding the
obstacles placed on the fl oor; travel without touch-
ing the equipment or any other person.
Travel in a way other than walking.
If the children have been introduced to the concept of
pathways, the obstacle course can be designed by the chil-
dren to show straight, curved, and zigzag pathways. Their
travel can then be a combination of different locomotors
and pathways — for example, walk the straight pathways,
gallop the curved pathways, and jump as you travel the
zigzag pathways.
Developing the Concept of Directions
Directions in space are the dimensional possibilities
into which the body or its parts move or aim to
move — up and down, right and left, forward and
backward, clockwise and counterclockwise. There is
no universally correct direction; direction is a func-
tion of the body’s orientation in space. Forward and
backward, for example, depend on the way a person is
facing rather than a location in a room. Left and right
refer to the respective sides of the body, not a certain
wall or location in a gymnasium. Because the con-
cepts of right and left (sideways) and clockwise and
counterclockwise require cognitive as well as physical
maturation for correct execution, it’s not uncommon
to fi nd that children learn the directions forward and
backward and up and down before they learn the di-
rections right and left and clockwise and counter-
clockwise.
Teaching the Concept of Directions
The learning experiences in this section provide ideas
for helping children understand the concepts of for-
ward and backward, up and down, sideways, clockwise
and counterclockwise, and right and left. As the chil-
dren become more capable, the complexity of the
tasks is increased — the children are challenged
to combine two or more direction concepts and to
move in different directions in relation to objects or
people.
Learning Experiences Leading to Movement
Concept Understanding
Traveling in Different Directions
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T On the signal, walk as you usually walk, with the
front of your body going fi rst. This direction is
called forward.
T This time, walk with your back going fi rst. This
direction is called backward. Sometimes going
CHAPTER 16 Space Awareness 259
backward is hard because you have to look over
your shoulder to see where you’re going.
T Now walk with one side of your body going fi rst.
This direction is called sideways. You can move to
either your right or left side. Let’s practice both
ways. First move with your right side going fi rst.
When you hear the beat of the drum (if you don’t
have a drum, use a metal can, a baby rattle, or a party
noisemaker), change so that your left side goes fi rst.
T Skip forward, walk slowly backward, slide from
side to side like an ice-skater, and jump up and
down as though you were on a pogo stick.
Moving Clockwise and Counterclockwise
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
Rotation describes movement in a clockwise or a counter-
clockwise direction. When we want children to turn, spin,
or pivot, using the terms right and left is inaccurate. In-
stead, the terms clockwise and counterclockwise indicate
the appropriate direction in which to move.
T Look down at the fl oor. Imagine that there’s a clock
on the fl oor in front of you. Slowly turn around, turn-
ing in the direction the hands on the clock move. This
direction is called clockwise. Now turn in the other
direction. This direction is called counterclockwise.
T Now practice the different directions some more. See
if you can spin clockwise on one foot. Now change
and spin counterclockwise on the same foot.
T Swing your arms in the direction you want to spin
and see if you can spin all the way around before you
stop. Swinging your arms will help you spin farther.
Remember to swing in the direction you want to go.
Is it easier to spin in a clockwise or a counterclock-
wise direction? Why do you think so? Find a part-
ner. One of you spin or jump and turn while the
other watches. See if your partner can tell you
whether you were spinning (turning) in a clock-
wise or a counterclockwise direction. Now watch
as your partner spins (turns).
T This time try jumping. Stay in your self-space, and
jump and turn all the way around so that you land
facing the same direction you were facing when
you started. Bend your knees to land in a balanced
position.
T Practice turning clockwise and counterclockwise
when you jump. Can you turn farther in one direc-
tion than the other?
T Now you’re going to try something different. Travel
in general space. When you hear one drumbeat,
spin in a clockwise direction and keep traveling.
When you hear two drumbeats, spin in a counter-
clockwise direction and keep traveling. If you hear
three drumbeats, change the way you’re traveling—
for example, from a skip to a slide. Do you think
you can remember all this? Let’s see!
You can also teach and reinforce the concepts of clockwise
and counterclockwise when working with several of the skill
themes by having the children dribble in a clockwise or
counterclockwise direction, for example, or push a puck
with a hockey stick in both directions.
Exploring Directions
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T In your self-space, point with the body part named
in the direction that I call out. ( You can continue the
list with any body part. )
With your foot, point forward.
With your elbow, point backward.
With your hip, point to the left.
With your left foot, point forward.
As you point, make sure the direction you’re point-
ing to is very clear—so I could easily tell which way
to go if you were pointing out a direction to me.
Changing Directions on Signal
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T Now that you know the directions, move a little
faster when you practice them, and mix them all
up. On the signal, begin to travel in general space in
a forward direction. After that, each time you hear
the signal, change the direction you’re moving in.
For example, if you start out moving in a forward
direction, the fi rst time you hear the signal, change
to a sideways direction; the next time you hear the
signal, change to a backward direction; and the
next time change back to a sideways direction. Re- member to make your directions very clear .
While the children are waiting for the signal, have them
think about how they’re going to change direction.
T This time, change not only the direction of your
travel, but also the locomotor movement you
use — for example, gallop forward, walk backward,
or slide to the right.
T This time the changes of direction are going to be
a bit more diffi cult. They’ll be in code. One beat of
260 PART 3 Movement Concepts Defi ned www.mhhe.com /graham8e
the drum means forward. Two beats of the drum
mean sideways. Three beats of the drum mean
backward. Spread out in general space in a space
by yourself. When you hear the beat of the drum,
begin to travel in the direction indicated by the
code. When you hear the next beat of the drum,
change and travel in the direction that it indicates.
Listen very carefully to the drumbeats because I
might try to trick you.
Turning While Moving in Different Directions
Setting: Children positioned around the perimeters of
the gymnasium, facing the walls
Tasks /Challenges:
T Spread out around the outside of the room and
face the wall. When you hear the drumbeat, be-
gin to travel around the space by using a sliding
pattern. As the drum beats again, turn, without
stopping, to face the inside of the room —keep
sliding. Each time the drum beats, change the way
you’re facing, and continue moving sideways.
When you do this, I’m looking for turns that are
smooth and slides that don’t stop as you turn.
Developing the Concept of Levels
Levels are the horizontal layers in space where the
body or its parts are positioned or can move.
Low level is the space below the knees, close to the
fl oor. A stamp or twist of the foot is an action at a low
level. Crawling, creeping, and rolling are locomotor
actions performed at a low level.
Middle level is the space between low level and high
level— the area between the knees and shoulders.
Catching a thrown ball, for example, typically occurs
in middle level.
High level is the space above the shoulders, toward
the ceiling. Although one can’t move the whole body
into high level, actions such as stretching the arms up
high or standing on the balls of the feet bring body
parts into a high level. A jump can take much of the
upper body into a high level, while part of the body
remains at a middle or low level because of the pull of
gravity.
Teaching the Concept of Levels
The learning experiences in this section give children
movement challenges that help them learn to move
the body, body parts, and objects into different levels
in space.
Learning Experiences Leading to Movement
Concept Understanding
Traveling and Freezing at Different Levels
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T Spread out and fi nd a space by yourself. On signal,
begin to travel in general space. When you hear
the drumbeat, stop where you are, with your whole
body at a low level.
T This time, travel, and on the signal stop with your
body at a low level and a body part at a high level.
Make it very clear which part is at a high level.
These youngsters understand
both extensions and levels as they
meet and part.
CHAPTER 16 Space Awareness 261
T This time, when you stop, stop with your body at
a middle level. Remember that a low level means
below your knees, a middle level is from about
your knees to your shoulders, and a high level is
above your shoulders.
Traveling with Body Parts at Different Levels
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T Travel around general space with as many of your
body parts as possible at a low level. Remember
that your body parts should always be at a low
level when you’re traveling, not just when you
freeze.
T As you travel this time, try to have as many body
parts as possible at a middle level. Remember
that it isn’t possible to have all body parts at a
middle level as you travel, because your feet al-
ways have to be on the fl oor, but have as many
parts as possible at a middle level and none at a
high level.
T This time as you travel, have as many parts as pos-
sible at a high level. This activity is harder than the
other two, so be very careful that all possible body
parts are at a high level.
Show me hands at high level, middle level, low
level.
Young children enjoy exploring body parts at different levels
in self-space (e.g., feet, elbows, nose, as well as combina-
tions of levels, such as one foot low, one foot high).
Rising and Sinking to Create Different Levels
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T Find a space by yourself, and get into a low posi-
tion that you like. I’m going to beat the drum very
slowly eight times. As I beat the drum, rise very
slowly to the eight beats until you attain a position
of stillness with as many body parts as possible at
a high level. Remember to rise slowly. But also re-
member that you have only eight beats in which
to get to a high level, so judge your movement so
you get there in time. After you’ve reached your
high position, on the next eight beats slowly sink
back to your low position. The sequence then goes
like this: a low position; eight beats to get to a
high, still position; eight beats to return to your
low position. Let’s try it.
Traveling While Rising and Sinking
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T As you travel around the space this time, I’ll give
you drumbeats to guide your actions. The drum-
beats will be in counts of four, with the accent on
the fi rst beat. Start by traveling at a low level. On
the accented fi rst beat, quickly jump and stretch
into a high level and then immediately return to a
low level of travel until the next accented beat.
Your movement should look like this: travel low,
jump high, travel low, jump high, travel low, and
so on. Make your jump very clear and as high as
possible and your travel at a low level very clear. I
should be able to easily tell the difference between
the two levels.
Developing the Concept of Pathways
A pathway is an imaginary design that the body or its
parts when moving through space create along the
fl oor or through the air. A pathway is also the trail of
an object (a ball or hockey puck) as it travels from one
player to another or toward a goal.
At fi rst, young children may have diffi culty under-
standing the concept of pathways in space. However, a
class of young children can become enthralled with
the process of discovering and experimenting with the
many pathways the body can travel. A teacher can
plan experiences that enable youngsters to recognize
pathways and to effectively use knowledge of path-
ways to improve control of travel. For instance, even
very young children can come to understand that a
curved or angular pathway is effective for avoiding col-
lisions when traveling through a crowd.
Teaching the Concept of Pathways
Children learn to travel in straight, zigzag, and curved
pathways, and in combinations of these pathways, by
experiencing the activities in this section. More diffi -
cult learning experiences involve manipulating vari-
ous objects in pathways and traveling in relation to
others along various pathways.
Learning Experiences Leading to Movement
Concept Understanding
Exploring Pathways
Setting: Tape markings on the fl oor similar to those
shown in Figure 16.2 ; children scattered throughout
general space
262 PART 3 Movement Concepts Defi ned www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Tasks /Challenges:
T Today you’re going to learn about pathways. A line
that doesn’t turn or twist and is always straight is
called a straight pathway. A line that circles around
is called a curved pathway. A semicircle is a curved
pathway. A line that looks like a lot of Z’s put to-
gether is a zigzag pathway. Now fi nd a space on one
of the pathways marked on the fl oor. Travel along
that pathway on your feet; be able to tell me what
kind of pathway it is when I ask you.
T This time as you travel, change your direction,
sometimes going forward along your pathway,
sometimes sideways, and sometimes backward.
Try out all directions on your pathway.
T Now change the way that you travel along your
pathway. Sometimes you may want to hop, some-
times leap, sometimes run. Find at least four different
ways that you can travel along your pathway.
During the activity, have the children regularly change
places so that they’re on a different pathway.
Using Pathway Maps
Setting: A card, similar to the ones shown in Figure 16.3 ,
for each child
Tasks /Challenges:
T Take a card and fi nd a space by yourself. Travel on
your feet and follow the pathway indicated on
your card. Pretend that your card is a map showing
the route to take to get to a new place. Keep prac-
ticing your pathway until you’re very sure it’s just
like the one on the card and you can do it the best
you can. Be able to tell me the name of the path-
way you’re following whenever I ask you.
T Now trade cards with someone else and practice
that pathway until you think it’s perfect.
Designing Pathways
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T Pick a spot on the wall across the room from you.
Remember where your spot is, and in your mind
plan a pathway that will take you from where you
are now to that spot. Think about it a long time so
you can remember it when you start to move.
When I give the signal, travel along your made-up
pathway until you get to the spot you’ve picked
out. Stop when you get there. On the next signal,
travel back to the place you started from, follow-
ing the same pathway you took coming over. This
is similar to following a path through the woods:
You can’t go off the path or you’ll get lost.
T Now I am not going to give you the signal any
more. Practice your pathway on your own until
you have memorized and can repeat it exactly
every time.
T Student Drawing. Asking children to draw the vari-
ous pathways and label them would be an easy
way to assess their understanding.
Figure 16.2 Pathways taped on the fl oor.
Figure 16.3 Pathway cards.
Card 2 Card 3Card 1
CHAPTER 16 Space Awareness 263
Creating Follow-the-Leader Pathways
Setting: Sets of partners scattered throughout general
space
Tasks /Challenges:
T Find a partner and stand in a space together. I’ll
know that you’re ready when I see each of you
standing quietly in your space. Decide which of you
is going to be the leader. On the signal, the leader
travels a pathway to somewhere else in the room.
On the second signal, the leader stops, and the fol-
lower moves along the same pathway the leader
took until the follower catches up with the leader.
After doing this three times, the leader and follower
switch places. The secret is for the follower to watch
the leader very closely. In the beginning, the leader
should not make up diffi cult pathways. Followers,
remember to copy the leaders’ pathways exactly.
Have each child create a pathway sequence using
one straight, one curved, and one zigzag pathway
in any order they choose. After they create their
pathway sequences they will draw them on paper,
creating their unique design. After the child cre-
ates, practices, and memorizes the pathway se-
quence, a peer can watch for correct execution and
order, thus assessing understanding of pathways.
Traveling Pathways and Obstacles
Setting: Half the class positioned throughout general
space, the other half around the perimeter of the space
Tasks /Challenges:
T Now you’re going to travel in pathways that go
around, over, and under obstacles in your way. Al-
ways remember that your classmates are the obsta-
cles, so you have to be very careful of them. You
can’t touch anyone else. People who are obstacles
must remember to stay very still so as to not inter-
fere with anyone who’s moving. Obstacles, go fi nd
a position in a space by yourself that you can hold
still. It can be any position that you like — a bridge,
a statue, or a balance. Those of you on the side of
the space, pick a point on the other side of the
room and plan a pathway to get there. Remember
that your pathway can go over, under, or around
any of the obstacles. Think about it and really make
it different from anything you’ve done before.
Give the children a few seconds to plan their pathway and
the obstacles time to select their position.
On the signal, follow your pathway to the point
you picked on the other side of the room. Stop
when you get to the point you picked. On the next
Mr. Jenning’s Kindergarten Class Discovers
Pathways
Teacher: Boys and girls! How did we get to the physical
education space today?
Children: We walked!
Teacher: Yes! And what parts of our bodies did we use?
Children: Our feet . . . our legs.
Teacher: You got it! Tell me, did we leave a trail behind us?
Any footprints on the fl oor?
Children: No! (Loud and laughing)
Teacher: I don’t see any either. But what if your shoes
were muddy. Would we have left a trail?
Children: Yes! But Mrs. Farmer (the principal) sure would
be mad!
Teacher: I think she would be, too! But if we did leave
muddy footprints from your classroom all the
way to the physical education space, what would
our path look like?
Children: Long . . . Messy . . . we go by the library.
Teacher: I think you’re all right. I have an idea . . . Let’s
look at the whiteboard. Here’s your room way
over here, and this is where the physical educa-
tion space is. Look at our pathway. Although we
didn’t leave any real footprints, we did follow a
path. We follow this same pathway each time we
come to the physical education space. Tell me, is
our path just one straight line, or did we make
any turns?
Children: We turned when we came out of the room. At
the library.
Teacher: You are sharp today. Can you think of any other
pathways you follow each day?
Children: We go to lunch . . . Walk to school . . . Down to
the playground.
Teacher: We follow a lot of pathways each day. Let’s see if
we can have some fun with pathways today. Pick
a spot somewhere on the outside edge of the
room (for example, a brick, a picture), and when I
say “Go,” stand up and walk in a straight line to
your spot and freeze. Here we go!
signal, try to retrace your pathway until you get
back to your starting position.
C Now, on your own, practice your pathway four
times. Remember to avoid running into other trav-
elers as you cross the space. Always have a clear
beginning and end to your pathway.
When all have completed their pathways, have the students
switch places and perform the activity. You can enhance ac-
tivities such as these by asking children who are doing the
activities correctly to demonstrate for the rest of the class.
264 PART 3 Movement Concepts Defi ned www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Following-the-Dots Pathways
Setting: A pencil plus a card with dots randomly plotted
on it for each child; carpet squares (or spots) on the
fl oor in a pattern similar to that of the dots on the card
Tasks /Challenges:
T Connect the dots on your card to form any design
you like. After you’ve fi nished connecting the dots,
follow the path that you drew from one carpet
square (spot) to the other. Make sure you know the
type of pathway you’ve designed because I might
ask you.
T Now trade maps with someone else. Follow that
person’s map. Decide if that pathway is different
from yours.
Combining Pathways, Levels, and Directions
Setting: A task sheet, similar to that in Figure 16.4 , for
each child
Tasks /Challenges:
T This activity lets you combine pathways, levels,
and directions. It’s also a good way to test yourself.
Once you think you’re able to perform a challenge,
Name Teacher
Pathways, Levels, and Directions Task Sheet
Date Who Watched Challenge
I can walk forward in a straight pathway.
I can walk backward in a straight pathway.
I can walk sideways in a straight pathway.
I can walk forward in a curved pathway.
I can walk backward in a curved pathway.
I can walk forward, low, and curved.
I can walk backward, high, and zigzag.
I can run sideways, middle, and curved.
I can slide backward, middle, and zigzag.
I can
I can
I can
(Make up three things you can do on your
own using pathways, levels, and
directions.)
Figure 16.4 Task sheet for path
ways, levels, and directions.
CHAPTER 16 Space Awareness 265
have a friend watch you and sign the line on the
task sheet beside the challenge. When you’re fi n-
ished, I’ll come and check you out. You may use a
friend to help you if you want extra help.
Younger children can use a smile face instead of having
someone else initial the sheet.
Peer Observation. The adjacent task sheet would
make a perfect peer observation.
Developing the Concept of Extensions in Space
Extensions in space are best understood as two separate
possibilities. First, extensions are spatial relationships
of body parts to the entire body. Body extremities can
be held in close to the body, as in a curl, or they can be
opened up, as in a stretch. Extensions are also the size
of movements in space. Movements with extremities
held close to the body are small movements, such as
putting a golf ball; those with the extremities extended
or opened up are large movements, such as driving a
golf ball.
Teaching the Concept of Extensions in Space
The concept of extensions is taught through learning
experiences that give children an operational under-
standing of the differences between large and small, as
well as near and far extensions (movements).
Learning Experiences Leading to Movement
Concept Understanding
Exploring Extensions
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T Find a space by yourself. With your hands, explore
all the space close to your body. Remember to not
reach very far from your body; this is an extension
near your body. We call it a near extension.
T Now, without leaving your self-space, explore all
the space that is far away from your body. Try to
reach as far as you can without leaving your space.
Remember to explore above and behind as well as
in front of you. This is called an extension that is far
away from your body. We call it a far extension.
Traveling and Extensions
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T Travel around the room. When you hear the beat
of the drum, stop in a position where your body
reaches as far into space as possible. Be very sure
that all possible body parts are as far away from
the center of your body as you can get them.
T This time as you travel, when you hear the drum-
beat, stop with all body parts as close to your body
as possible. Remember to keep all your body parts
as close to yourself as you can.
T Now try traveling with change. When you hear
the sound of the drum, jump high into the air,
extending your arms and legs as far away from
your body as possible. When you land, hold a po-
sition very still, with all body parts very close to
the center of your body. Really try to make a clear
difference between the far and near extensions.
Changing from One Extension to Another
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T Find a space by yourself, and get into a tight posi-
tion you like. I’ll beat the drum six times, in slow
beats. On the fi rst six beats, gradually extend all
body parts far away from your body. On the next
six beats, slowly move to your tight, curled posi-
tion. The movement then goes like this: fi rst a
tight, curled position; on six beats, slowly move to
a spread-out position; on the next six counts,
slowly move back to a near extension. Try to make
the extensions you use very clear. We’ll practice
this activity a number of times so you can work on
doing your best possible.
Using Extensions and Imagery
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T As you travel around general space, pretend you’re
carrying an object you don’t want anyone to see or
that you’re trying to hide or protect something,
such as a baby bird, a million-dollar jewel, or a
lot of money. As you walk, think very carefully
about how you’d actually carry the object you’ve
chosen.
T Now, instead of having an object you want to hide,
you have one you’re proud of and want to show
off — maybe a trophy that you just won. How
would you carry it? Go!
266 PART 3 Movement Concepts Defi ned www.mhhe.com /graham8e
In which activity did you use a near or small ex-
tension? In which activity did you use a large or far
extension?
Applying the Concept of Space Awareness
Self-space and general space are often appropriate be-
ginning concepts for children who have had little ex-
perience in formal physical education classes. One of
the important skills that children need to develop early
is the ability to occupy an area or to travel in an area
while maintaining awareness of others. Self-space and
general space are helpful concepts to use when teach-
ing these skills.
The concepts of directions, levels, and pathways
are usually introduced after children have developed
the ability to differentiate self-space from general
space. Until the children actually acquire a functional
understanding of directions, levels, and pathways
(high, middle, low levels; forward, sideways, back-
ward directions; straight, zigzag, and curved path-
ways), the observational focus is primarily on the
concept rather than on correct performance of a par-
ticular skill. For example, if you ask the children to
throw so that the ball starts off at a high level, you’re
less interested in the actual mechanics of throwing
than in the child’s ability to release the ball at a high
level. Once you’re confi dent that the children are able
to apply the concepts, you can focus more on appro-
priate skill technique.
Most children take a longer time to grasp the con-
cepts of right and left, air pathways, and extensions.
Thus, it’s wise to introduce the other concepts to chil-
dren before focusing on these three ideas.
The ability to understand the concept of right and
left is related to cognitive maturation. Some children
will need more time and more practice opportunities
than others to master left and right. Many children
easily acquire cognitive understanding of the concepts
of extensions and air pathways for objects, but most
require a certain degree of skill before they can express
these ideas in movements. Children with immature
throwing and kicking patterns, for example, have
diffi culty propelling objects so that they travel in different
(but intended) air pathways. Children with immature
striking or catching patterns are unable to consistently
catch or strike an object far from or near to the body.
If you wait until children have developed the skills
that are related to these concepts, you’ll fi nd that the
pupils grasp the concepts more easily than if you try to
teach the concepts and then the skills. There’s no uni-
versally successful sequence for the introduction of
these concepts. The refl ective teacher uses all available
information and makes judgments about the most ap-
propriate time, sequence, and duration for introducing
and studying the concepts of space awareness and the
application of the concepts to specifi c skill-practice
situations. Sample lesson plans for teaching the movement
concepts can be found in On the Move, a collection of
lesson plans designed to accompany Children Moving.
To create this group balance these youngsters need to understand
personal space, extensions, and levels.
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. What is the primary reason for focusing on the
concept of space at the beginning of a physical
education program?
2. What does the term space awareness mean? What
are the characteristics of someone who is “aware of
space”?
CHAPTER 16 Space Awareness 267
3. Why is space awareness such an important con-
cept for children at the precontrol level?
4. Why is the concept of open spaces important for
profi ciency and utilization movers?
5. What directions in space are studied in this pro-
gram? Why do children fi nd some directions more
diffi cult than others to understand?
6. Distinguish the three levels of space from one
another.
7. List the three types of pathways an individual
might travel. Explain the difference between a
fl oor pathway and an air pathway.
8. Give two examples each of a far extension and of a
near extension.
9. Why do we have children study self-space while
stationary rather than traveling?
10. What does it look like when children are able to
travel safely in general space?
11. Using the movement analysis wheel, manipulate
the wheel to show space awareness in relation to
locomotor, manipulative, and nonmanipulative
skills. Identify two skills for each category that
space awareness can modify and write a sample
task for each.
References /Suggested Readings
Holt/Hale , S. 2010 . On the move: Lesson plans to accompany Children Moving . 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 1995 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. St. Louis, MO: Mosby .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2004 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. 2nd ed. Reston, VA: NASPE .
268 PART 3 Movement Concepts Defi ned www.mhhe.com /graham8e
268
C H A P T E R
17
Effort
CHAPTER 17 Effort 269
T his chapter provides an explanation of and mul-
tiple learning experiences for the effort concept.
(See Table 3.2 in Chapter 3 for a full listing of
the movement concepts taught in elementary school
physical education.) Remember, we fi rst provide ex-
periences for children to attain a functional unde r-
standing of the concepts. When children have a
func tional understanding of the movement concepts,
the concepts are then used to enhance the skill
themes — adverbs to enrich action verbs.
Too often teachers make no conscious, planned
attempt to help children understand the effort
concepts of time, force, and fl ow and the application
of these concepts to specifi c skills. * Many teachers
don’t feel comfortable teaching these concepts, which
are vague and abstract. It is not like teaching a child
to strike a ball with a paddle, in which the objective
of striking is obvious and the result easily perceived.
Despite the hesitancy of many teachers to undertake
the teaching of effort concepts, there is agreement
that an applied understanding of these concepts is
essential in skill development, from beginning
through advanced levels. See Box 17-1 for informa-
tion on effort from the National Standards for Physical
Education. The concept of effort defi nes how the body moves.
The concept is divided into three components: time,
force, and fl ow, which are defi ned by observable char-
acteristics that can be taught to children. Figure 17.1
conceptualizes this idea and puts it into perspective
with the other movement concepts and skill themes.
The effort category is in the shaded portion of the
framework. The outside ring defi nes the concept, the
second ring states the components of the concept, and
the third ring defi nes the three components.
Highly skilled (profi ciency-level) movers have deve-
loped an internalized, almost refl exive knowledge of
the proper amount and degree of time, force, and fl ow.
They’re able to adjust the quality of movements in re-
lation to the demands of a situation —harder or softer,
faster or slower, bound or free.
We begin to teach effort concepts to children by
providing experiences to help them understand the
contrasts of fast-slow, strong-light, and bound-free.
Once the children have grasped the differences between
the extremes, we focus on the concepts as they apply to
specifi c skills (such as throwing, striking, and transfer-
ring weight) and in different situations (for example, to
assist in the expression of an idea or to accomplish a
particular strategy). As children become more skillful,
we focus on the gradations among the extremes. To
illustrate, initially we might ask children to travel
rapidly and to travel slowly. As children develop the
ability to differentiate between the extremes, we focus
more on the movement possibilities that occur between
the extremes — faster, slower, accelerating, decelerating,
sudden changes of speed.
Many of the activities in this chapter use imagery
to help children distinguish among different effort
concepts. It’s important to keep in mind that the focus
is on the movement qualities of the various images
rather than on the images themselves. For exam-
ple, when we say “Move like a hippo,” we’re not asking
the children to pretend to be hippos; we’re using this
task to help the children envision a slow, lumbering
*Some movement analysis frameworks include the concept of
space (direct and fl exible) as a quality of movement. In our
teaching, however, we use this concept so infrequently that
we’ve chosen not to include it in the discussion of the qualities
of movement.
Effort in the National Standards for Physical Education
The movement concept of effort is referenced in the National
Association for Sport and Physical Education’s National
Standards for Physical Education (NASPE 2004) under Stan-
dard 2: “Demonstrates understanding of movement con-
cepts, principles, strategies, and tactics as they apply to the
learning and performance of physical activities.” The intent of
the standard is facilitation of learners’ ability to use cognitive
information to understand and enhance motor skill acquisition
and performance. At the lower-elementary level, emphasis is
placed on establishing a movement vocabulary and applying
introductory concepts. At the upper-elementary level, em-
phasis is placed on applying and generalizing the concepts
to physical activity situations.
Sample performance outcomes from the National Stan-
dards include:
• Demonstrates clear contrasts between slow and fast
movement when skipping (or hopping, galloping, sliding,
etc.) (K– 2)*
• Develops and refi nes a gymnastics sequence (or cre-
ative dance sequence) demonstrating smooth transi-
tions (3 – 5)*
• Designs and performs gymnastics (or dance) sequences
that combine traveling, rolling, balancing, and weight
transfer into smooth, fl owing sequences with intentional
changes in direction, speed, and fl ow (6 – 8)*
*Grade-level guidelines for expected student learning.
Box 17-1
270 PART 3 Movement Concepts Defi ned www.mhhe.com /graham8e
movement. Box 17-2 and Chapter 29 contain additional
information about the appropriate use of imagery in
teaching movement.
Developing the Concept of Time
Time to a young child is the ticktock of a grandfather
clock, the cuckoo clock on the wall, or the numbers
racing by on a digital timepiece. When spoken of
in relation to movement, time is fast —being able to
run like the wind; being the fastest in the class; zip,
dash, zoom.
In physical education, speed is often the measure
of success; therefore children often have diffi culty
compre hending slowness and seeing the importance
of this rate of movement in their activities. Yet the
performer executing a walkover on the balance beam
grasps the concept of slowness, as does the leaping
dancer who seems to remain suspended in the air
S o lo
A lo
n e in
a m
a ss
Fa stSlo
wS tro
n gLig
ht
Bound
Self-space
General space
Up/down
Forward/ backward
Right /le ft
Cloc kwis
e /
cou nter
cloc kwis
e
Low
M id
dl e
H ig
h
St ra
ig h t
C u rv
ed
Z ig
za g
L a rg
e /s
m a ll
Fa r/
n e a r
R o u n
d (
c u rv
e d
)
R e la
ti o
n sh
ip s
Effort:How thebody
m oves
S p a c e
a w
a re
n e ss:
W h ere
th e
b od
y m
oves
Of b ody
pa rts
W it h
o b
je c ts
a n
d /o
r p
e o p
le
Wi th
peo ple
Time
Force
Flow
Lo ca
tio n
D ire
c tio
n s
Levels Pathw
ays (floor/air)
Extensions
C u rlin
g
S tretch
in g
Ju m
p in
g an
d lan
d in
g
Transferring
weight
Balancing
Rolling
Twi stin
g
Tu rni
ng
D od
gi ng
Fl ee
in g
C h a si
n g
G a ll o p
in g
S k ip
p in
g
H o p p in
g
R u n n in
g
W al
ki n g
Str ikin
g
wit h l
on g-
ha nd
led
im ple
me nts
Striking
with rackets
Volleying
Dribbling
Punting
K icking
C o lle
c tin
g
C a tc
h in
g
T h
ro w
in g
P a rtn
e rs
G ro
u p s
B etw
een g
ro u p s
U n iso
n /co
n trast
M irroring
/
m atching
Leading/
follow ing
Alongside
Around
Surrounding
Meeting/parting
Along/th rough
In fr ont/
beh ind
Ne ar/
far
On /o
ff
O ve
r/ un
de r
Sy m
m et
ri ca
l/
no ns
ym m
et ri ca
l Tw
is te
d
W id
e
N a rr
o w
Locomotor
Manipulative Nonmanipulative
Free
Figure 17.1 Movement analysis framework: effort concepts.
CHAPTER 17 Effort 271
while the hands and arms express a certain feeling or
emotion.
Changes in the timing of a movement usually occur
without forethought as children adapt to different
situations — speeding up or slowing down to maintain
possession, to avoid being tagged, to get in open space
and receive a pass. Many movements and specifi c skills
dictate the rate of movement. A handspring is done
quickly, but a back walkover is performed slowly. In
some activities, the child is free to assess a situation
and then perform a skill at the best rate. For exam-
ple, a movement executed quickly in dance or gym-
nastics elicits feelings of power and speed; the same
movement executed slowly expresses the ultimate in
control.
We begin teaching the concept of time to young
children by contrasting extremes. Gradually we ad-
vance to work that focuses on degrees of speed along a
continuum — the ability to execute movements at
varying speeds for the purpose of adapting, changing,
or creating a situation.
Teaching the Concept of Time
The learning experiences that follow are designed to
help children develop a functional understanding
of time by contrasting fast and slow actions of the
total body and body parts, as well as by focusing
on acceleration -deceleration. When the children are
trave ling fast, try to keep the activity period short to avoid
undue fatigue.
Learning Experiences Leading to Movement
Concept Understanding
Exploring Time
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T Find a space by yourself. Without leaving your
space, move with the beat of the drum. The beat
will be very loud and quick to begin with, so you’ll
want your movements to be very sharp and quick.
The trick to having very quick actions is to make
them very short; something that’s really quick can’t
go on for very long. This action is called a sudden
movement.
T This time the beat of the drum will be slower and
longer. Try to move your whole body as slowly as
the drumbeats, much like a balloon fl oating
through the air or a feather being dropped from a
high building. Think about moving every part of
your body slowly, not just your arms but your
head, shoulders, back, stomach, legs, everything.
This action is called a sustained movement.
Using Different Speeds in Self-Space
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T In a space by yourself, bring your hands together
very slowly, as if to catch an insect that might try
to fl y away. At the very last moment before your
hands are going to touch, quickly separate them as
if you’re surprised to fi nd out that the insect is a
bee. When you do your slow movements, remem-
ber to make them very slow but to always keep
your hands moving; make your quick movements
so quick that they’re like fl ashes of lightning.
C Let’s try those movements fi ve more times. You
can bring your hands together any way you want
Imagery and Movement
Much has been said about imagery and movement, specifi -
cally related to dance. We’ve all had the experience of ask-
ing children to “show a fl ower growing,” only to discover that
instead of exploring the movement possibilities available, the
children were pretending to be fl owers. Herein lies the pit-
fall of imagery: concept development isn’t pretending; it’s
understanding.
To be benefi cial, the teaching of movement concepts and
ultimately dance must begin with children learning a move-
ment vocabulary and then relating it to other ideas (much
like the development of movement skills before relating them
to game play). This notion implies that we must talk about
movement fi rst and use images to lead to an understanding
or enhancement of that movement. It precludes moving or
dancing “about” something (anger, fear, excitement, horses,
etc.) or pretending to be something (a piece of fruit, a cow-
boy, a fl ower, an airplane, etc.).
Mary Joyce (1994) developed three useful phases regar-
ding dance and imagery that can be easily applied to any
creative movement:
1. Images that lead to movement: “Make your back curved
like a banana.”
2. Images that arise from movement: “You’re in a curved
shape. What else do you know that is curved?”
3. Images as a basis for movement: “What kind of move-
ment might a banana do?”
Always remember to talk about the movement fi rst and the
image second.
Box 17-2
272 PART 3 Movement Concepts Defi ned www.mhhe.com /graham8e
as long as you do so slowly, and then quickly take
them away any way you want. Remember to make
your slow and quick movements as clear as they
can be. Five times. Go.
T Now, on your own, fi nd other body parts that you
can bring together slowly and then quickly pull
apart. Try to fi nd at least three combinations. Prac-
tice each movement so that the difference between
fast and slow is very clear.
This activity is more diffi cult than it sounds because it asks
for extremes of a movement. You can have children practice
this activity over and over; always ask for faster and slower
actions than the children previously exhibited.
Moving at Different Speeds
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T On the signal, move as fast as you can, but remain
in self-space; on the next signal, freeze in a balanced
position that you can hold very still. Remember to
try to go as fast as you can, but you must be able to
stop on the signal without falling over.
T Now, on the start signal, move as slowly as you can
in self-space. Try to move very slowly, but always
keep moving. On the stop signal, freeze in a balanced
position. Remember to stay in your self-space. Slowness is necessary for travel at a low level.
These young children are enjoying
the sensation of running — a fast
movement.
CHAPTER 17 Effort 273
T Your fi rst movement was at a fast speed; your
second, at a slow speed. Could you tell the differ-
ence? Again, you’re going to practice both fast and
slow speeds. Try to make the movements very clear
so I can really tell the difference between them. As
you move, I’ll call out “Fast” or “Slow,” and you
change your speed accordingly. So if I call out
“Slow,” move very slowly, and if I call out “Fast,”
move fast. Listen very carefully, because I might
try to trick you. Make your fast really fast and your
slow really slow.
Once the children demonstrate an understanding of speed
in self-space, you can transfer these same tasks to traveling
in general space.
Traveling and Freezing by Using Changes in Time
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T This time, begin your traveling with a quick explo-
sion of speed, and keep going at a fast speed; then
freeze very quickly in a balanced position. The
movement should be like this: begin really fast as
if you’ve been shot out of a cannon; then move
fast as if you’re running from someone; then freeze
quickly as if someone has surprised you and you
can’t move. Make each segment of your traveling
very clear so that I can tell when you change from
one part to the other. I’ll give you the start signal;
then you’re on your own.
T Now that you’ve practiced sudden starts, traveling
fast, and then freezing, you’re going to make up a
sequence using those speeds. Choose one sudden-
start, fast-travel, and freeze position that you really
like, and practice it until you can do it smoothly
and with control. Each of the three parts should be
very clear and very different from one another.
After you think the sequence is really good, practice
it three more times. Remember to start and end in
the same place each time. Your three movements
should look the same every time, as if they’d been
videotaped.
T Now begin very slowly, as a car does on a cold
morning. As you warm up, gradually increase your
speed until you’re moving fast. Then freeze sud-
denly. The sequence should look like this: a slow
start, a gradual increase to fast speed, then a freeze.
This is different from your last traveling action, so
make that difference very clear.
C Now make up a sequence that includes a slow start
that gradually increases to a fast speed and suddenly
freezes. Practice the sequence until you’re ready to
show someone else, who, after seeing it, should be
able to tell you what the three parts were.
Children often equate slowness with heavy, jerky, stiff ac-
tions rather than with graceful movement. Examples of
animals with slow, graceful movements can be useful here.
Box 17-3 also contains hints for helping children learn to
design movement sequences.
Combining Imagery and Time
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T This time you’re going to practice traveling the
way different things that move fast or slowly move.
Remember that you aren’t really trying to act like
Designing Sequences
Helping children learn how to design movement sequences is
much like helping them learn how to design their own games
(see Chapter 31). Following are several tips we’ve found help-
ful when beginning to have children design sequences.
• It takes time.
• Structure the sequence into a simple form that is easily
remembered — for example, a starting shape, a middle
moving phase based on a specifi c aspect of movement,
an ending shape.
• Practice the starting and ending shapes separately be-
fore adding the middle movement.
• Initially, provide a beginning signal, some time to practice
(20 to 25 seconds), and then an ending signal.
• During the fi rst stages, prompt the children during the
movement aspect about exactly what movements need
to be included (change of level, speed, etc.).
• Have children repeat their sequence several times. The
middle movement aspect may vary slightly each time, but
the beginning and end should remain constant.
• In some way hold the children accountable for what
they’ve created — for example, divide the class in half and
have them present their sequence to their half; present
their sequence to another person; or write it down.
As the children’s ability to design sequences increases, you
can gradually relax some of these guidelines, but we’ve found
these steps useful for both the students and the teacher when
children fi rst begin to create movement sequences.
Source: Adapted from Mary Joyce, First Steps in Teaching Cre-
ative Dance to Children, 3rd ed. (Palo Alto, CA: Mayfi eld, 1994).
Box 17-3
274 PART 3 Movement Concepts Defi ned www.mhhe.com /graham8e
the things you’re pretending to be; you’re just try-
ing to move at the speed they move. Let’s practice
one movement. On the signal, move as a turtle
would move. Think carefully about it — a turtle
moves very slowly. Now try moving as fast as a
rabbit. Go really quickly.
T How does a well-tuned race car move? Let’s try to
go as fast as a race car can. There’s only one thing
different about this race car: it goes so fast that it
can’t make any noise. So go as fast as a silent race
car. Change your race car to an old jalopy trying to
go uphill; the car is really tired and old, so remem-
ber that it goes very slowly.
Some classes enjoy and can accept the responsibility for
making the sounds of race cars and jalopies. You’ll have to
use your judgment about whether to encourage the sounds,
which can be either productive or detrimental, depending
on the circumstances.
T Now pretend that the carnival is in town and
you’re going to go with your friends tonight to
ride all the rides and eat all your favorite foods.
How excited are you? Really let your excitement
show as you go home from school. Try it. Now,
instead of going to the carnival, you’re going
home, and you know you’ll be in trouble because
your mom told you not to take any more cookies
from the cookie jar, and you got caught taking the
last two.
T You’re the fastest sprinter in the Olympics and are
in the starting blocks waiting for the gun to go off.
Go. Now you’re a distance runner just about to
start a 10-mile race; you have a long way to go,
and you don’t want to wear yourself out.
T You’re a mouse running from a cat. Now you’re a
hippopotamus with a full stomach trying to run.
Show me fast movement with your fi ngers.
Show me slow movement with your fi ngers.
Show me slow jogging, fast running.
Differentiating Among Time Words
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T Show me the differences between the words dash,
waddle, dart, and crawl. First, dash. Go. Now, wad-
dle. Go. Now, dart. Go. Next, crawl. Remember to
change speeds with each word so the speeds are
very clear.
T Let’s try them again. Listen very carefully because
I’m going to start calling them out faster, and you’ll
have to change quickly from one to the other.
Other pairs of words can be used to elicit changes in time:
creep/explode, pop/sneak, gallop/totter, slither/stride.
See Box 17-4 for other action words that can be used in
teaching the various effort concepts.
Combining Sport Skills and Time
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T Before beginning, I want you to think of your fa-
vorite sports person. Be sure you can tell me who it
is when I ask, because this is important. After you
decide who your favorite person is, choose one ac-
tion she or he performs that you really like. For
example, if you choose a famous football quarter-
back as your favorite person, you might pick
“throwing the bomb” as your favorite action.
Think carefully to pick your person and action.
T Now, on the signal, you’ll perform the action you
chose as if it were on video set at a fast speed — in
a fast motion instead of slow motion. Repeat your
fast-motion action four times, each time making
the motion faster.
T Now do the same action as if it were in slow mo-
tion, just like instant replays. Make sure there’s a
clear difference between your fast and slow
motions. I should be able to tell just from watch-
ing which motions are fast and which ones are
slow.
Continually Changing in Time While Traveling
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T As you’re standing in your self-space, pick a point
across the room you want to focus on. All the trav-
eling you do will be directed toward that point. On
the signal, slowly begin to travel around the point
you’ve chosen, much like a lion stalking its prey.
Gradually increase your speed so you’re traveling
at your maximum speed. Just before you reach the
spot you’ve chosen, slow down, slowly circle, then
suddenly pounce. The differences in the speeds at
which you travel should be very clear. Thus, your
sequence should go like this: pick a point to focus
on, start slowly circling toward that point, gradu-
ally pick up speed until you’re going really fast,
then gradually slow down and suddenly pounce
toward your spot.
C Now that you have the idea, pick a new spot and
practice your circling routine fi ve times so that it’s
CHAPTER 17 Effort 275
Single Action Words
Traveling Actions Nontraveling Actions Stopping Actions
Run Hop Creep Flick Squeeze Contract Dangle Pause Collapse
Dash Skate Sneak Jerk Compress Fold Jab Stop Slide
Dart Jump Slither Twitch Explode Splatter Slash Freeze Flop
Skip Bounce Crawl Writhe Spread Punch Chop Anchor Crumble
Gallop Slide Step Stab Tense Pull Saw
Stamp Kick Stride Grip Relax Press Drip
Whirl Spin Shuffl e Release Push Lower Drag
Waddle Totter
Sinking Actions Rising Actions Vibratory Actions
Melt Spin Screw Evaporate Spin Swell Shake Wriggle
Flop Turn Hammer Float Pop Infl ate Rattle Squirm
Drop Slink Spread Rise Grow Lift Vibrate Snake
Collapse Squash Defl ate Turn Blossom Gyrate Whisk
Pounce Shrink Crumple Tumble
Sentences of Action Words
Run — freeze — skip Slither — infl ate — explode Rise (turn)— twitch — skip
Dart — collapse — pop Squeeze — jump — release Gallop — stamp — screw
Grow — spin — defl ate Creep — pounce — explode Jump — freeze — jab
Writhe — jerk— pop Skip — pause —fl op Chop —whirl— slash
Descriptive Words (for use with action words)
Droopy Excited Light Springy Spikey Square
Tired Heavy Tense Carefree Sharp Angular
Happy Strong Floppy Carefully Rounded Curvy
Greedy Loving Gentle Fierce Soft Hard
Prickly Spongy Big Small Enormous Tiny
Bubbling Nervous Unsure Confi dent Bold Afraid
Nonsense Words
Snickersnack Spelunk Krinkle Blump
Gallumph Brip Siczac Crickcrock
Cavort Bruttle-brattle Swoosh Snap-crackle
Flip-fl op Achoo Kerumph Wheezey
Grunch Hic-up Squizzog
Source: David Docherty, Education through the Dance Experience (Bellingham, WA: Educational Designs and Consultants, 1975). Used with
permission from the author.
Box 17-4
Action Words
When you’re teaching the effort concepts, action words help
elicit many of the responses desired. For the exercise to be
productive as well as exciting, students need to have more
than a few common words repeated over and over. Here are
some possibilities.
276 PART 3 Movement Concepts Defi ned www.mhhe.com /graham8e
very good. Try to make it the best that you can
because we’re going to show some of them to the
class. Slow should be really slow, fast really fast,
and the pounce as quick as lightning.
To help clarify this activity, choose three or four children
who are successfully completing it to demonstrate (they can
all demonstrate at the same time). Reinforce the notions of
gradually increasing speed and the sudden contrast of
the pounce.
Developing the Concept of Force
Force is the contrast of muscular tensions. The extremes
are strong and light, but there are obvious gradations
between the extremes. Just as speed to a young child is
“as fast as you can go,” force often means trying to bat
a ball as hard as possible, whether the situation calls for
a bunt or an outfi eld placement. A preschooler is likely
to use the same degree of force to throw a ball 3 feet as
to throw it 10 yards.
We usually introduce the concept of force by com-
bining it with a skill that has been developed to the
control level, preferably to the utilization level. For
example, think of the child at a precontrol level who is
learning to strike a moving ball. The youngster is so
fully concentrating attention on making contact with
the ball that the concept of force is an unnecessary and
probably confusing thought. Hard and easy hits can
come later, once the child is able to hit a ball
consistently.
A dancer exemplifi es the qualities of strong and light
movement while expressing aggression, strength, and
power; the gymnast exemplifi es the qualities in fl oor
and apparatus routines while combining fi rm and fi ne
actions and balancing in a demonstration of muscular
control and strength.
Teaching the Concept of Force
This section provides suggestions for helping children
to understand the concept of force. The learning expe-
riences presented help youngsters develop a functional
understanding of the strong (fi rm) and light (fi ne)
actions of body parts and of the entire body. Actions of
concentrated movement and muscular tensions are very
tiring; keep the activity periods short.
Learning Experiences Leading to Movement
Concept Understanding
Exploring Force
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T In your own space, with your whole body, make a
statue that shows how strong you are. (A strong
force is also called “heavy” or “fi rm.”) Now practice
the activity again, but think about making every
muscle in your body strong, even your head, neck,
stomach, back, hands, and feet.
T Now make a statue that is very light, such as a
ghost would be. Your statue should be so light
that it would blow away if a strong wind came
along. This is what is called a light force. Try a
light shape again, such as a leaf fl oating through
the wind.
T When I beat the drum, change from a strong to a
light statue and then back.
Traveling and Changing Force Qualities
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T This time you’re going to travel around the whole
space. But as you travel, try to be as strong as you
can be. You’re an indestructible and all-powerful
force; make all your body parts strong.
T Now, as you travel, make yourself as light as can
be, just as if you were fl oating away. All your
muscles should be loose, not tight at all; make
your entire body light.
Using Imagery and Force
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T This time you’re going to use different images you
know to help you understand the force qualities.
On the signal, think of yourself as a pat of butter
left out on a hot day. All day long you sit in the
hot sun, all weak and melted. Then suddenly
someone puts you in the refrigerator, and in a little
while you feel strong and solid again. Remember
to make it clear with your whole body what it’s
like to be weak, and then make it clear with your
whole body when you’re strong again.
The imagery sequences you design provide experiences in
extreme contrasts. Focus on the degrees along the contin-
uum (the subtle changes) in conjunction with the actual
skill, such as jumping and landing or balancing.
Exit Slip . This would be an appropriate time to use
an exit slip to check students’ understanding of
the force concepts.
CHAPTER 17 Effort 277
Showing Contrasts of Force
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T Now you’re going to show the force differences in
your movements. On the signal I’ll call out an
idea; you show me what the idea looks like by
moving either strong or light. Make it very clear
which you are: strong or light.
Young children often equate the concept of strong force with
the concept of size. Be careful to not pair all imagery
examples as such — for example, big-fi rm or small-fi ne.
Ideas:
1. Frosty the Snowman. You’re going to show the life
of Frosty the Snowman. First you’re a single snow-
fl ake falling through the air; then you’re several
snowfl akes that are beginning to stick together
to make a shape; now you’re the solid, sturdy
snowman that can’t be knocked over; and fi nally
you’re the snowman melting slowly as the sun
comes out.
2. Punch /fl ick. Now we’re going to use words to
help us tell the difference between strong and
light movements. The fi rst two words are punch
and fl ick. I’ll give you a story, and you make the
movements that go with it. One movement
should be strong, the other light. Make each
movement very clear. Pretending that you’re a
boxer, punch your opponent as hard as you can.
Now, just fl ick a fl y off your mother’s freshly
baked chocolate cake.
3. Creep/pounce. The words creep and pounce can
help us learn strong and light movements. Let’s
try it. You’re playing hide-and-seek; creep very
quietly from your hiding place so no one will see
or hear you. Now, you’re creeping up to catch your
runaway kitten. You’ve found her and are ready to
pounce and grab her before she runs away again.
Ready, pounce. Oops, you missed.
To elicit bound fl ow, the teacher challenged these children to travel
while balancing beanbags on their heads.
Young children’s attempts at strong shapes show a beginning under-
standing of the concept.
278 PART 3 Movement Concepts Defi ned www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Which movement was strong and which was light?
4. Sneak /scare. This time you’re going to show light
and strong actions when I use the words sneak and
scare. Let’s pretend your brother has a letter from
his girlfriend. You want to know what it says, so
you sneak up behind him to fi nd out. You can’t
read over his shoulder, so you fi gure if you scare
him, he’ll drop the letter and run. Go. You need to
sneak, then scare.
5. Float /collapse. Have you ever seen a hang glider?
It’s like a big kite that fl oats through the air, but
a person is fl oating with it, just as if he or she
were attached to a kite. You’re now a hang glider,
sailing over the mountains. Go. Oh, no — all the
wind suddenly died; your hang glider is crashing
to the ground. You just collapse as you hit the
ground.
6. Glide /stomp. You’re a very good skater, and today
you go rollerblading. You’re at the local roller-
blading rink, gliding along, having a grand time.
Now something sticks to your skate; you don’t fall,
but you have to stomp your skate really hard to try
to get the object off. Clearly show the difference
between your light and strong movements.
7. Raindrop/thunderstorm. You’re a raindrop in a
gentle spring rain, a rain that makes all the fl owers
bloom and the grass turn its greenest green. Now
you’re a raindrop in a bad summer thunderstorm —
you know, a storm where the wind blows so hard
you think the trees will fall down and the sky turns
very dark. Remember to make it very clear which
raindrop is strong and which one is light.
8. Friends/foes. Now you’re going to show strong
and light as you greet your friend and then as you
meet an enemy. Pretend you’re walking down the
street and see an old friend. How would you greet
her? Now play as if you’ve just seen the biggest
bully in the school. How would you greet him?
Which force was light? Which one was strong?
9. Ant/rock. Imagine what an ant trying to lift a rock
feels like. Try hard; you’re the only hope of the
rock getting off the ground. Now you’re a strong
person trying to lift the same rock that the ant
lifted. How are your actions different?
10. Olympic weight lifter. You’re an Olympic weight
lifter going for the gold medal; this is the heaviest
weight you’ve ever lifted. As you pretend, remem-
ber to keep your entire body strong. Even show in
your face that you’re strong. Now you’re lifting a
fi ve-pound bag of fl our. How easy is it for you? Make
your whole body light as you show this action. All
your muscles should be loose, as if they’re hardly
being used at all.
Developing the Concept of Flow
Watch a very young child running down a hill. The
actions are unstoppable, almost out of control, until
the child reaches the bottom. A batter’s swing at a
baseball, the smash a tennis player executes, a gymnast’s
giant swing on the high bar — all these are examples of
free fl ow in movement. It seems that the performer is
lost in the movement; the movement, not the per-
former, seems to control the situation.
Bound actions are stoppable, cautious, and re-
strained. The performer is in control at all times.
Pushing a heavy object, traveling an angular pathway
while trying to stay within boundaries, executing a
slow cartwheel with a pause for a handstand before
traveling on are all examples of bound fl ow.
Teaching the Concept of Flow
This section provides learning experiences designed to
help children understand and demonstrate the differ-
ence between free fl ow and bound fl ow. The activities
encompass a variety of movements that are important
for both skill performance and safety. Music can greatly
enhance the feel of bound and free fl ow.
Learning Experiences Leading to Movement
Concept Understanding
Traveling and Flow
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T On the signal, travel around the room and pause
the instant you hear the stop signal. I’m really
looking for stops that happen suddenly, without
you taking any extra steps. Freeze in your tracks.
This kind of movement — jerky and with lots of
stops — is said to have bound fl ow . In other words, it
doesn’t fl ow very smoothly.
Children tend to anticipate the teacher’s signals. Make stop
signals close together and frequent so this activity will be
successful.
T This time as you travel around the space, pretend
you’re completely free, like an eagle soaring high,
or a really happy person who has no cares in the
world. Make your traveling seem as if it has no
end; it could just keep going and going. This type
of movement is said to have free fl ow; it doesn’t
stop, much like a balloon or cloud fl oating in
the air.
CHAPTER 17 Effort 279
Eliciting Flow Qualities
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T This time I’m going to give you some actions to
help you practice bound fl ow. Pretend to do each
action that I tell you, always showing the bound
fl ow of what you’re doing. Remember, bound
fl ow can be stopped and is generally slow and
sometimes jerky.
1. Press the fl oor with your hands and feet as you
move. Make sure you keep a bound fl ow
throughout the whole motion.
2. Pretend you’re pushing a heavy box.
3. Now carry a glass of milk that is too full without
spilling any of it.
4. Play as if you’re pulling from the bottom of a
well a full bucket of water on a pulley.
T Now I’ll give you some actions that require free
fl ow. Free fl ow can be more diffi cult than bound
fl ow, so really concentrate on making your move-
ments seem as if they could go on forever. Make
it very clear that these are free movements and
unstoppable.
1. Pretend to fl ick away a fl y.
2. This time you’re really mad at your brother.
Slash your arms through the air to show how
really mad you are.
3. You’re cooking bacon on the stove, and the
grease starts to spatter; jerk your head and arms
away so you won’t get burned.
T This next action will combine free and bound
fl ow. Raise your arm high above your head with
bound fl ow, stoppable at any moment. Let your
arm fall freely downward in an unstoppable
action.
Which movement is unstoppable —bound or free?
Which movement is stoppable at any time —bound
or free?
Student Display. Flow is a diffi cult concept for stu-
dents to understand. Having children bring in mag-
azine pictures that illustrate the various qualities in
action and then creating a student display labeling
the qualities is a useful assessment.
Following Flow Sentences
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T On the board are a number of sentences. The fi rst
one says “Walk, run, jump.” On the signal, begin to
travel, using the sentence as your guide. The words
are clear; the commas mean to pause or hesitate,
and the periods mean to stop. Make it very clear
where your pauses are and when you stop. Repeat
the action of the sentence three times.
Other possible sentences: “Walk, sneak, pounce.” “Leap,
stamp, twist.” “Creep, hop, fl op.”
T What you just did was an example of bound fl ow.
Now you’re going to turn the same thing into free
fl ow. This time, on the signal, you’re going to
follow the same sentences but without the punc-
tuation marks — in other words, no commas and
no periods or no pauses or stops. So you’ll start at
the beginning of the sentence and keep going all
the way through; no one should know when you’re
going to change to the next action. Your action
should just fl ow smoothly, one action leading to
the next. When you get to the end of a sentence,
just start over again. On the signal, let’s start with
the fi rst sentence.
Children enjoy using interpretations of different punctua-
tion marks, such as the exclamation point and question
mark, as different ending shapes.
C Now that you’re so good at the sentences, you’re
going to make up one of your own. On the board
is a list of words. (Such words as walk, shrink, gallop,
skip, explode, jump, roll, and hop are good to use.)
Choose three of the words, and make your
sentence. Put punctuation in, because punctuation
is the key to when you stop or pause. Practice
your sentence fi ve times with the punctuation in
it; then practice it fi ve times without punctua-
tion. Practice it very carefully, because we’ll show
some of the sentences to the class. It should be
obvious when the punctuation is and isn’t in the
sentence.
Practicing Flow Sequences
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T This time, there are two columns of words on the
board, but no punctuation. You’re going to join
the words together to make a sequence. The fi rst
column of words reads melt, infl ate, slither, shrink.
On the signal, practice the words in the order you
see them. It is your choice when to change from
one word to the next. Go.
Now, do the second column of words: jump,
spin, stride, pop.
Which sequence gave you a bound feeling?
Which one a free feeling?
280 PART 3 Movement Concepts Defi ned www.mhhe.com /graham8e
C Now go back and practice each sequence three
times, making it very clear each time which one is
bound and which one is free.
Using Flow Conversations
Setting: Children with partners, scattered throughout
general space
Tasks /Challenges:
Children beginning sequence work often need guidance in
restricting the length of the sequence; generally two or three
actions are appropriate for the initial sequence.
T Now you’re going to work with a partner and talk
to your partner. The only catch is that neither of
you can use your voice to talk. You’re going to talk
with your body. One of you needs to be bound
fl ow and the other one free fl ow; go ahead and
decide that now. Ready? This is how you’ll talk:
the partner who is bound fl ow will talk about being
imprisoned and not being allowed to go out to see
the world; the partner who is free fl ow will talk
about how wonderful it is to roam and explore and
run up and down the hills; in other words, what
it’s like to be free. Now, one of you start; with your
body, talk about your aspect. Keep your sentence
very short. As you move, your partner listens or
watches. After you make your statement, stop;
your partner then answers with a statement, and
you listen. When your partner fi nishes, you again
provide an answer. The whole conversation should
go back and forth until each of you has moved
fi ve times.
C After you’ve completed the conversation once, go
back and practice it twice more so that it’s very
clear who’s free fl ow and who’s bound fl ow. I know
this is a bit hard to understand, so let me go over it
one more time. You and your partner are going to
talk about bound and free fl ow with your body
actions, not your voices. Just as in any conversa-
tion, it’s a give and take. One of you will make a
short body action sentence and then the other one
will answer. Each of you gets to talk fi ve times and
then it ends. After you’ve fi nished once, go back
and practice two more times. Remember that two
people can’t talk at once, so listen when your
partner is talking. “Still” is the word.
It really helps to fi nd at least one twosome (ideally more)
doing the activity correctly and have them demonstrate.
Be patient; the task will take time if the children are to
really develop their conversations. Children should switch
roles after suffi cient time to practice the other aspect
of fl ow.
Combining Time, Force, and Flow
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T The task sheet ( Figure 17.2 ) for today will allow
you to practice combining the concepts of time,
force, and fl ow. After you practice each challenge
so that you feel it’s as clear as you can make it, fi nd
a friend to watch you. If the friend feels you’ve
done the challenge correctly, she or he signs her or
his name in the blank; if not, you’ll have to go
back and practice some more. I’ll walk around the
class, and at any time I can ask you to show me
any challenge you’ve marked off. If you have any
questions, ask me.
Self-Assessment. The above task sheet could easily
serve as a self-assessment of the effort concepts by
changing “Who watched” to “I still need practice” or
“I’m good” or “I need help.”
See Chapter 14 for more information on developing student
self-assessments.
Applying the Effort Concepts
We focus on concepts until the children have learned
the basic terminology related to the effort qualities of
movement. When the children are able to accurately
demonstrate the differences between the extremes of
each concept, we no longer focus on the concept.
Instead, we focus on how the concept relates to the
performance of a particular skill: fast dribble, fl uid roll,
or light gallop. We want the children to learn the effort
concepts so that they can apply the concepts to actual
skill-learning situations.
The ability to use gradations of movement qualities
distinguishes the inept performer from the skilled one,
the sloppy movement from the polished one. An indi-
vidual can learn to execute the basic requirements of a
cartwheel, for example, so that it can be recognized as
a cartwheel. But when that cartwheel is executed in a
ragged, uneven, uncontrolled manner, it is clearly and
easily distinguishable from a cartwheel performed by
an experienced, trained gymnast. We teach children to
apply the qualities of movement to their skill perfor-
mances to help them become skillful movers.
Generally, the concept of time (fast-slow) is easier for
children to grasp than either the concept of force (strong-
light) or the concept of fl ow (bound-free). For this reason,
you may need to focus more on force and fl ow than on
time. Time can be studied as an applied concept—fast
and slow skips, rolling fast and rolling slowly, acceler-
ated and decelerated change of levels—before force or
CHAPTER 17 Effort 281
fl ow. The difference is that in teaching a concept, our
observational focus is primarily on the children’s ability
to understand and apply the effort concept. In contrast,
when we use a concept as a subfocus, we know that the
children already understand the concept from previous
lessons, and therefore our teaching focus is primarily on
the skill and how it can be executed by using varying
movements.
Name Teacher
Time, Force, and Flow Task Sheet
Date Who Watched Challenge
Find three body parts that you can move at
a slow speed.
Find three body parts (different from
the ones in the first challenge) that you can
move at a fast speed.
Find four ways to move while showing
free and light qualities.
Find two movements that you can first
make strong and slow and then make light
and fast.
Find any movement you want that
combines two aspects of the effort concept
(time: fast-slow, force: strong-light, flow:
bound-free). After you finish, write down
your movements and the concepts they
included.
Movement Concept
Figure 17.2 Task sheet for time,
force, and fl ow.
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. How is a movement performed fast different from
the same movement performed slowly?
2. How is a movement executed with strong force
different from the same movement performed
with light force?
3. How is a movement performed with bound fl ow
different from the same movement performed
with free fl ow?
4. Initially, the extremes, rather than the gradations,
of the effort concepts are emphasized. Why?
282 PART 3 Movement Concepts Defi ned www.mhhe.com /graham8e
5. When is slowness an important concept? List sev-
eral movements.
6. What does the term acceleration-deceleration mean?
Answer by using examples from the text or from
your own experiences.
7. What does focusing on the movement quality of
an image rather than on the image itself mean?
This statement will help you: “Imagine that the
fl oor is covered with peanut butter 6 inches deep.”
Why is this focus important?
8. When do you change from focusing on the effort
concept to focusing on how the concept relates to
the performance of a particular skill?
9. What is the purpose of teaching children to ap-
ply the qualities of movement to their skill
performances?
10. Using the movement analysis wheel, manipulate
the wheel to show the movement concept of effort
in relation to locomotor, manipulative, and non-
manipulative skills. Identify two skills for each
category that an effort concept can modify, and
write a sample task for each.
References /Suggested Readings
Joyce , M. 1994 . First steps in teaching creative dance to chil- dren . 3rd ed. Palo Alto, CA: Mayfi eld .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Education. 2004 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education . 2nd ed. Reston, VA: NASPE.
CHAPTER 18 Relationships 283
283
C H A P T E R
18
Relationships
284 PART 3 Movement Concepts Defi ned www.mhhe.com /graham8e
O ur lives are made up of relationships — to peo-
ple and to objects — that occur not only in
physical education classes but also in everyday
life. Driving to and from work in an automobile,
maneuvering through a crowded aisle in a supermar-
ket, or dodging around an icy spot on a sidewalk— all
these activities involve complex, dynamic relation-
ships. And each relationship involves several con-
textual variables (bodies, body parts, and objects) in
simultaneous interaction.
The movement concept of relationship defi nes with
whom or with what the body moves; it gives meaning
to the interaction between individuals and their envi-
ronment. The concept is divided into three major
components: relationships of body parts, relation-
ships with objects and /or people, and relationships
with people, as fi rst introduced in Chapter 3 (Table 3.2).
In turn, each of these constructs is defi ned by
obser vable characteristics that can be taught to chil-
dren. Figure 18.1 conceptualizes this idea, putting it
S o lo
A lo
n e in
a m
a ss
Fa stSlo
wS tro
n gLig
ht
Bound
Self-space
General space
Up/down
Forward/ backward
Right /le ft
Cloc kwis
e /
cou nter
cloc kwis
e
Low
M id
dl e
H ig
h
St ra
ig h t
C u rv
ed
Z ig
za g
L a rg
e /s
m a ll
Fa r/
n e a r
R o u n
d (
c u rv
e d
)
R e la
ti o
n sh
ip s
Effort:How thebody
m oves
S p a c e
a w
a re
n e ss:
W h ere
th e
b od
y m
oves
Of b ody
pa rts
W it h
o b
je c ts
a n
d /o
r p
e o p
le
Wi th
peo ple
Time
Force
Flow
Lo ca
tio n
D ire
c tio
n s
Levels
Pathw ays (floor/air)
Extensions
C u rlin
g
S tretch
in g
Ju m
p in
g an
d lan
d in
g
Transferring
weight
Balancing
Rolling
Twi stin
g
Tu rni
ng
D od
gi ng
Fl ee
in g
C h a si
n g
G a ll o p
in g
S k ip
p in
g
H o p p in
g
R u n n in
g
W al
ki n g
Str ikin
g
wit h l
on g-
ha nd
led
im ple
me nts
Striking
with rackets
Volleying
Dribbling
Punting
K ickin
g
C o lle
c tin
g
C a tc
h in
g
T h
ro w
in g
P a rtn
e rs
G ro
u p s
B etw
een g
ro u p s
U n iso
n /co
n trast
M irroring
/
m atching
Leading/
follow ing
Alongside
Around
Surrounding
Meeting/parting
Along/th rough
In fr ont/
beh ind
Ne ar/
far
On /o
ff
O ve
r/ un
de r
Sy m
m et
ri ca
l/
no ns
ym m
et ri ca
l Tw
is te
d
W id
e
N a rr
o w
Locomotor
Manipulative Nonmanipulative
Free
Figure 18.1 Movement analysis framework: relationship concepts.
CHAPTER 18 Relationships 285
in perspective with the other movement concepts and
skill themes. The relationship category is on the right-
hand side of the movement framework. The outer-
most ring names the concept (Relationships); the
second ring presents the three components of the
concept (body parts, with people and with objects
and /or people); and the third ring defi nes the 22 cate-
gories that make up relationships.
When teaching the relationship concepts, we typi-
cally begin with the simplest relationships for chil-
dren to understand — the self-relationships. Because
so many young children are still at the “I” stage, the
initial lessons focus on naming and identifying body
parts and their relationship to one another, followed
by body part shapes. As the children develop an ap-
plied (functional) understanding of the relationships
between body parts, we shift the emphasis to moving
in relation to different objects and to one another. In
preschool settings, many of the relationship concepts
will be new to children. In the primary grades, how-
ever, some of these concepts will simply be a review
for the children, and therefore the lessons can prog-
ress more rapidly. The third category of concepts,
relationships with others, is typically combined with
the study of other concepts and skill themes. Initially,
the focus is on working with partners, and when the
children develop the social and physical maturity
needed to collaborate with three or four others, we’re
able to include tasks that require them to work in
groups.
When teaching the relationship concepts, it’s easy
to forget that the purpose is to have the children actu-
ally understand and be able to demonstrate each of the
relationship concepts. Imagine that one of us is going
to teach a class of your second graders. Before teach-
ing, we might ask whether your children have been
taught the relationship concepts. If you say yes, we’d
assume that the children can demonstrate a symmetri-
cal shape or a nonsymmetrical shape when asked to do
so. Or we’d assume that the youngsters are able to
show us the difference between mirroring and match-
ing, over and under, and so forth. “Knowing” doesn’t
mean that the concepts were taught; knowing means
that the children are able to show their understanding
through their movement. In other words, the children
have a functional understanding — they are able to dem-
onstrate the concepts.
If one of us were going to teach a second-grade art
class, we might ask the teacher whether the children
had been taught their colors. If the teacher said yes,
we’d assume that the children know the difference
between red, brown, black, orange, and so forth.
We’d further expect that they can readily use these
colors in the lesson we would teach. If the teacher
says the children don’t know their colors, however,
we’d design our lesson to help them learn their
colors.
Developing the Concept of the Relationships of Body Parts
Before children, especially preschool children, can fo-
cus on the relationships between body parts, they need
to be able to identify specifi c body parts. Thus it’s es-
sential that each child acquire a functional vocabulary
of body part names. Examples of tasks that can be used
in teaching this vocabulary include:
• Pointing to the ceiling with the elbow (knee, nose)
• Touching the fl oor with the wrist (waist, stomach)
• Traveling around the room and on the signal stop-
ping and touching heels (shoulders, heads) with an-
other person
Once the children have learned the names of the
body parts, lessons focus on making shapes (round,
narrow, wide, twisted, symmetrical, and nonsymmetri-
cal) and using body parts in relation to one another.
For example, we might ask children to:
• Travel and stop in a twisted shape.
• Change slowly from a symmetrical to a nonsym-
metrical shape.
• Make a wide shape during a jump.
• Try to fi nd three different ways to get their feet
higher than their heads.
Teaching the Concept of the Relationships of
Body Parts
This initial section provides activities for teaching
children to identify and use different body parts and
to develop an understanding of how different body
parts can relate to one another. Tasks for teaching the
concepts of various body shapes and body part shapes
also are presented. You can use any body parts for the
activities given here, but with the tasks that require
balancing, be careful not to use parts that will elicit
balances that may be too complex for some students.
For example, when using parts such as the hands,
make it clear that other parts can be used in conjunc-
tion with them.
Learning Experiences Leading to Movement
Concept Understanding
Identifying Body Parts
Setting: Children in self-space, on a carpet square or
on an X on the fl oor
286 PART 3 Movement Concepts Defi ned www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Tasks /Challenges:
T I’m going to call out different body parts. Touch
the body parts I call out as quickly as possible when
you hear them. Remember to pay close attention to
what I’m saying, because I may start to go faster or
try to trick you. Ready? Remember, touch each
body part as I call it out.
Body parts might include nose, arm, chin, ankle, ear, foot, el-
bow, temple, wrist, neck, shoulder, eyebrow, eye, teeth, cheek,
leg, forehead, knee, thumb, mouth, side, hip, lip, earlobe.
T This time, instead of just touching a body part as I
name it, you’ll have to touch whatever hand I call
out to the different body parts I call out. This activ-
ity will be harder, because you’ll have to remember
which is your right and which is your left. For ex-
ample, if I say “Right hand to left knee,” touch
your right hand to your left knee. Try to do this as
quickly as possible, but be careful in deciding what
body parts to use. Just to help you out, let’s review
right and left. Raise your right hand. (Check to see
that they’re correct.) Ready? Let’s try it. If this is new
to the children, you may want to provide each of
them with a thick rubber band, or some other
technique, to help them distinguish their right
hand from their left hand.
Body parts used can include left hand to right knee, right
hand to left elbow, left hand to left shoulder, right hand to
left knee, left hand to left foot.
T This time you’re going to play a game with fi nding
body parts, similar to Simon Says, except you don’t
have to sit out if you miss. Here’s how to play. I’ll
call out “Simon says to touch your toes,” and you’ll
Can you travel through the hoop without touching it?
touch your toes. But if I don’t say “Simon says,”
then you aren’t supposed to do it. So if I just say
“Touch your toes,” you aren’t supposed to touch
your toes, because Simon didn’t say to do it. Pay at-
tention, because the game will start to go very
quickly. Remember, I’m watching to see if you touch
the right parts and how quickly you can do it.
T This time, instead of touching your hands to dif-
ferent body parts, you’re going to touch two differ-
ent body parts together. For example, I’ll call out
“Knee to elbow,” and you’ll touch your knee to
your elbow. You’ll have to think hard on this one.
Ready? I’m looking to see if you can get the correct
different parts together.
Possible body part combinations include knee to elbow,
hands to waist, head to knees, foot to shoulder, knee to foot,
elbow to wrist, back of wrist to back of knee.
Balancing While Using Different Body Parts
Setting: Each child on a poly spot or carpet square, or
inside a hoop
Tasks /Challenges:
T Find a poly spot for yourself, and sit on it. I’ll know
that you’re all ready when I see everyone seated on
their own poly spot. This time when I call out a
body part, you should put that body part on the
poly spot and make a shape with the rest of your
body, leaving the one part that I called out on the
spot. So if I call out “Elbow,” put your elbow on the
spot, and then make a shape with the rest of your
body. When you make your shape, be sure to hold
it very still so I can see what part is on the spot and
what your shape looks like. Ready? Let’s try it.
T Shapes that you hold very still are called balances,
almost like statues. Let’s try this activity again; make
your balances and shapes very clear and still.
T Now you’re going to balance on different numbers
of body parts. I’ll call out a number of parts; you bal-
ance by touching that number to the fl oor. Count
your parts touching the fl oor very carefully because
I’ll be coming around and asking you how many
parts are on the fl oor and which parts they are.
Four parts
Three parts
More than four parts
Two parts
One part
For each number, offer suggestions or hints, or have several
students pinpoint the possible combination of parts. Also
mix up the order in which the parts are called out.
CHAPTER 18 Relationships 287
Freezing on Different Body Parts
Setting: Children scattered in general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T You’re going to travel around the space on your
feet. When you hear the stop signal, touch the body
part I call out to the fl oor. So if I call out “Elbow” as
you stop, touch your elbow to the fl oor. As you
move, be very careful to stay in a space by yourself,
so you don’t touch anyone when you’re trying to
touch different body parts to the fl oor. This activity
will start to go very fast, so touch the parts to the
fl oor as quickly as possible, and make it very clear
which part is touching the fl oor.
Body parts can include arm, ankle, foot, leg, side, hip.
T When you travel this time, instead of touching
body parts to the fl oor, touch the body parts I call
out to the same parts of another person. So if I
call out “Heels,” stop, touch your heels to the
heels of one other person, and then freeze. As you
do this, make the touching parts very clear; don’t
just stand beside the other person. To be safe,
make sure as you touch that you stop fi rst and
then touch easily so no one gets hurt. The idea is
to quickly and easily touch and then be ready to
go again. Ready?
Body parts can include wrist, shoulder, forehead, knee,
thumb, arm, ankle, foot, elbow, leg, side, hip.
Traveling on Different Body Parts
Setting: Children scattered in general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T This time, instead of balancing on different body
parts, you’re going to travel on different body
parts. What body parts do we usually travel on?
Let’s start with the feet, just to get warmed up.
Make sure to travel in all the space and to stay on
your feet. Let’s start by walking.
T Now try something a little different: the hands
and feet. Remember to travel with your hands and
feet both touching the fl oor at some time. Ready?
Make sure you actually go someplace, and be care-
ful of others.
T This time you’re going to make up your own way
of traveling using different body parts (not your
feet). As you do this, make sure that I can tell
from just looking at you what body parts you’re
using for traveling; you should be using different
body parts to move around the room. Be very
careful to watch where you’re going and not
touch anyone else.
Balancing on Matching and Nonmatching Parts
Setting: Each child in a personal space
Tasks /Challenges:
T This time, instead of balancing on a certain num-
ber of parts, you’re going to balance on parts that
are alike and parts that are different. Parts that are
alike are called matching parts. What parts do you
have that are matching or alike? (Children respond
“Hands,” “Feet,” etc.) Good; let’s try to balance on
some of those parts. First let’s try an easy one: the
feet. Now, how about the knees? Think up one of
your own. Make sure that the parts you use are
matching parts.
T Now pick one set of matching parts and make up a
balance that you like and practice it until you can
hold it very still for at least three seconds. Be sure
you know the name of the matching parts you’re
balancing on, because I’ll come around and ask
some of you, just to make sure. These young children explore the various ways their arms can move
in relationship to their bodies.
288 PART 3 Movement Concepts Defi ned www.mhhe.com /graham8e
T This time you’re going to balance on different
parts. Different parts are parts that don’t match
each other; they aren’t alike. What are some pos-
sible combinations of different parts? (Children
respond “Knee and elbow,” “Back and hands,” etc.)
Let’s try some. First, try the seat and the feet. Now
try the shoulders and the elbows. What about the
knees and the elbows? Now, make up one combi-
nation on your own.
T Now pick one set of different parts and make up
your own balance. Practice your balance until you
can hold it very still. See if you can hold it per-
fectly still until I count to three alligators. (Chil-
dren enjoy fun ways to challenge themselves —you can
make up your own terms to challenge the children to
hold their balances for several seconds.) Be sure the
different parts you’re using are very clear, because
I might ask you what they are.
Round, Narrow, Wide, and Twisted Body Shapes
Setting: Each child in self-space
Tasks /Challenges:
T Today you’re going to learn about different shapes
you can make with your bodies. Everyone fi nd a
self-space so that you can’t touch anyone else. The
fi rst shape you’re going to make is a pretzel. All of
you try to make a pretzel out of your body; hold
very still. This shape is called a twisted shape.
T Now make a different twisted shape on your own.
As you do so, make sure your whole body is twisted,
not just your arms and legs. Try to twist your
stomach, too.
T The next shape is a circle. Try to make your whole
body look like a circle. This is called a round
shape.
T Now try to make up a different round shape by
yourself. Make sure that your whole body is mak-
ing the round shape and that it is very round. Re-
member, round things have no bumps in them.
T This time you’re going to make a skinny shape. Try
to make your body as skinny as possible, so skinny
that if you turned sideways, no one would be able
to see you. This is called a narrow shape.
T Find another narrow shape by yourself. Make it as
skinny as possible, as if you were trying to hide.
T What do you think the opposite of narrow is?
Wide, right. Make your body as wide as possible.
T Try another wide shape by yourself. Remember to
get as wide as possible, as if you were trying to stop
someone from getting around you.
C This time pick your favorite kind of shape, and
make it, holding it very still. I’m going to come
around and guess which type of shape it is, so
make your shape as clear as possible. Your shape
should be wide, narrow, round, or twisted.
T Things are going to be a little harder this time. Still
staying in your own space, you’re going to make a
wide shape. Then, when I give the signal, change
your wide shape to a narrow shape, and hold it
very still. The difference between the wide and
narrow shape should be very clear. Make a wide
shape, and hold it. Now change that wide shape to
a narrow shape.
T Try it again — another wide shape; change to a nar-
row.
T Now, a third.
C This time pick the shape you liked the most, and
practice it until it changes very easily from wide to
narrow. Work on it until it’s your best and both
shapes are very clear.
T You thought the last activity was hard? This one is
even harder! Think you can do it? You’re going to
change from a twisted shape to a round shape. So
make your twisted shape. Got it? On the signal,
change that twisted shape to a round shape.
T Now, let’s try a different twisted to round shape.
Go.
T And a third twisted to round shape. Make sure that
your twisted shape is really twisted and your round
shape is very round. I should be able to easily tell
the difference between the two shapes.
“Freeze in a low wide shape.” This task requires children like this girl
to consider relationships between body parts.
CHAPTER 18 Relationships 289
C Now, pick your favorite round and twisted shape.
Practice your favorite one so that your move from
twisted to round is smooth (not jerky) and that
your shapes are so clear the principal could easily
tell the difference if he or she walked in.
Changing from One Body Shape to Another
Setting: Children in self-space moving to a drumbeat
Tasks /Challenges:
T You’ll really need to be in a good self-space for this
activity, so make sure you’re as far away from ev-
eryone else as you can be. Again you’re going to
change from one shape to another, but I’m going
to give you drumbeats to help. You’re going to
move from a round shape to a wide shape, but in-
stead of just doing it on your own, you’ll have six
beats of the drum to get from the round shape to
the wide shape, and then six beats to get back to
your round shape. Listen now while I give you the
beats of the drum. Does everyone understand?
You’ll start in a round shape and on the six beats
of the drum open to a wide shape. You’ll hold your
wide shape very still, and then on the next six
beats of the drum you’ll return to your round
shape. Let’s try it. Find your round shape.
T Let’s try it again; this time fi nd different round and
wide shapes.
T Now, let’s do a third set of shapes.
C You’re now going to practice one set of shapes four
more times, so you can make it really good. Pick
your favorite shapes. Remember as you move to
make each shape very clear, and make sure that
the movement goes with the beats of the drum.
Pinpoint two or three children who are succeeding with
the activity, and ask them if they’d like to show it to the
class.
T You’re going to make the shapes a little different
this time. Instead of opening up on six beats and
closing on six, you’re going to open up on one
quick beat and then close slowly on six. So the se-
quence will now go like this: Start in a round shape;
on the beat, quickly open up to a wide shape, and
hold it still; then on the next six beats of the drum,
slowly return to your round shape. Remember to
open from the round to the wide shape very, very
quickly, as if you were a fl ash of lightning.
Pinpoint several children to show the activity to the rest of
the class.
C Now practice your favorite shapes four times. Re-
member not only to make the quick shape sudden
and the slow shape sustained, but also to make
your round and wide shapes very clear. To look re-
ally good, remember to hold the beginning and
the end very still so that we all know when you
started and when you fi nished.
For the distinction between the movement concepts of body
shapes and the skills needed to achieve those shapes, see
Box 18-1 .
Traveling and Freezing in Different Body Shapes
Setting: Children traveling in general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T Instead of making shapes in your self-space, this
time you’re going to travel around the space and
on the signal stop and quickly make the shape I
call out. For example, if you’re traveling and I call
out “Twisted,” on the signal, make a twisted shape.
As you make your shapes, be sure they’re very clear
so that I can easily tell what they are. If I can’t tell
what they are, I’ll have to ask you. As you travel,
be careful of your classmates.
T Now, as you stop to make your shape, try to do it
as quickly as possible, almost as if you just froze in
that shape when you stopped. Remember, frozen
shapes don’t fall over.
Stretching, Curling, Twisting, and Turning
There is a subtle, yet important, distinction between the move-
ment concepts of round, narrow, wide, and twisted (body
shapes) and the skills of stretching, curling, twisting, and turn-
ing. When the children are in the process of actually moving—
the “ing” part—it is technically a skill; once they have arrived, it
is technically a concept. For example, when a child has fi nished
making a twisted shape, it is considered a concept. When the
child is in the process of twisting, however, it is technically a
skill (i.e., an actual movement). For this reason, you will fi nd
the movements of stretching, curling, twisting, and turning
listed under the nonmanipulative category of the skill themes
(Chapter 2) and the tasks for helping children achieve quality
stretches, twists, turns, and curls described primarily in
Chapters 21, 22, and 23. The tasks for helping children learn
the difference between the movement concepts of round, nar-
row, wide, and twisted are described in this chapter. In actuality,
this distinction is important only from a theoretical standpoint—
the children don’t necessarily need to understand this distinc-
tion. They just need plenty of opportunities to understand the
meaning of the concepts (which we describe in this section)
and to truly develop their abilities to stretch, curl, twist, and turn.
Box 18-1
290 PART 3 Movement Concepts Defi ned www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Making Symmetrical and Nonsymmetrical Shapes
Setting: Children in self-space
Tasks /Challenges:
T You’ve already learned about wide, narrow, round,
and twisted shapes. This time you’re going to learn
about two different kinds of shapes. The words de-
scribing these shapes are hard, so listen carefully.
First, fi nd a body shape that looks exactly alike on
both sides of your body; in other words, if you
were divided in half, both sides of you would look
alike. This is called a symmetrical shape.
T Try making a symmetrical shape. Remember, both
sides of your body must look exactly alike.
T Now fi nd a shape in which the two sides of your
body don’t look alike. In other words, if you were
cut in half, each side would have a different shape.
We call this a nonsymmetrical shape.
T Make another nonsymmetrical shape. Remember,
both sides must be different.
T Since you now know the difference between sym-
metrical and nonsymmetrical, let’s fi nd three more
balances of each shape. First do symmetrical; re-
member, both sides are alike. When I beat the drum,
change from one symmetrical shape to the next
one. Try to make each of your balances very clear so
I can tell without thinking what kind of shape it is.
T Now do nonsymmetrical shapes. Find three more
nonsymmetrical shapes. Try to make the sides of
your body as different as possible so no one could
possibly confuse your shape with a symmetrical
one. Change each time you hear the drum beat.
C Once you’ve found three more nonsymmetrical
shapes, practice your favorite one fi ve extra times
so you can show it to the whole class. (Half the
class demonstrates their favorite nonsymmetrical
shape, and then the other half shows their favorite
nonsymmetrical shape.)
Event Task. This would be an appropriate time to
use an event task to determine if students are able
to make different body shapes. A possible task
might be the following:
You and a partner are going to make up a rou-
tine. It will consist of three shapes. In each of the
shapes you and your partner should match —you
should look exactly alike. Here are three shapes:
1. Symmetrical, narrow shape
2. Twisted shape
3. Nonsymmetrical wide shape
Start with the fi rst shape and hold it for three
seconds (crocodiles, elephants, hamburgers, your
city or state). When I say change (or beat the drum),
change to the second shape. Hold it for three sec-
onds, and then change to the third shape and hold
that one for three seconds.
Creating Postcard Sculptures
Setting: Museum postcards of statues, one postcard for
every child. Photos laminated from magazines can also be
used for this task . Children love to play the roles of statues
and sculptors but tend to get silly during this activity. Re-
mind them that they need to respect their partners. Also
caution them to place others only in shapes they can
hold without too much diffi culty so no one gets hurt.
Tasks /Challenges:
T You’re going to pretend that you’re sculptors who
are creating great statues. To do this you’ll need a
partner. When I say “Go,” fi nd a partner, and sit
beside your partner. I’ll know you’re ready when I
see everyone seated beside a partner. Each set of
partners has two postcards (photos) of statues;
you’re going to form each other into these statues.
Decide which partner will be the sculptor fi rst; the
other partner is a ball of clay in a round shape in
low level. The sculptor then decides which statue
to make the partner into. First, form the statue by
gently guiding your partner (the ball of clay) into
the shape just as it is on the card. Remember, balls
of clay cannot talk, so you need to guide them into
the shape you want, not tell them.
Once you are satisfi ed with your sculpture, if it’s
symmetrical, change it to nonsymmetrical; if it’s
nonsymmetrical, make it symmetrical. Mold each
statue very carefully, and be sure you can tell me
which statue is symmetrical and which is nonsym-
metrical. After you make your statue, trade places
with your partner; now you will become the ball of
clay and your partner will become the sculptor.
T This time you’re going to design your own statues.
You’ll still need your partner. Go ahead and decide
which of you is to be the sculptor and the ball of clay
fi rst. Make your fi rst statue symmetrical. The statue
stays “frozen” until the signal. At the signal, move to
someone else’s statue and redesign it to suit yourself.
On the next signal, move to another new statue and
redesign it. Keep doing this until you’re told to
change. When you hear the change signal, fi nd your
partner and now you will become the ball of clay.
Let’s practice once. Form your partner into a sym-
metrical statue. (Allow at least one minute.) Now, move
to another statue and remake it, still into a symmet-
rical shape. Do you have the hang of it? (Select several
children for demonstration.) Go to the next statue.
CHAPTER 18 Relationships 291
T Now trade places with the statue you’ve just made.
The activity changes a little this time; you’re going
to create nonsymmetrical statues. Ready? Without
moving to a new place, form a nonsymmetrical
statue out of your partner.
T Change to a new statue, and then change this
statue to a nonsymmetrical shape. Remember: Non-
symmetrical means that both sides of the body are
very different from each other.
T Change one more time. Make this your best statue
yet.
If you have access to a digital camera, the postcard sculp-
tures are excellent photo opportunities. They also can be
used on a bulletin board with actual sculpture photographs
next to them. This project can be especially interesting in
combination with the study of European countries.
Creating Body Shapes in the Air
Setting: Boxes, benches, and/or low beams set up around
the space. Figure 18.2 shows a typical equipment setup.
Tasks /Challenges:
T Now you’re going to combine all the different
kinds of body shapes that you’ve practiced so far.
What you’re going to do may be hard, but it’ll be
fun. Remember that, as you work, all the rules for
gymnastics apply. (See Chapters 9 and 30 for estab-
lishing an environment for learning and for the rules of
a gymnastics environment.) Three or four of you will
be at a piece of equipment at once. One at a time,
you’ll each jump off the equipment and make a
shape in the air. Each time you jump, try to make
that shape in the air. Let’s start with a wide shape.
Make sure that you land on your feet after the
jump, and don’t crash to the ground. See if you can
hold your landing as still as a statue when you land
for two seconds.
After a while, change to narrow, twisted, round, symmetri-
cal, and nonsymmetrical shapes.
T Now that you’ve been through all the shapes sepa-
rately, you may practice them in any order you wish.
Make the shapes so clear that I don’t have to ask you
what they are. Remember to land on your feet.
Developing the Concept of the Relationships with Objects
Some concepts are studied in relation to objects; others
have more meaning when they’re practiced in relation
to people. The concepts of on and off, along, through,
over, under, around, and surrounding apply primarily to
relationships with objects. The concepts of near and
far, in front, behind, and alongside are generally studied
as person-to-person relationships. Because objects are
more predictable (less dynamic) than children, how-
ever, we fi rst focus on the concept of relationships with
objects and then on relationships with people.
Children frequently identify a lesson by the equip-
ment used in the lesson rather than the movement
concept. For example, after a lesson in which hoops
were used to study the concepts of traveling over, un-
der, and through, children might say, “Hey, that was
fun! Are we going to play with hoops again tomor-
row?” In time, however, children begin to understand
and use the terminology that we use. For instance, a
child might say, “It’s easier to go over and under the
hoop than to go through the hoop.”
Within the context of a game or a dance lesson,
speci fi c terms are classifi ed as objects. In dance, for ex-
ample, wands, streamers, newspapers, or scarves are
considered objects. Goals, boundaries, nets, and targets
are objects with which the child learns relation ship
concepts within a game context. See Box 18-2 for infor-
mation from the National Standards on relationships.
Teaching the Concept of the
Relationships with Objects
The activities in this section are designed to enhance
the children’s awareness of and ability to function ef-
fectively in relation to some of the objects (equipment)
used in a variety of physical activity contexts.
Bench
Bench
Mat
Low
beam
Low
beam
Low box
1 2
3 4 5
Figure 18.2 Equipment setup.
292 PART 3 Movement Concepts Defi ned www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Learning Experiences Leading to Movement
Concept Understanding
Traveling Over, Close to, Far Away, Inside
Setting: A hoop or a rope for each child
Tasks /Challenges:
T To warm up, travel over your hoop (rope) in any
way you want to. As you travel, make sure that you
actually go over the equipment, not around it.
T This time as you travel over your equipment, try to
stay as close to the equipment as possible. Try to
keep as much of your body as possible close to the
equipment, not just one body part.
T Now, instead of being close to the equipment, try
to have as many body parts as possible as far away
from the equipment as possible. Only the parts
that are really used to support your body should be
near the equipment. Make sure that your whole
body is as far away as possible, not just the upper
parts of your body.
T The activity is a little harder now. Start on the out-
side of your equipment, put your weight down on
your hands inside the hoop (or a circle made with a
rope), and then continue to travel over the equip-
ment. Make sure that you shift your weight to your
hands inside the hoop (rope) at some point.
T These are all relationships that your body can have
to equipment or other people. We can go over
things, we can be close to things, we can be far
away from things, or we can go inside things. Prac-
tice all four of these relationships on your own:
over, close to, far away, and inside. See if you can
fi nd three different ways to do each relationship —
for example, three ways to go over your rope. Be
sure you know which concept you’re practicing,
because I’ll come around and ask you.
If you say you’re going to come around and ask the children
questions or see their work, do it! Otherwise, the children
may soon stop believing you.
Traveling Over, Under, Close to, and Far Away
from Equipment
Setting: A rope inserted into two cones so that the
middle is 12 –18 inches off the ground, hurdle, or
other object that the children can travel over and
under ( Figure 18.3 )— one for each child in the class,
scattered throughout the space Tasks /Challenges:
T To begin, travel over the rope (hurdle) any way that
you can; you can jump, use your hands and feet, or
use only your hands. Whatever you do, make sure
that you can land on your feet on the other side with-
out falling down. This is called going over an object.
Sometimes when we try to go over an object, we
cheat and actually go around the side of it. Make very,
very sure that you really do go over and not around.
T Now, instead of going over the hurdle, you’re go-
ing to go under it. This will be hard because the
hurdle (rope) isn’t very far off the ground. You’ll
really have to scrunch up. Try to do it without up-
setting the hurdle.
T Now, let’s try going under in different ways. Some-
times go under feet fi rst, sometimes head fi rst,
sometimes on your back, and sometimes on your
stomach. Be careful; always know where your body
is, even those parts that you can’t see.
T One more activity. This time you’re going to put
part of your weight on your hands and bring your
feet down in different places around the hurdle. To
begin, bring your feet down very close to the hur-
dle. You may take your feet across the hurdle or
simply leave them on one side; whatever you do,
be sure your feet come down close to the hurdle.
T Now try bringing your feet down far away from the
hurdle. Make sure that every time your feet touch
the fl oor, they’re far away from the rope.
T Now, as you work, your feet can be close to the
hurdle or far away, but sometimes have your feet
land close to each other, sometimes spread far apart
from each other. Be able to tell me if your feet are
close together or far apart when I ask you. Remem-
ber, close together means almost so close that noth-
ing could get between, and far apart means spread
out so much that a person could crawl through.
Relationships in the National Standards for Physical Education
The movement concept of relationships is referenced in the
National Association for Sport and Physical Education’s
National Standards for Physical Education (NASPE 1995)
as a sample kindergarten benchmark under Standard 2:
“Applies movement concepts and principles to the learning
and development of motor skills.” The sample benchmark
states that a child “identifi es and uses a variety of relation-
ships with objects, e.g., over/under, behind, alongside,
through” (p. 8).
Box 18-2
CHAPTER 18 Relationships 293
Onto/Off Concepts
Setting: Low boxes or benches, scattered throughout
the space
Tasks /Challenges:
T You’re now going to learn two more types of rela-
tionships: onto and off. I think you probably al-
ready know what these two concepts mean, but
let’s practice them just to make sure. Find at least
three different ways to get onto and three different
ways to get off your piece of equipment. I’m really
looking for very different ways to get onto and off
the equipment — as long as they are safe and you
are being careful.
C After you fi nd three different ways, practice your
favorite way four extra times, so that you can show
it to the class. Make it really special.
T I’m going to make the activity a little harder this
time by combining different types of relationships.
When I say “Go,” each of you get a hoop and place
it on the fl oor beside your box. Travel into the hoop
before you travel onto and off the box or bench. So
your sequence will involve three different relation-
ships: into, on, and off. Find three different ways
to do this. Make them very different from each
other. Go.
Pinpoint several children who are doing the activity cor-
rectly or have found very creative ways to accomplish the
activity to demonstrate their actions for the rest of the class.
Be sure to use a variety of students so that the rest of the
class has a number of different creative ideas to base their
work on.
T Now you’re going to make up a sequence of the
relationships you practiced with the box and hoop.
You must include the concepts of off, onto, and into
in your sequence. You can start with any of the
three. Once you fi nd a sequence that you really
like, practice it until you can do it from memory
and it looks the same each time.
Rolled newspaper
Plastic bleach or milk jugs
Blocks may be made from wood, if desired.
Step 1. Obtain 4" x 4" square stock. Sand all surfaces smooth.
Step 2. Square pencil lines around stock at 12" or 24" increments.
Step 3. Drill 1" or 3⁄4" holes at right angles to each other.
Step 4. Saw blocks. Sand ends smooth after sawing.
Leave 11⁄2"
of waste
at both ends
Figure 18.3 Construction of hurdles.
Hurdles can made from plastic bleach or
milk jugs and rolled newspaper held together
with masking tape. A more permanent type
of hurdle can be made from wood and
dowel rods.
294 PART 3 Movement Concepts Defi ned www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Over, Under, Around, In Front Of,
and Behind Concepts
Setting: A streamer, such as one used in rhythmic gym-
nastics, for each child; paper and pencils. You can make
streamers from 2-inch-wide crepe paper or from survey ors’
tape cut into 4- to 10-foot lengths.
Tasks /Challenges:
T Just to warm up, practice moving your streamer
anywhere around your body. Remember to always
try to keep the streamer in the air. To do this, you’ll
have to keep the streamer moving all the time; you
can’t let it stop, or it’ll touch the fl oor.
T Now that you know how to keep the streamer in
the air, try to make it go over, under, around, in front
of, and behind different body parts, such as your
head, legs, and trunk. ( You will ask the children to do
these one at a time — e.g. over, then under, then around.)
Try to keep the streamer moving at all times.
T Now you’re going to pretend you’re Olympic gym-
nasts. Make up a sequence in which your streamer
goes over, under, around, in front of, and behind two
different body parts—for example, over your head
and over an arm. After you make up a sequence that
you like, practice it until it looks the same each time
and you can do it from memory. It’s very important
that you remember exactly what you did, because
we’re going to do something really special with it.
T Do you remember your sequence? Now you’re going to write it down on a piece of paper and ex-
change the paper with a friend. Your friend will try
to do your sequence, and you will try to do your
friend’s sequence just by reading the directions on
the paper, so make it very clear which parts you
went over, under, around, in front of, and behind.
C Now practice your friend’s sequence until you think
you’ve learned it perfectly. When you think you’re
ready, ask your friend to watch you do the sequence.
In a few minutes I’ll ask for volunteers to show rou-
tines that clearly have all fi ve of these concepts.
This series of activities is also very good for developing the
concept of free fl ow. It is best to gradually combine the
concepts — for example, over, then under, then over and
under together, and so on.
Traveling Along Equipment
Setting: Low balance beams, benches, or ropes on the
fl oor set up around the room
Tasks /Challenges:
T So far we’ve practiced the relationships of on, off,
over, in front of, under, around, and behind. Now
we’re going to learn the relationship of along. At
your piece of equipment, each of you, one at a
time, should travel along the beam or bench by
walking. Make sure that you travel from one end
of the beam or bench to the other. This relationship
of along means being on a piece of equipment and
traveling from one part of it to another.
If it’s easy for you to walk on the beam, try some
other ways. Try a slide. If you need help keeping
your balance, spread your arms out to either side.
As children progress with learning how to travel on or along
equipment, you can increase the complexity of the activities
by changing the locomotor pattern required for traveling.
Patterns can include hopping, skipping, running, or fun
movements like waddling. Before you change the pattern,
be sure the children are able to advance safely to the next
pattern. In other words, don’t have them run on the balance
beam before they can keep their balance at a fast walk.
T This time, we’re going to be funny by combining
two different relationships while you travel along
the bench. Have some of your weight on the bench
and some on the fl oor. For example, have one hand
and foot on the bench and one hand and foot on
the fl oor, or have both your feet on the bench and
both your hands on the fl oor. The idea is to place
part of your weight on the equipment and part on
the fl oor. Make sure that I can tell where your
weight really is.
C Make up one way you like to travel with part of
your weight on the fl oor and part on the bench,
and practice it so that you can show the class. Try
to give your movement a name.
Traveling Through Obstacles
Setting: Hoops on foam supports
Tasks /Challenges:
T So far we have practiced traveling over, under,
around, in front of, behind, and along. Now we
are going to practice traveling through obstacles.
Look around the area. You will see hoops standing
up straight on foam supports. See if you can travel
through the hoops without touching the sides.
Start going through at a slow speed. If that is easy,
gradually go through at a faster speed.
T If you can travel through the obstacle without
knocking it down or touching it at a fast speed,
then try going through it in a backward direction —
slowly at fi rst and then faster and faster.
C See if you can go through the hoop three times
without touching it in a forward direction at a fast
speed. See if you can travel through three times in a
backward direction without touching the obstacle.
CHAPTER 18 Relationships 295
T This game is called rolling hoops. You may work
alone or with a partner. The object is to travel
through a rolling hoop without touching it so that
the hoop keeps rolling after you travel through it.
If you work with a partner, ask your partner to roll
the hoop slowly or to make it spin by throwing it
so that the hoop spins back to the thrower. Try to
go through the hoop when it changes direction
and starts back to the thrower.
Teacher Observation. The following task might be
used with a teacher observation to assess children’s
ability to use the concepts of over, into, out of,
around, and along.
I am going to ask you to travel in relationship to
a hoop and do fi ve things.
1. Travel over the hoop. (It’s OK if you just travel
over part of the hoop.)
2. Travel into the hoop.
3. Travel out of the hoop.
4. Travel around the hoop.
5. Travel along the hoop. (Don’t worry if you fall
off sometimes; just keep trying.)
I will call out each relationship. Don’t start the
next one until I ask you to change. Sometimes you
will keep moving. Sometimes you will stop after
the movement is done.
Remember that cognitive understanding precedes the ability
to perform. If children are having diffi culty “doing” the con-
cepts, you may want to assess their cognitive understanding —
for example, can they verbally explain the difference be-
tween around and along.
Going Over and Under the Obstacle Course
Setting: An obstacle course made by placing elastic or
regular ropes at various heights around the room.
Chairs, volleyball standards, and benches can be used
to anchor the ropes.
Tasks /Challenges:
T You can see that the whole room is now a giant
maze. Your task is to go through the maze by going
over or under the ropes. Everyone can move at
once, but be sure to not touch anyone else as you
fi nd your way through the maze. You can start at
different places on the maze, but everyone needs
to move in the same direction.
T Now that you’ve gone through the maze at least
once, I’m going to make the activity harder. This
time, try to go over some of the high ropes that you
went under and to go under some of the low ropes
that you went over. Be very careful to not touch
anyone else, and try not to touch the ropes.
C This will take a lot of concentration — pretend the
ropes are electric fences that will “zap” you if you
touch them.
This is a good initial activity because you can set it up be-
fore class and then have the children help you take it down
if you don’t want to use it for the entire class. Children re-
ally enjoy this activity.
Using Partners as Obstacles
Setting: Partners in a self-space
Throughout this series of tasks, emphasize that the
children move in relationship to their partners with-
out touching them. Sometimes a partner will need to
create a nonsymmetrical shape, with some body parts
at a low level to allow a partner to travel over her.
Tasks /Challenges:
T Things are going to change a little this time. In-
stead of using equipment as obstacles, you’re go-
ing to use partners. To warm up, partner 1 freezes
in any shape he or she likes and can hold still.
Partner 2 tries to fi nd as many ways as possible to
go over, under, around, and through the shape,
without touching partner 1. When partner 2 has
found two different ways to do each of the four
movements (over, under, around, and through),
she changes places with partner 1. Partner 2 now
freezes in a shape and partner 1 goes over, under,
around, and through the shape.
Moving in relationship to a rolling hoop is a fascinating challenge for
the skilled child.
296 PART 3 Movement Concepts Defi ned www.mhhe.com /graham8e
T Now partner 1 makes a low-level, nonsymmetrical
shape and holds it while partner 2 fi nds three ways
to go over that shape without touching it. Make
sure you’re actually going over the shape, not
around it. After you’ve found three ways to go over
the shape, trade places with your partner and re-
peat the exercise.
T To make things a bit harder, this time as you cross
the low-level nonsymmetrical shape, try to match
it. So if your partner is in a small, round shape, you
want to be in a small, round shape in the air as you
cross over your partner. Your partner on the fl oor
makes three different shapes and then switches.
I’ll be watching to see how closely the two shapes
match each other.
T This time, instead of matching, you’re going to try
to look the opposite as you cross. So if your partner
is in a round, curled shape, you want to be in a
wide, spread-out shape. After you do this three
times, trade places.
T Let’s make the activity even more diffi cult. Partner 1
forms a shape, and partner 2 crosses the shape. Part-
ner 2 now makes a shape for partner 1. Partners
keep taking turns making shapes and crossing them.
Every time you cross a shape, you immediately stop
and form a shape for your partner to cross. Let’s try
it. Each partner should make three shapes and then
stop. Remember not to touch your partner.
T Let’s work on making the movement smoother so
it fl ows together well. This time, cross the shape,
and smoothly and immediately go into your shape,
as if you just fl owed into it. The person getting up
should begin movement as soon as her or his shape
has been crossed. Partners should perform as if
they can read each other’s mind and are continu-
ally changing places.
It may help to plan your shapes ahead of time.
Talk about your shapes fi rst, so you know exactly
what you’re going to do. Remember, you must go
over your partner, not around.
T This will be the hardest activity yet. Each set of
partners should mark off their own space. No one
else can travel in this space, and the partners can’t
travel out of it. This is very important, so do it
now. You must be able to show me the boundaries
to your space when I ask. You may use ropes, cones,
lines, or benches to mark your space.
Now that you have your space, here’s what
you’ll be doing. Both of you will be traveling
on your feet in your space. Suddenly, one of you
will stop and make a low-level shape; when this
happens, the other person quickly travels over the
shape, and then both of you continue traveling.
Do this again, with the other partner making the
shape. The whole movement is split-second and
unpredictable. No one knows when a shape will be
made, and it is barely made before it’s crossed. The
action goes like this: both of you travel, one of you
stops and makes a low-level shape, the other one
crosses the shape, and you keep moving. The
object is to perform this movement three times
without breaking the fl ow of the movement or
touching each other. Let’s give it a try.
The secret to this task is to react as soon as you
see your partner beginning to make a shape. You
have to anticipate, somewhat like making an inter-
ception in football. Try again and see if you can
move more smoothly, with fewer breaks and jerks.
Developing the Concept of the Relationships with People
When children understand the concept of relation-
ships with people, they have increased awareness of
the interplay that occurs — in games, dance, and
gymnastics —between the persons involved in the
movement. Such interplay occurs, for example, when
dancers converge and move around, between, and be-
side each other, and when soccer players work as a unit
to advance a ball downfi eld.
Children often think of relationships to others simply
as children working with other children. The term rela-
tionships, as we use it in physical education, is generally
unknown to children. When teaching youngsters about
relationships with people, we focus on these fi ve rela-
tionships: alone in a mass, solo, partners, groups, and
between groups. These relationships can occur in a vari-
ety of ways: each child dribbles a ball in general space
(alone in a mass); one child demonstrates a sequence
before an entire class (solo); a child mirrors or matches
the movement of a partner or partners; children meet or
part in a dance with a group to express an idea (groups);
and individuals work with others as a team to accom-
plish a task against another team (between groups).
Alone in a Mass
This relationship occurs when all children move
simultaneously, with no intent of observing one an-
other. It’s frequently seen in lessons that use a problem-
solving or guided discovery approach (Chapter 13).
The children are indirectly relating to one another as
they move throughout general space. In contrast to a
solo relationship, the children say they feel they’re
truly on their own, even though they’re surrounded by
CHAPTER 18 Relationships 297
classmates. A child is alone in a mass when dribbling
his or her own ball through general space. So, too, is
each child when an entire class is running simultane-
ously to a predetermined location.
Solo
A solo relationship exists between an individual and
the audience the person is performing before and who
is observing the person. Examples are the pitcher on a
baseball team, a featured performer in a ballet, and a
gymnast. Because some children experience unpleas-
ant pressure or tension when they’re the center of at-
tention, we make solo performances voluntary rather
than mandatory. This is particularly important for the
poorly skilled child, who often feels increased tension
and pressure when asked to perform in front of an
audience. For this reason, we always try to pinpoint
two or more children (Chapter 11). Some children,
however, enjoy the challenge of solo performances
and actually seem to do better when watched by a
group. The feeling experienced when moving and be-
ing observed by others is an interesting phenomenon
and one that we want children to explore, but in a
safe, nonthreatening environment. In all classes we
discourage the children from laughing at or negatively
criticizing the performances of other children.
Partners
Partners are two individuals relating to each other
through their movements. Most primary-grade chil-
dren will be able to work cooperatively with a partner
to explore different relationships. In every class, how-
ever, there may be a few children who are not yet
developmentally ready to cooperate with a partner.
Examples of partner relationships include two dancers
moving in synchronization to express harmony or
peace, two people paddling a canoe, and two synchro-
nized swimmers performing a routine together. Rela-
tionship concepts introduced as children work with
partners (or groups) include:
• Meeting and parting — traveling toward or away
from a partner
• Unison and contrast —both partners intentionally
do the same thing (unison), or they intentionally
do the same thing in different ways (contrast)
• Leading and following — one partner leads; the other
follows
• Matching — partners are side by side and attempt to
duplicate one another’s movements instantaneously
(to make the same movement at the same time)
• Mirroring — partners face one another and form the
reverse reproduction of the partner’s movements, as
if looking in a mirror
Groups
Group cooperative relationships occur when more
than two children work together for a common pur-
pose. These relationships include children working to-
gether to express an emotion in dance, to design a
game or a sequence, or as a team trying to keep a ball
from touching the fl oor but without catching it.
As the size of the group increases, so, too, does the
complexity of the relationship. A partner relationship
involves being aware of one other child; a successful
group relationship necessitates an awareness of two
or more children. The diffi culty of decision making
also increases proportionately with the size of the
group. The concepts of meeting and parting, unison
and contrast, and leading and following all become
increasingly challenging as the size of a group increases.
Group relationships are typically focused on in game
situations — for example, a play in basketball, spacing
Working with a partner increases
the fun of a physical activity.
298 PART 3 Movement Concepts Defi ned www.mhhe.com /graham8e
on a soccer fi eld. When coaches are drawing their X’s
and O’s, they are describing group relationships.
Between Groups
A between-group relationship occurs when two or
more children relate to two or more children. It’s the
most complex of relationships because it involves not
only being aware of one’s own group, but having a re-
sponsibility to relate to another group. This relation-
ship is extremely challenging, as demonstrated by the
wide appeal of sports that match one team against an-
other. We keep intergroup relationships small (two to
three on a side) and try to allow choices about whether
to participate in an intergroup relationship.
Between-group relationships can be competitive
(working with a group to outmaneuver another group)
or collaborative (two groups striving for a common
goal). We usually begin with collaborative relation-
ships and provide children the opportunity to choose
competitive activities.
Teaching the Concept of the Relationships
with People
The following activities are designed to improve
children’s ability to function successfully with other
individuals and groups in a variety of situations.
Learning Experiences Leading to Movement
Concept Understanding
Matching
Setting: Partners in a self-space
Tasks /Challenges:
T Stand alongside a partner. Partner 1 should make a
shape, and partner 2 should try to copy it exactly.
Try to make the shapes so alike that you look like
twins. After making fi ve different shapes, partners
should change places, with partner 2 now making
the shapes while partner 1 copies them. Work hard
to make the shapes exactly alike.
T These types of shapes are said to match; they look
alike as much as possible. Now you’re going to
make matching balances a little harder by playing
follow the leader. On the signal, partner 1 leads by
traveling; partner 2 follows. When I beat the drum,
you both stop, and the follower, partner 2, matches
the balance the leader, partner 1, makes. As you
make your shapes, try to match exactly what your
partner does. Your whole body should do this, not
just your trunk. Be sure that when you’re the leader
you make a shape that your partner can actually
do — not one that’s too hard. After four shapes we
will switch the leader and the follower.
Traveling and Matching
Setting: Partners traveling in general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T Now you’ll perform matching actions while travel-
ing instead of being still. With your partner, make
up fi ve different ways that you can travel and then
perform the movements side by side at the exact
same time, as if you’re both part of a marching
band that does everything alike. Practice doing the
movements together so you do them at exactly the
same time. It may help to count to yourselves as
you move. When I beat the drum, switch to a dif-
ferent way of traveling.
Mirroring
Setting: Partners in a self-space
Tasks /Challenges:
T This time you’re going to try something a little
different. Face your partner; partner 1 will be the
leader and partner 2 the follower. The leader will
make a balance, and the follower will then make
the same balance, only opposite. For example, if
partner 1 uses her right arm to do something, part-
ner 2 uses his left arm. Just like looking in a mirror.
Make fi ve statues, and then trade places. Hold each
statue for two elephants (count one elephant, two
elephants) before moving to the next statue. Work
very hard to make every part of the statue the ex-
act opposite of what you see. These types of ac-
tions are called mirroring actions because the effect
is that of looking in a mirror.
Matching and Mirroring
Setting: Partners in a self-space
Tasks /Challenges:
T This activity tests how well you understand the
difference between mirroring and matching. With
your partner, make a matching balance. On the
signal, change that balance so that you mirror
each other.
It helps to have a group that is doing the activity correctly
demonstrate it for the class.
T With your partner, now try to fi nd three more
balances that you can change from matching
to mirroring. I’m going to come around as you
CHAPTER 18 Relationships 299
Children try to match their partner as they make “one-part,
non- symmetrical balances.” Children try to match each other’s rocking motion.
practice and ask to see at least one of your combi-
nations, so be sure you know the difference. If you
have questions, ask now.
T This time, the activity will be harder. Instead of
copying a still statue your partner makes, you’re
going to mirror your partner’s movements. It
will be just like looking in a mirror when you brush
your hair. Remember that this is still in your own
space and that there’s no traveling. So if your part-
ner moves his or her left arm down, you move your
right arm down. Make four moves and change
leaders. This is hard. Think about it.
T This time, try to tell a story with your mirroring
actions, such as a baby fi rst seeing herself in the
mirror, your mother putting on her makeup, or
your father shaving. Practice your story until you
can do it the same way three times in a row.
Then we’ll have the class try to guess what you’re
saying.
Traveling Alongside /Following
Setting: Traveling in general space with a partner
Tasks /Challenges:
T Though we haven’t really discussed it, often you were
practicing another type of relationship when you
followed your partner around the space: leading and
following. So far, you’ve always followed from behind
the other person. Let’s try it differently this time,
with you traveling alongside (next to) your partner
as you follow. One person is still the leader and the
other the follower, but you both move as if you were
a team of horses: beside each other. Switch leaders
when I give the signal. This activity is harder, so you
have to watch very closely what your partner does.
Start out with slow traveling, and you can get faster
gradually. Try to fi nd fun, different ways to travel.
T Now try to speed it up a little. Watch carefully. Try
to follow exactly.
The leader must be aware of the follower’s capabilities so
that the leader challenges the partner but doesn’t frustrate
the partner with movements that are too diffi cult.
Following with a Group
Setting: Traveling in general space with a group
300 PART 3 Movement Concepts Defi ned www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Tasks /Challenges:
T This time, you’re going to try another type of follow-
ing: from behind, with four or fi ve of you in a group.
The fi rst person in line is the fi rst leader and leads the
group all over the room. Start with walking. Then on
the signal, the fi rst person goes to the end of the line,
and the second person becomes the leader and travels
in a different way—for example, hopping, skipping,
galloping; this change continues until everyone has
had a chance to lead. The activity is just like follow
the leader. Remember, no touching.
T This time you’re going to make the activity a little
more challenging. I’m not going to give you the
signal to change anymore. Your group will have to
make up its own change signal, such as a hand clap.
You’ll start as you did before, with the fi rst person
leading. Then at some time the second person in
line will give the change signal and at the same
time start traveling a new way. When this happens,
the whole line starts to follow the new leader, and
the old leader goes to the back of the line. The hard
part is that you’re going to do this without stopping
the movement; the line must always keep moving.
Keep going until everyone has had a chance to be
the leader. Remember, it’s always the second person
in line who gives the change signal.
Meeting /Parting
Setting: Partners working in self- and general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T Now you’re going to work with partners again.
Find a different partner. First you and your new
partner are going to work only with your hands
while sitting in a self-space. Sit facing each other.
Very slowly, try to bring your hands as close to
your partner’s as you can without touching them.
As soon as your hands are close, pull them as far
away as you can without moving your body.
T This relationship is called meeting and parting. To
make it a little easier, I’m going to give you a drum-
beat to go by. On the six slow counts of the drum,
bring your hands as close as possible without touch-
ing them, and freeze. Then, on the sudden loud
beat, quickly pull your hands as far away as possi-
ble, as if you don’t want them to touch poison.
T Now try meeting and parting with your whole body.
Stand up and move a few feet apart. Use the six slow
drumbeats to bring your bodies as close together as
possible without touching, and then freeze. On the
sudden beat, quickly move back to where you
started. The secret is to move away quickly, as if you
were a fl ash of lightning, and then freeze very still.
T The activity will be harder this time. You’ll still
have the same partner, but you will be traveling
around the room without your partner. When you
hear the beat of the drum, quickly come toward
your partner and freeze very close to each other in
a matching shape, just for a few seconds, and then
begin your traveling again. Do this every time you
hear the signal. The secret is to always know where
your partner is. Maintain eye contact.
T This time, as you and your partner meet on the
sound of the signal, come together as if you’re
greeting a friend you haven’t seen in a long time;
then, as you get right up to each other, you realize
that you really don’t know the person and quickly
move away. It could be really funny.
Forming Cooperative and Collaborative Relationships
Setting: Groups of four traveling, throwing, and catch-
ing balls or beanbags in a large space. This idea works
well if a lined fi eld (such as a football fi eld) is available
and the children can follow the lines as guides.
Tasks /Challenges:
T So far, all our relationships with people involved
how we moved with those people. In your group of
three, you’re going to travel in a line spread out
across the fi eld (gym) toward the other side. As you
travel, throw the ball (beanbag) back and forth to
each other, always trying to stay the same distance
apart. Imagine a marching band moving across the
fi eld but throwing a ball as they move. The secret is
that the receivers move slightly ahead of but not
toward the passers, and the passers throw the ball
ahead of the receivers so that they don’t have to
stop walking to catch it. This type of relationship is
called a cooperative relationship, because everybody
has to work together to make it work.
When children begin to work with others in collaborative
and competitive situations involving a manipulative skill
(e.g., throwing and catching), the skill level tends to deterio-
rate briefl y if they’re concentrating on the relationship. This
should be expected and explained. The children, though, do
need to have a certain level (control level) of manipulative
ability before beginning these situations, or the activity will
become very frustrating to them.
T Now you’re going to change the cooperative rela-
tionship a little. You’re still going to work with your
group of three to move the ball across the fi eld (gym)
while staying the same distance apart, but one person
is going to try to steal the ball while it is in the air
coming toward you. It will be really hard to resist
the temptation to go close to your own players to try
to help them, but remember you have two goals: to
CHAPTER 18 Relationships 301
stay away from your teammates and to not let the
other person steal the ball. It really does help to stay
away from the other people on your team.
This is called a collaborative relationship, because
you have to work with the people on your team to
keep the other person from getting the ball. Let me
give you a few more hints on how to make such a
relationship work really well. First, when it’s your
turn to receive the ball, move slightly in front of
the passer so the passer can easily throw the ball to
you. Second, pass before the defender gets close to
you; when you’re free to pass, don’t wait until the
defender is so close that you’re forced to pass.
You may want to make the choice of having a defender op-
tional, as for some children it will be enough of a challenge
to try to throw, catch, and travel at the same time.
Meeting and Parting in a Cooperative Group
Setting: Groups of three or four in general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T This time, instead of meeting and parting with a part-
ner, you’re going to meet and part with a small group.
Your group forms a group shape (e.g., circle, square,
triangle)—remember: close, but not touching. Then
on the signal, suddenly leave, as if you’re in a hurry,
but take only a few steps and by yourself freeze into
a shape you like. On the next signal, slowly come
back to your group and form the same group shape
with which you started. To repeat, start with a group
shape, on the signal quickly leave and form a shape
of your own, and on the next signal return to the
fi rst group shape—almost as if someone were play-
ing a movie forward, backward, forward, backward.
C Let’s work on this activity with one series that you
really like. Practice it so it works out the same each
time. This will involve hard thinking. It may help
to count your steps so you know exactly how far to
move. It also helps not to laugh too much. Who
knows, you could be stars!
Performing Solo
Setting: Groups of six, each group with a foam ball and
cones to defi ne their area; pencil and paper for each
child
Tasks /Challenges:
T You’re going to play a bunch of small tag games —
only six people in a group. Start with two people as
taggers. When you get tagged, do not sit out, but
become a tagger, so in the end there will be many
taggers and one person in the middle. When you
fi nish one game, just start another one. The last
two players left in the middle are the fi rst taggers
in the next game. Remember to think about what
it’s like to be left in the middle.
After the youngsters have played the game, you have an
excellent opportunity to briefl y discuss the feelings of being
in a solo relationship when each child is the center of atten-
tion. Point out that some people (probably the highly skilled)
like being solo, but others (probably the less skilled) prefer
to not be solo.
It is important to determine children’s understand-
ing of relationships. Either of the following ideas
will allow you to do that rather quickly:
• Exit slip. Ask children to draw a symmetrical
shape and a nonsymmetrical shape.
• Homework. Ask children to fi nd an example of
a shape (e.g., wide, narrow, round, or twisted) in
a magazine or newspaper. Ask them to label the
shape.
Applying the Concept of Relationships
The concept of relationships with objects and people is
a beginning theme in the gymnastics and dance areas
as the children are taught the concepts of over, un-
der, around, through, along, and onto. The focus is
on whether the child understands the concept rather
than on how she is doing the skill. For example, you’d
observe whether a child was actually jumping symmetri-
cally over a hurdle rather than whether she was crossing
without knocking it over or using correct form. Once
you’re sure that the child understands the concept, then
in later grades you will focus on the cues (critical compo-
nents). Once a particular concept has been learned, it can
also be used for expressive purposes in dance.
We don’t introduce the concept of relationships
with objects in the games area until children have
reached at least the control level for the manipulative
skills (e.g., throwing, kicking) (Chapter 7). Children
must learn to manipulate objects alone before they can
reasonably be expected to manipulate them in relation
to objects or people. If children are given tasks involv-
ing manipulative skills and relationships too early,
they become frustrated and bored.
The concept of relationships with others is the last
concept we introduce. Socially, children enjoy work-
ing near other children at a very young age (parallel
play), but often physically and cognitively they aren’t
able to function effectively in relationship to others.
For example, children at the precontrol level don’t
possess enough skill to be able to consistently work
with a partner throwing and catching a ball. Therefore,
it’s best not to deal with relationships with others as a
concept until the children’s fundamental motor skills are
adequate and they’ve matured enough socially so that
302 PART 3 Movement Concepts Defi ned www.mhhe.com /graham8e
their abilities are enhanced when they work with other
children. There are no magical ages or times for intro-
ducing the different relationship concepts. Each teacher
must refl ect on information about the environment,
the children, the skill, and personal ability as a teacher
to determine the best time for introducing the concept
of relationships. Typically, however, the concepts are
introduced in the early primary grades and then revis-
ited when they are practicing various skill themes.
Competition
We were not sure where to discuss competition within the
skill theme approach, so we chose to place it at the end of
the relationship chapter because most competitive situa-
tions involve relationships—between individuals, part-
ners, or groups. The National Association for Sport and
Physical Education (2008) suggests that requiring students
to compete in games in which there are “winners and los-
ers” is an inappropriate practice for elementary school
physical education, especially when there are rewards for
winning and losing in class games. Traditionally, how-
ever, physical education classes have consisted of a pleth-
ora of team sports, especially at the secondary level.
We are not opposed to competition! We are opposed,
however, to requiring youngsters to compete in games
against their will. When youngsters, or adults for that
matter, choose not to compete, it is often because they
do not have the prerequisite skills (are at the precontrol
or control level) or prefer not to be placed in situations
that are potentially humiliating or embarrassing. This
is hard for many to understand, especially physical ed-
ucation majors, many of whom were varsity athletes
and thrive on competitive situations. An emphasis on
winning creates an intense emotional involvement
that can produce disturbing feelings in some children.
In the skill theme approach, if competition is involved,
it is often deemphasized by the teacher, and you will not
fi nd games pitting one half of a class against another. You
will, however, fi nd many ideas for small-sided games and
opportunities for youngsters to design their own games
(Chapter 31). When youngsters play small-sided games,
they have a choice to keep score or not. (We often fi nd
that they intend to keep score but forget to do so after a
few minutes into the game.) In the skill theme approach,
we try to help youngsters to understand that it’s accept-
able to choose not to keep score.
Finally, we need to realize that there are many oppor-
tunities for youngsters to participate in competitive
situations outside of physical education. By the time
youngsters are in third grade, many have already been on
softball, basketball, soccer, or swim teams, or have par-
ticipated in other types of competitive situations. Thus
competition is not new for most youngsters. When teach-
ers can help youngsters to place competition in perspec-
tive and to understand the strong feelings associated with
winning and losing, they need to do so. The major pur-
pose of the skill theme approach, however, is to encour-
age youngsters to develop motor skill profi ciency and
positive attitudes toward physical activity. Although
some youngsters thrive in competitive situations, others
do not. For this reason, in the skill theme approach we
present competition as a choice, not as a requirement.
References /Suggested Readings
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 1995 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. St. Louis, MO: Mosby .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2009 . Appropriate practices for elementary school physical education. Reston, VA: NASPE .
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. List three examples each of relationships of body
parts, relationships with objects, and relationships
with people (total of nine examples).
2. What does the term functional understanding mean?
3. Defi ne symmetrical and nonsymmetrical by listing ex-
amples of each concept.
4. We recommend that you teach the concept of rela-
tionships with objects before teaching relationships
with people. Why?
5. What does the term alone in a mass mean? What
does solo mean?
6. We recommend that solo performances and inter-
group experiences be voluntary, not required. Why?
7. Explain the difference between mirroring and
matching.
8. Pick a team sport you are familiar with. Use the
wheel to indicate how the 22 relationship concepts
are used when playing that game at the varsity or
professional level.
P A R T
303
Chapters 19 to 28 discuss the content of the skill themes we focus on
in our physical education programs. The chapters are ordered in the pro-
gression used to organize the yearly plan (discussed in Chapter 8). Each
chapter begins with an introduction to the skill theme; the introduction
includes a discussion of the skill theme’s characteristics and how the
theme can be applied to teaching children. It’s tempting to skip the
introduction and get to the actual lesson ideas, but we recommend that
you carefully read the introduction so that you’ll be able to adapt the skill
theme to your particular needs. Obviously you’ll change some of the
ideas; an understanding of the skill as taught to children will help you
make these adaptations.
Each skill theme chapter is arranged in a logical progression, from
precontrol through profi ciency levels, as explained in Chapter 7. This
progression is accompanied by what we call a progression spiral, which
outlines the content of each skill theme. Each line in the spiral corre-
sponds to a section in the chapter that explains how to develop that
idea. The progressions are presented as a series of tasks (not lessons)
that you will be able to develop based on the skill level and abilities of
the classes you teach.
Each series of tasks begins by describing the space and equipment you
will need. At the precontrol level, children are exploring a movement, and therefore cues are not
provided. At the next three generic skill levels, however, cues are provided before the actual task(s).
You are reminded that it is probably most effective to focus on only one of these cues at a time. The
reason we provide several at the beginning of the series of tasks is to allow you to observe your
children to determine which cue will be the most appropriate for them. At times when it was not
logical or safe to omit a cue from a task, we have included some cues within the tasks. When this
occurs, the cue is in bold print. Following the cues are one or more suggested tasks (which are
designated with the symbol T ) and also challenges (which are designated with the symbol C ).
4
Skill Theme Development
304
As you recall, tasks, cues, and challenges were described in
Chapter 11. In addition, you will fi nd suggested assessments
(Chapter 14) to help you determine how well the children are
understanding the concepts and skills you are teaching.
Finally, we encourage you to adapt the suggested progres-
sions and implied methodologies to suit your students’ needs
and your teaching goals. Our suggestions are certainly not pre-
scriptions. Refl ect on your situation, and your students, and design
the curriculum for your children.
• Skill themes are fundamental movements that are modi-
fi ed into more specialized patterns in which activities of
increasing complexity are built.
• Skill themes include: manipulative (kicking and punting,
throwing and catching, volleying and dribbling, striking
with rackets, paddles, and long-handled implements);
nonmanipulative (rolling, balancing, transferring weight,
jumping, and landing); and locomotor skills (traveling,
chasing, fl eeing, and dodging).
• Learning experiences in the skill theme chapters are
designed to assist children in moving from precontrol
to control to utilization to profi ciency levels of skill
profi ciency.
• Children need multiple and recurring experiences with
each skill to become competent movers.
• When skill themes are introduced, the initial tasks allow
children to explore the skill (precontrol). Tasks then focus
on helping children produce the correct skill in nonchang-
ing environments (control). This is followed by combining
skills in dynamic situations (utilization), and fi nally the use
of skills in a variety of changing environments (profi ciency).
• It is only after the skill can be produced in a consistent
manner that it is made more complex with the addition
of movement concepts.
• As children gain increasing competency with skills, the
skills are applied in games, dance, and gymnastics
environments.
Key Concepts
305
C H A P T E R
19
Traveling
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C hildren are fi rst capable of changing the loca-
tion of their bodies at about three months of
age, when they turn over from their backs onto
their stomachs. Unless seriously handicapped, they’ll
soon begin to crawl, then creep. At about one year,
they’ll take their fi rst step. And by the time they enter
school, they’ll exhibit relatively mature walking and
running patterns. Unlike other skills—such as throw-
ing, catching, and striking — the basic locomotor pat-
terns develop naturally in most children.
Most school-age youngsters, therefore, are beyond
the precontrol level in walking and running. Never-
theless, the teacher’s fi rst task is to evaluate travel-
ing performance to ensure that any youngsters who
exhibit severely immature or ineffi cient patterns will
receive remedial assistance. Most children attain a
mature walking pattern through experience. Verbal
cues from the teacher, plus the modeling of the
correct pattern, will help children with ineffi ciencies.
Continued deviations (e.g., toes turned out or in)
signal the need for a thorough physical examination
by a pediatrician.
Similarly, it’s important to ascertain how many
students can perform the fundamental locomotor
skills that emerge from the walk-run pattern: hopping,
leaping, sliding, galloping, and skipping. Young chil-
dren need much practice of each skill when the skills
are introduced, and they also need distributed practice
of the locomotor skills throughout the primary grades.
Young children inexperienced in different locomotor
skills may not be able to give the correct locomotor
response to a verbal command because they often lack
cognitive understanding rather than motor perfor-
mance. We’ve found that modeling is the best way for
young children to learn these skills; the children follow
the example of the teacher and other children who’ve
mastered the skill. It’s also important to name the
locomotor skill each time you or others demonstrate it
to the children.
By approximately age eight, we expect children to
be able to execute the locomotor skills of hopping,
leaping, sliding, galloping, and skipping in response
to a verbal command. This expectation implies that
children recognize the word and the action it repre-
sents and that they’ve mastered the skill. Conse-
quently, most of the activities in this chapter are
geared to the precontrol and control levels. At the
utilization and profi ciency levels, traveling most
often occurs as combinations of skill themes, such as
traveling while dribbling, or in a game, dance, or
gymnastics context — for example, traveling to run
bases. See Box 19-1 for information on traveling from
the National Standards.
Fundamental Locomotor Skills
Walking
Walking is a process of alternately losing balance and
recovering it while moving forward in an upright
position. While moving forward, the body should
display little up-and-down or side-to-side movement.
The arms and legs move in opposition. A mature
walking pattern looks smooth and is accomplished in
an easy manner.
When assessing the walking pattern of young chil-
dren, look for the following ineffi ciencies:
• Bouncy walk— too much vertical push
• Excessive swing of the arms away from the sides
• Failure to swing the arms at the shoulders
The Skill of Traveling in the National Standards for Physical Education
The movement skill of traveling is referenced in the National
Association for Sport and Physical Education’s National Stan-
dards for Physical Education (NASPE 2004) under Standard 1:
“Demonstrates competency in motor skills and movement
patterns needed to perform a variety of physical activities.”
The intent of the standard is developing the physical skills
needed to enjoy participation in physical activities, with the
mastery of movement fundamentals as the foundation for
continued skill acquisition. At the lower-elementary level, stu-
dents achieve mature forms of the basic locomotor skills and
vary the manner in which these skills are performed in rela-
tion to changing conditions and expectations. At the upper-
elementary level, students demonstrate locomotor skills for
performance outcomes, using locomotor skills in dynamic
and complex environments, and in combinations.
Sample performance outcomes from the National Stan-
dards include:
• Skips (or hops, gallops, slides, etc.) using mature form
(K– 2)*
• Performs a basic tinikling step (3 – 5)*
• Performs a variety of simple folk and square dances
(6 – 8)*
• Designs and performs gymnastics (or dance) sequences
that combine traveling, rolling, balancing, and weight
transfer into smooth, fl owing sequences with intentional
changes in direction, speed, and fl ow (6 – 8)*
*Grade-level guidelines for expected student learning.
Box 19 –1
CHAPTER 19 Traveling 307
• Feet held too close together so that the entire body
looks jerky as the child walks
• Feet held too far apart — duck walk
• Toes turned out
• Toes turned in — pigeon-toed
• Head too far forward —body leaning forward before
the lead foot touches the ground
Running
During the earliest stage of running (at about 24
months), a child’s new speed produces precarious bal-
ance. The child makes exaggerated leg movements. In
particular, the knee of the recovery leg swings outward
and then around and forward in preparation for the
support phase. This knee action is accompanied by the
foot of the recovery leg toeing out. These exaggerated
movements gradually disappear as the legs become
longer and stronger.
Most school-age youngsters are able to run at a rela-
tively fast speed and are fairly successful at changing
direction while running. In a mature running pattern
(observed when the children are attempting to run at
maximum velocity), each leg goes through a support
phase and a recovery phase, and the full sequence
produces two periods of nonsupport. The essentials of
the mature running pattern are as follows (Wickstrom
1977, pp. 37–57):
• The trunk maintains a slight forward lean through-
out the stride pattern.
• Both arms swing through a large arc and in syn-
chronized opposition to the leg action.
• The support foot contacts the ground approximately
fl at and nearly under the center of gravity.
• The knee of the support leg bends slightly after the
foot has made contact with the ground.
• Extension of the support leg at the hip, knee, and
ankle propels the body forward and upward into the
nonsupport phase.
• The recovery knee swings forward quickly to a high
knee raise, and simultaneously the lower leg fl exes,
bringing the heel close to the buttock.
Use the key observation points in Box 19-2 to assess
running patterns. The illustrations of “correct” and
“incorrect” patterns help you answer the questions
you should ask yourself as you evaluate a youngster’s
performance.
Hopping
A hop is a springing action from one foot, in any direc-
tion, to a landing on the same foot ( Figure 19.1 ). The
knee seldom straightens fully; the work of the ankle
joint is primarily what accomplishes the push into the
air and the absorption of the landing shock.
Leaping
A leap is an extension of a run — greater force is used to
produce a higher dimension than a run ( Figure 19.2 ).
A one-foot takeoff propels the body upward to a land-
ing on the opposite foot. Arm opposition is the same
as for the run. There’s an emphasis on body extension
for height or for distance. Upon touching the fl oor, the
landing leg bends to absorb the force of the body.
Sliding
A slide is a combination of a step and a run. The lead
step is quickly followed by the free foot closing to
replace the supporting foot ( Figure 19.3 ). The lead
foot quickly springs from the fl oor into a direction of
intended travel. The weight is primarily on the balls
of the feet. The sequence is repeated for the desired
distance. The same foot always leads in a slide, pro-
ducing an uneven rhythm: step-close, step-close,
step-close.
Figure 19.1 Hopping pattern.
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Box 19-2
Key Observation Points: Running
Leg Action
Does the knee of the child’s recovery leg swing forward and backward rather than
outward, around, and then forward?
Arm Action
Do the child’s arms move forward and backward in opposition to the legs without
crossing the midline?
Do the child’s arms stay close to the body throughout the action?
NO YES
NO YES
NO YES NO YES
Trunk Position
Does the child’s trunk lean slightly forward?
NO YES
CHAPTER 19 Traveling 309
Box 19-2 (continued )
Foot Placement
Is the child’s support foot approximately fl at when it contacts the ground?
NO YES
Mature Stage
When children are at the mature stage of running, do their runs look similar to the
following sequence?
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Galloping
A gallop is an exaggerated slide in a forward direction.
The lead leg lifts and bends and then thrusts forward
to support the weight. The rear foot quickly closes to
replace the supporting leg as the lead leg springs up
into its lifted and bent position. The rhythm is uneven,
the same as that of a slide.
Skipping
A skip is a combination of a step and a hop, fi rst on
one foot and then on the other foot ( Figure 19.4 ). The
pattern has the alternation and opposition of the walk
plus the same-sided one-foot hop. The skip has an
uneven rhythm.
Levels of Skill Profi ciency
In many schools, usually in communities in which par-
ents provide their preschoolers with an abundance of
movement experiences, most fi ve- and six-year-old chil-
dren will already have mastered the traveling skills, and
their classmates will be quick to catch on. However, we
have observed some situations in which a number of the
students were unable to perform many locomotor skills
beyond walking and running. Such children need basic
precontrol-level travel experiences so they will learn to:
• Crawl along the fl oor.
• Creep on hands and knees.
• Walk along a line on the fl oor.
• Crawl underneath a low bar without touching it.
• Step over a low obstacle without touching it.
Precontrol-level experiences provide a multitude of
exploration experiences in travel: traveling in different
ways, exploring various locomotor patterns, exploring
the world of imagery and travel, and traveling just for
the sheer enjoyment of moving. Once youngsters can
identify and perform the basic modes of travel relatively
easily, they are ready for control-level challenges.
Control-level challenges include mastery of the dif-
ferent locomotor patterns. Following mastery of the
basic skills, the children can attempt variations of those
skills by combining a skill with other skills and concepts:
walking at a low level, skipping backward, galloping,
changing direction on signal, and running in a crowded
room without touching anyone. Next, the youngsters
Figure 19.2 Leaping pattern.
Figure 19.3 Sliding
pattern.
CHAPTER 19 Traveling 311
can try traveling rhythmically or expressively: skipping
to the uneven beat of the teacher’s drum, running and
leaping on the accented beat, walking as if on hot sand,
and walking mechanically, like a robot.
Once children are easily able to perform a variety of
locomotor skills and can use their travel abilities to carry
out a primary objective, they’re ready for utilization-
level activities. At this point, an involvement in chal-
lenging situations can refi ne and expand the youngsters’
repertoires of travel skills.
The children can combine two or more travel opera-
tions into a short sequence, such as run-jump-roll, or
run — leap — turn-in-air — run. They can try to perform
another skill while traveling: keeping a long ribbon
from touching the ground by traveling swiftly, or
striking a balloon and traveling to keep it up.
Children can improvise or plan in detail expressive
travel for short dance phrases, focusing on:
• The purpose, idea, or theme of the phrase—harmony,
a battle, autumn
• The most appropriate pathway of travel— straight,
angular (zigzag), or curved
• The specifi c travel skills to be incorporated —
running, leaping, collapsing
• The travel qualities to be exhibited — smooth-
fl owing, jagged-jerky
The youngsters can use effective travel skills and
strategic pathways in dynamic game situations:
• React quickly to a batted ball by charging forward,
to the left or right, to collect a ground ball and
throw accurately to a teammate.
• Run a planned pass pattern, using fakes and quick
changes of direction to lose an opponent and receive
a ball a teammate throws.
When students consistently use a variety of travel
skills and pathways effectively in game, dance, and gym-
nastics settings, they’re ready to put all the elements
together through participation in profi ciency-level
experiences.
• Games: Youngsters play teacher- and /or student-
designed games that demand alert and accurate
performance of travel skills and strategic use of
travel pathways while performing another skill— for
example, dribbling.
• Dance: Students and teacher work together to
design dance studies. Specifi c travel pathways and
locomotor skills are decided upon, practiced, revised,
and refi ned. This process ends in a completed dance
that clearly refl ects the theme or idea that stimu-
lated the study.
• Gymnastics: Students and teacher coopera tively
design travel patterns and select specifi c locomo-
tor skills (as well as positions of stillness – i.e.,
balances) for individual or group gymnastics
routines.
Our progression spiral on page 312 shows the se-
quence for developing the skill theme of traveling at
the precontrol, control, utilization, and profi ciency
levels.
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration
The activities that follow are designed to introduce
children to the fundamental locomotor patterns and
to help them explore the skill of traveling.
Traveling in General Space
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T On the signal, travel any way you wish in general
space. Avoid colliding with others, and stop with-
out falling when you hear the drum.
Figure 19.4 Skipping pattern.
312 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
T Change to a different way to travel. Some of you
are hopping; some are galloping; most are running.
Travel throughout general space any way except
running. Watch out for others as you travel.
T See how many different ways you can travel on
your feet, sometimes traveling on one foot, some-
times on two feet, sometimes on one foot and then
the other.
C Show me three different ways you can travel on
your feet.
Traveling with Different Locomotor Movements
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T When we explored different ways to travel, some of
you were hopping, some were walking, some were
galloping. Let’s explore the different locomotor
skills as we travel in general space. Travel through-
out general space with your favorite locomotor
movement; I will name the ones I see: walking,
running, galloping . . .
T Travel throughout general space with a hop, stay-
ing on one foot. Switch to the other foot after
several hops so you will not become tired and lose
your balance.
T Travel throughout general space with a jump, two
feet to two feet. Make some of your jumps small
and low, some of them long, some of them high
in the air.
T Travel throughout general space with a gallop, one
foot always staying in front of the other. Can you
gallop backward?
T Travel throughout general space with a run, always
looking for the open spaces. Remember to stop on
the signal, without falling down.
C Thus far, you have traveled by hopping, jumping,
galloping, and running; you were already very
good at walking. Of those fi ve locomotor actions,
choose your favorite three and practice them as if
you were going to teach them to someone who
does not know how to do them — perfection!
Traveling in Different Ways
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T Travel throughout general space on two feet. On
the signal, change the way you are traveling, yet
remain on your feet.
Skill Theme Development Sequence
Traveling Profi ciency Level
Traveling in gymnastics
Traveling in games and sports
Performing rhythmical patterns: tinikling
Traveling to show tradition versus change
Depicting primitive tribes through travel
Utilization Level
Traveling to Tom Foolery rhymes
Traveling in bound and free fl ow
Traveling to express age: The Fountain of Youth Dance
Performing rhythmical patterns
Meeting and parting while traveling with a partner
Shadowing
Traveling with a partner: changing speed and direction
The Copy Cat Dance
Traveling with a partner: matching pathways
Control Level
Combination locomotors
Slow-Motion Replay: The Sports Dance
A Dance of Water, Steam, and Ice
Changing speeds to music
Traveling using different directions, levels, pathways,
and locations
Traveling at different speeds
The Follow-Me Dance
The Locomotors Dance
Traveling in different pathways
Slidestepping
Traveling in different directions
Traveling an obstacle course
Traveling with music
Traveling in confi ned spaces
Moving to rhythms
Performing locomotor sequences
Traveling to open spaces
Running
Leaping
Skipping
Hopping
Galloping
Sliding
Traveling with different locomotor patterns
Precontrol Level
Traveling among the large and tall
Traveling through rope pathways
Traveling with imagery
Traveling in different ways
Traveling with different locomotor movements
Traveling in general space
CHAPTER 19 Traveling 313
C How many different ways can you travel on
your feet?
T Travel throughout general space on two feet and
two hands; travel forward, backward, sideways on
your feet and hands.
T Travel throughout general space on body parts
other than your feet. How many different combi-
nations of body parts can you use for travel?
Traveling with Imagery
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T Travel throughout general space like a rabbit,
jumping from two feet to two feet; travel like a
frog, jumping from pad to pad.
T Travel throughout general space, walking as if in
sticky mud or a sea of peanut butter.
T Walk like a robot. March like a soldier.
T Travel throughout general space like a large ele-
phant. Will your steps be heavy or light?
T Travel like a tall giraffe, with your head above the
clouds.
T Run quietly, like deer through the forest.
T Slither like a snake. Crawl like an inchworm, then
like a snail.
The imagery of animals for movement is almost endless.
Always remind children of the movement with a simple
lead question, such as “How does a giraffe move?”
Traveling through Rope Pathways
Setting: An obstacle course of marker cones and ropes
on the fl oor to form varying pathways of different
widths for travel ( Figure 19.5 )
Tasks /Challenges:
T On the signal, travel around the cones and be-
tween the rope boundaries without touching
them. I will time you for 30 seconds. Try to fi nish
with a perfect score — no touches.
C Challenge yourself to travel throughout the ob-
stacle course three times with no collisions with
others or the items in the course.
Traveling among the Large and Tall
Setting: Children with partners, scattered throughout
general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T Stand in your self-space, stretching in all directions
to be sure you have a clear self-space; it is not im-
portant that you be near your partner. Partners A,
stand in your self-space, extending your arms to
make a very large, wide shape. Partners B, travel
This child explores pathways in self-space.
Figure 19.5 Rope pathways as an obstacle course.
314 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
throughout general space with any locomotor
pattern you wish; avoid touching anyone traveling
or a stationary wide shape. Have partners switch
travel and stationary activities after one or two minutes
of travel.
T Partners B, stand in your self-space with a tall,
narrow shape. Partners A, run throughout general
space with no collisions; always look for open
spaces as you travel. Switch activities after one or
two minutes.
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
Control-level experiences are designed to help children
master the basic locomotor skills and to expand their
traveling abilities. The learning experiences challenge
youngsters to use different traveling patterns with
other concepts, such as speed and direction.
A note about cues: Although several cues are listed
for many of the learning experiences, it’s important to
focus on only one cue at a time. That way, the chil-
dren can really concentrate on that cue. Once you
provide feedback to the children and observe that
most have learned a cue, then it’s time to focus on
another one.
Traveling with Different Locomotor Patterns
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Cues
Heads Up (Keep your head up for good
balance and to avoid collisions
with others.)
Balanced Stops (Spread your feet apart and lower
your hips slightly to maintain
your balance when you stop.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T On signal, travel any way you wish in general
space. Avoid colliding with others, and stop with-
out falling when you hear the drum.
Sliding
Cue
Buoyant Landings (Make light, “springy”
actions as you travel.)
T Raise your right arm and point toward the far side
of the blacktop (gymnasium). On the signal, use a
slidestep to travel across the area. When your left
foot almost touches your right foot, step again
quickly to the side with your right foot.
T Slide across the area like a dancer, arms extended
to the side and your body stretched upward as you
“leap.”
T Slide like a basketball player with your knees bent,
hips lowered, and arms extended in front.
These children are enjoying traveling
at a low level.
CHAPTER 19 Traveling 315
Galloping
Cue
Same Foot Forward (Keep the same foot in front
as you gallop.)
T On the signal, gallop in general space, keeping the
same foot in front throughout the action.
T Now lead with the other foot as you gallop.
Hopping
Cue
Up, Up, Light, Light (Make light, quick actions
as you hop.)
T Hop on one foot fi ve times, and then hop on your
other foot fi ve times. Continue to alternate
hopping on your right foot and then your left foot
until you hear the signal to stop.
Skipping
Cue
Lift Your Knees (Lift your knees, swing your
arms . . . step, hop.)
T Now that you can hop and gallop, try skipping.
Skip throughout general space until you hear the
signal to stop.
Developmentally, children progress from a gallop to a skip
only on the dominant side, then to a mature skipping
pattern.
Leaping
Cue
Arms Up . . . Stretch (Lift your arms; stretch your
arms and legs as you leap.)
T We did leaping when we worked on jumping and
landing. Who can remember what a leap is? Right,
it’s taking off on one foot and landing on the other,
with the body airborne between the takeoff and
landing. Travel in general space by running. After
running three steps, leap high in the air, and when
you land, continue to run. Your travel will be this:
Run, run, run, leap; run, run, run, leap. Remem-
ber to land softly by bending your knee.
T I’m going to number you off in 1s and 2s. The 1s
will be spread throughout general space, standing
with your arms stretched high over your heads.
On signal, the 2s will run throughout general
space, leaping high in the air each time you pass a
1 standing with arms stretched high. Try to leap so
high in the air that you are higher than the
stretched arms of the 1s. On signal, the 2s will
stand with arms stretched high and the 1s will run
and leap.
Keep the activity short in duration with a focus on leaping.
Repeat several times for endurance.
When children are running and leaping, a re-
minder for suffi cient space and awareness of
others is important to avoid airborne and landing
collisions.
Running
Cue
Light on Your Feet (Make light, buoyant land-
ings for quick steps.)
T Now that you can move without bumping others
and stop on signal, try running throughout
general space. Cover as much area as you can. Be
sure your entire foot contacts the fl oor, not just
your toes.
Assessment Example
From the National Standards for Physical Education
Teacher Observation
The student will be asked to travel through general
space with a steady run and, upon a designated signal,
perform the next locomotor action announced by the
teacher (e.g., walk, hop, gallop). Upon observing the
student’s performance, the teacher marks on a check-
list mastery of the various critical elements (e.g., arm
swing, balance, foot placement).
Criteria for Assessment
a. Demonstrates selected critical elements of locomo-
tor skills.
b. Responds with correct locomotor skill as named by
teacher.
NASPE (1995, p. 6)
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Assessment Example
From the National Standards of Physical Education
Event Task
Students will perform a “Dance of Locomotors” in
which they travel in different ways through general
space. Upon hearing a designated signal from the
teacher, students will change to the locomotor pattern
named by the teacher. Repeat the dance, but this time
upon the signal to change locomotor pattern the
students will respond by selecting any locomotor pat-
tern they desire. The teacher should encourage creative
modes of travel.
Criteria for Assessment
a. Demonstrates a variety of locomotor skills.
b. Identifi es and models locomotor movements shown
by the teacher.
c. Exhibits correct locomotor skill when the skill is
named by the teacher.
NASPE (1995, p. 7)
Traveling to Open Spaces
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Cues
Heads Up (Keep your head up for good bal-
ance and to avoid collisions with
others.)
Balanced Stops (Spread your feet apart and lower
your hips slightly to maintain
your balance when you stop.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T In your self-space, look around the work space. Do
you see open spaces that no one has taken as their
space? On the signal, run to that open space. When
you arrive, stop and look for another open space;
run to that space.
T Travel throughout general space, always looking
for the open spaces. This time you will only pause
at an open space long enough to see your next
open space.
C I will time you for 60 seconds of travel. Your task
is to travel throughout general space always
looking for and moving to open spaces with no
collisions.
Performing Locomotor Sequences
Setting: Index cards with a sequence of locomotor
movements written on them — for example, “Walk,
hop, gallop”— one sequence card per child
Cues
Heads Up (Keep your head up for good
balance and to avoid collisions
with others.)
Pause and Go (Pause momentarily; then
continue your locomotor
movement.)
Balanced Stops (Spread your feet apart and
lower your hips slightly to
maintain your balance when
you stop.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Think of your favorite locomotor movement that
you’ve practiced. On signal, use that movement
to travel in general space. I should be able to
identify the locomotor movement by watching
you travel.
Traveling in general space lets chil-
dren practice fi nding open space.
CHAPTER 19 Traveling 317
T There are cards spread around the wall. When I say
“Go,” get a card and bring it back to your space. Go.
Read your card. Each card contains a movement
sentence: three locomotor movements separated
by commas. What does a comma mean in your read-
ing? Right — pause. After each locomotor move-
ment you’ll pause. Your sequence will be travel,
pause; travel, pause; travel, stop. Practice your
movement sentence until you can do it the same
way three times.
Children whose reading level refl ects ways to end a sentence
enjoy stopping with an image of a period, an exclamation,
or a question mark.
Assessment Example
From the National Standards of Physical Education
Event Task
Students are asked to design and practice a movement
sequence of three different locomotor skills. Following
the practice period, students demonstrate their move-
ment sequence for the class.
Criteria for Assessment
a. Demonstrates three different locomotor move-
ments.
b. Demonstrates mature pattern of each locomotor
skill.
c. Demonstrates smooth transitions between locomo-
tor patterns.
NASPE (1995, p. 19)
Moving to Rhythms
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Cues
Heads Up (Keep your head up for good bal-
ance and to avoid collisions with
others.)
Pause and Go (Pause momentarily; then con-
tinue your locomotor movement.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Listen to the drumbeat. I’ll beat a cadence of one,
two, three, four, and then you’ll clap the same.
Listen. ( Beat drum four times in even rhythm. ) Now
clap. Walking and running are both even rhythms.
Let’s try again. Listen; then clap.
T Let’s walk the rhythm of the beat. Listen to the
speed. ( Beat four times in even rhythm, slowly. )
Ready? Walk as I beat the drum. Clap as you walk.
T You’ll need to walk more quickly or slowly now, de-
pending on the beat of the drum. I’ll pause between
each segment so you can hear the change in tempo.
T Now run to the beat of the drum. It’s an even
rhythm but a faster speed. Be sure you listen for
the beat. Ready, go.
Traveling in Confi ned Spaces
Setting: Large marker cones designating general space
for travel; children scattered throughout this space
Cues
Heads Up (Keep your head up for good balance
and to avoid collisions with others.)
Open Spaces (Look for open spaces as you travel.)
Speed Check (Slow your speed slightly to avoid
others.)
Traveling while manipulating an
object is used in a game setting.
318 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Tasks /Challenges:
T For today’s class, the area inside the cones is your
city, and you cannot go out of the city until class
is over. Travel throughout the city in any locomotor
pattern you wish.
T This time, the city has begun to shrink and will
keep doing so — so watch the cones. Begin to move
the cones closer in as the children become more adept
at moving without bumping into each other or falling
down.
Traveling with Music
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space;
music with appropriate even and uneven beats for
different locomotor movements; hoops, one per child,
at the edge of the space
Cues
Heads Up (Keep your head up for good bal-
ance and to avoid collisions with
others.)
Balanced Stops (Spread your feet apart and lower
your hips slightly to maintain
your balance when you stop.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Walk, skip, gallop, or hop throughout general
space without touching anyone else. Remember,
you may have to move to the right or left to avoid
bumping into someone else. When I give the
signal, stop quickly with both your feet on the
fl oor.
T I’ve selected music for each of our locomotor
movements. The fi rst is for skipping. Listen to
the beat. Is it an even or uneven rhythm? Right,
skipping is an uneven rhythm. Begin skipping
when you hear the music. Stop when the music
stops.
T Now listen to the music for the gallop; it’s also
uneven. ( Pause, play music. ) Ready? Gallop.
T The music for hopping is short and quick. Clap the
rhythm. Is it even or uneven? Hop on one foot to
the music.
T I’ve saved your favorite locomotor movement
until last. What is it? Running. Run quietly so
you’ll hear the music stop.
Children tend to practice only their favorite locomotor skill
when the task is open. We fi nd it helps to specify each skill
in addition to “your choice” or “your favorite.”
T This is a game like musical chairs, except that you
are never out. When the music begins, travel
throughout general space using the traveling
action that I call out. When the music stops, fi nd a
space inside a hoop as quickly as possible. Each
time I will remove some of the hoops. The trick is
that someone must be in every hoop, but any
number of people can be inside the hoops as the
number of hoops decreases.
Traveling an Obstacle Course
Setting: An obstacle course of hoops, bamboo poles,
low beams, and other items ( Figure 19.6 )
Hoop placed on milk crates
Hoop placed on floor
Table
Low balance beam
Bamboo pole placed on milk crates Figure 19.6 An obstacle course.
CHAPTER 19 Traveling 319
Cues
Heads Up (Keep your head up for good
balance and to avoid collisions
with others.)
Pause, Look, Go (Pause momentarily to avoid
others who are also moving.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T You’ve worked on various locomotor skills and
on moving with control. Using a combination of
a hop, skip, gallop, leap, walk, and slide, move
through the obstacle course without touching
other people, the hoops, or the bamboo poles.
Traveling in Different Directions
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Cues
Heads Up (Keep your head up for good
balance and to avoid collisions
with others.)
Hips over Feet (Keep your body centered over
your feet for good balance and
quick changes of direction.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T You have learned six directions. Let’s name them
together: forward, backward, right, left, up, and
down. This time as you walk, run, or hop, change
directions as you travel.
T Begin walking forward. On the signal, change
directions and walk backward. Exaggerate your
movements so you look like a toy soldier or robot.
T On the signal, run in a forward direction. When
you hear the drum, slow your speed, and run to
the side or backward. Take only a few steps; then
continue running forward.
T Pretend you’re going to draw a square with one
foot. Hop forward, backward, to the right, and to
the left to draw your square.
C This time, we will really see how well you can
travel in different directions. I will call out a travel-
ing action and a number. If the number is even,
travel forward; if it is odd, travel backward.
Remember to do this task only with students who know the
difference between odd and even numbers. It can be quite
embarrassing for students not to know how to travel because
of their math skills.
Slidestepping
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Cues
Heads Up (Keep your head up for good
balance and to avoid collisions
with others.)
Hips over Feet (Keep your body centered over
your feet for good balance and
quick changes of direction.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Use a sliding action (a slidestep) to travel toward
the far end of the fi eld. On the signal, change the
direction of your slidestep.
T Using the slidestep, travel eight steps to the right,
then eight steps to the left. Stop and balance on
one foot. Repeat eight steps to the left, eight steps
to the right. Stop and balance in a wide shape. This
combination of travel and balances is the ingredi-
ents of the folk dance “Seven Jumps.” Many folk
dances use this slidestep.
C In a small group of four, six, or eight persons, use
a combination of slidesteps and balances to create
your own version of “Seven Jumps.” Practice with
your group until you are ready to show the dance
to the class. We will then videotape the dances for
your portfolios.
Videotape /Digital Analysis. With the establish-
ment of criteria, videotape is an excellent means for
assessing children’s work. Refer to Chapter 14 for de-
tails on checklists for use in observing critical cues.
Traveling in Different Pathways
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Cues
Heads Up (Keep your head up for good
balance and to avoid collisions
with others.)
Hips over Feet (Keep your body centered over
your feet for good balance with
changes in direction and /or
pathways.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T A while ago you learned three different pathways.
Who remembers what they were? That’s right:
320 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
straight, curved, and zigzag. This time, change
your pathway as you travel. Begin by walking in a
straight pathway. On the signal, change to a curved
pathway. Exaggerate your movements so that
the pathway is really quite curved.
T This time, practice traveling in a zigzag pathway.
Remember, zigzag looks like the letter Z; make
really sharp angles.
T On the signal, begin traveling in a straight path.
You may use any form of traveling that you wish.
When you hear the drum, change to another path-
way. The next time you hear the drum, change
your pathway again.
T This will be a test of how well you can travel using
the different pathways. The game is like follow the
leader. When I say “Go,” fi nd a partner whose skill
in traveling is about the same as yours. Go. Now,
the shorter one of you will be the fi rst leader. You
are to travel using any traveling action you like
and as many different pathways as possible. The
follower will try to copy your every move. But
don’t make it so hard that your follower can’t
possibly keep up with you. Make it a fun game.
When you hear the signal, you must be able to
stop without falling over or touching each other.
After three times as a leader, switch positions.
The Locomotors Dance
Setting: Class divided into groups of fi ve to eight per-
sons; paper and pencil for each group
Cues
Heads Up (Keep your head up for good bal-
ance and to avoid collisions with
others.)
Hips over Feet (Keep your body centered over
your feet for good balance with
changes in direction and /or
pathways.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T You have practiced hopping, skipping, galloping,
sliding, leaping, and running. You have traveled in
different directions and pathways. In your group,
combine the locomotors with directions and path-
ways to create a dance of locomotors. You will
need to decide:
• The amount of space you’ll need
• Changes in leaders (with a special signal for
changes)
• Which locomotors and what directions and
pathways
When you have created your dance, record it on
paper, and practice it several times; then we will
watch them. The criteria for observation will be
correct execution of the locomotors, cooperative
work with your group, and creative ideas in the
dance.
Event Tasks. Children’s dance projects can serve as
events tasks and provide excellent assessments of
student learning. See Chapter 14 for establishing cri-
teria and designing rubric guidelines.
The Follow-Me Dance
Setting: Instrumental music with a strong beat (e.g.,
hoedown or country music); children scattered
throughout general space, facing the teacher
Cues
Heads Up (Keep your head up for good
balance and to avoid collisions
with others.)
Hips over Feet (Keep your body centered over
your feet for good balance and
quick changes of direction.)
Balanced Stops (Spread your feet apart and
lower your hips slightly to
maintain your balance when
you stop.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T We’re going to practice our locomotor skills today;
we’ll combine the skills with rhythm and keeping
the beat in self-space. This is called Follow Me,
country-western style. Spread throughout general
space, facing me. I’ll move to the right, the left,
forward, and backward. You’ll mirror my direction.
So if I go left, you go right; if I go forward, you go
backward. I’ll hop, jump, gallop, slide, walk, and
move in other ways. After each locomotor phrase,
you’ll stop in self-space and do such things as touch
your hands to your heels, nod your head forward
and backward, cross your knees as in a Charleston,
and so on. You only need to watch and follow me.
Keep all activities in a count of eight — for example, eight
slides to the left, eight slides to the right, stop, touch hands
to heels in time with the music; one, two, three, four, fi ve,
six, seven, eight; gallop forward eight steps, gallop back-
ward eight steps, stop, clap hands in time with the music:
one, two, three, four, fi ve, six, seven, eight.
CHAPTER 19 Traveling 321
Traveling at Different Speeds
Setting: Sheets of newspapers stacked at the edge of
the gymnasium; children scattered throughout general
space
Cues
Heads Up (Keep your head up for good bal-
ance and to avoid collisions with
others.)
Pause and Go (Check your speed slightly to
avoid others.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Each of you will need one sheet of newspaper.
After you get your sheet, unfold it and place it
against your chest, holding it at your shoulders. At
the signal, begin running; you’ll no longer have to
hold your newspaper. What will happen to the
newspaper when you stop running? Ready, go.
T Try running at different speeds, sometimes very
fast, sometimes very slowly, to see if the paper will
stay up.
Traveling Using Different Directions,
Levels, Pathways, and Locations
Setting: Several sets of task cards: one set that names
single locomotor actions (e.g., walk, run, or hop); a
second set that names different directions; a third set
that names different levels; a fourth set that names
different locations (general and self-space); and a fi nal
set that names different pathways. It is helpful to color-
code the different sets.
Cues
Heads Up (Keep your head up for good balance
and to avoid collisions with others.)
Hips over (Keep your body centered over your
Feet feet for good balance with changes in
direction and /or pathways.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Choose a card from each color (stack), and return
to your self-space. You are going to travel using
the directions on the cards you have. For example,
if your cards say “Walk,” “Backward,” “Low,” and
“General Space,” you walk backward at a low level
in general space.
T This time, change one card of the same color with
the person next to you. Now move according to
the new directions.
The combinations here are endless. You could trade as
many cards as you like until the children have practiced a
multitude of combinations.
C With the last set of cards that you have, practice
the action until you think it is so clear that any-
one could fi gure it out just by watching you. ( Give
children time to practice. ) Now, when I say “Go,”
choose a partner whom you can work with well.
Go. Show your partner your sequence, and see
whether he or she can guess what your cards said.
Now, switch: watch your partner’s sequence, and
you guess.
Peer Assessment. Sharing sequences with partners
can be an excellent peer assessment. See Chapter
14 for establishing criteria and designing rubrics.
Changing Speeds to Music
Setting: Recordings of music with increasing and de-
creasing speeds; children scattered throughout general
space
Cues
Heads Up (Keep your head up for good
balance and to avoid collisions
with others.)
Speed Check (Slow your speed slightly to
avoid others.)
Balanced Stops (Spread your feet apart and
lower your hips slightly to
maintain your balance when
you stop.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Listen to the music; it will start slowly and gradually
increase in speed to a faster tempo. Do you think
you can run with a gradual increase and decrease
in your speed? Match your running speed with the
music. Begin slowly, and gradually increase to your
fastest speed; as the music begins to slow, decrease
your speed to a jogging pace.
A Dance of Water, Steam, and Ice
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Cues
Pause and Go (Pause between actions to empha-
size changes.)
Exaggerate (Exaggerate movements and
shapes for emphasis.)
322 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Tasks /Challenges:
T Let’s think about how water changes form as the
temperature changes. At normal temperature, water
is a liquid whose molecules are moving at a me-
dium speed. As the temperature increases, the water
molecules move faster and faster until the water is
transformed into steam. As the temperature de-
creases, the molecules move more and more slowly
until they fi nally freeze, forming ice. Let’s put this
story into a creative dance. As I tell the story, you’ll
travel with changes in speed as the molecules in-
crease their speed, decrease their speed, and freeze.
Slow-Motion Replay: The Sports Dance
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Cues
Pause and Go (Pause between actions to em-
phasize changes.)
Exaggerate (Exaggerate movements and
shapes for emphasis.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Think about how the players move when a fi lm
is shown in slow motion or when the sports
announcer replays a special segment from a game.
I want each of you to think of your favorite moment
in a sport. Is it when the quarterback breaks away to
run for a touchdown, or was it when you scored the
winning soccer goal? Perhaps it was the throw of
the javelin at the Olympics or the relay team
running at the track meet. Decide what kind of
locomotor movement would portray your favorite
moment. Combine your movements as in a slow-
motion replay. How would you begin — in what
position? How will the replay end? Practice the
segment until you can do it three times the same
way, just like a replay. Remember, it’s slow motion.
We’ll look at the movements when you’re ready.
Other ideas for creative dance and travel include walking
through a thick jungle, walking through a completely dark
and haunted house, walking on the ledge of a 10-story
building, traveling across a high wire on a windy day, trav-
eling during an earthquake.
Combination Locomotors
Line dances, as well as traditional folk and square dances, are
combinations of locomotor skills and nonlocomotor body
actions. Although there are excellent resources available for
the teaching of such dances (see Chapter 29, Box 29-3), we
encourage our students—and you as teachers—to create new
line, square, and folk dances. See Boxes 19-3 and 19-4 .
Box 19-3
The Grapevine Step
The grapevine step is used in many line dances, as well as in
intermediate folk dances; it may be done to the right or to the
left. Children enjoy combining it with forward and backward
steps and turns to create new dances.
Cue: Front, Side, Back, Side
Count 1: Cross right foot over in front of left foot.
Count 2: Step to left on left foot.
Count 3: Cross right foot behind left foot.
Count 4: Step to left on left foot.
L R R L L R R L L R
Count 4
Count 3
Count 2
Count 1
BEGIN
The Grapevine Step
CHAPTER 19 Traveling 323
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
The learning experiences in this section challenge chil-
dren to travel in increasingly complex ways. Tasks are
designed to develop the travel skills used in many
dance, game, and gymnastics sequences.
A note about cues: Although several cues are listed
for many of the learning experiences, it’s important to
focus on only one cue at a time. That way, the chil-
dren can really concentrate on that cue. Once you
provide feedback to the children and observe that
most have learned a cue, then it’s time to focus on
another one.
Traveling with a Partner: Matching Pathways
Setting: Sets of partners scattered throughout general
space
Cue
Heads Up (Keep your head up for good balance
and to avoid collisions with others.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Stand back to back with a partner. When I say
“Go,” each partner travels in the direction he or
she is facing. That is, each of you travels away from
your partner. When you hear the drum, stop, turn
around, and return to your partner with the exact
pattern and locomotor movements you used
before (Figure 19.7). Return at the same speed you
used to travel away from your partner.
T Earlier you learned that there are three pathways.
(See Chapter 16, “Space Awareness.”) What are they?
( Ask for answers. ) All patterns are made up of those
pathways or combinations of those pathways. This
time as you travel away from your partner, be aware
Box 19-4
The Margie Dance
Description
This line dance was choreographed as attribute to Margie
Hanson for her contributions to children’s dance and physical
education.
Music
“I’d Like to Teach the World to Sing,” Metromedia KMD1051.
Formation
Lines
Counts and Steps
1–2 —Introduction, sway with body or hands.
3 – 4 —Hands in air and sway to the right, left, right, and left.
5 – 8 —Walk to right and give a high-fi ve greeting on step 8.
1– 4 —Walk to left and give a high-fi ve greeting on step 4.
5 – 8 —Hands in air and sway to the right, left, right, and left.
1– 4 —Join and raise hands.
5 – 8 —Lower hands.
1– 4 — “Thank you” in sign language (see illustration), two times.
5 – 8 — “I love you” in sign language (hold two middle fi ngers
down and keep pinky, index fi nger, and thumb up) and
raise hands.
Repeat dance three more times. At the end, hug your neigh-
bors in this world and give them some N and G’s, which
means tell them some nice and good things.
“Thank you” in sign language
Source: J.P. Bennett and P.C. Riemer, Rhythmic Activities and
Dance (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2006), pp. 111–12. With
permission from John P. Bennett.
324 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Begin First signal Second signal End
Figure 19.7 Traveling in path-
ways away from and toward a
partner.
of the pathways you use. On your return, copy the
same pathways.
Stand beside your partner. This time as you
travel, use a slidestep to move away from your part-
ner. Remember to return using the same pathway.
Select a partner, and decide who’s to be the fi rst
leader. When the follower says “Go,” the leader
travels across the fi eld with a combination of
straight, curved, and zigzag pathways. When the
leader stops, the follower then travels the same
pattern. The other partner then designs the pat-
tern. ( For tips on helping children learn to design fl oor
patterns for dance, see Box 19-5 .)
The Copy Cat Dance
Setting: Music, such as “Dueling Banjos,” that features
copy phrases; sets of partners scattered throughout
general space
Cue
Heads Up (Keep your head up for good balance
and to avoid collisions with others.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Earlier this year you practiced traveling with a
partner, copying pathways. This time you will
copy not only pathways with your partner, but
also locomotors and directions. For your begin-
ning, you may choose to stand beside or behind
your partner. Partner A will travel away from part-
ner B as the fi rst phrase of music plays; partner B
will then travel with the exact pattern and loco-
motor. The dance continues as one partner leads
and the other copies. Listen to the phrases of the
music to time the length of your travel.
Event Task. Creative dance projects provide event
tasks that are excellent assessments of chil dren’s work.
The above task could easily be made into an event
task by having students write out their dance and
perform it, for someone else. See Chapter 14 for the
development of rubrics to accompany event tasks.
Traveling with a Partner: Changing Speed
and Direction
Setting: Sets of partners scattered throughout general
space
Cues
Heads Up (Keep your head up for good
balance and to avoid collisions
with others.)
On Your Toes (Keep your weight on the balls of
your feet for quickness.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Stand facing a partner approximately three feet
apart: one of you is the leader; the other, the
follower. The leader slides to the right or left,
changing directions quickly. The follower tries to
stay directly across from the leader at all times. I’ll
give the signal every 60 seconds for you both to
switch positions. Note that by adding dribbling a
ball and defensive arm position to this pattern, we
form an offensive – defensive drill in basketball.
Shadowing
Setting: Sets of partners scattered throughout general
space
Cues
Heads Up (Keep your head up for good bal-
ance and to avoid collisions with
others.)
On Your Toes (Keep your weight on the balls of
your feet for quickness.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Choose a partner whose speed and ability to
change directions are very similar to yours.
Partner 1 stands approximately two feet behind
CHAPTER 19 Traveling 325
partner 2. When I say “Go,” partner 2 travels quick ly,
changing directions with sharp turns to the right
and to the left; partner 1 attempts to stay within an
arm’s distance at all times. When you hear the drum
hit, stop without colliding or losing your balance.
Partner 1 now stands in front, ready to be the new
leader. Keep your eyes on your partner’s waist when
you’re the follower.
Meeting and Parting While Traveling with a Partner
Setting: Sets of partners scattered throughout general
space
Cue
Heads Up (Keep your head up for good bal-
ance and to avoid collisions with
others.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T This task is called Leapin’ Lizards. On the signal,
you are to travel throughout the general space.
On the cue “Leapin’ Lizards,” fi nd a partner as
quickly as possible, travel side by side for a few
steps, then leap in unison and split up to continue
traveling using the new pattern I call out. The
Box 19-5
Designing Floor Patterns for Dance
The fl oor patterns created in dance experiences and the loco-
motor movements used are important components of creative
dance. The patterns created as the dancer moves can tell a
story, set a mood, or portray an idea. The various ways of
travel used in dance and the patterns created aren’t accidental;
they’re planned and carefully designed. When designing the
travel pattern of a dance, teacher and children can focus upon
the following concerns:
• What idea stimulated the dance? Was it a music selection?
An action movie? A wiggly snake?
• What qualities are inherent in the theme of the dance or the
music selection? Is the tempo slow, moderate, or fast? Is
the rhythm even or uneven? Is the music harmonious?
Vibrant? Mellow?
• What pathway best expresses the feelings or emotions you
sense? Advancing, attacking? Retreating? Collapsing?
Gathering? Departing? Wavy? Angular, jagged?
It’s a good idea to have the children keep notes and
diagram their pathways as they design them, for several
reasons. First, they will clearly visualize what the fl oor pattern
looks like and be better able to evaluate its suitability for the
dance. Second, children usually use several classes to put
together a completed dance and often fail to remember ideas
they had in earlier classes. Third, when children fi nish a dance,
they can add the written work to their portfolios.
It’s often benefi cial to post several examples of pathways
around the room on the walls, to give children an idea of
what’s expected. Another effective teaching aid is to post
drawings of locomotor skills and positions of stillness that the
children have experienced. Rather than trying to diagram a se-
quence from memory, youngsters can look at these posters
and select movements to incorporate along their fl oor patterns.
Zigzag path Straight path Curved path
326 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
next time you hear the signal, fi nd a new partner,
travel and do two leaps, then split to travel in a
new way. We will continue until the number of
leaps gets to fi ve.
T This time, instead of partners, fi nd a group of
three whenever you hear the cue. Make sure all
of you leap at the same time. With a larger group
it is harder to coordinate your leaps. It might
help if one person calls out “One, two, three,
leap.”
Performing Rhythmical Patterns
Setting: Hoops, one per child, scattered throughout
general space
Cues
Heads Up (Keep your head up for good
balance.)
Soft Landings (Bend your knees for a soft
landing.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Jump in and out of your hoop with a four-four
rhythm: two jumps in, two jumps out, or three
jumps in, one jump out. Maintain an even tempo
by clapping the four counts as you jump.
I’ll clap the rhythm I want you to use for your
jumps: one, two, three, four. Let’s all clap the
rhythm together before we begin our jumps. ( Group
practices with teacher as leader. )
C Practice until you can match the rhythm three
times with no mistakes.
T Try your jumping pattern in and out of the hoop
with the music. Remember, you may choose a
three-one or a two-two pattern in and out.
Traveling to Express Age: The Fountain
of Youth Dance
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Cue
Exaggerate (Exaggerate your actions and gestures
for expression.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Using combinations of locomotor movements,
body language, and gestures, tell the story of an
old, old person who discovers the Fountain of
Youth. Let me set the stage for you. An old, old
person is walking down the street. The person
feels weary, tired, without enough energy to hold
his or her head high. While walking down the
street, the oldster sees a bottle in a gutter. An ex-
amination of the bottle reveals the words Fountain
of Youth Juice . Puzzled, hesitant, yet desperate, the
oldster takes a drink and then a few more. The
transformation begins. The old person is chan ged
into an ecstatic youth who dances merrily down
the street. Think of the following as you prepare
your dance:
What type of movements would the old person
use? Jerky or smooth? Slow or fast?
What body posture and what hand gestures
would the old person assume?
How would the oldster approach the bottle?
Would the transformation occur quickly or be
rather slowly executed?
How would you contrast the oldster’s move-
ments with those of the ecstatic youth: type of
travel, speed, level, gestures?
Traveling in Bound and Free Flow
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Cues
Exaggerate (Exaggerate your actions and
gestures for expression.)
Free Flow (Unstoppable from beginning
to end.)
Bound Flow ( Jerky; stoppable at any
moment.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Here are two additional ideas for short dance
phrases based on imaginary situations. First, a rag
doll comes to life for a brief time. One interpreta-
tion is that the rag doll slowly comes to life with
jerky, uncoordinated (bound) movements, falls
Folk /Cultural Dances
Folk /cultural dances are combinations of locomotors — com-
binations into specifi c steps, changes in directions, and
partner/group formations. See Chapter 29, “Skill Themes
in Dance,” for the teaching of folk /cultural dance in ele-
mentary physical education.
CHAPTER 19 Traveling 327
over, and has trouble gaining control and balance;
the doll gradually improves and is then running
and leaping, turning in the air (free), and enjoying
life. Then the doll suddenly stops, slowly walks
back to the starting location, sits and sighs, freezes,
and is a doll once again.
T Second, a balloon fi lled with helium escapes from
the hands of its owner, fl oats across the sky, leaks,
and falls back to earth.
These types of dance experiences are often short, culminat-
ing the practice of travel patterns. Discuss with the chil-
dren the travel qualities and movement concepts (space
awareness, effort) appropriate for each activity. Each dance
should have a clear beginning, rise to a climax, and then
wind down to a conclusion.
Traveling to Tom Foolery Rhymes
Setting: Children divided into groups of four; Tom
Foolery rhymes written on cards and placed around
the room, enough cards for one per group. Some children
may be able to write their own rhymes.
Cues
Exaggerate (Exaggerate your actions and ges-
tures for expression.)
Free Flow (Unstoppable from beginning
to end.)
Bound Flow ( Jerky; stoppable at any
moment.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T In your group, make up a humorous sequence to
the rhythmic pattern of the Tom Foolery rhyme
written on your card. You decide the rhythm of
the chant and the locomotor patterns you’ll use to
accompany the rhyme. Travel around the room
with your chosen locomotor patterns, chanting
the rhyme as you go.
Here are the Tom Foolery rhymes:
Soft feet, gentle, quick run:
Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat, jump back!
Swaying, rocking steps:
See-Saw Mar-ger-y Daw,
Jack shall have a new mas-ter.
He shall have but a pen-ny a day,
Be-cause he won’t work an-y fast-er.
Skipping:
Here’s a word to the wise:
Don’t get soap in your eyes!
I hope the dope who thought up soap
Has to eat it —I repeat it, Eat It!
Bouncy Jumps:
Boinggg, boinggg, boingg, boingg, boingg, bammmm!
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
The following learning experiences encourage young-
sters to use their travel skills and knowledge of travel
patterns in combination with other skills to design and
perform dances, gymnastics routines, and strategic
game maneuvers.
A note about cues: Tasks are more complex at the
profi ciency level, typically requiring children to co-
ordinate several movements simultaneously in a dy-
namic context. A list of cues is provided to assist the
children in being more successful in the learning
experience. The challenge for the teacher is in deter-
mining which cue will be most benefi cial for each
child . . . and when. Thus careful observation and
critical refl ection are important as you watch the chil-
dren move and then decide which cue will be the
most helpful to move each learner to a higher skill
level.
Depicting Primitive Tribes through Travel
Setting: Class divided into two groups
Tasks /Challenges:
T Dance can be a story without words. You’re going
to tell the story of primitive tribes through shapes
and actions. ( Show children cave drawings of tribal
dances. ) Use your imagination as you look at the
drawings. How do you think these people lived?
What was their work? What was home like for
them — did they have a home? Now let’s put your
ideas into movement terms. At what level would
the people move? Would their movements be
fl owing or sustained, jerky or smooth?
Your dance will tell the story of two primitive
tribes. Part 1 of your dance will show how the
people live as a group. Show through your move-
ments and gestures the life of a person in a primi-
tive tribe. Part 2 of your dance will portray the
two tribes discovering each other, their fear of the
unknown, and their battle to defend their
territory. In Part 2, each group begins with the
movements portraying preparation for battle. The
battle will consist of approach, attack ( with no
contact ), and a retreat.
328 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
The following questions will help you design
your movements for this dance story:
• Will your travel be fast or slow when preparing
for battle, approaching the enemy, retreating
from the battle?
• How can your gestures best represent the
punching, jabbing, kicking, slashing actions of
battle?
• Will your travel be low, with angular actions, or
high and smooth?
• As you retreat from battle, how will your travel
show caution, fear, injury?
Traveling to Show Tradition versus Change
Setting: Class divided into two groups
Tasks /Challenges:
T Dance doesn’t always tell a story. Sometimes dance
is a study in form — the shapes we can make with
our bodies, the spatial patterns we create as a
group. Group 1 will represent tradition. Use your
body shapes and group travel to show the charac-
teristics of tradition — for example, a fi rm, solid
shape, such as a square group, formed by the
identical and simultaneous group movements; use
of a small amount of space; and fi rm, sustained
quality — control at all times.
Group 2 will represent the forces of change. The
characteristics of change include individualized
shapes, travel in different directions, use of a large
amount of space, and a variety of movements. Work-
ing together as a group, design a dance that combines
at least fi ve shapes and three locomotor patterns to
portray the characteristics of your group.
When we look at the tradition group, we should
see oneness, sturdiness, caution; the shapes and
actions of the change group should portray indi-
viduality, risk taking, and freedom.
Dance that tells a story can easily become only pantomime.
Children will need guidance in avoiding exactly replicating
gestures and using more total body movement and space.
Videotape. Videotaping dances for future analysis,
accompanied by a written description with estab-
lished criteria and rubric, would be an excellent
summative assessment.
Performing Rhythmical Patterns: Tinikling
Setting: Sets of tinikling poles, approximately 12 feet
in length, either made from bamboo poles or purchased
commercially. Each set of poles will accommodate four
children — two for tapping the poles and two for jump-
ing ( Figure 19.8 ). In its traditional form, tinikling is per-
formed with a three-four rhythm, with the poles tapping
“out, out, in” and the dancers performing “in, in, out.” We
have found a four-four rhythm to be much easier for chil-
dren fi rst learning the activity.
Cues
Weight Balanced (Keep your shoulders and hips
over Poles over the poles.)
Feet In, In, (Your feet go inside, inside the
Out, Out poles, then outside, outside
the poles.)
Figure 19.8 Basic tinikling setup.
CHAPTER 19 Traveling 329
Tasks /Challenges:
T Tinikling is a rhythmical activity that involves
coordinated stepping, hopping, jumping actions
with the tapping of long bamboo poles. In the
beginning position, the bamboo poles are approxi-
mately two feet apart; they’re tapped down on the
fl oor twice: tap, tap. The poles are then brought
together for two counts: tap, tap. This pattern is
repeated: apart, apart, together, together. This
opening and closing position is maintained while
dancers step or jump in and out without touching
the poles. Let’s do the action of the poles with our
hands; clap the rhythm with me: out, out, in, in.
( Demonstrate with your hands apart, apart, together,
together. ) This is the action of the bamboo poles for
all our tinikling skills: out, out, in, in.
T Divide into groups of four. Two people clap the
four-four rhythm; the other two people practice
the tapping action with the poles.
We fi nd it helps to tape the ends of the poles where the
children grip them to prevent the bamboo poles from crack-
ing and pinching the children’s fi ngers.
T You now know how to clap the four-four rhythm
and to tap the bamboo poles to that rhythm. Now
you’ll learn the basic single-step pattern.
Stand on your left foot; hop two times on your
left foot. Step on your right foot between the lines;
transfer your weight to your left foot between the
lines. Hop on your right foot two times outside the
lines. Repeat the action to the left. Clap the four-
four beat as you hop.
Figure 19.9 shows the single-step pattern. Have the children
stand outside the parallel tape lines on the fl oor. Their right
sides should be toward the tape lines.
C Practice until you can perform the pattern four
times with no mistakes. You’ll then be ready to
practice the single-step pattern with two people
tapping the poles. Remember, your feet go in, in,
out, out while the poles go out, out, in, in.
T After you feel comfortable with the single-step
pattern, try the double-step or the hopping pattern
( Figures 19.10 and 19.11 ). When you’re really good,
you can create a new pattern with a four-four or
three-four beat.
Count 1—Hop on left foot outside poles
Count 2— Hop again on left foot outside poles
Count 3—Hop on right foot between poles
Count 4—Hop again on right foot between poles
Count 1—Hop on left foot outside poles (other side)
Count 2—Hop again on left foot outside poles
Count 3—Hop on right foot between poles
Count 4—Hop again on right foot between poles
Figure 19.9 Tinikling: single-step pattern.
Count 1—Jump on both feet outside poles
Count 2— Jump on both feet outside poles again
Count 3—Jump on both feet between poles
Count 4—Jump on both feet between poles again
Count 1—Jump on both feet straddling poles
Count 2—Jump on both feet straddling poles again
Count 3—Jump on both feet between poles
Count 4—Jump on both feet between poles again
Figure 19.10 Tinikling: double-step pattern.
330 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Students with advanced tinikling skills enjoy the action
with four poles — two poles crossed over two poles — and
the combination of basic tinikling actions with gymnastics
stunts — for example, cartwheels and walkovers between
the poles as they move apart.
Traveling in Games and Sports
The ability to travel in games is often what separates
the skilled player from the average player. Many
children can throw and catch accurately and with
control while they’re stationary, but they regress to
a precontrol level when travel is added. Thus, traveling
is an important part of the utilization and profi ciency
sections of the games skills chapters. Games-related
tasks that incorporate traveling are discussed in
Chapter 20, “Chasing, Fleeing, and Dodging,” and in
Chapters 24 through 28: “Kicking and Punting,”
“Throwing and Catching,” “Volleying and Dribbling,”
“Striking with Rackets and Paddles,” and “Striking with
Long-Handled Implements,” respectively.
Traveling in Gymnastics
Traveling in gymnastics supplies the buildup of force
necessary for step and spring takeoffs when transfer-
ring weight on mats and onto equipment, as well as
for many Olympic stunts ( Figure 19.12 ). The fl oor
patterns the travel creates form an important
component of gymnastics routines. Travel in relation
to gymnastics is discussed in Chapters 21, 22, and 23:
“Jumping and Landing,” “Balancing,” and “Transferring
Weight and Rolling,” respectively.
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. What components of traveling are taught in a pro-
gram of physical education for children?
2. What does “naturally developing skill” mean? List
two examples.
3. List the fundamental locomotor skills. Why are
these skills important for children?
4. Describe a mature running pattern. Do all chil-
dren have mature running patterns? Do all adults?
Explain.
5. What are the differences between a hop, a leap, a
slide, and a gallop?
6. Describe how travel is studied at the profi ciency
level in games, gymnastics, and dance.
7. How can you use a Tom Foolery rhyme to stimulate
different ways of traveling?
8. What is tinikling?
Count 1—Hop on left foot outside poles
Count 2— Hop again on left foot outside poles
Count 3—Step on right foot between poles
Count 4—Step on left foot between poles
Count 1—Hop on right foot outside poles
Count 2—Hop again on right foot outside poles
Count 3—Step on left foot between poles
Count 4—Step on right foot between poles
Figure 19.11 Tinikling: hopping.
CHAPTER 19 Traveling 331
References /Suggested Readings
Bennett , J. P. , and P. C. Riemer . 2006 . Rhythmic activities and dance, pp. 111–12 . Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Used with permission from John P. Bennett.
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 1995 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. St. Louis, MO: Mosby .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Education. 2004 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. 2nd ed. Reston, VA: NASPE .
Wickstrom , R. L. 1997 . Fundamental motor patterns. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger .
Wickstrom , R. L. 1983 . Fundamental motor patterns. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger .
Figure 19.12 Children’s travel
patterns in gymnastics.
332
C H A P T E R
20
Chasing, Fleeing, and Dodging
CHAPTER 20 Chasing, Fleeing, and Dodging 333
S ince ancient times, children have delighted in
countless chasing, fl eeing, and dodging games.
These games all challenge children to evade a
chasing player through dodging and fl eeing. Such
sports as basketball, hockey, soccer, and football are
simply more elaborate forms of these games using the
same elements. Physical education programs can build
on the innate pleasure that children experience from
playing these games. By providing a variety of chal-
lenging tasks and game situations, a teacher can help
youngsters develop chasing, fl eeing, and dodging skills
(see our progression spiral, page 334).
Experience suggests that it’s best to focus on chas-
ing, fl eeing, and dodging skills after children have
developed a working understanding of space aware-
ness concepts and have mastered fundamental
traveling skills. In reality, chasing, fl eeing, and dodg-
ing are an advanced combination of traveling skills
combined with the refi ned use of effort, space, and
relationship concepts and often requiring the mani-
pulation of an object. Therefore the use of chasing,
fl eeing, and dodging will often appear in the travel-
ing chapter and the manipulative skill themes. In
this chapter our purpose is to focus on the skills in
some isolation before applying them in more complex
situations.
Chasing, fl eeing, and dodging tasks and games
using these skills are best played outdoors in large,
grassy areas. Box 20-1 notes what the National Standards
for Physical Education say about chasing, fl eeing, and
dodging.
Chasing
Chasing is traveling quickly to overtake or tag a fl eeing
person. In many game situations, the fl eeing player is
given a head start and allowed time to run away before
the chaser can begin traveling. The fl eeing player tries
to avoid being caught or tagged. Thus the chaser needs
to be able to run at full speed and to react quickly to
changes in the direction of the fl eeing player’s travel.
Fleeing
Fleeing may be considered the antithesis of chasing as
it involves traveling quickly away from a pursuing
person or object. In most game situations, the fl eeing
person tries to keep as much distance as possible be-
tween himself or herself and the chaser. However,
when the pursuer does close in, the fl eeing player uses
any maneuver possible to avoid being tagged — the
fl eeing person dodges, changes direction quickly, or
runs full speed. This continual demand on the fl eeing
player to react quickly to emerging, uncertain situa-
tions is what makes tag games such thrilling activities
for children.
Dodging
Dodging is the skill of quickly moving the body in a
direction other than the original line of movement.
This includes any maneuver a person undertakes to
avoid being touched by a chasing person. Dodging
may occur while a person is fl eeing or stationary.
Effective dodging actions include quick fakes, twisting,
and stretching.
Levels of Skill Profi ciency
We’ve found that most school-age children are fa-
miliar with a variety of tag and dodging games. But
some youngsters whose chasing, fl eeing, and dodging
skills are at the precontrol or control level of profi -
ciency have limited success in playing these games;
that is, although many children can chase, fl ee, and
dodge, they can’t perform these skills effectively in dy-
namic game situations. In a game of tag, for instance,
the child doing the chasing is often unable to overtake
or tag any of the fl eeing players and quickly tires of
playing the game. In their classic study of children’s
games, Iona and Peter Opie (1969) noted that chasing
games were often plagued with arguments and ended
prematurely in heated disputes.
Chasing, Fleeing, and Dodging in the National Standards for Physical Education
The movement skills of chasing, fl eeing, and dodging are
referenced in the National Association for Sport and Physi-
cal Education’s National Standards for Physical Education
(NASPE 2004) under Standard 3: “Participates regularly in
physical activity.” The standard addresses the child’s ability
to use chasing, fl eeing, and dodging activities to participate
in physical activity.
The standard states:
• Participates in chasing and fl eeing activities outside of
school (K– 2)*
*Grade-level guidelines for expected student learning
Box 20-1
334 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
A teacher’s initial task, therefore, is to help youngsters
develop those skills prerequisite to becoming a capable
chaser, fl eer, or dodger in various game situations. In
school situations in which preschool youngsters’ oppor-
tunities to play with other children are limited, a teacher
may need to provide precontrol-level chasing, fl eeing,
and dodging activities—for example:
• Running as fast as possible from one location to
another
• Traveling around a room and changing the direc-
tion of travel quickly when a signal is sounded
• When a signal is given, quickly performing a desig-
nated dodging maneuver
• Running as fast as possible away from a partner; on
the signal, running quickly toward a partner
Children who can competently perform a variety of
quick, dodging maneuvers while running fast are at the
control level. A teacher can provide challenging tasks
designed to have these children keep their eyes focused
on a target child and react quickly to the movements
of that child by chasing, fl eeing from, or dodging the
target child. Such tasks include:
• Staying as close as possible to a fl eeing, dodging
partner
• Chasing after a person who has been given a slight
head start and is fl eeing
• Trying to run across a fi eld while dodging one or
more chasers
When children can effectively dodge a chasing
person and can react quickly and accurately to others’
swift, darting movements, they’re ready for utilization-
level activities. Now the youngsters’ chasing, fl eeing,
and dodging skills enable them to enjoy testing their
abilities in ever-changing and complex environments.
Challenging activities include the following:
• The players of one group fl ee and /or dodge the play-
ers of an opposing group while controlling an object
(such as a football, fl ying disc, or basketball).
• One group chases the members of an opposing
group but, instead of fl eeing their chasers, tries to
run past and dodge them without being touched.
Many utilization- and profi ciency-level activities
incorporate dynamic and often gamelike tasks in the
development of chasing, fl eeing, and dodging skills.
Because of the nature of the skills themselves, the use
of dynamic gamelike activities may be more prevalent
here than with other skill themes, and the tasks may
initially look and sound more like “traditional” games.
Look closely beyond the name. All the tasks involve
small-sided groups in reduced spaces and are designed
to help children develop and subsequently apply the
skills of chasing, fl eeing, and dodging. The tasks should
be used as an integral part of the lesson, after the pre-
requisite skills are developed, not just as an activity to
do. As noted, many of these experiences involve the
use of groups. The groups recommended here are of
small sizes and can usually be designed by having chil-
dren form their own groups. See Box 9-4 (in Chapter 9)
for tips on partner and group formation.
At the profi ciency level, children are able to use
chasing, fl eeing, and dodging skills effectively in a
wide variety of game contexts. Both the chasers and
the fl eeing, dodging players are skilled. At times, the
Skill Theme Development Sequence
Chasing, Fleeing, Dodging Profi ciency Level
Self-designed chasing, fl eeing, and dodging game
Dodging while manipulating an object in an invasion
game – like situation
Using team strategy for chasing, fl eeing, and dodging in an
invasion game – like situation
Dodging in a target game – like situation
Dodging in a gamelike situation
Chasing and fl eeing in an invasion game – like situation
Chasing and dodging simultaneously
Dodging while maintaining possession of an object
Continual fl eeing and chasing with a large group
Utilization Level
Dodging while manipulating an object
Dodging in a dynamic situation
Dodging and chasing one person in a mass
Dodging semistationary obstacles
Dodging and faking moves to avoid a chaser
Dodging stationary obstacles
Control Level
Fleeing a chaser
Overtaking a fl eeing person
Dodging with quick changes of direction
Dodging the obstacles
Fleeing from a partner
Dodging in response to a signal
Precontrol Level
Make-believe chase
Traveling to dodge
Traveling to fl ee
Moving obstacles
CHAPTER 20 Chasing, Fleeing, and Dodging 335
chaser gets the target; at other times, the fl eeing,
dodging player escapes. Advanced chasing, fl eeing, and
dodging skills are evident in invasion (see Chapter 31
for more on invasion-type games) situations such as
the following:
• A player in a running invasion game darts quickly
past the defense, dodging around the players who
are chasing him.
• A player in a foot dribble invasion activity advances
the ball past a defense player by faking one way and
then traveling quickly in the opposite direction.
• A defense player in a running invasion game runs
20 to 30 yards to overtake an offensive runner head-
ing for a score.
• In a hand dribbling invasion game, a player races
down court to score although a defense player is
chasing right behind.
In elementary school settings, children at the profi ci-
ency level enjoy playing teacher-and student- designed
games in which chasing, fl eeing, and dodging are the
primary movements.
Children are inherently attracted to chasing, fl ee-
ing, and dodging activities, and it is easy for us and the
children to get caught up in the excitement and lose
sight of the quality of the movement. Children can’t
continue these intense activities for long periods
without tiring, which is almost always accompanied
by a deterioration in quality. It is best to pursue these
skills for short periods.
A note about dodgeball, which was actually included in
the fi rst edition of Children Moving: Over the past 30
years our knowledge of child growth and development
has expanded exponentially, and as a result, practices
have changed. Consequently, we have eliminated all
dodgeball activities from the development of dodging
skills. A number of factors have infl uenced this
decision. From a psychological perspective, we believe
that throwing an object at another person, with the
intent of hitting the person, subtly supports violence
and goes against all that we know and believe about
appropriate practice (NASPE 2009; Williams 1992; see
Box 20-2 ). From a safety standpoint, the risk of de-
tached retinas, as well as other serious head injuries, is
extreme in dodgeball (regardless of the type of ball
used). From a transfer perspective, we know of no sport
that utilizes the skill of throwing at a human being.
From a legal perspective, many states have already
banned dodgeball from schools (check yours).
If you are a physical education major reading this
book, you are probably thinking, “I loved dodgeball”
and that it was “really fun.” For you it was, because
you were the skilled player. If you are an elementary
education major reading this, you are probably joyous
that it has been eliminated. It is important to remember
that physical education is for all students, not just the
skilled. There are aspects of dodgeball that we all like —
the intrigue, the fast pace, the challenge — and we
encourage you to redesign activities to keep these
aspects while removing the aspects that are counter-
productive. For more information about redesigned
games, see Chapter 31 or Teaching Physical Activity :
Change, Challenge, Choice by Jim Stiehl, Don Morris,
and Christina Sinclair (2007).
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration
Activities at the precontrol level are designed to help
children explore the skills of chasing, fl eeing, and
dodging in simple situations. Before beginning any
practice with this theme, children should be at the
control level of traveling and have had ample practice
with space awareness.
When working with chasing, fl eeing, and dodging
activities that involve a fi nish line, make sure that
the line is far away from any obstructions. This
precaution allows the children to run through the
fi nish line at full speed safely.
Moving Obstacles
Setting: Children scattered in general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T At the signal, travel in general space. Make sure
that you look up so that you can avoid collisions
with others.
T This time make your travel faster but still avoid
others.
Have half the children move to one side of the room and
half to the other.
Dodgeball in Appropriate Practices for Elementary Physical Education
Appropriate Practices for Elementary Physical Education
identifi es dodgeball as an inappropriate practice in their state- ment “Human target games (dodgeball) and /or drills that
allow aggressive behavior to other students are permitted.”
Source: National Association for Sport and Physical Education,
Appropriate Practices for Physical Education, 3rd ed. (Reston,
VA: NASPE, 2009), p. 6.
Box 20-2
336 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
T On the signal, both lines will try to walk to the
opposite side of the room without touching any-
one else.
T This time, travel with three body parts touching
the fl oor. Still no touching.
T Now you will cross the space using different levels.
Everyone who has blue eyes will travel with his or
her body parts high in the air; those with brown
eyes should travel at a low level; those with green
or gray eyes, at a medium level.
T This time you can choose any way you wish to
travel, but go at a medium speed.
T Try jogging or running, if you feel ready.
C You have 10 points to start; subtract 1 point for
every collision. Try to end with all 10 points.
Begin slowly. Have children walk. Gradually increase speed
as you observe the children traveling competently and with-
out collisions.
Because of the exciting nature of chasing, fl eeing,
and dodging activities, children’s speed tends to
increase, sometimes to unsafe levels. Monitor the
speed of activities, always reminding children that
they must be able to stop and change directions
without falling. They should be able to tag someone
without pushing.
Traveling to Flee
Setting: All children spread out in a space (an outside
grassy space is best) about 20 yards by 20 yards
Tasks /Challenges:
T You’ve all played games in which you had to run
away from someone who was chasing you. This
time you are going to have an imaginary chaser.
On the signal, practice fl eeing from your chaser by
walking very quickly. On the next signal, stop.
Remember, everyone is moving, so look up.
T This time, practice fl eeing your chaser by running.
C How fast can you move to get away from your
chaser?
Traveling to Dodge
Setting: Carpet squares or spots, hoops, milk jugs, or
ropes spread out on the fl oor as obstacles
Tasks /Challenges:
T On the signal, travel around the general space
without touching anyone else or any of the objects
on the fl oor. Be sure to keep your head up so you
can avoid collisions.
T How many different ways can you fi nd to avoid
the obstacles?
T This time try to go as fast as you can with no colli-
sions and avoiding all the objects.
Make-Believe Chase
Setting: Children spread out in general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T On the signal, try to catch your make-believe
partner. Your partner is very quick, so you will
really have to work hard to catch him or her. Re-
member, everyone is chasing, so look up to avoid
collisions.
T This time, you will chase your dog, who got off the
leash. You want to catch your dog before it gets to
the street.
What are the differences among chasing, fl eeing,
and dodging?
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
Learning experiences at the control level are designed
to allow children to practice chasing, fl eeing, and
dodging in relatively static situations. Often chasing,
fl eeing, and dodging are combined with only a single
other variable.
A note about cues: Although several cues are listed for
many of the learning experiences, it’s important to fo-
cus on only one cue at a time. That way, the children
can concentrate on that cue. Once you provide feed-
back to the children and observe that most have
learned a cue, then it’s time to focus on another one.
Dodging in Response to a Signal
Setting: Children scattered in general space
Cues
Fake (Step/lean one way; go the other.)
Split Second (Make your moves quicker than
light.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Now you’re going to become really sneaky. As you
travel throughout the general space, when you
hear the signal, pretend that you are going in one
direction and then quickly change and go in a
different direction.
CHAPTER 20 Chasing, Fleeing, and Dodging 337
T This time, whenever you hear the signal, try not to
let anyone know which direction you’ll travel; try
to fake them out.
T Now, instead of me giving you the signal, you’ll
fake on your own. Whenever you come to another
person, pretend that you’re going to go one way,
but go another. Really try to confuse the other
person so he or she doesn’t know where you’ll be
going. Make your move quickly once you decide
which way you’re going.
C See if you can travel and dodge for 20 seconds
without colliding with anyone.
Fleeing from a Partner
Setting: Partners about 10 feet apart
Cue
Split Second (Make your moves quicker than
light.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Face your partner. On the signal, walk slowly toward
each other until you are as close as you can be with-
out touching. Then, quickly jump back, as if you’re
scared, and walk backward to your starting position,
keeping a close watch on your partner.
T This time, you’re going to do the activity a little dif-
ferently because you seldom would move slowly to
get away from someone. Try to move a little quicker
and faster as you fl ee or go away from your partner.
Just remember to not go so fast that you fall down.
T Now, instead of walking away from your partner,
try jogging.
Dodging the Obstacles
Setting: Low- and medium-height objects placed around
the room as obstacles
Cues
Split Second (Make your moves quicker
than light.)
Change Speed (Use changes of speed to
avoid the obstacles.)
Change Direction (Use changes of direction to
avoid the obstacles.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T On the signal, travel around the general space with-
out touching anyone else or any of the obstacles on
the fl oor. Everything is poison. Be sure to watch for
other people as well as the objects.
T This time try to move through the area a little
faster.
C I will time you for 30 seconds. See if you can travel
for that long with no touches.
Children never seem to tire of this task, regardless of their
skill level. As the children’s skill levels increase, decrease
the space between obstacles or use more obstacles to increase
the complexity of the task.
Dodging with Quick Changes of Direction
Setting: Children scattered in general space
Cues
Fake (Step/lean one way; go the other.)
Split Second (Make your moves quicker than
light.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T This is very similar to what you practiced before.
Travel around in the general space. When you
come close to someone, get as close as possible,
and then quickly dodge away and look for another
person to approach. There should be a clear burst
of speed as you dodge away from the person — as if
you’re trying to escape. Remember, watch out for
others.
T Dodging with speed as you did is called darting.
This time practice getting as close to the person
you approach as you can before quickly darting
away. Make the dart very clear.
C Practice until you can make fi ve darts in a row
without having to stop.
Overtaking a Fleeing Person
Setting: Partners scattered in general space
Cues
Runner
Split Second (Make your moves quicker
than light.)
Fake (Step/lean one way; go the
other.)
Change Direction (Use changes of direction to
avoid the chaser.)
Chaser
Watch the Hips (Watch the hips of the runner
to tell his or her next move.)
338 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Tasks /Challenges:
T In this task you are going to try and catch your
partner, who has a head start. On the fi rst signal,
the front partner darts away from the back partner.
After 3 seconds, another signal is sounded, and the
second partner, who has remained still, chases
after the fi rst partner, trying to tag him or her be-
fore I blow the stop whistle in 20 seconds. For the
next round, switch places. You must always stay
inside the boundaries. So the activity goes like this:
Stand together. On the fi rst signal, partner 1 takes
off running. On the second signal, partner 2 takes
off and tries to catch partner 1 before I blow the
whistle in 20 seconds.
T Let’s go again. Remember never to give up, even if
the runner keeps getting away. See if you can use
all the moves you know.
This task is appropriate when the children have learned to
travel in general space without bumping into one another.
Initially, children can perform this task more easily (and
safely) in large areas, because they’re able to focus more on
their partners and less on avoiding other children.
Exit Slip. This is an appropriate time to use an exit
slip (Chapter 14) to assess whether the children
know the difference between chasing, fl eeing, and
dodging and the cues associated with each.
Fleeing a Chaser
Setting: Five people in a group (see Figure 20.1 for
setup)
Cues
Fleers
Split Second (Make your moves quicker than
light.)
Fake (Step/lean one way; go the
other.)
Dart (Use quick changes of direction
to avoid the chaser.)
Chaser
Watch the Hips (Watch the hips of the runner to
tell his or her next move.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T This task is designed to let you practice fl eeing
from a chaser. There will be fi ve people in a
group — one chaser and four fl eers. The chaser,
who is in the middle circle in a squat position, tells
the fl eers how to travel. The fl eers then travel
inside the box and not in the center circle. When
the chaser gets to his or her feet, all the fl eers run
toward the outside of the square, trying not to get
tagged. A fl eer who is tagged helps the chaser the
next time. When all the fl eers are caught, the last
fl eer caught becomes the new chaser. Chasers, be
sure to change the traveling action each time.
Fleeing a chaser always provides a challenge for youngsters.
Chaser
Traveling
Traveling Traveling
Fleeing
Fleeing
Fleeing
30 ft.
30 ft.
= Fleer
Figure 20.1 Setup for fl eeing a chaser.
CHAPTER 20 Chasing, Fleeing, and Dodging 339
This task requires multiple groups playing at once, be sure
there is ample space between groups so that the fl eeing
children do not disrupt others. Mark the boundaries
clearly.
Teacher Observation. Each of the preceding tasks
is an opportune place for teacher observation of
the use of critical cues for skills of chasing, fl eeing,
and dodging before moving on to more dynamic
settings. See Chapters 12 and 14 for the develop-
ment of observation checklists and assessment
items.
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
Children at the utilization level are ready to test their
skills in increasingly complex and gamelike situations.
In these experiences, children will have to fake and
dodge quickly in reaction to the deceptive movements
of others.
A note about cues: Although several cues are listed
for many of the learning experiences, it’s important to
focus on only one cue at a time. That way, the chil-
dren can really concentrate on that cue. Once you
provide feedback to the children and observe that
most have learned a cue, then it’s time to focus on
another one.
Dodging Stationary Obstacles
Setting: Groups of six: three taggers, three dodgers,
each group with a space about 10 feet by 20 feet; spots
on the fl oor to indicate where the taggers are to
stand
Cues
Split Second (Make your moves quicker than
light.)
Fake (Step/lean one way; go the other.)
Dart (Use quick changes of direction to
avoid the obstacles.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T This task will give you a chance to practice your
dodging skills. Three people in each group are tag-
gers and the others are dodgers. Taggers stand with
both feet on a spot. The dodgers start on one side
of the space and try to get to the other side of the
space without being tagged. After fi ve runs, switch
places. If you get tagged, try to fi gure out how to
avoid being tagged the next time.
T Now the activity gets a little harder. If you’re
tagged, you must freeze right where you’re tagged
and become a tagger. Dodgers, this will get really
hard at the end, so be on your toes.
Videotape /digital analysis. Videotaping students
chasing, fl eeing, and dodging in this activity would
be an appropriate way to assess their use of chasing,
fl eeing, and dodging in a more complex situation.
Students can assess themselves in relation to the
critical cues.
Dodging and Faking Moves to Avoid a Chaser
Setting: Groups of six, each with a space about the size
of a quarter of a basketball court
Cues
Dodgers
Split Second (Make your moves quicker
than light.)
Fake (Step/lean one way; go the
other.)
Dart/Change Speed (Use quick changes of
direction and speed to
avoid the chaser.)
Chasers
Watch the Hips (Watch the hips of the
runner to tell his or her
next move.)
Teamwork (Decide your plan for
catching together.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T This chasing and fl eeing task will really make you
work hard. You can’t be slow; if you are, you’ll be
caught. Make sure you know where your bound-
aries are. Two people will start out as chasers —you
decide who they’ll be. The other four are dodgers.
On the signal, the chasers have 1 minute to try to
catch all the runners. If tagged, a dodger has to
freeze and then count to 10 out loud before start-
ing to run again. The object is for the chasers to
catch all the dodgers at the same time. After the
fi rst minute, change chasers and play again.
Remember, the chasers have to try to catch every-
one, and no one can go outside the boundaries.
When children tag one another, they can be quite
rough, sometimes knocking others over. Here are
two rules that have helped us: (1) A tag is only a
touch, not a slap or hit. (2) All tags must be on the
shoulders or below.
340 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Dodging Semistationary Obstacles
Setting: Class divided into groups of about 10 to 14,
each group in a space about 20 feet by 20 feet; tape or
spots on the fl oor approximately an arm’s length apart
to designate where the members of one group must
place their feet ( Figure 20.2 )
Cues
Split Second (Make your moves quicker than
light.)
Fake (Step/lean one way; go the other.)
Dart (Use quick changes of direction to
avoid the obstacles.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T To do this activity, half of your group will be tag-
gers, and you must stand on the marks on the
fl oor. One foot must always stay on the mark; you
can move the other foot to reach in different direc-
tions. The other half of you are dodgers. You’ll
begin at this end of the room and try to travel
through the taggers without being touched. After
the dodgers make it to the other side of the room,
return around the outside of the room, and keep
trying to get through the taggers until you hear
the stop signal. On the stop signal, switch places.
T This time things are going to be a little harder for
the taggers. Instead of just tagging the dodgers, the
taggers have to tag the left knees of the dodgers
with their right hands.
You can change these directions to several combinations of
body parts — for example, right hand – right knee; left
hand– right knee; left hand– right elbow.
T This time, let’s make it harder for the dodgers. Tag-
gers can now move one foot to tag. The other foot
has to be on the mark.
Dodging and Chasing One Person in a Mass
Setting: Partners spread apart on a fi eld
Cues
Dodgers
Split Second (Make your moves quicker than
light.)
Fake (Step/lean one way; go the
other.)
Dart/Change (Use quick changes of direction
Speed and speed to avoid the chaser.)
Chasers
Watch the Hips (Watch the hips of the runner to
tell his or her next move.)
Figure 20.2 Setup for dodging semista-
tionary objects.
Dodger
Tagger
CHAPTER 20 Chasing, Fleeing, and Dodging 341
Tasks /Challenges:
T For this task, you and your partner are on opposite
teams. One of you is a tagger; the other one is a
dodger. On the signal, the taggers will spread out
inside the boundaries, and the dodgers will line up
on this side of the fi eld. On the next signal, the
dodgers will try to get to the other side of the fi eld
without being touched by their partners, the taggers.
The trick is that each dodger can be tagged only by
his or her partner. When the dodgers get to the other
side, they return to the starting line by going around
the outside of the fi eld and continue to travel across
the space until they hear the stop signal. On the
stop signal, trade places with your partners.
T This time I’m going to decrease the space to half
the size it was. Ready? Go again.
C Can you stay untagged until the signal sounds?
Peer Observation. This would be an appropriate
opportunity for a peer observation assessment.
Two sets of partners could be paired. One set would
participate and the other set would observe. The
observers would have an index card with the
critical cues listed and a space for names and would
assess whether the participants used the cues. Af-
ter fi ve tries, the observers and participants would
switch places. See Chapter 14 for the development
of peer observation checklists and scoring rubrics.
Dart/ Change (Use quick changes of direction
Speed and speed to avoid the chaser.)
Chasers
Watch the Hips (Watch the hips of the runner
to tell his or her next move.)
Teamwork (Decide your plan for catching
together.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T This is a tag activity. The object, if you are a tagger,
is to tag the runners on the named body part or, if
you’re a runner, to avoid being tagged on the
named body part. Chasers, try to touch the runners
on the body part I call out. Any runners you tag
must freeze. The tagged runners can be unfrozen if
they’re tagged by a free runner on a body part
other than the tagged part. The taggers will have
1 minute to try to catch all the runners. At the
end of 1 minute, start again with two new
taggers. You must stay inside your boundaries.
“Shoulders”— Go.
Dodging While Manipulating an Object
Setting: Multiple circle areas about 10 feet in diameter
marked off on the fl oor or the pavement; two or three
children occupying each circle
Children should be at the utilization level in dribbling
before attempting this task.
Cues
Dodgers
Protect the Ball (Keep your body between the
ball and the other players.)
Fake (Step/lean one way; go the
other.)
Dart/Change (Use quick changes of direc-
Speed tion and speed to avoid the
chaser.)
Taggers
Watch the Hips (Watch the hips of the dribbler
to tell his or her next move.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T The object of this task is to dribble a ball and at the
same time try to take a ball away from someone
else. Here’s how it works. Each of you in your circle
will be dribbling a ball. As you dribble the ball,
you’ll be trying to knock the other players’ balls
out of the area while keeping your ball from being
knocked away. If your ball gets knocked out, just
go get it and start again.
Bombardment
In some school yards we’ve observed classes of children play-
ing a game popularly called Bombardment, Killer, or Murder
Ball. As these names imply, the game can be dangerous. Typi-
cally, a class is divided into two teams, with a middle line sepa-
rating each team. Each team throws a hard ball in an attempt
to strike players on the opposing team; the teams often throw
from close range and toward an unsuspecting child. We don’t
support this activity. There are many other dodge-type experi-
ences you can plan that are safer, allow more children to par-
ticipate, and are more apt to result in skill development.
Dodging in a Dynamic Situation
Setting: Groups of 10: 8 runners and 2 chasers; a space
about 30 feet by 30 feet, preferably grass
Cues
Dodgers
Split Second (Make your moves quicker than
light.)
Fake (Step/lean one way; go the
other.)
342 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
Children at the profi ciency level are ready to use their
skillful chasing, fl eeing, and dodging abilities in a
variety of complex and ever-changing, gamelike situ-
ations. In the experiences provided here, two groups
of players are required to chase, fl ee, and dodge one
another. Although some activities are included here,
when children are at the profi ciency level of chasing,
fl eeing, and dodging, they are in actuality using those
skills in combination with manipulative skills. Thus
appropriate activities would be gamelike profi ciency-
level manipulative activities in which chasing, fl eeing,
and dodging skills lend the strategic dynamics to the
game. See profi ciency-level tasks in the manipulative
skill theme chapters (Chapters 24 –28).
A note about cues at the profi ciency level: At the profi -
ciency level, tasks are more complex, typically requiring
children to coordinate several movements simultane-
ously in a dynamic context. A list of cues is provided to
assist the children in being more successful in the
learn ing experience. The challenge for the teacher is in
determining which cue will be most benefi cial for each
child . . . and when. Thus, careful observation and criti-
cal refl ection become very important as you watch the
children move and then decide which cue will be the
most helpful to move each learner to a higher skill
level.
Continual Fleeing and Chasing with a Large Group
Setting: Children scattered throughout the space: three
taggers (with blue armbands); the rest, dodgers
Note: The complexity of this task— as with most chas-
ing, fl eeing, and dodging tasks — can be increased or
decreased by increasing or decreasing the space available
or changing the size of the group. Smaller groups and
smaller spaces increase the diffi culty for the dodgers;
larger groups and larger spaces increase the diffi culty for
the chasers.
Cues
Dodgers
Split Second (Make your moves quicker than
light.)
Fake (Step/lean one way; go the
other.)
Dart/Change (Use quick changes of direction
Speed and speed to avoid the chaser.)
Chasers
Watch the Hips (Watch the hips of the runner to
tell his or her next move.)
Teamwork (Decide your plan for catching
together.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T This task is very much like freeze tag, except that
when you are tagged, you must freeze with your
legs wide apart and your hands clasped to your
head. You can then be “freed” by any free player
crawling through your legs. There will be three
taggers, each with a blue armband.
Note: It is virtually impossible for the taggers to catch all
the dodgers, so set a time for play (e.g., 1 to 2 minutes) and
switch taggers.
How did you use teamwork to catch the runners?
Invasion gamelike experiences
involve constant chasing and
fl eeing.
CHAPTER 20 Chasing, Fleeing, and Dodging 343
Dodging While Maintaining Possession of an Object
Setting: For each child, a rumble rhumba ( Figure 20.3 )
and a beanbag; fi rst put partners in a space about 10 feet
by feet and then alone using the space approximately
the size of the entire gym
Tasks /Challenges:
T For this task, you will need a rumble rhumba tied
around your waist with one beanbag in it ( Fig-
ure 20.4 ). You and your partner should fi nd a space
where you are not close to other groups. When I say
“Go,” you will try to snatch the beanbag from your
partner’s rumble without having yours snatched. If
you snatch the beanbag, simply give it back to your
partner. The other rules are (1) you can take a bean-
bag only from a rumble, not your partner’s hands;
(2) you can’t protect your rumble with your hands;
and (3) you can’t touch your partner. Remember to
stay in your own space.
T This time the task becomes harder. You now can
travel over the entire space and try to snatch
anyone’s beanbag. If you snatch a beanbag, this
time it goes in your rumble. The same rules of
(1) only taking a beanbag from a rumble, not
someone’s hands; (2) not protecting your rumble
with your hands; and (3) not touching anyone
still apply.
T How many points can you get? Score one point for
each beanbag you snatch; subtract fi ve points if
yours is taken.
In many primitive tribal games, the tribes believed that the
chaser was evil, magic, or diseased and that the chaser’s
touch was contagious. Although today’s games are a far cry
from fl eeing possible death, one has a hard time believing
otherwise when observing the intensity and all-out effort
children display when fl eeing a chaser!
Chasing and Dodging Simultaneously
Setting: Start with partners in a space about 5 feet by
5 feet; then increase the group size to about six and the
space to about 20 feet by 20 feet; enough fl ag belts or
scarves (of two colors) for all the youngsters
Cues
Dodgers
Split Second (Make your moves quicker than
light.)
Fake (Step/lean one way; go the
other.)
Dart/ Change (Use quick changes of direc-
Speed tion and speed to avoid the
chaser.)
Chasers
Watch the Hips (Watch the hips of the runner
to tell his or her next move.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Each partner should have on a fl ag belt or scarf
tucked into his or her waist. In your space your
task will be to try grab the fl ag from your partner.
If you grab it, give it back and start again. Re-
member that you cannot protect your fl ag with
your hands, and you cannot touch the other
person.
T This task pits each player against every other
player. The object is to snatch the fl ag from another
player’s belt without losing your own fl ag and
while staying within the designated boundaries.
If your fl ag is pulled off, another player can put it
back on and you can keep on playing. You can’t
Figure 20.3 To make a rumble rhumba, you’ll need a 1-gallon
plastic jug (e.g., an empty milk or water container) and 1 yard of
clothesline cord. Cut the bottom inch from the jug, and make two
holes on either side of the handle. Then run a length of clothesline
through the holes, and tie the jug (open end up) around the waist.
Figure 20.4 Rumble rhumba in position around the waist.
344 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
put your own fl ag back on. You’ve really got to
watch all the other players and move to stay out of
their way. Remember all the turning, twisting, and
jumping dodges.
C How many points can you accumulate? Score one
point for every fl ag you take; subtract three points
for every time your fl ag is taken.
T Now form a group of six. Each group of six should
divide into two groups of three, each group having
a different-colored fl ag belt. Find a space about
20 feet by 20 feet. You will now work as a team and
your task is to try and grab the fl ags of the other
group. If you get them all, return them and start
over again.
Chasing and Fleeing in an Invasion
Game –Like Situation
Setting: Small groups of four to six, each with a ball;
enough fl ag belts or scarves (of two colors) for all the
youngsters; a space about 20 yards by 10 yards
Cues
Offense
Toward Goal (Always move toward your
goal.)
Fake (Step/lean one way; go the
other.)
Dart/Change (Use quick changes of direc-
Speed tion and speed to avoid the
chaser.)
Defense
Watch the Hips (Watch the hips of the runner to
tell his or her next move.)
Teamwork (Decide your plan for catching
together.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T One group will start with the ball. On the signal, a
player on the group with the ball (group 1) tries to
pass or run the ball from its goal line to the other
group’s goal line without the ball touching the
ground or group 2 grabbing the fl ag of the player
with the ball. If a fl ag is grabbed, the ball touches
the ground, or the goal line is crossed, the other
group gets the ball.
Videotape /Digital Analysis. The above task, with
established criteria and a rubric, would provide a
wonderful opportunity for video analysis of the
use of the critical cues in a dynamic situation. Each
group could do its own analysis.
Dodging in a Game –Like Situation
Setting: A large marked-off area, containing hoops as
safety bases ( Figure 20.5 ); groups of no more than fi ve
Cues
Dodgers
Split Second (Make your moves quicker than
light.)
Fake (Step/lean one way; go the
other.)
Dart/ Change (Use quick changes of direction
Speed and speed to avoid the chaser.)
Chasers
Watch the Hips (Watch the hips of the runner to
tell his or her next move.)
Teamwork (Decide your plan for catching
together.)
Tagger
Safety Base
Tagger Tagger
Runner Runner Runner
Figure 20.5 Setup for dodging in a gamelike situation.
CHAPTER 20 Chasing, Fleeing, and Dodging 345
Tasks /Challenges:
T The object of this task is for a group of runners to
cross the space without being touched by the other
group, who are taggers. The runners begin at one
end of the space; the taggers begin at the other end.
On the signal, the runners try to cross the space
without being tagged; the taggers try to stop any
runners from getting across the space. The runners
are safe— can’t be tagged—when they’re in any of
the hoops. The runners have about 1 minute to
cross the space. After two turns, you’ll switch places.
The safety bases will help, but use them wisely—
only as a last resort when you’re about to be tagged.
Don’t just stand in them the whole time.
You have used teamwork before to catch runners.
How does the teamwork in this game differ? What
teamwork strategies did you use here?
Dodging in a Target Game –Like Situation
Setting: A marked-off square playing area initially about
10 feet by 10 feet and later about 20 feet by 20 feet with
a hoop in its center and a beanbag inside the hoop
( Figure 20.6 ); fi rst in partners and then in groups of
about fi ve
Cues
Offense
Split Second (Make your moves quicker than
light.)
Fake (Step/lean one way; go the
other.)
Dart/Change (Use quick changes of direction
Speed and speed to avoid the chaser.)
Heads and (As you bend to retrieve an
Shoulders Up object be sure to keep your head
and shoulders up and to bend at
the knees.)
Defense
Watch the Hips (Watch the hips of the runner to
tell his or her next move.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T To begin this task, you and your partner will need
one hoop and one beanbag in a space about
10 feet by 10 feet. Place the beanbag inside the
hoop. One of you will be offense and the o ther,
defense. Do you remember what offense and de-
fense are? The defensive player will try to protect
the bean bag from the offensive player, who is try-
ing to grab it out of the hoop. No one can step
inside the hoop. If the offense gets it, just put it
back in the hoop and start again. I will tell you
when to change roles.
This is a task that children love, but much attention
needs to be paid to their keeping their heads and
shoulders up as they try to retrieve the beanbag. If
children are dodging with their heads down, the
likelihood increases that heads will collide.
T The task now gets harder. There are now four
offensive players and one defensive player. Make
your square a little bigger and be sure to mark your
boundaries. The object stays the same — try to get
the beanbag or protect it. I will tell you when to
switch positions.
C Now we will make a game of it. On the signal, the
offense will have 2 minutes in which to retrieve
the beanbag from inside the hoop and get it to the
outside of the square without being touched by
the defense. If the offense gets the beanbag to the
outside or the 2-minute limit is reached, play starts
over again, and a new defender tries to protect the
treasure. No one can go inside the hoop.
Event Task. A likely assessment option would be
to have each group write out the strategy the
members plan to use in the game. After the game
is over, they can analyze how well it worked and
what they will need to practice next time in order
to be more effective. This plan can then serve as
the initial activity in the next lesson.
Beanbag
Hoop
Defense
Offense
Figure 20.6 Setup for dodging in a target game – like situation.
346 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Using Team Strategy for Chasing, Fleeing, and
Dodging in an Invasion Game –Like Situation
Setting: Groups of eight, four players in each group,
each group with matching colored fl ags of a different
color from those of the opposing group; a fl ag belt
with two fl ags on it for each group member
Cues
Dodgers
Split Second (Make your moves quicker than
light.)
Fake (Step/lean one way; go the
other.)
Dart/ Change (Use quick changes of direc-
Speed tion and speed to avoid the
chaser.)
Chasers
Watch the Hips (Watch the hips of the run-
ner to tell his or her next
move.)
Teamwork (Decide your plan for catching
together.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T The object of this task is to see how many of the
other group’s fl ags you can get without losing your
own. One group begins at each end of the space.
On the signal, both teams move into the playing
area, and each group tries to snatch as many fl ags
as possible from the other group’s belts while pre-
venting the other group from stealing their own
fl ags. On the next signal, all play stops, and the
teams return to their sidelines and count how
many fl ags they were able to steal.
Journal. For a journal entry at this point, you
might ask children how they feel about their chas-
ing, fl eeing, and dodging abilities.
Dodging While Manipulating an Object
in an Invasion Game –Like Situation
Setting: This activity requires utilization-level skills in
the manipulative activity you choose to use. It can be
done with virtually any manipulative skill; the most
common are dribbling and passing with the hands or
feet, throwing and catching, or striking with a hockey
stick. Whatever skill you choose, you will need one
ball per group and appropriate other equipment.
Even-numbered groups of six to eight.
Cues
Offense
Split Second (Make your moves quicker than
light.)
Fake (Step/lean one way; go the
other.)
Dart/ Change (Use quick changes of direction
Speed and speed to avoid the chaser.)
Defense
Watch the Hips (Watch the hips of the runner to
tell his or her next move.)
Teamwork (Decide your plan for catching
together.)
Play the Ball (Force the pass by playing the
ball fi rst.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T This task is like Keep-Away. There will be equal
numbers on each team. You must clearly mark
your boundaries, which can be no larger than half
a basketball court. The object is for your group to
keep the ball away from the other group. Here are
the rules:
1. A ball can be stolen only on a pass; it cannot be
taken when someone else has control of it. Practicing dodging moves with a partner would be an appropriate
control-level task.
CHAPTER 20 Chasing, Fleeing, and Dodging 347
2. No one can hold onto the ball longer than 5 sec-
onds before passing it.
3. There can be no direct hand-offs; the ball must
be passed.
4. If the ball goes out of bounds, it belongs to the
other group.
T We are going to change the game a little this time.
You will keep your same teams, but each group will
be trying to score by getting the ball across a goal
line. All you have to do is get the ball across the
line; the trick is that you cannot throw it across the
goal line until you are in the striking zone marked
on the fl oor ( Figure 20.7 ). The difference between
this game and the last one is that now you should
be moving in one direction, not all over.
Self-Designed Chasing, Fleeing, and Dodging Game
Setting: This activity requires utilization-level skills in
the manipulative activity used if youngsters choose a
manipulative activity. Even-numbered groups of six to
eight. Equipment depends on the game created.
Cues
Appropriate to the game
Tasks /Challenges:
T Today you’re going to combine all that you’ve prac-
ticed into a game. You’ll make up your games your-
selves. In your groups, make up a game that involves
chasing, fl eeing, and dodging. You can use equip-
ment or not; it’s your choice. You can have whatever
rules you want as long as you include these three:
1. The game must involve chasing, fl eeing, and
dodging.
2. Everyone in your group must be playing at the
same time.
3. You cannot throw an object at another person.
In other words, nobody sits out and waits for a turn
and no one gets hit. Remember, groups of no more
than six; chasing, fl eeing, and dodging; and
everybody plays. Go. T After you’ve made up your rules and started to
play your game, make sure you know your rules so
that you can tell somebody else how to play your
game. At the end of class, I’ll ask you to write down
your game.
Event Task. An appropriate assessment task at this
point would be to have children write down how
to play their games and then share the games
with others. See Chapter 14 for more assessment
examples.
Goal line
Goal line
Striking zone
Team A
Team B
4–5 ft.
4–5 ft.Striking zone
Figure 20.7 Goal line for Dodging While Manipulating an Object in
an Invasion Game –Like Situation.
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. List the differences between chasing, fl eeing, and
dodging.
2. Describe three effective dodging movements.
3. What are the characteristics of each of the four
levels of skill profi ciency for chasing, fl eeing, and
dodging?
4. Rank the following tasks by placing the number 1
in front of the easiest (most basic), the number 2 in
front of the next, more diffi cult level, and so on.
( ) A defensive player in a football-type game pur-
sues an offensive runner.
( ) You travel around the room. On a signal, you
change directions as quickly as possible.
( ) You stay as close as you can to your partner,
who’ll try to get away from you.
( ) One group chases the members of an opposing
group.
5. What is a fake? Give several examples of when a
fake might be used.
6. Why do you use large areas when introducing the
chasing, fl eeing, and dodging skills?
348 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
7. Why have we eliminated dodgeball activities from
the development of dodging skills?
8. What are some important cues to give when you’re
teaching fl eeing? List at least three.
9. When a child is tagged during a tag game, what is
one alternative to eliminating the child until a
new game begins?
10. Killer (also called Bombardment) is a game that
has been played for years in elementary schools.
What is our reason for not recommending it?
11. What are two strategies for offense and two for
defense that apply when chasing, fl eeing, and
dodging while manipulating an object?
References /Suggested Readings
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Education. 2004 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. 2nd ed. Reston, VA: NASPE .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Education. 2009 . Appropriate practices for elementary physical education. 3rd ed. Reston, VA: NASPE .
Opie , I. , and P. Opie . 1969 . Children’s games in street and playground. New York: Oxford University Press .
Stiehl , J. , D. Morris , and C. Sinclair . 2007 . Teaching physical activity: Change, challenge, choice. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Williams , N. 1992 . The physical education hall of shame. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 63(6): 57– 60 .
349
C H A P T E R
21
Jumping and Landing
350 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
J umping is a locomotor pattern in which the
body propels itself off the fl oor or apparatus into
a momentary period of fl ight. As an isolated ma-
neuver or in combination with other basic patterns,
jumping — particularly the fl ight phase, when the
body is unsupported in the air — is a fascinating body
action.
A jump is performed for one of two reasons: (1) to
raise the body vertically (straight up) for height or (2) to
raise the body with a forward momentum to travel
over a distance. Children who learn to jump effec-
tively for height and distance are prepared for a multi-
tude of game, dance, and gymnastics activities in
which the performer needs to be a skilled jumper. See
Box 21-1 for information on jumping and landing
from the National Standards for Physical Education.
Fundamental Jumping Patterns
Wickstrom (1977, p. 63) suggested that children are de-
velopmentally capable of performing a jumping action
when they’re approximately 24 months old. He de-
scribed the types of jumps preschool children achieve
in terms of progressive diffi culty:
Jump down from one foot to the other.
Jump up from two feet to two feet.
Jump down from two feet to two feet.
Run and jump from one foot to the other.
Jump forward from two feet to two feet.
Jump down from one foot to two feet.
Run and jump forward from one foot to two feet.
Jump over object from two feet to two feet.
Jump from one foot to same foot rhythmically.
It’s safe to assume that within an average class of
young children, some will be incapable of performing
one or more of these jumping tasks. Initial observa-
tions will probably reveal a wide range of jumping
abilities. Typically, kindergarten students are at the
precontrol level. Their jumps usually achieve little
height or distance, and they jump on two feet to en-
sure that they maintain their balance. Children at
this level seem to be jumping merely to enjoy the
sensation of momentarily losing contact with the
ground and the challenge of maintaining balance
upon landing. A teacher can build on this natural
fascination by providing learning activities that pro-
gressively lead children toward the mature perfor-
mance of jumping and landing in different dance,
game, and gymnastics situations. (See our progression
spiral on page 356.)
The fundamental jumping pattern consists of the
following fi ve basic variations:
1. Two-foot takeoff to a one-foot landing
2. Two-foot takeoff to a two-foot landing
3. One-foot takeoff to a landing on the same foot (hop)
4. One-foot takeoff to a landing on the other foot (leap)
5. One-foot takeoff to a two-foot landing
However, the specifi c actions of the body in performing
a jump vary according to the purpose or intention—for
example, jumping to catch or jumping to dismount
from apparatus.
Levels of Skill Profi ciency
When we begin to focus on jumping, we have children
think of the skill as three successive phases:
1. Takeoff: Actions of the body as it’s propelled off the
ground
2. Flight: Actions of the body while it’s off the ground
and in the air
3. Landing: Actions of the body as it reestablishes
contact with the ground
Our key observation points illustrate the correct and
incorrect forms for the takeoff, fl ight, and landing
phases as well as illustrating the mature stage. Box 21-2
contains key observation points for jumping for height
and landing; Box 21-3 shows the key observation
points for jumping for distance.
Following the initial exploration of jumping “just
for fun,” we explore jumping for height and distance,
The Skill of Jumping and Landing in the National Standards for Physical Education
The movement skill of jumping and landing is referenced in
the National Association for Sport and Physical Education’s
National Standards for Physical Education (NASPE 2004)
as a sample performance outcome, across the third- to
fi fth-grade range, under Standard 1: “Demonstrates com-
petency in motor skills and movement patterns needed
to perform a variety of physical activities.” The standard
speaks of children developing mature forms in the basic
skills and performing those skills in changing conditions
and in combinations. The sample performance outcome
states that a child “jumps vertically to a height of 9 inches
and lands using mature form” (p. 17).
Box 21-1
CHAPTER 21 Jumping and Landing 351
Box 21-2
Key Observation Points: Jumping for Height and Landing
Takeoff
Do the child’s hips, knees, and ankles fl ex in a crouch as the child prepares to jump?
Do the child’s arms extend vigorously forward and then upward upon takeoff, reaching full extension above the head at liftoff?
Flight
Does the child’s body extend fully in the air during the jump, especially the arms?
352 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Box 21-2 (continued )
Landing
Do the child’s ankles extend in preparation for landing?
Do the child’s hips, knees, and ankles fl ex to absorb the shock of landing?
Mature Stage
When children are at the mature stage of jumping for height, do their jumps look similar to the following sequence? The hips, knees,
and ankles fl ex in a preparatory crouch. The jump begins with a vigorous forward and upward lift by the arms. The thrust is continued
by forceful extension at the hips, knees, and ankles. The body remains in extension until the feet are ready to retouch, and then the
ankles, knees, and hips fl ex to absorb the shock of landing.
Source: R.L. Wickstrom, Fundamental Motor Patterns, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1977).
CHAPTER 21 Jumping and Landing 353
Box 21-3
Key Observation Points: Jumping for Distance
Takeoff
Do the child’s arms extend vigorously forward and then upward upon takeoff, reaching full extension above the head at liftoff?
Are the child’s hips, knees, and ankles fully extended at takeoff? Is the takeoff angle at 45 degrees or less?
Flight
Does the child bring the legs forward and the arms downward in preparation for landing?
354 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Box 21-3 (continued )
Landing
Do the child’s heels contact the ground fi rst?
Are the child’s knees fl exed and the arms thrust forward at the moment of contact?
Mature Stage
When children are at the mature stage of jumping for distance, do their jumps look similar to the following sequence? The hips,
knees, and ankles fl ex in a preparatory crouch. The arms extend backward, then vigorously swing forward and then upward upon
takeoff, reaching full extension above the head at liftoff. The hips and knees are extended fully, with the takeoff angle at 45 degrees or
less. In preparation for landing, the arms are brought downward and the legs thrust forward until the thighs are parallel to the surface.
The center of gravity of the body is far behind the base of support (feet) upon contact, but at the moment of contact, the knees are
fl exed and the arms are thrust forward to maintain the momentum to carry the center of gravity beyond the feet.
Source: R.L. Wickstrom, Fundamental Motor Patterns, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1977).
CHAPTER 21 Jumping and Landing 355
jumping a rope, and different patterns of jumping and
landing. As children experiment with different takeoff
and landing combinations, they begin to sense which
takeoff procedures result in the highest jumps as op-
posed to which result in the longest jumps. They fi nd
that actions of the legs, arms, torso, and head during
the fl ight phase infl uence the trajectory of the jump.
They come to recognize the unique giving action of
the ankles, knees, and hips in absorbing the shock of
landing.
During the control-level phase of our work on jump-
ing and landing, children begin to accurately perform
the basic jumping variations using vigorous takeoffs
and balanced, controlled landings. At this point, we
also emphasize the fl ight phase of children’s jumps.
For example, we encourage them to begin to explore
bodily actions in fl ight, such as:
Jumping and making body shapes in the air
Jumping and gesturing with an arm (for example,
punching)
Jumping and twisting the trunk
Jumping and turning
Low apparatus is used to create new jumping situ-
ations, such as:
Jumping over hurdles and hoops
Jumping onto and off low equipment
Once children can repeatedly jump to fulfi ll a vari-
ety of objectives and their jumps continually exhibit a
mature pattern, utilization-level tasks are appropriate:
Jumping on an accented beat
Performing a series of light, gentle leaps
Jumping to catch a ball
Jumping to mount or dismount apparatus
Performers at the profi ciency level are able to jump
high enough to carry out complex maneuvers in the
air and to use a variety of jumping actions to express a
feeling, idea, or attitude. Examples of profi ciency-level
performances include:
Jumping and throwing a ball to a target
Hurdling
The one-foot takeoff to a two-foot landing of a jump-
stop in basketball and volleyball, the split-step in
tennis
Leaping reception of a football against an opponent
The extended fl ight phase, the midair suspension,
in basketball before releasing the ball to the basket
Standard patterns of jumping (for example, long
jump, high jump)
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration
The following activities are designed for exploration of
jumping. Through these activities children will begin
to discover different types of jumps as well as jumps
that take them high and jumps that take them far.
Jumping and Landing: Different Patterns
Setting: Ropes (one per child) placed around the edge
of the teaching area
Young children are challenged by the task of propelling the body off
the ground for a momentary period of being airborne.
356 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
T Explore different ways to jump over your rope,
sometimes taking off on one foot and landing on
two, sometimes taking off on two feet and landing
on two.
It is important to stress from the beginning that
children land on their feet when jumping, not fall
to the fl oor when they land.
T Jump high in the air as you travel over your rope.
T Stand at one end of your rope with a foot on either
side of it. See if you can jump the distance of your
rope.
Before children jump distances over ropes, con-
duct a “safety check” to be sure each child has suf-
fi cient space for landing safely after the jump, with
no collisions with another child.
T Arrange your rope in a shape different from a
straight line — for example, a circle or a rectangle.
Jump into the shape and out the other side. Jump
across your new rope shape.
Jumping for Distance
Setting: Ropes (one per child) placed around the edge
of the teaching area; strips of masking tape (one per
child) on the wall
Tasks /Challenges:
T Place your rope on the fl oor away from others.
Jump over your rope, landing as far from your rope
as possible.
T Place your piece of masking tape on the fl oor. Lie
down with your feet touching the tape, and place
the rope by the top of your head. If you have trou-
ble, ask a friend to help. The distance from the
rope to the tape is how tall you are. Standing be-
hind your rope, try to jump your height.
Remember, land on your feet.
C Can you jump even farther than your height?
Jumping for Height
Setting: Streamers hung at various heights from a rope
stretched along the work area
Tasks /Challenges:
T Jump to see if you can touch the streamers hanging
from the rope.
T Run and jump to touch the streamers.
Skill Theme Development Sequence
Jumping and Landing Profi ciency Level
Hurdling jumps
Jumping, dancing, and imagery
Jumping as part of a dance creation
Jumping with a springboard
Jumping with a partner to match actions
Jumping with a partner to mirror actions
Utilization Level
Jumping to an accented beat
Throwing and catching while jumping
Jumping on a bench
Jumping to throw
Jumping to catch
Control Level
Jumping and landing task sheet
Jump, Squash, TaDa
Jumping on and off equipment using buoyant and
yielding landings
Jumping over equipment using buoyant landings
Performing jumping sequences and making body
shapes
Traveling, jumping, and body shapes
Jumping to form a body shape during fl ight
Jumping using buoyant and yielding landings
Jumping a self-turned rope
Jumping a turned rope
Jumping in rhythmical sequences
Jumping rhythmically
Jumping over low obstacles: hurdles
Jumping over low obstacles: hoops
Jumping for height
Standing long jump
Jumping and landing: basic patterns
Precontrol Level
Jumping over a swinging rope
Jumping for height
Jumping for distance
Jumping and landing: different patterns
Tasks /Challenges:
T At the edge of our working space are ropes. Select a
rope and place it in a straight line in your self-
space. Jump over the rope and land on the other
side without falling down.
CHAPTER 21 Jumping and Landing 357
Jumping over a Swinging Rope
Setting: Class divided into groups of threes, each group
with a “long” rope
Tasks /Challenges:
T In your groups of three, you are going to take turns
jumping over a swinging rope. Two of you will
gently swing the rope while the third person
jumps. After 5 jumps, trade places.
C Practice for 10 jumps without a mistake.
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
At the control level, we encourage children to practice
both long and high jumps until their landings are bal-
anced and controlled. We also provide opportunities
for exploring variations in the fl ight phase of the jump
and jumping in relation to different rhythms.
A note about cues: Although several cues are listed
for many of the learning experiences, it’s important
to focus on only one cue at a time. That way, the chil-
dren can really concentrate on that cue. Once you
provide feedback to the children and observe that
most have learned a cue, then it’s time to focus on
another one.
Jumping and Landing: Basic Patterns
Setting: Ropes (one per child) placed around the edge
of the teaching area
Cue
Squash (Bend your knees to absorb the force and
maintain balance when you land.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T When we fi rst worked on jumping, you explored
different ways to jump over your rope — just for
fun. Place your rope in a straight line on the fl oor;
choose three of your favorites from those different
types of jumps and practice jumping over your
rope, landing each time in a balanced position
without falling down. Bend your knees when you
land so that your landings are very quiet.
T Jump over your rope, taking off on two feet and
landing on two feet.
T Position yourself approximately 10 feet from your
rope. Approach your rope with a series of running
steps; jump over your rope, taking off on one foot
and landing on two feet.
Teach the children to conduct a “safety check” be-
fore they begin any jumping that involves an ap-
proach to assure suffi cient space for landing safely
with no collisions.
T Using a series of running steps to approach your
rope, take off on one foot and land on the oppo-
site foot on the other side of your rope. Taking off
on one foot and landing on the opposite foot is
called a leap.
Running and jumping combine skill and spatial awareness.
358 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
T Change the shape of your rope from a straight line
to a circle, rectangle, or triangle. Standing just out-
side the rope shape, take off on one foot and jump
inside your shape, landing on the same foot. What
locomotor action did you just do with this jump?
A hop. Hop into and out of your rope.
Peer Observation. Peer observation of the diffe-
rent jumping patterns would be benefi cial at this
point. Review Chapter 14 for specifi c examples of
assessments.
Standing Long Jump
Setting: Ropes (one per child) placed around the edge
of the work area; large color/panel gymnastics mats;
strips of masking tape (one per child) on the wall
Cues
Squash (Bend your knees to absorb the
force and maintain balance
when you land.)
Swing Forward (Swing your arms forcefully for-
ward for maximum distance.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Stand at one end of your rope with the rope be-
tween your feet. Bend your knees and swing your
arms in preparation for the jump. Taking off on
two feet and landing on two, jump forward as far as
you can, trying to jump the full length of your
rope.
T Remember when you practiced jumping your
height by placing a piece of masking tape on the
fl oor at the place of your feet and your rope on
the fl oor the distance from your feet to your head?
Try that jump again, taking off on two feet and
landing on two feet. If you jump farther than
your height, move the tape to where your heels
fi rst land.
T Standing at one end of the mat, jump as far as you
can toward the other end of the mat. Count your
score by the number of panels you jumped over.
Remember to bend your knees and swing your
arms in preparation for the jump, then swing
your arms forward for a really far jump. Keeping
your arms stretched forward will also keep you
from falling backward when you land!
The three tasks just described work well in station format
for practice of the two-foot to two-foot standing jump.
Jumping for Height
Setting: Balloons suspended at various heights from a
stretched rope; milk crates or low boxes (packed with
newspaper) at large gymnastics mats
Jumping occurs as children learn
to strike at a high level.
CHAPTER 21 Jumping and Landing 359
Cues
Squash (Bend your knees to absorb the
force and maintain balance when
you land.)
Swing Upward (Swing your arms upward for
good height.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Scatter throughout general space and jump high
in the air, returning to the fl oor in your same self-
space. Take off on two feet and land on two feet.
T Jump high in the air, taking off on two feet and
landing on two feet. Swing your arms upward; this
will help you jump higher.
T Positioned around the work area are milk crates
and boxes stuffed with newspaper on large gym-
nastics mats. Standing on the box or crate, jump
high in the air and land on two feet on the mat in
front of the box or crate. Remember to swing
your arms upward, reaching for the sky, to gain
maximum height on your jump.
T Travel throughout general space; on the signal,
jump high in the air by taking off on one foot and
landing on the opposite foot. This is the leap we
practiced earlier; swing your arms upward as you
jump to stay airborne as long as possible.
T Positioned around the work area are balloons sus-
pended from stretched ropes. Using a two-foot
takeoff and a two-foot landing, jump to touch the
balloons like a basketball player trying to tap the
ball on the jump.
T Approach the balloon with a series of running steps
using a one-foot takeoff and a two-foot landing to
jump for the balloon. Which type of jump gives
you more height: a two-foot takeoff or a one-foot
takeoff? A standing jump or a running approach to
the jump?
Assessment Example
From the National Standards for Physical Education
Teacher Observation
Students are requested to demonstrate the skills intro-
duced in class as the teacher observes their perfor-
mance and records the satisfactory use of the critical
elements of the skills on a checklist.
Criteria for Assessment
a. Demonstrates critical elements of the selected skills
(jumping and landing) over several trials.
NASPE (1995, pp. 18 –19)
Jumping over Low Obstacles: Hoops
Setting: Hoops (one per child) scattered throughout
the teaching area
Cues
Squash (Bend your knees to absorb the
force and maintain balance
when you land.)
Swing Upward (Swing your arms upward for
good height.)
Swing Forward (Swing your arms forcefully for-
ward for maximum distance.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Jump over your hoop. As your feet touch the
ground, freeze your body perfectly still; this means
you must bend your ankles, knees, and hips as you
land. Think of your feet sinking into the fl oor as
if the fl oor were a sponge.
T Practice jumping over your hoop with two-foot
takeoffs and landings until you can land without
falling three times in a row. Can you then do the
same three perfect landings with a one-foot takeoff
and a two-foot landing?
T Travel throughout general space, leaping over
hoops. Remember to extend your arms up for
good height as you leap.
Jumping over Low Obstacles: Hurdles
Setting: One hurdle (cones and rolled newspaper or
rope) per child
Cues
Squash (Bend your knees to absorb the
force and maintain balance
when you land.)
Swing Upward (Swing your arms upward for
good height.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Standing just behind your hurdle, jump over it,
using a two-foot takeoff and a two-foot landing.
Try to be really high when you cross the top —
push with your toes; reach for the sky.
T Now as you jump over the hurdle, try to use the
different types of jumps you have learned. Try the
easiest ones fi rst and then the most diffi cult
ones.
360 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
C Practice each jump until you can do it three times
with a soft landing and without touching the
crosspiece.
T Stand approximately 6 feet behind your hurdle.
Approach the hurdle with quick, running steps.
Jump over your hurdle using a one-foot takeoff
and a two-foot landing.
T When you can clear the hurdle without touching
the crossbar and land without falling down, ap-
proach the bar with quick, running steps. Jump
over the bar using a one-foot takeoff and then land
on the opposite foot; continue with a few quick,
running steps before you stop. Wow! You look
ready for the Olympics.
Jumping Rhythmically
Setting: Carpet squares/spots scattered throughout
general space; a recording of the sounds of tools and
machines; a recording of “Pop Goes the Weasel”
Cues
Spring, Spring (Quick, springy
landings for the fast
beat.)
High Jumps, Full Squash (Full squash following
the high jumps.)
Heads Up (Keep your head and
shoulders up for good
balance.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Standing on your carpet square /spot, jump while
keeping beat with the drum. You’ll have to listen
carefully, because the drumbeat, will change at dif-
ferent times. To do this without losing the beat,
take little jumps so that your feet barely leave
the fl oor. In other words, you’ll be almost bounc-
ing on your toes.
For the next task, play music with the sounds of tools and
machines. (Children enjoy electronic /synthesizer music.)
T This time, instead of a drumbeat, you’ll hear the
sounds of different machines and tools that you’re
familiar with. Staying on your carpet square, take
little jumps, keeping time with the tool and ma-
chine sounds you hear. The sounds will change
often, so be alert, and take little bouncy jumps on
your toes.
T Again, the drumbeat will guide your jumps. As
you hear the slow beat, take big, high jumps.
When you hear the quick beat, take small jumps.
This maneuver involves careful listening, so be
prepared to change at any time. Make sure that your
jumps are clearly big on the slow beats and really
little on the fast beats; adjust the height of your
jump for fast (low) and slow (high).
Place the carpet squares /spots in a circle with approxi-
mately 6 to 8 inches between each carpet /spot.
T Let’s combine our jumping and rhythmic response
to “Pop Goes the Weasel.” Select a carpet square /
spot and stand on it without moving it from the
circle. We will stay on our squares/spots, our self-
space, during the verse of the song. Follow the
leader (me) during that portion as we do self-space
actions — stretching, twisting, clapping, tapping,
jogging in place, and so forth. When we come to
the “Pop” in the song, jump from your square /
spot to the next one — clockwise around the circle.
Be ready for new nonlocomotor actions in self-
space when you land.
Choose a new leader for the self-space actions after each
jump. Younger students enjoy singing “Pop Goes the Wea-
sel” along with or instead of the recording.
The folk dance “Jump Jim Joe” is an excellent activity for
the practice of rhythmical jumping. Young children enjoy the
repetitive nature of the jumping in the dance.
Jumping in Rhythmical Sequences
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Cues
Spring, Squash (Springy landings to con-
tinue travel; full squash to
stop.)
Heads Up (Keep your head and shoulders
up for good balance.)
Swing Upward (Swing your arms upward for
good height.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T This time, you’re going to travel and then jump
and travel again, always keeping the same rhythm.
To begin, you’ll all practice the same travel jump
pattern, which will go like this: Run, run, run,
leap/run, run, run, leap. As you move, all of you
will say together, “Run, run, run, leap,” so you can
stay together. Let’s practice saying that and keep-
ing the same tempo before beginning to move.
(Practice saying the phrase in tempo.) As you jump
and run this time, remember to stay with the
voices; everyone should be jumping at the same
time if you’re all together.
CHAPTER 21 Jumping and Landing 361
T Now instead of saying the phrase, you’re going to
clap it as you go. You’ll have to remember what to
do on your own.
T Now that you can follow the phrase that I de-
signed for you, you’re going to make up your own
and follow it. Your phrase should contain three
traveling actions followed by one jumping pat-
tern. You should repeat the sequence three times
before coming to a stop. Practice the whole thing
until you think that it’s the best you can do. As
you begin, it helps to say to yourself what you’re
supposed to be doing, just as you did in the previ-
ous activity. When you think you know it, try
clapping instead of saying it. When you’re really
good, practice doing it with no noise at all. Remem-
ber: three traveling actions followed by one jump-
ing action, repeated three times. Keep the same
rhythm throughout each part of the sequence.
(Pinpoint seve ral children who’ve created an interesting
sequence — they don’t have to be the most skilled chil-
dren in the class.)
Jumping a Turned Rope
Setting: Class divided into groups of two or three, each
group with one long rope. If the children are in groups of
two, attach one end of the rope to a post, pole, or chair.
Mark a box on the fl oor at the center of the rope for
the jumper and an X on the fl oor where the turner or
turners stand.
Cues
Jumpers
Heads Up (Keep your head and shoulders
up for good balance.)
Jump, Jump (Small, springy jumps with
very little height.)
Turners
One, Two, Three (Swing the rope back and
forth before the fi rst swing
over the head, counting “One,
two, three”; this will help the
jumper be ready.)
Smooth Turns (Turn the rope with large,
smooth swings.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T At your ropes, two people will turn and one person
will try to jump. Jumpers should try to stay in the
box marked on the fl oors as you jump. After 10
jumps, trade positions.
T When you can successfully jump the rope by start-
ing in the middle, try to start from the outside: run
in and jump. Turners: Turn the rope so it turns
toward the jumper — the front-door approach.
Jumpers: Start your run as soon as the rope touches
the fl oor.
C Create a new rhyme as you jump the long rope.
Record the children’s rhymes in a booklet of “Jump
Rope Rhymes.”
Jumping a Self-Turned Rope
Setting: Ropes of different lengths so that each child
has a personal rope of the proper length
Jumping rope is a favorite pastime of children.
362 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Cues
Heads Up (Keep your head and shoulders up
for good balance.)
Jump, Jump (Small, springy jumps with very lit-
tle height.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Practice jumping your rope by turning it over your
head. Some of you will fi nd that jumping forward
is easier; others will fi nd that jumping the rope as
it turns backward is easier. Be sure you try jumping
both ways.
T If you’re having trouble, bring the rope over your
head, and stop it on the fl oor in front of your feet,
and then jump over the rope. As you become suc-
cessful, go a little faster, and don’t let the rope stop
so much. As you practice, you will fi nd yourself
stopping the rope less.
T When you become successful at jumping in one
direction (forward or backward) without missing,
try jumping in the other direction.
C Set a goal for yourself of the number of jumps you
want to make without a mistake.
T Try jumping with the different types of jumps we
have learned — two feet to two feet, one foot to the
other foot, two feet to one foot, and so forth.
Jumping Using Buoyant and Yielding Landings
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space;
paper and pencil available outside work area
Cues
Yielding Landings (Bend your knees to ab-
sorb the force when you
land, as if sinking into the
fl oor.)
Buoyant Landings (Bend your knees as you
land; then spring up
quickly.)
Swing Upward (Swing your arms upward for
good height.)
Heads Up (Keep your head and shoul-
ders up for good balance.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Jump three times in a row on two feet, pausing be-
tween each jump. This is called a yielding landing.
T This time, jump three times in a row using a two-
foot takeoff and a two-foot landing without paus-
ing between each jump. This is a buoyant landing.
Spring up quickly after each jump.
T Now, jump twice in a row, the fi rst time with a
buoyant landing and the second time with a yield-
ing landing. Make sure that your landings are
The sensation of jumping delights young children.
CHAPTER 21 Jumping and Landing 363
clearly different so that I can tell which one you’re
doing simply by watching.
T This time on the signal, jump high, turn in the air,
land balanced, and freeze. Again, use yielding
landings.
T Now, jump high, turn in the air, and upon landing
collapse to the fl oor, curl, and freeze. Remember to
use your arms to help you turn in the air.
T Try this one: Jump high, turn in the air, and upon
landing collapse to the fl oor, curl, and freeze for
an instant — and then quickly resume traveling.
Make your moves very smooth so that they really
go together and you know exactly what you’re
doing and what comes next. Use your arms to
help you get up in the air. Strive for a yielding
landing.
C So far I’ve made up all your jumping and traveling
patterns. On your piece of paper (pass out paper to
the youngsters), write down a jumping /traveling
pattern that you’d like to do yourself. After you’ve
written it down, practice it until it goes smoothly
and you know it by heart. Make sure that you al-
ways begin and end in the same place, which is
one way you know you’re doing the same thing
each time. I should be able to tell what you’re do-
ing and the type of landing by watching you. If I
can’t, I’ll ask you.
Jumping to Form a Body Shape During Flight
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space,
each with a hurdle or a rope in a shape on the fl oor
Cues
Yielding Landings (Bend your knees to absorb
the force when you land, as
if sinking into the fl oor.)
Swing Upward (Swing your arms upward for
good height.)
Heads Up (Keep your head and
shoulders up for good
balance.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Jump over your equipment, and form a narrow
body shape while you’re in the air. A narrow body
shape is very thin. Remember to make all the
parts of your body narrow, not just one part.
Practice your shape until it’s as narrow as it
can be.
C Now think of fi ve more narrow body shapes that
you can make while you’re in the air. Practice all
the shapes until they’re the best you can do. I’ll
come and ask each of you to show me your best
shape, so be ready. Remember not to fall over on
your landings; your feet should stick as if you
had glue on them. What kind of landings will
you need?
T This time you’re going to jump using wide body
shapes in the air. A wide shape is very big and
spread out, like a wall. Remember as you jump to
make your whole body wide in the air, by
stretching your arms and legs outward from
your body. Practice your shape until it’s as wide as
it can be.
Feet need to return to “shoulder-width” for a safe
landing; remind the children not to land with the
legs stretched in a wide shape.
C Now that you know what a wide shape is, think of
fi ve more wide shapes you can make when you
jump. Let them be really different, even weird.
Practice all the shapes until they’re the best you
can do. I’m going to ask some of you to show your
wide shapes, so work hard.
Pinpoint several children who are using wide shapes.
T This time, you’re going to learn some new names
for body shapes. First, you’re going to make sym-
metrical shapes in the air. A symmetrical shape
looks exactly alike on both sides. For example, if I
were to cut you in half from head to toe, you’d
look the same on each side. At your equipment,
practice making a symmetrical shape in the air. Be
sure that the two sides of your body look exactly
alike.
C Create fi ve more symmetrical shapes with your
jumps.
T This time you’re going to do nonsymmetrical
jumps. In a nonsymmetrical jump, the two sides of
your body look really different. So if I were to cut
you in half, one arm might be up in the air and the
other one out to the side, or one leg might be going
forward and the other one backward. In other
words, one side shouldn’t look like the other one.
In your space, create a nonsymmetrical jump. Re-
member to absorb force when you land by bend-
ing your knees.
C Create fi ve nonsymmetrical jumps you can do in
the air.
T Try to do wide symmetrical jumps. Find three that
you really like, and practice them.
364 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
T Now try to fi nd three narrow symmetrical jumps.
After you do that, fi nd three wide nonsymmetri-
cal jumps and three narrow nonsymmetrical
jumps. I’m going to ask some of you to show your
jumps to the class, so make them the best that
they can be.
T Approach your hurdle or rope shape with a series
of running steps. Jump in the air, making a wide
shape. Land in a balanced position without fall-
ing down.
T Try your other shapes in the air combined with
your short running approach.
Students should attempt running, jumping, and
making shapes while airborne only after they
have demonstrated safe landings in self-space —
absorbing the force by bending the knees and
landing in a balanced position without falling
forward.
Traveling, Jumping, and Body Shapes
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Cues
Buoyant Landings (Bend your knees as you
land; then spring up
quickly.)
Swing Upward (Swing your arms upward for
good height.)
Heads Up (Keep your head and shoul-
ders up for good balance.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T As you travel around the room, make the kind of
jump that I’ve called out each time you hear the
drumbeat. The jump may simply be wide, or it
may be narrow and nonsymmetrical. You’ll have
to be alert to what I’m saying as well as watch-
ing out for others. We’ll use buoyant landings so
that we can be ready to travel again. Remem-
ber to make your shapes as clear as you possi-
bly can.
Performing Jumping Sequences and Making
Body Shapes
Setting: Note cards with various body-shape sequences
written on them, each sequence containing at least
four different body shapes (e.g., wide; wide sym-
metrical; narrow nonsymmetrical; narrow); children
scattered throughout general space, each with a se-
quence card.
Cues
Buoyant Landings (Bend your knees as you
land; then spring up
quickly.)
Yielding Landings (Bend your knees to ab-
sorb the force when you
land, as if sinking into the
fl oor.)
Swing Upward (Swing your arms upward for
good height.)
Heads Up (Keep your head and
shoulders up for good
balance.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T On your card are listed four body shapes. You’re go-
ing to make up a sequence of jumps that shows
those body shapes in the air. To do this, you’ll fi rst
travel a bit and then jump, showing the fi rst body
shape; then you’ll travel again and jump and show
the second body shape listed; you’ll travel again
and jump using the third body shape; you’ll travel
one more time and jump showing the last body
shape. So your sequence should be like this: Travel,
jump; travel, jump; travel, jump; travel, jump,
freeze. Repeat the sequence enough times so that
you can do it the same way each time. Memorize it.
When it’s memorized, show the sequence to a
friend. Remember, use buoyant landings between
jumps and a yielding landing after your last
jump.
Jumping over Equipment Using Buoyant Landings
Setting: Pairs of hurdles around the room, spaced so
that children can jump the fi rst and then the second
hurdle
Cues
Buoyant Landings (Bend your knees as you
land; then spring up
quickly.)
Yielding Landings (Bend your knees to absorb
the force when you land, as
if sinking into the fl oor.)
Heads Up (Keep your head and
shoulders up for good
balance.)
CHAPTER 21 Jumping and Landing 365
Tasks /Challenges:
T Earlier in our work, you practiced taking off on
one foot and landing on the opposite foot, as in a
leap. This is the action you use to clear a hurdle.
Approach the fi rst hurdle with quick, running
steps; jump over the fi rst hurdle with the one-
foot to one-foot action; use a buoyant landing to
continue your travel and jump over the second
hurdle.
C Practice this activity until you seem to just pop
over the fi rst and then the second hurdle.
Jumping on and off Equipment Using Buoyant and
Yielding Landings
Setting: Boxes, low benches, milk crates, and other low
equipment around the room
Cues
Buoyant Landings (Bend your knees as you
land; then spring up
quickly.)
Yielding Landings (Bend your knees to absorb
the force when you land, as
if sinking into the fl oor.)
Heads Up (Keep your head and shoul-
ders up for good balance.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Jump onto a piece of equipment, and use a buoy-
ant landing to quickly spring off with another jump
to the fl oor. You should barely touch the equip-
ment before you are off again and back to the
fl oor, almost as if you were on a springboard —
no stopping between jumps.
T This time, jump onto the piece of equipment us-
ing a yielding landing, hold still on top of the
equipment a couple of seconds, then jump to the
fl oor with another yielding landing. Remember,
on this jump, your knees should really bend,
and you should be able to hold still when you
fi nish.
T Try jumping onto the equipment with the differ-
ent jumps we have learned — two feet to two feet,
one foot to two feet, and so on. Sometimes use a
buoyant landing on the equipment so that you
can quickly jump off; sometimes use a yielding
landing on the equipment, pausing before you
jump off. Always use a yielding landing on two
feet when you jump off the equipment to the
fl oor.
Which landing is used for a quick, springy action
to continue movement? Which landing is used for
landing and holding still?
Assessment Example
From the National Standards for Physical Education
Videotape
Students are asked to skip, gallop, and jump off a low
box. A camera is set up in one corner of the gym to
record their performance. Each student is asked to go
in front of the camera and perform the specifi ed move-
ment patterns. The teacher uses a checklist to assess
the extent to which mature and skilled patterns have
been attained.
Criteria for Assessment
a. Exhibits mature form for each of the movement
patterns.
b. Demonstrates consistent and smooth performance.
NASPE (1995, p. 19)
Jump, Squash, TaDa
Setting: Low benches, low balance beam, folded mats
positioned throughout general space; children divided
into groups for stations
Cues
Squash (Bend your knees to absorb the
force and maintain balance
when you land.)
Swing Upward (Swing your arms upward for
good height.)
Heads Up (Keep your head and shoulders
up for good balance.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Have you ever watched gymnasts perform a stunt
and then extend their arms high above their
heads? Why do you think they do this movement?
They do it to regain balance and proper body
alignment after the gymnastics action. In the car-
toon Calvin and Hobbes , Calvin called this recov-
ery the “TaDa” of gymnastics, the recovery to a
balanced position no matter what has happened
during the movement. Let’s add that action to our
jumping and landing work today. Jump from your
mat (bench, beam) with a two-foot takeoff and a
two-foot landing. Jump for maximum height,
366 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
squash into a balanced position, then stretch your
body upward, extending your arms to the sky as
you say “TaDa.”
T Jump off your mat (bench, beam) with a quarter
turn in the air. Land in a balanced position; recover
with a full extension. Don’t forget the TaDa!
T When a friend gives you a thumbs-up for a good
landing on your quarter turn, you may want to try
a one-half turn. Practice turning your body clock-
wise and counterclockwise.
T Jump off the mat (bench, beam), make a shape in
the air, land in a balanced position, and recover
with a full gymnastics extension.
T Combine jumping off the low equipment, land-
ing, and rolling in a gymnastics sequence; fi nish
your sequence by returning to a standing TaDa.
Use the previous task only if children have mas-
tered rolling from Chapter 23 or in combination
with work from that chapter.
See Chapter 23 for additional combination tasks, as well as
for transferring off low apparatus.
Jumping and Landing Task Sheet
Setting: A jumping and landing task sheet (similar to
the example in Figure 21.1 ) for each child
Name Teacher
Jumping Task Sheet
Verification Challenge
I can jump starting on two feet and landing on two feet.
I can jump from two feet to one foot.
I can jump from one foot to the other foot.
I can hop from one foot to the same foot.
I can jump from one foot to two feet.
I can jump, turn in the air, and land without falling.
I can jump off a box and land without falling.
I can jump off a box, turn in the air, and land without falling.
I can run and jump over a hurdle and land without falling.
I can turn a jump rope myself and jump 15 times without missing.
I can
I can
I can
Figure 21.1 Task sheet for
jumping and landing.
CHAPTER 21 Jumping and Landing 367
Cues
Buoyant Landings (Bend your knees as you
land; then spring up
quickly.)
Yielding Landings (Bend your knees to absorb
the force when you land, as
if sinking into the fl oor.)
Heads Up (Keep your head and shoul-
ders up for good balance.)
Swing Upward (Swing your arms upward for
good height on the jump.)
Swing Forward (Swing your arms forcefully
forward for maximum
distance.)
Select cues appropriate to the tasks on the sheet (e.g., jump-
ing forward, jumping upward, jumping and continuing ac-
tion, jumping / landing with a stop of movement).
Tasks /Challenges:
C This task sheet lets you test the jumping skills
you’ve practiced so far. Whenever you’ve practiced
a challenge and think you can do it correctly, ask a
friend to watch you. If your friend thinks you’ve
done the challenge well, the friend signs her or his
name on the sheet next to the challenge.
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
At the utilization level, we provide contexts that help
children use jumping and landing in combination
with other movements, with complicated rhythms,
and as a means for expression. We make the manipula-
tive learning experiences more diffi cult by selecting
different objects for the children to throw. We start
with beanbags; then, as the children improve, we
switch to whiffl e balls, foam footballs, and, for the
highly skilled, tennis balls.
A note about cues: Although several cues are listed for
many of the learning experiences, it’s important to fo-
cus on only one cue at a time. That way, the children
can really concentrate on that cue. Once you provide
feedback to the children and observe that most have
learned a cue, then it’s time to focus on another one.
Jumping to Catch
Setting: Low benches, chairs, or milk crates scattered
throughout general space; sets of partners with bean-
bags, plastic balls, foam footballs, tennis balls
Cues
Yielding Landings (Bend your knees to ab-
sorb the force when you
land, as if sinking into the
fl oor.)
Swing Upward (Swing your arms upward for
a full extension and added
height on the jump.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T One partner stands on the low bench (chair, milk
crate) and then jumps from the bench to catch the
ball the other partner tosses. Catch the ball while
in the air. After three jumps, switch catcher-
thrower positions with your partner. Hint for the
thrower: Stand close and begin the toss as soon as
your partner begins to jump.
For the next task, clear the general space of benches, crates,
and other obstacles.
T Pairs, scatter throughout general space. See how
many times you can jump and catch without a
mistake; count your score only if you catch the
ball before you land. After three trials, switch
thrower/catcher as you did earlier.
T When the activity becomes easy for you and your
partner, try throwing the ball so your partner has
to reach to the left or to the right to make the
catch.
T Throw the ball so your partner is forced off the
ground to catch it; this means that you have to
throw the ball to a point above where the catch
will actually be made. This is a high-level catch —
feet off the fl oor, arms extended above the head.
Throwers: It helps to pick a spot on the wall (tree,
telephone pole) above and behind your partner to
aim at.
T Try both one- and two-foot takeoffs.
T Switch with your partner after fi ve throws. You are
now the catcher; your partner will throw the ball
above your head, so you must jump for the
catch.
T When you are confi dent throwing and catching
while jumping, you and your partner can add a
new element — traveling. Practice running, jump-
ing, and catching in the air. For the two of you to
do this task well, your partner will need to make a
good throw. At fi rst, run and jump from right to
left; then, run and jump from left to right.
T When you are able to make at least three catches
in a row, run away from the thrower — that is, start
368 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
close to and run away from your partner, as you
might in a football game.
Jumping to Throw
Setting: Low benches, chairs, or milk crates through-
out general space; sets of partners with whiffl e balls,
tennis balls, footballs
Cues
Yielding Landings (Bend your knees to ab-
sorb the force when you
land, as if sinking into the
fl oor.)
Vertical Jumps ( Jump upward, not
outward, to throw.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Stand 10 to 12 feet from your partner. Jump from
the bench (chair, crate) and throw the ball to your
partner before you land. Try to throw the ball so
your partner can catch it easily. Switch with your
partner after four jumps/throws.
Clear the general space of benches, crates, and other
obstacles.
T Pick a target, such as a target on the wall (or a bas-
ketball backstop, a hoop, or a stationary partner).
Jump and throw the ball to the target.
T When you hit the target fi ve times in a row, move
farther away from the target. It counts as a success-
ful throw only if you hit the target and make your
throw while in the air.
T As this activity gets easier, try running, jumping,
and throwing to the target.
Jumping on a Bench
Setting: Low benches scattered throughout the work
area
Cues
Squash (Bend your knees to absorb the
force and maintain balance
when you land.)
Arms Extended (Extend your arms outward for
good balance.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T You will work one at a time on the bench. Travel to
the middle of the bench; jump upward, taking off
and landing on two feet on the bench. Focus your
eyes on the end of the bench.
T When you’re able to do this activity several times
without falling off, practice landing on only one
foot. Hold your balance on the bench before your
other foot comes down on the bench. Try to hold
your balance for 2 or 3 seconds.
C Design a sequence along the bench that includes
at least two different jumps. For example, hop on
one foot along the bench, jump and turn so that
you land facing the opposite direction, and travel
back to the start using small leaps. At fi rst, your
jumps won’t be very high, but as you get better,
you’ll want to make them higher. Practice your
sequence until you can do it three times in a row
without falling off.
Catching at a high level combines jumping and stretching.
CHAPTER 21 Jumping and Landing 369
When you observe that children are competent and com-
fortable with different types of jumps on the bench, they
may progress to low and medium balance beams. This is an
excellent opportunity for intratask variation.
Throwing and Catching While Jumping
Setting: A court, its boundaries marked with a rope or
a net (size of court is determined by space available;
the larger the court, the more diffi cult the game)
Cues
Buoyant Landings (Bend your knees as you land;
then spring up quickly — to
throw or travel.)
Yielding Landings (Bend your knees to absorb
the force, and sink into a bal-
anced position.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T The game you’re going to play will give you a
chance to practice throwing and catching while
jumping. The object is to have the ball touch
the fl oor on the opposite side of the net. Here are
the rules:
1. There are three players on a team.
2. There is one team on each side of the rope
(or net).
3. A player must be off the fl oor when the ball is
thrown or caught.
4. At least two players on your team must touch
the ball before it is thrown back over the rope
(net).
5. Points are scored when the ball lands out of
bounds, the ball hits the fl oor inbounds, or a
player throws or catches the ball while that
player’s feet are touching the ground.
The skill of jumping is important to success in games, dance, and
gymnastics.
Jumping onto a bench challenges utilization level children.
370 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
This game can also be played cooperatively: Both teams
work together to see how many times the ball can cross the
rope or net without breaking any of the rules. A point is
scored each time the ball crosses the net. A good score to
aim for is 10 throws in a row over the net without breaking
a rule.
Jumping to an Accented Beat
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space,
each with a hoop
Cue
Buoyant Landings (Bend your knees; then
spring up quickly to travel.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T When I beat the drum, jump into and out of your
hoop each time you hear the drumbeat.
T Now take off on two feet, and land on two feet. As
the drumbeat gets faster, be ready to jump by hav-
ing your knees bent and your arms fl exed. Try to
land on only the balls of your feet, which means
that your heels won’t touch the ground.
T Take off on one foot, and land on the same foot.
T Try to keep up with the beat — it’s going to get
faster and faster. When one leg gets tired, change
to the other leg.
T Listen as I beat the drum. The fi rst beat is louder
than the others. This is called an accented beat.
Use one- or two-foot takeoffs and landings, but
jump on only the accented beat. The fi rst beat
will be accented; the next three beats will be
unaccented.
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
At the profi ciency level, dynamic dance, game, and
gymnastics experiences are designed to help young-
sters use, refi ne, and enjoy their jumping abilities.
Children almost always jump in relation to objects or
other people (or both) and use jumping for both ex-
pressive and functional purposes.
A note about cues: At the profi ciency level, tasks are
more complex, typically requiring children to coor-
dinate several movements simultaneously in a dy-
namic context. A list of cues is provided to assist the
children in being more successful in the learning
experience. The challenge for the teacher is in deter-
mining which cue will be most benefi cial for each
child . . . and when. Thus careful observation and
critical refl ection become very important as you
watch the children move and then decide which cue
will be the most helpful to move each learner to a
higher skill level.
Jumping with a Partner to Mirror Actions
Setting: Two pieces of equipment (benches, tables, or
vaulting boxes) about 15 feet apart, with a large mat
on the fl oor between; children with partners
Cues
Yielding Landings (Bend your knees to absorb
the force, and sink into a bal-
anced position.)
Buoyant Landings (Bend your knees as you
land; then spring up
quickly.)
Heads Up (Keep your head and
shoulders up for good
balance.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T You and your partner are going to mirror each oth-
er’s jumps. Mirroring means that you face each
other and copy the other’s movements, as if you
were looking in a mirror. Therefore, if your partner
uses the left arm, you’ll use your right arm. To
start, decide which of you will be the fi rst leader.
The leader makes up the fi rst jump and shows it to
the partner. Then you both face each other and do
that jump at the same time, mirroring each other
exactly. This activity will be hard at fi rst, because
you’ll have to take off at the same time, jump the
same height, and do everything exactly together.
Start with some easy jumps and then go to harder
ones. Each person takes three turns as leader and
then switches. Again, make your jumps look like a
refl ection of your partner’s. Don’t forget: Yielding
and buoyant landings will be part of the mirror
action.
Pinpoint several pairs who are mirroring jumps accurately.
T As you get better at mirroring your partner, you
may want to include such actions as gesturing in
the air, turning in the air, or rolling after land-
ing. This will really take a lot of work; you
may want to count out everything before you
do it.
CHAPTER 21 Jumping and Landing 371
Jumping with a Partner to Match Actions
Setting: Two pieces of equipment (benches, tables, or
vaulting boxes) about 15 feet apart, with a large mat
on the fl oor between; children with partners
Cues
Travel, Jumps, and Landings (Everything must
match your
partner—travel,
jumps, and
landings.)
Heads Up (Keep your head
and shoulders up
for good balance.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Now that you’ve become very good at mirroring
a partner’s actions and jumps, you’re going to try
matching jumps. Matching means that you do
the same thing at the same time; thus if you’re
facing your partner, your actions look the oppo-
site of your partner’s. If you use your right leg,
then your partner must also use the right leg.
Again, decide which of you will be the fi rst leader.
The leader makes a jump and faces the partner;
the two of you then match jumps. Take three
turns as leader, and then switch. Start with easy
jumps. Counting will help you match starting
each jump.
T Once you’ve become quite good at matching
jumps with your partner while facing each other
and standing still, try this: Travel a short distance
together, and then, at a set point, do matching
jumps in the air. This activity will be hard. You
must pick a starting point, count exactly how
many steps you’ll travel before you jump, and then
jump and land. First, by yourself practice the trav-
eling by itself and then the jump by itself; then,
combine the traveling and jumping. Finally, try to
do the task with your partner. The sequence is this:
Travel, jump, land, freeze — all movements exactly
matching those of your partner. You two should
look like twins.
T To the sequence you just made up, add a second
traveling action and a second jump.
Jumping with a Springboard
Setting: Springboards positioned throughout the work
space with suffi cient large mats for safe landings
Cues
Push (Push hard with your feet and
legs as you contact the board.)
Swing Upward (Swing your arms upward for
good height.)
Squash (Bend your knees and spread your
feet for a stable, soft landing.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Using the nearest springboard, run and jump, us-
ing a two-foot landing /takeoff on the board; spring
up high and land on two feet on the mat.
T As you become good at going off the springboard
and landing without falling over, add a turn in
the air as you jump so that you end up facing the
place where you started. Remember to bend your
knees and spread your feet apart when you
land.
T When you’re able to do this activity, try a complete
360-degree turn in the air before you land. To get all
the way around, you’ll have to throw your arms up
and around in the direction that you want to turn.
Jumping as Part of a Dance Creation
Setting: Children divided into small groups, no more
than four per group
Cues
Individual cues as needed
Tasks /Challenges:
T Now you’re going to use jumps to make up a dance.
The main actions of the dance will all use different
jumps. First think of a theme for your dance, such
as a battle scene. If you use that idea, your jumps
will contain such gestures as punching, slashing,
jabbing, protecting, and retreating.
As a group, think of what you want your dance
to say. Once you’ve decided the theme, try to put
together a series of jumps that express that idea.
You’ll be using your jumps and other movements
to tell a story. It may be that you all move at the
same time, or that two of you move and then the
other two move. Your dance needs to have a defi -
nite beginning and a defi nite ending, with at least
six different jumps in the middle. Try to make the
dance look really professional. This will take a
while to do; I’ll be available to help each group as
you work. Toward the end of class, we’ll show the
dances to the rest of the class.
372 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Jumping, Dancing, and Imagery
Setting: Children divided into small groups, no more
than four per group
Cues
Individual cues as needed
Tasks /Challenges:
T Jumps can be used to create a dance about the
things around you (the fl ight of a bird, leaves in
the wind, etc.). This time, you’re going to create a
dance that uses one of these things as its main
idea. Jumps will communicate that idea to your
audience. You must decide in your group what
natural thing you’d like to communicate in a dance
using jumps.
After you’ve decided, begin to develop your
dance, keeping the following ideas in mind:
• The actions you’re demonstrating should clearly
portray your theme.
• The starting location of each person should be
clear.
• The dance should rise to a climax and then
wind down to a conclusion.
• The jumps and gestures you’re using to commu-
nicate your ideas should be the most effective
ones you can create.
• The pathways used in the dance should be clear.
At the end of class, you may show your dance to
the class.
Hurdling Jumps
Setting: A series of hurdles set up throughout the work
area, with suffi cient space between for children to run
between, jumping over each; stopwatches at starting
line (optional)
Cues
Foot to Foot (Opposite: one foot to the other
foot.)
Extend (Front leg upward and forward.)
Heads Up (Keep your head and shoulders up
for good balance.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T In this activity you’ll be hurdling, which is sprint-
ing over barriers, called hurdles, placed along the
way. Begin behind the fi rst hurdle, and run to the
end of the line of hurdles. Each time you come to
a hurdle, jump it and keep going. Run to the end
of the line, come back to the fi rst hurdle, and start
again. Start your jump before you reach the hurdle
by extending your front leg upward and forward.
Try to get over the hurdles by barely clearing them
rather than jumping really high over them. You
need a horizontal rather than a high vertical jump
for hurdles.
Use low barriers at fi rst so that youngsters can focus on
proper technique without worrying about clearing the ob-
stacles. Once children begin to exhibit quality hurdling
actions, you can gradually increase the height of the barri-
ers. Milk crates spread apart with bamboo poles supported
between them are satisfactory barriers.
C As you feel you’re getting better at hurdling, time
yourself and see if you can improve each time. You
can use one of the stopwatches available at the
starting line of each row of hurdles.
For transferring weight over apparatus (vaulting box), see
Chapter 23.
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. Name the two basic reasons for performing jumps.
2. What are the three phases of a jump?
3. List in order of diffi culty the different takeoff and
landing patterns for jumping.
4. What does a precontrol jump look like?
5. What are the characteristics of jumping and
landing at each of the four skill levels? For ex-
ample, what does a utilization-level jump look
like?
6. What is the focus of the jumping and landing
activities for the control and profi ciency levels?
(The introductory text to each section will get
you started.)
7. Describe a low obstacle that children can safely
practice jumping over.
8. What is the difference between a buoyant landing
and a yielding landing?
9. Describe a sequence for teaching young children
to jump rope.
10. Describe how jumping is used in (1) gymnastics,
(2) games/sports, (3) dance. Give a specifi c exam-
ple of jumping in each of these content areas.
CHAPTER 21 Jumping and Landing 373
References /Suggested Readings
Holt/Hale , S. A. 2010 . On the move: Lesson plans to accom- pany Children Moving. 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 1995 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. St. Louis, MO: Mosby .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2004 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. 2nd ed. Reston, VA: NASPE .
Wickstrom , R. L. 1977 . Fundamental motor patterns. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger .
Wickstrom, R.L. 1983. Fundamental motor patterns. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger .
374 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
374
C H A P T E R
22
Balancing
CHAPTER 22 Balancing 375
M erriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, 11 th edi-
tion, defi nes balance as “stability produced by
even distribution of weight on each side of the
vertical axis” and as “an aesthetically pleasing integra-
tion of elements.” There’s no extraneous motion, no
fl agrant waving of arms to maintain position, no near
topple or wobble from side to side. The center of grav-
ity is clearly over the base of support.
The elementary school child attempting to do a
headstand, walk a beam, ride a skateboard, or use in-
line skates encounters different types of static and
dynamic balance challenges. Among the key teaching
concepts in providing balance experiences are the
following:
• It’s easier to balance over a wide base of support
than a narrow base.
• The center of gravity should be aligned over the
base of support for stationary balance ( Figure 22.1 ).
• Extensions to one side of the body beyond the base
of support necessitate extensions in the opposite di-
rection for counterbalance.
Static balance involves maintaining a desired shape
in a stationary position; gymnastics balances, head-
stands, and handstands are examples. Dynamic balance
involves maintaining an on-balance position while
moving, starting, or stopping. Dynamic balance occurs
in weight transference, jumping, throwing, catching,
and all forms of travel. Balance as a concept is dis-
cussed in Chapters 19, 21, 23, and 25 as it applies to
learning specifi c skills. See Box 22-1 for information
on balancing from the National Standards for Physical
Education.
Figure 22.1 Center of gravity over base of support.
The Skill of Balancing in the National Standards for Physical Education
The movement skill of balancing is referenced in the National
Association for Sport and Physical Education’s National
Standards for Physical Education (NASPE 2004) under
Standard 1: “Demonstrates competency in motor skills and
movement patterns needed to perform a variety of physical
activities.” The standard speaks of children demonstrating
control in traveling, weight bearing, and balance activities on
a variety of body parts, and being able to participate with
skill in gymnastics.
Sample performance outcomes from the National
Standards include:
• Discovers how to balance on different body parts, at
different levels, becoming “like” a statue while making
symmetrical and nonsymmetrical shapes (K– 2)*
• Balances with control on a variety of objects (e.g., bal-
ance board, large apparatus, skates) (3 – 5)*
• Develops and refi nes a gymnastics sequence demon-
strating smooth transitions (3 – 5)*
• Designs and performs gymnastics sequences that com-
bine traveling, rolling, balancing, and weight transfer into
smooth, fl owing sequences with intentional changes in
direction, speed, and fl ow (6 – 8)*
*Grade-level guidelines for expected student learning.
Box 22-1
376 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Levels of Skill Profi ciency
At the precontrol level, children sporadically achieve
balance; it’s often more coincidental than intentional.
Activities at this level are designed to introduce weight
bearing and stillness as prerequisites to balance. Ap-
propriate tasks include:
• Exploring the use of different body parts as bases of
support
• Using wide bases to balance
• Stopping in balanced positions
The child at the control level is ready to focus on
holding stationary supports for several seconds, balanc-
ing on smaller bases, and maintaining inverted balances.
Appropriate tasks include:
• Supporting weight on combinations of body parts
(e.g., head and hands)
• Momentarily supporting weight on hands alone
• Balancing on more narrow bases and in inverted
positions
• Holding stationary balances on various types of
large apparatus
The child at the utilization level is ready to study
balancing on equipment and in dynamic situations,
combining balance with locomotion and weight trans-
ference. Appropriate tasks include:
• Combining stationary balances with actions on
benches, tables, and beams
• Moving from an on-balance to an off-balance
position
• Moving into and out of balances with stretching,
curling, and twisting actions
Profi ciency-level balance tasks focus on maintain-
ing balance on inverted and narrow bases. Children
practice moving into and out of stationary balances
with changes in time; maintaining dynamic balances
on narrow equipment; and combining /contrasting
balance – time factors in sequences on the fl oor and on
apparatus. Appropriate tasks include:
• Extensions away from the body when balanced on a
narrow base
• Partner and group balances
• Rapid turns and twists into balanced positions
• Dismounts (from apparatus) that conclude with
landings in balanced, stationary positions
The sequence for developing the skill theme of
balancing at the precontrol, control, utilization, and
profi ciency levels is shown in our progression spiral on
page 377.
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration
Activities at the precontrol level are designed to provide
exploration of the concept of balance, supporting weight
on different body parts as bases of support and in differ-
ent shapes. As children explore the concept of balance,
they begin to maintain simple stationary balances and
to stop in balanced positions while traveling.
Balancing on Different Bases of Support
Setting: Carpet squares or small mats placed through-
out general space, with suffi cient room between for
children to work without bumping others
Tasks /Challenges:
T Balance on different bases of support on your mat.
Your base of support is the body parts that are
holding you in the balance. See how many body
parts can be bases of support. Hold each balance as
you count to yourself 3 seconds: “one thousand
one, one thousand two . . .”
T Try different combinations of body parts as you
create your balances.
T Let’s list all the body parts you’ve used as bases of
support for your balances. (List on board or fl ip chart
as students give responses.) Do you see some body
parts listed as bases of support that you didn’t try?
Take a few minutes to try all the combinations.
Some children will watch others in class, often the
more skilled students, and attempt to copy their
balances. This can result in injury to the less skilled.
A reminder to the group and /or to the less confi -
dent students of what the teacher is looking for
eliminates this potential problem.
T Now I’ll name the body parts that I want to be the
bases of support. First, hand(s) and feet. Be creative
in your balance. Although you’re all using the
same base of support, the gymnastics balances may
be very different.
Additional exploration: feet and head, knees and elbows,
stomach, base of spine, and shoulders in combination with
other body parts.
Sometimes children attempt to balance on body
parts that aren’t appropriate for supporting weight.
Don’t let youngsters balance in unsafe positions
that could result in stress or injury.
C Balance on your favorite bases of support, hold-
ing the balance very still. Let’s pretend I am going
to take a photo of the balance — no wiggles, no
wobbles.
CHAPTER 22 Balancing 377
Balancing on a Wide Base of Support
Setting: Carpet squares or small mats placed through-
out general space with suffi cient room between for
children to work without bumping others
Tasks /Challenges:
T Create a four-part balance on your hands and
lower legs; have your hands under your shoulders
and your legs approximately the same distance
apart as the width of your hips. This wide base of
support creates a very stable balance.
T Move your hands toward each other and your legs
toward each other until they touch. Do you feel
stable now? Could I push you over?
T Explore the concept of wide to narrow balances
with different bases of support: hands and feet,
knees and elbows.
Balancing in Different Body Shapes
Setting: Carpet squares or small mats placed through-
out general space, with suffi cient room between for
children to work without bumping others
Tasks /Challenges:
T Create a gymnastics balance on a wide base of sup-
port. Create a wide body shape by extending free
body parts outward from your trunk (free body parts
are those you’re not using as bases of support).
T Create a narrow-shape gymnastics balance on your
base of spine — long and thin like a piece of spa-
ghetti. Keep all free body parts close to your
trunk.
T Create a curled-shape gymnastics balance on your
chosen base of support. Free body parts can be
tucked close to the body, or they may be added to
the curled shape by bending them in the curve.
T Create a twisted-shape gymnastics balance. Use
your two feet as your base of support and twist
your body like a pretzel.
Traveling and Stopping in Balanced Positions
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Tasks /Challenges:
T Travel through general space any way you choose.
On the signal, stop and create a gymnastics balance
with two feet and two hands touching the fl oor.
Additional exploration: two feet and one hand, base of
spine, two knees and one hand . . .
Skill Theme Development Sequence
Balancing Profi ciency Level
Performing apparatus sequences that combine
statio nary balances and traveling with movement
concepts
Transferring off equipment with weight on hands
Balancing on hanging ropes
Balancing while supporting the weight of a partner
Utilization Level
Performing sequences that combine stationary
balances and traveling on mats
Performing inverted balances on equipment
Traveling into and out of balances by rolling
Moving out of and into balances by stretching, curling,
and twisting
Balancing on crates
Control Level
Balance boards
Balancing on stilts
Balancing sequence
Traveling while balanced
Traveling on large apparatus
Stationary balances on equipment
Traveling and stopping in balanced positions
Doing kickups
Alignment of body parts
Performing inverted balances
The Gymnastics Dance
Balancing in different body shapes
Balancing symmetrically and nonsymmetrically
Counterbalance
Tightening the gymnastics muscles
Balancing on different bases of support
Precontrol Level
Balancing on boards
Traveling on low gymnastics equipment
Traveling and stopping in balanced positions
Balancing in different body shapes
Balancing on a wide base of support
Balancing on different bases of support
Exit Slip. Young children enjoy labeling on a large
stick fi gure the body parts that can serve as bases of
support. Refer to Chapter 14, “Assessing Student Learn-
ing,” for the use of exit slips in physical education.
378 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
T Travel again, but this time balance on three body
parts when you hear the signal. Think which
three parts you’re going to use before traveling.
Ready? Go.
Additional exploration: four body parts, fi ve body parts,
two body parts.
Traveling on Low Gymnastics Equipment
Setting: Jump ropes; low balance beams; 2-by-4-inch
planks; low, narrow benches; and tape pathways ar-
ranged on the fl oor ( Figure 22.2 )
Tasks /Challenges:
T Travel on the different pieces of equipment with-
out losing your balance and falling off.
Additional exploration: travel backward; travel with your
arms above your head; walk with a beanbag on your head.
Balancing on Boards
Setting: Square, rectangle, and circular balance boards ar-
ranged as a station for the study of balance ( Figure 22.3 )
Tasks /Challenges:
T Balance on a balance board without falling off or
letting the edges of the board touch the ground.
You may want a partner to stand in front of the bal-
ance board to help when you fi rst step up; place
your hands on the partner’s shoulders for support.
Low bench
Low balance beam
Jump rope arrangements
Taped pathways
2" x 4" planks laid flat
Figure 22.2 Equipment arrangement for
traveling.
2" round base
Round top, round bottom
14"
16"
16"
4" square base
11⁄2" metal pipe Square top, square bottom
Rectangular
10"
24"
Figure 22.3 Construction of balance boards of various shapes.
CHAPTER 22 Balancing 379
T Explore standing with your feet shoulder-width
apart and with your feet close together. Which
gives you better balance on the board?
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
Learning experiences at the control level focus on
maintaining the stillness and control of a balance.
Children balance on increasingly smaller bases of sup-
port while holding the body in inverted positions, and
in stationary balances on apparatus. These experiences
begin to provide the ingredients for a movement reper-
toire of balances that may be included in sequences
involving traveling and other balances. Several of the
tasks explored at the precontrol level will be repeated at the
control level, with the focus on refi nement cues.
A note about cues: Although several cues are listed for
many of the learning experiences, it’s important to fo-
cus on only one cue at a time. That way, the children
can really concentrate on that cue. Once you provide
feedback to the children and observe that most have
learned a cue, then it’s time to focus on another one.
Balancing on Different Bases of Support
Setting: Carpet squares or small mats scattered through-
out general space with suffi cient room between for
children to work without bumping others
Cue
Stillness (No wiggles, no wobbles —hold
perfectly still for 3 seconds.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Earlier in the year we explored balancing on differ-
ent bases of support. Balance on different bases of
support on your mat or carpet square. See if you
can remember which body parts can serve as good
bases for gymnastic balances.
T Listed on the board (fl ip chart) are the body parts
that serve as bases of support. I will call out the
combination of body parts; you create the balance
with that base — for example, feet and hands.
What other body parts can you use with your feet
to create a good base for gymnastic balances?
T Create balances using the following combination
of bases: head and hands, head and knees, head
and feet; elbows and knees; elbows, feet, and head;
stomach only; base of spine only; shoulders, upper
arms/elbows, and head.
T Create balances by adding your chosen base or
bases to the following:
feet and
head and
elbows and
C From all the balances you have practiced, choose
three of your favorites, each showing a different
combination of body parts as bases of support.
Practice until you can hold each balance 3 seconds
without moving or losing your balance. When you
are ready, show your balances to a partner, who
will give you a thumbs-up if you hold the balance
stationary for 3 seconds.
Tightening the Gymnastics Muscles
Setting: Carpet squares and /or small mats scattered
throughout general space, with suffi cient room for
children to work without collisions
Cues
Stillness (No wiggles, no wobbles —hold
perfectly still for 3 seconds.)
Tight Muscles (Muscular tension is the key to
holding the balance.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Balance on your favorite base of support, holding the
balance very still. Tighten the muscles of the body
parts supporting your balance to maintain stillness.
T Balance on a different base of support. Tighten the
muscles of the free body parts to hold a stretched
or curled shape very still.
T Assume your favorite balance position. See if you
can tighten the muscles without changing the ap-
pearance of your balance. You should look the
same but feel the tightening inside.
C Continue to practice your balances with a focus on
tightening the muscles without changing the ap-
pearance of the balance. As I walk by you, I should
feel the tightness in the extended arm or leg if I
touch you.
This tightening of the muscles is a key factor in holding the
balance very still without extraneous movement and in
maintaining the position.
Counterbalance
Setting: Carpet squares or small mats scattered through-
out general space, with suffi cient room between mats
for children to work safely
380 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Cues
Stillness (No wiggles, no wobbles for
3 seconds.)
Tight Muscles (Muscular tension is the key to
holding the balance.)
Extensions (Extend free body parts for
stability in your balance.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Balance on one foot. Extend your arms and free
leg, holding the balance very stationary. Repeat
the balance, extending the arms but not the leg.
Which balance is easier to maintain? Right, the
one with arms and free leg extended in opposite
directions. This is the concept of counterbalance.
Extensions to one side of the body necessitate ex-
tensions in the opposite direction.
T Balance on your base of spine. Extend free body
parts to one side only; repeat with the extension in
the opposite direction.
T Explore balances on different bases of support, ex-
tending your body parts in different directions
from your body for counterbalance.
Balancing Symmetrically and Nonsymmetrically
Setting: Carpet squares and /or small mats scattered
throughout general space, with suffi cient room for
children to work safely
Cues
Tight Muscles (Muscular tension is
the key to holding the
balance.)
Extensions (Extend free body parts for
stability in your balance.)
Smooth Transitions (Move slowly from one bal-
ance to the next for a
smooth transition.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Balance on your base of spine, with arms and legs
extended outward. Create exactly the same shape
on both sides of your body. This is called a sym-
metrical shape; both sides of the body look the
same.
T Keeping the same base of support, change your
free body parts, still creating a symmetrical shape.
T Balance on your chosen base of support. Create a
symmetrical shape. Now change to a nonsymmet-
rical shape — the sides look different —while bal-
anced on that same base.
T Balance on your shoulders, back of head, and arms.
Create a symmetrical shape with your legs. Change
to a nonsymmetrical shape and then back to a
symmetrical one.
T Repeat this three-part symmetrical, nonsymmetri-
cal, symmetrical sequence; slowly change your legs
into the different shapes. This smoothness in tran-
sition is an important component of gymnastics.
Assessment Example
From the National Standards for Physical Education
Peer Observation
Students are asked to work on balancing on different
bases of support (e.g., two hands and one foot, hands
and knees, headstand). Students should balance in
four different positions, two using symmetrical shapes
and two using asymmetrical shapes. Students are asked
to draw their favorite symmetrical and asymmetrical
balances on paper, labeling “S” and “A,” respectively.
Students now select a partner who will observe their
balances and then indicate on the paper: (1) if the
drawn fi gures were labeled correctly and (2) if the bal-
ances were held still for 3 seconds.
Criteria for Assessment
a. Completes four balances — two symmetrical and
two asymmetrical.
b. Correctly labels balances “S” and “A.”
c. Maintains stillness in balance for 3 seconds.
d. Observer correctly assesses the appropriateness of
the labels and the extent to which the performer
was still.
NASPE (1995, p. 19)
Balancing in Different Body Shapes
Setting: Small mats and /or carpet squares scattered
throughout general space, with suffi cient room for
children to work safely
Cues
Tight Muscles (Muscular tension is the key
to holding the balance.)
Extensions (Extend free body parts for
stability in your balance.)
Smooth Transitions (Move slowly from one
balance to the next for a
smooth transition.)
CHAPTER 22 Balancing 381
Tasks /Challenges:
T Remember when we explored basic body shapes
for physical education? Who can name the four
shapes? Wide, curled, twisted, narrow — that’s
right. Let’s create balances that show each of those
shapes. Now that you have learned to balance on
different bases of support, try to have a different
base of support for each of your balances.
T Let’s focus on wide-shape balances. Create wide-
shape balances with different bases of support. Re-
member, extensions of arms and legs away from
the body create wide shapes.
C I’m going to put on some background music for a
few minutes. Create three balances that show wide
shapes; each balance is to have a different base of
support. Challenge yourself with a level of diffi -
culty that tests your skills. When the music stops,
we will look at the balances.
T Now let’s create gymnastics balances that show nar-
row shapes. Remember, we create narrow-shape bal-
ances by holding body parts close to each other. How
many different narrow balances can you create?
T Create a narrow balance on your base of spine.
Stretch your legs and arms to counterbalance.
These youngsters maintain stillness in symmetrical and nonsymmetrical balances.
382 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
T Create two new narrow balances, one at a low
level, the other at medium level.
T You can create a curled (round) shape by curling
your spine forward or arching your spine back-
ward. Free body parts may be tucked close to the
body, or they may be added to the curled image by
bending in the curve. Create a curled gymnastics
balance on your chosen base of support.
T Create a curled-shape gymnastics balance in which
the spine curls forward; slowly change into a curled-
shape balance with your spine arched backward.
T Stand in a balanced position, with both feet as bases
of support for your weight. Create a twisted shape
by turning your body to the right or the left with-
out moving your feet. Now balance, using your left
foot and the lower portion of your right leg as bases
of support. Create a twisted shape from this base.
T Create twisted shapes by rotating your trunk, arms,
legs, neck, ankles, and wrists while balanced on
different bases of support.
T Balance on three body parts. Create a twisted shape
by rotating free body parts — for example, arms,
legs, trunk, neck. Create two more twisted-shape
balances on various bases of support.
C Think of all the balances you have created today.
They represent four shapes: wide, narrow, curled,
twisted. Review the balances you did; choose your
favorite balance for each shape. On each signal,
show me your favorite wide-, narrow-, curled-, and
twisted-shape balance. Concentrate on holding
each perfectly still and moving smoothly from
balance to balance.
Peer Observation. Peer observation of body shapes
and balances would be appropriate here. A possible
task would be to have students, using stick fi gures,
draw each of the four balances, one representing
each of the four shapes. Have them label the body
shape of each fi gure, then exchange papers with a
neighbor, who will be the “gymnastics judge”
( Figure 22.4 ).
Refer to Chapter 14, “Assessing Student Learning,” for the
use of peer observation as assessment.
C Working in groups of four, create a balance statue
in which each person partially supports another.
Each person should represent one of the four ba-
sic shapes; wide, narrow, curled, and twisted. After
you make the body-shape statue, convert it to a
movable monster by moving as a unit in either self -
space or general space.
The Gymnastics Dance
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Cues
Tight Muscles (Muscular tension is
the key to holding the
balance.)
Extensions (Extend free body parts
for stability in your
balance.)
Smooth Transitions (Move slowly from one
balance to the next for a
smooth transition.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Let’s create a gymnastics dance that focuses on
body shapes and balance. I will select one person
to form a statue by holding a gymnastics balance
with a wide base of support. Hold your wide bal-
ance as others come and go.
T Each person in the group will slowly add to the
statue by making a wide, narrow, curled, or twisted
shape and touching the fi rst statue with one body
part.
T That looks really good; the shapes are clear and the
balances are stationary. After everyone in the
group has added to the statue by making a balance
and touching the fi rst person, begin to move
slowly from the original wide-shape balance that
was the fi rst one created without disturbing others
in the group. I will touch you as a signal for you to
move from the main statue. Use a locomotor
movement or a turning action to move from the
group.
T On the signal, move slowly back into the large bal-
ance statue, with clear shapes and stillness. Move
away again, forming an individual statue by your-
self with a different base of support and different
shape from the one you used before.
Performing Inverted Balances
Setting: Small mats and /or carpet squares scattered
throughout general space, with suffi cient room be-
tween mats for children to work without bumping
others
Cues
Tight Muscles (Tighten your abdominal
muscles to hold the inverted
balance — stretch toward the
sky!)
Equal Weight (Take weight equally on all
body parts that are bases of
support.)
CHAPTER 22 Balancing 383
Tasks /Challenges:
T Balance with your head and two feet as your base
of support.
When performing an inverted balance involving
the head, it’s important to distribute the body
weight equally among all body parts serving as the
base of support.
T Balance on your head and hands, with your knees
resting on your elbows ( Figure 22.5 ).
T When performing these inverted balances, concentrate
on taking your weight equally on the following bases:
• Head and knees
• Head, hands, one foot
• Back of head, shoulders, arm
T Explore other inverted balances that you can safely
hold for 3 seconds ( Figure 22.6 ).
Alignment of Body Parts
Setting: Small mats and /or carpet squares scattered
throughout general space, with suffi cient room for
children to work safely
Cues
Tight Muscles (Tighten your abdominal muscles
to hold the inverted balance—
stretch toward the sky!)
Alignment (Toes over knees, over hips, over
shoulders to form a straight line.)
BALANCE
Name: Homeroom Brittany P. 3B
Stillness, 3 seconds ✓+
Wiggle/wobble
Loss of balance ✓-
Narrow Wide
curled twisted
Figure 22.4 Student balance
drawings and peer assessment
results.
384 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Tasks /Challenges:
T Repeat your balance on head and hands with knees
resting on elbows. Concentrate on tightening
your abdominal muscles to align your hips over
your shoulders.
T Balance on your head and hands, with your
trunk and legs extended toward the ceiling. Form
a triangular base with your weight equally
distributed on your head and hands. Stretch
your body like a straight line, aligning hips
over shoulders, feet over hips. Pretend your
toes are attached by a string to the ceiling . . .
stretch.
Teach children to roll safely out of an off- balance
head-and-hands position by pushing with the
hands, tucking the chin, and curling the back.
Doing Kickups
Setting: Large gymnastics mats and /or small mats that
will not slip, scattered throughout general space, with
suffi cient room for children to work safely
Figure 22.6 Other inverted balances.
Spotting
The question of spotting—physically assisting a child with a
skill— often arises with gymnastics. Spotting is seldom used in
educational gymnastics, as it often encourages or forces chil-
dren to attempt a skill before they are ready. See Chap ter 30
for a more complete discussion on the use of spotting.
Figure 22.5 Inverted balance on head and hands.
Cues
Tight Muscles (Tighten your abdominal muscles
to hold the inverted balance—
stretch toward the sky!)
Alignment (Toes over knees, over hips, over
shoulders to form a straight line.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Place one foot in front of the other (front-back
stance); lean forward, and place your hands on the
fl oor shoulder-width apart, fi ngers pointing for-
ward. Using your back leg as a lever, kick your leg
CHAPTER 22 Balancing 385
upward so that your weight is supported on your
hands only.
C Practice counting seconds as you balance on your
hands.
With practice, the success rate for balancing on hands is
very high, but practice must be massed and distributed.
Teach the children to come safely out of an off-
balance weight-on-hands position by twisting the
trunk slightly to bring the feet down in a new place.
Traveling and Stopping in Balanced Positions
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Cues
Stillness (Hold your balance perfectly
still— no wiggles, no wobbles.)
Tight Muscles (Muscular tension is the key to
holding the balance.)
Extensions (Extend free body parts for
stability in your balance.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T We worked earlier on traveling through general
space and creating a gymnastics balance when we
stopped. Let’s review those skills: Travel through
general space any way you choose. On the signal,
stop and create a gymnastics balance with two
hands and one foot touching the fl oor.
T This time, change your way of traveling. If you ran
before, skip or gallop through general space. On
the signal, stop and create a balance with four
body parts as bases of support. Think of the four
parts you will choose before traveling.
T Repeat the travel, stop, balance sequence with dif-
ferent combinations of body parts as bases of sup-
port and different ways to travel.
C Remember the balance you created with four
bases of support? Think of the balance you cre-
ated with two bases. Now you are going to make
a sequence of two travels and two stationary bal-
ances. Your sequence will be this: Travel, stop and
balance on four bases; travel, stop and balance on
two bases of support. I’ll give the signal for travel
each time. You will decide the ways you are going
to travel; use the balances you just practiced. We
will practice several times so you can repeat the
travel, balance sequence exactly the same way
each time.
C After you have completed your two-part se quence
and feel good about your travel and balances, cre-
ate a larger sequence by adding other ways to
travel and additional balances — for example,
three bases, fi ve bases. How about going from fi ve
bases of support to one base, with travel between
the balances? Remember, there are ways to travel
other than on your feet.
Stationary Balances on Equipment
Setting: Various pieces of gymnastics apparatus ar-
ranged throughout general space: low tables, boxes,
benches, climbing frames, low balance beams, and
sawhorses. See Figures 22.7 , 22.8 , and 22.9 for plans
for constructing balance beams, sawhorses, and bal-
ance benches, respectively.
Cues
Stillness (Hold your balance perfectly
still— no wiggles, no wobbles.)
Tight Muscles (Muscular tension is the key to
holding the balance.)
Extensions (Extend free body parts for stabil-
ity in your balance.)
Extended edges and bases/supports of gymnastics
apparatus sometimes need extra padding to assure
safety and prevention of injury.
Tasks /Challenges:
T Earlier in the year we explored traveling safely on
gymnastics equipment. Select the piece of apparatus
you want to begin working on; spend a few minutes
exploring the apparatus until you are comfortable
on this new surface and height. Travel forward and
2" x 4" stock
2" x 4"
1" x 4" x 8"
3⁄4" plywood
2" x 4"
7"
12"
Figure 22.7 Construction of a balance beam.
386 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
backward on the apparatus. Try some of the balances
you did on the fl oor/mat surface on the apparatus.
T Perform your balances at different places on the
apparatus: on the top, near one end, in the middle,
on a low rung, underneath. Try some balances
with a combination of bases on the fl oor and on
the apparatus.
T Balance on your hands only on the low bench, low
beam, or crate. The chart on the wall ( Figure 22.10 )
will provide examples of balances that do not re-
quire you to be inverted when you balance on
hands-only on the equipment.
T Create a balance on the apparatus; then move
slowly to another part of the apparatus for your
second balance. Can you create a combination of
travel and three different balances?
T After you create three balances on the fi rst piece of
apparatus, move to another piece of gymnastics ap-
paratus and create balances on that one. You may be
able to repeat balances from before, or you may need
to create balances on different bases of support to
suit the different apparatus. Continue rotating to
the various pieces of apparatus until you’ve created
three balances on each piece of apparatus.
When children fi rst begin this type of gymnastics, they may
not be able to move independently from apparatus to ap-
paratus. We have found it best in the beginning to assign
the children to groups and rotate the stations.
Finish to suit
1⁄2"
plywood
2" x 3"
1" x 3"
60"
17"
5"
20"
6"
10"
13"
32"
Figure 22.8 Construction of a
wooden sawhorse.
12"
Hardwood siding
Top view
Use 1" thick maple for bench top.
Screw bolts
countersunk
and secured
into bench legs.
12'
9" 11/4"
5'3"
21⁄4" 21⁄4" 12"
Rubber feet10'81/4"
Fir
Enlarged side view
of movable bench hook
Rubber sleeve
Side view
Bottom view Screw bolt
12" 111/4"
Note: Use a balance beam.
Bench hook keeper
Movable bench
hook
finish: seal wood and varnish.
5'3"
Figure 22.9 Construction of a
balance bench.
CHAPTER 22 Balancing 387
Permit the children to attempt balances on appa-
ratus only after they can safely hold the balances
for 3 to 5 seconds on the fl oor or mats.
Traveling on Large Apparatus
Setting: Large apparatus — benches, tables, beams,
commercial gymnastics equipment — arranged in open
space
Cues
Eyes Forward (Focus on a spot on the wall or the
end of the beam, keeping your
head up for good balance.)
Extensions (Extend your arms for good
balance as you travel.)
T Create combinations of balances and travel on
each of the pieces of apparatus.
T Choose your favorite piece of apparatus for a se-
quence. Create a sequence of four balances and
four different ways to travel on that apparatus.
Select different combinations of body parts as your
bases of support, and be creative in your ways to
travel on the apparatus. Don’t forget different
levels and directions as you create your sequence.
Portfolio. Sequences provide a good opportunity for
portfolio use. Have students record their sequences
on paper using stick-fi gure drawings and writing;
place the sequences in their portfolios. Make sure
you let students know that you will return to this
work later in the year, possibly when you work on
approaches and dismounts from apparatus.
Figure 22.10 Noninverted hands-only balances on apparatus.
Traveling while balanced requires
a constant point of focus.
388 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Tasks /Challenges:
T Travel forward and backward on the large apparatus.
Focus your eyes on something stationary to help
maintain your balance as you travel.
T Sometimes travel with your center of gravity close
to the apparatus — that is, lower your hips. Some-
times travel with your center of gravity high — for
example, walk on your tiptoes with your body
stretched toward the ceiling.
T Walk forward the length of the beam or bench;
make a half turn and walk forward again. The se-
cret to the turn is to take your weight on the balls
of your feet and then pivot and quickly drop your
heels so they make contact with the beam.
T Practice turning both clockwise and counterclock-
wise while traveling forward and backward.
T Walk to the center of the apparatus, and lower
your hips into a squat position. Execute your turn
in this low-level position.
Traveling While Balanced
Setting: Large apparatus—benches, tables, beams, com-
mercial gymnastics equipment—arranged in open space
Cues
Eyes Forward (Remember to focus your eyes on
something stationary when you
travel.)
Extensions (Extend your arms for good
balance when doing your
locomotors.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Travel on the apparatus using a series of gallops,
hops, or skipping steps. You’ll probably want very
little height when you perform these skills on the
apparatus.
T Travel across the apparatus on four body parts.
T If you are comfortable doing forward rolls on the
mats, try rolling slowly forward across the appara-
tus. Pretend you are executing the skill in slow
motion; tighten your abdominal muscles for
control.
Students should perform rolling on apparatus only
after demonstrating mastery of the rolls on the
fl oor or mats.
C Perform the tasks on each piece of apparatus.
T Add changes in directions and levels to your loco-
motors on the apparatus.
Balancing Sequence
Setting: Large apparatus — benches, tables, beams,
com mercial gymnastics equipment—arranged in open
space
Maintaining stillness while balanc-
ing on different body parts is
important before balancing on
equipment.
CHAPTER 22 Balancing 389
Cues
Eyes Forward (Remember to focus your
eyes on something sta-
tionary when you travel.)
Smooth Transitions (Move smoothly between
balances and travels.)
Note: Individuals, sometimes classes, may need reminders
of earlier cues — for example, Stillness, Extensions, Tight
Muscles.
Tasks /Challenges:
T Remember those balances you created on appara-
tus earlier in the year. You recorded them on paper
and placed them in your portfolios. We are now go-
ing to revisit that lesson to create a sequence of
traveling and balancing on your favorite piece of
apparatus. Your task will be to design a sequence of
traveling and balancing on one piece of equipment.
You will choose either sequence A or sequence B.
Sequence A: Create a sequence of traveling com- bined with balancing on different bases of support.
Your sequence must contain three balances with
different bases and at least two travels.
Sequence B: Create a sequence of traveling com- bined with balancing in the basic body shapes. Your
sequence must contain the four basic shapes—wide,
narrow, curled, twisted—and at least three travels.
Practice your sequence on the fl oor and then on
the apparatus. When you have the sequence mem-
orized, let a friend watch it to see if:
• The bases of support are clear.
• The balances are stationary.
• The travels are smooth.
T You have refi ned your sequence nicely, with a friend
giving pointers. Now we need to add the beginning
shape and the ending of the sequence. Begin your
sequence on the apparatus positioned in what you
wish to be your starting shape. The beginning shape
you choose will be determined by your fi rst action:
travel or balance. Think of the level you need, and
the direction, as well as the shape.
T Now that you have a beginning shape, let’s focus
on the ending of your sequence. Earlier in the year
we studied jumping and landing — jumping for
height and landing safely. We will review those
skills and then you can select the type of jump/
land action with which you want to end your se-
quence. Review jumping off apparatus (Chapter 21)
with the children, emphasizing safe landings and body
shapes in the air.
C On the assignment table you will fi nd the forms for
sequence A or B. The paper is divided into four parts:
beginning shape, travel and balances, dismount,
and ending shape. Using stick fi gures to represent
your balances, write/draw your sequence, remem-
bering the number of balances needed for the se-
quence. When you can repeat the sequence without
referring to your paper, ask a friend to watch it.
Peer Observation. Your friend will be your “refi ne-
ment coach” giving you pointers to make your se-
quence even better. The “coach” will observe your
sequence for the following cues: stillness (3 seconds
for each balance with no wiggles, no wobbles); tight
muscles (muscular tension that holds body parts
perfectly still); extensions (pointed toes, stretched
arms and legs). After the friend watches your “dress
rehearsal,” come to me for your fi nal assessment.
Event Task. The above task can easily become an
event task assessment of children’s work. Specifi cs
for development of criteria and rubrics can be found in
Chapter 14, “Assessing Student Learning.”
Balancing on Stilts
Setting: Several stations in general space at which chil-
dren can experience/practice dynamic balance; tin can
stilts (see Figure 22.11 for instructions for making them)
Tin can
Rope
Figure 22.11 Construction of tin can stilts from discarded rope
and large cans from the school cafeteria. To create, (1) cut two holes
in the top sides of the cans and (2) string rope through the holes and
tie it together inside each can. To use the stilts, children put each foot
on a can and pull on the rope with their hands.
390 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
at some of the stations; wooden stilts (see Figure 22.12 )
at others; marker cones placed around the general
space
Cue
Heads Up (Eyes focused forward, shoulders
erect.)
Children fi rst experiencing this type of dynamic balance
can develop confi dence on tin can stilts before progressing
to regular stilts.
T Walk forward on the tin can stilts. You’ll have to
take smaller steps than you would when walking
normally.
T Walk backward.
T Walk around the marker cones.
T After you’ve mastered walking on the tin can stilts,
you’re ready for the higher wooden stilts. It’s easier
to mount the stilts from an elevated position, such
as from a step or chair.
T Walk forward, backward, and sideways.
T Walk around the marker cones.
T Shift your weight to one stilt; lift your other leg,
and swing it around.
Balance Boards
Setting: Balance boards set up as one of several stations
at which children can experience static and dynamic
balance
Cues
Heads Up (Eyes focused forward, shoulders
erect.)
Extensions (Extend arms to the sides for good
balance.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Remember when we did balances on boards earlier
in the year? You practiced balancing on the different
boards and learned that a wide base of support—feet
shoulder-width apart— created a more stable balance
on the boards, as in all balances. Practice your bal-
ance skills on the boards. Try to maintain your bal-
ance, without partner support, for several seconds.
T When you can stand on the board for 5 seconds
without the support of your partner and without
losing your balance, you’re ready to try the tasks
written on the chart:
1. Slowly move your arms above your head. What
happens to your center of gravity? (Right — it
moves upward.)
2. Slowly move from a standing to a squat or low-
curl position. Which is more stable? Why is
the low position more stable? (When working on
large apparatus, remember that we’re better bal-
anced when the center of gravity is low.)
3. Catch a ball thrown by your partner; toss the
ball to your partner.
Write additional tasks on fl ip charts or task cards near the
balance board. Balance board activities can also be recorded
on a task sheet (see Figure 22.13 ).
4"
4" 6" 6"
2" 2"
8'
7' 1'
Materials:
One board 2" x 4" x 8'
Nails or bolts
Figure 22.12 Construction of wooden stilts. (Each board makes one set of stilts.)
Directions:
1. Cut 12 inches from one end of the board.
2. Cut the 12-inch board in half.
3. Cut the 6-inch board diagonally in half for the steps.
4. Cut the remaining 7-foot board lengthwise to make two 2-inch by 7-foot poles.
5. Nail or bolt the steps to the poles.
CHAPTER 22 Balancing 391
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
Learning experiences at the utilization level combine
balancing and transferring weight for a contrast in
stillness and action. Experiences include balancing in
dynamic environments and transferring weight into
stationary, still balances on various bases of support, as
well as approaches to and dismounts from apparatus.
Tasks that involve sequences of movement, on the
fl oor and on apparatus, are particularly important and
valuable. Children make decisions about the combina-
tion of movements and select and invent ways for one
balance or action to move smoothly into another.
A note about cues: Although several cues are listed for
many of the learning experiences, it’s important to
focus on only one cue at a time. That way, the children
can really concentrate on that cue. Once you provide
feedback to the children and observe that most have
learned a cue, then it’s time to focus on another one.
Balancing on Crates
Setting: Milk crates and boxes (stuffed with newspaper
or packing materials and taped closed so they will sup-
port a child’s weight) positioned throughout general
space, with suffi cient room between for children to work
safely
Cues
Tight Muscles (Muscular tension is the key to
holding the balance.)
Name _________________
Homeroom ____________
Balance Board Task Sheet
Draw a smile face beside those activities you can successfully complete.
I am able to:
Balance on the board standing on two feet
Sit in a balance position on the board
Change from a standing to a sitting
position on the board without losing balance
Raise my hands high above my head while
standing on the board
Balance on the board standing on one foot
Catch a ball tossed to me by a friend
Toss a ball to a friend without losing my
balance
New ideas by me:
Melissa 4b
clap my hands 3 times
Figure 22.13 Task sheet for balance
board activities. Younger children enjoy
drawing the smile face for completed tasks;
older children can record the date of
successful completion.
392 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Extensions (Extend free body parts for
balance /counterbalance.)
Alignment (Position yourself over your base
of support or extend free body
parts for counterbalance.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T In our previous work on balance, you explored
balancing on different bases of support and in dif-
ferent shapes. You practiced holding balances
stationary while performing them on mats, on low
equipment, and on large apparatus. Review your
balances on different bases of support on the
crate or box. Many of the balances that were easy
for you to perform on the mat or the low equip-
ment will be more diffi cult on the crate or box
because of the added height and the size of the
surface.
T Create a series of balances without ever leaving the
surface of the crate or box. Transferring from one
balance to the next will now be a major part of the
sequence.
T Create a sequence of balances on your crate or
box that includes an approach to the crate, a
transfer onto the crate, a series of balances on the
crate, and a dismount from the crate. You may
choose to focus on either bases of support or dif-
ferent shapes.
Select tasks from Chapter 23, “Transferring Weight and
Rolling,” for a review of approaches to and dismounts from
low equipment.
T Select a partner to work with for a sequence on the
crates. Explore matching symmetrical and non-
symmetrical balances on the crates or boxes. You
may choose to work side by side to match shapes,
or face-to-face to mirror shapes.
C Design a partner sequence of symmetrical and
nonsymmetrical balances on the crates or boxes.
Your sequence must contain the following:
• Three symmetrical and two nonsymmetrical
balances.
• A minimum of three different bases of support.
• An approach to the crates or boxes and a
dismount.
Your sequence should represent a double image.
Not only will your balances match those of your
partner, but also the transitions between will be
the same action and the same speed.
Videotape. The children’s sequences provide an ex-
cellent means of assessing their gymnastics skills. A
possible idea is to have partners videotape their
completed sequence. Both partners can then evalu-
ate the sequence using the guidelines discussed in
class. After the initial evaluation, children may
make changes in the sequence. Refer to Chapter 14,
“Assessing Student Learning,” for examples of video-
tape analysis and assessment.
Moving out of and into Balances by Stretching,
Curling, and Twisting
Setting: Suffi cient mats for children to work safely with-
out bumping others as they practice
Cues
Line of Gravity (Extending beyond your
line of gravity will make
you lose your balance unless
you have an extension for
counterbalance.)
Smooth Transitions (Move smoothly through
the transition from balance
to balance.)
Extensions provide aesthetic appeal as well as good balances.
CHAPTER 22 Balancing 393
Tasks /Challenges:
T Balance on a very narrow base of support. Stretch
your free body parts in one direction away from
the base. When you begin to lose your balance,
you have moved just beyond the “line of gravity.”
At the moment of moving beyond the line of
gravity — of moving off balance — transfer your
weight to a new base of support.
T Balance on one foot. Stretch forward until you are
off balance; transfer your weight to your hands
and feet in a new balance.
T Balance on favorite bases of support. Extend free
body parts with a stretching action to move into a
new balance.
T Balance on your head and hands with knees on
elbows as in a three-point stand or tripod. Push
with your hands, tuck your head, and curl your
back to roll out of the balance. Make a new sta-
tionary balance after the rolling action.
T Explore curling your spine to roll out of different
balances until you fi nd three balances that you
can use the curling action to get out of and into a
new balance.
T Balance on the base of your spine only, as in a
V-seat. After you have held the balance very still,
twist your trunk until the action moves you off
balance and into a new balance with a different
base of support.
T Balance on two hands and one foot, with the
free leg extended. Twist your trunk and the free
leg until you transfer to a new balance on hands
and feet.
C Practice balances with different bases of support
and moving out of the balance by either stretch-
ing, curling, or twisting. When you are comfort-
able with one of each, put them together in a
sequence as follows: balance, stretching action
into new balance, curling action into new balance,
twisting action into new balance. Your sequence
will include four stationary balances and three
transitions.
Additional balances with stretching, curling, and twisting
actions can be found in Chapter 23, “Transferring Weight
and Rolling.”
Traveling into and out of Balances by Rolling
Setting: Suffi cient mats for children to balance and roll
without bumping into others as they practice
Cues
Stillness and Action (Remember to hold your
balance perfectly still for
3 seconds; then move
smoothly through the
rolling action.)
Rounded Body (Keep your back round
and your chin tucked for
a good roll.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Rock backward into a shoulder stand; hold the bal-
ance for 3 seconds, and then roll either forward or
backward.
Children functioning at the utilization level in balanc-
ing should also have mastered rolling forward and
backward.
T Balance in a headstand for 3 seconds; then, press
with your hands, and roll forward.
T Balance with your weight on your hands, slowly
lower yourself to the mat, and roll forward. Re-
member to tuck your chin and curl your
back.
T Transfer your weight from your feet to your hands;
pause in the handstand; then make a quarter turn,
and transfer your weight back to your feet.
At the control level youngsters are challenged to create matching
nonsymmetrical balances.
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Performing Inverted Balances on Equipment
Setting: Boxes or crates, benches, and /or low tables ar-
ranged for balancing, with suffi cient mats around
them for children to work safely
Cues
Tight Muscles (Remember to tighten the
abdomi nal muscles plus free body
parts for stillness in your
balances.)
Alignment (Position yourself over your base
of support or extend free body
parts for counterbalance.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Balancing in an inverted position on a piece of ap-
paratus is quite different from balancing on the
mats or the fl oor. The position of your hands is
often quite different, and the surface is much
smaller. Perform the balances until you are quite
comfortable and skilled with them on the low
equipment before you attempt them on the higher,
more narrow apparatus ( Figure 22.14 ).
T Balance on your shoulders, back of your head, and
arms. Stretch your legs upward.
T Balance on your head and hands in a tripod
position.
T Balance on your head and hands with your legs
extended toward the ceiling.
T Balance on your hands only in an inverted balance.
T While balanced on your hands only, turn slightly,
bringing your feet down to the fl oor beside the
beam, bench, or crate. This is the safety skill you
will need when you become overbalanced.
T Perform your inverted balance on the larger pieces
of apparatus —vaulting box, balance beam, climb-
ing frames.
Inverted balances on apparatus should be at-
tempted only after children show mastery of the
balances on the fl oor or mats. Always have a mat
area available for children to use to practice before
performing their balances on apparatus.
Position yourself at the station where children are
doing inverted balances; be sure you maintain a
visual scan of the entire class.
Performing Sequences That Combine Stationary
Balances and Traveling on Mats
Setting: A fl oor gymnastics area designed using avail-
able mats
Cues
Stillness in Balances (Tighten the muscles to
hold the balance very still.)
Smooth Transitions (Make transitions between
balances very smooth,
whether they’re fast or
slow.)
Extensions (Extend free body parts for
aesthetic appeal as well as
good balance.)
Alignment (Position yourself over
your base of support or
extend free body parts for
counterbalance.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Create a sequence that combines stationary balances
and travel. As with an Olympic-style gymnastics
Low bench
Vaulting box, platform, table
Low beam
Balance beam Crates or boxes
Figure 22.14 Low equipment for inverted
balances.
CHAPTER 22 Balancing 395
routine, design your sequence to cover the length of
the mat, as well as each corner. Your sequence must
include the following:
• A minimum of six balances, each with a differ-
ent base of support
• A minimum of three travels, with a change in
direction and level
• At least two inverted balances
• A beginning and an ending shape
T Add contracts in time of actions — some fast, some
slow — and changes in force — some powerful
movements, some delicate — to add interest to your
sequence.
C Tomorrow we’re going to practice the routines to
music. If you like, bring a recording of music
from home, or you may select from those we
have. You will then practice your routine with
the music until you can repeat it three times
exactly the same way. (See Figure 22.15 for an
example of a routine.)
Gymnastics routines are excellent projects for as-
sessment of children’s gymnastic skills and their un-
derstanding of the critical cues. Refer to Chapter 14,
“Assessing Student Learning,” for guidelines for de-
veloping criteria and rubrics.
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
At the profi ciency level, balance is studied on the fl oor
and on various pieces of apparatus in combination
with movement concepts to express contrast in power,
stillness, and excitement in sequences. Children are
encouraged to perfect the fl ow of their movements
from one position to another and to develop their use
of focus and full extension.
Although often not readily available, such activities
as unicycling, skating, skiing, and surfi ng are challeng-
ing dynamic balancing experiences for children at the
profi ciency level. Sometimes these experiences can be
provided during fi eld trips or after-school programs.
A note about cues: At the profi ciency level, tasks are
more complex, typically requiring children to coor-
dinate several movements simultaneously in a dy-
namic context. A list of cues is provided to assist the
children in being more successful in the learning ex-
perience. The challenge for the teacher is in deter-
mining which cue will be most benefi cial for each
child . . . and when. Thus careful observation and
critical refl ection become very important as you
watch the children move and then decide which cue
Figure 22.15 Child’s sequence to music,
showing use of rolling; weight transfer; balance;
and concepts of narrow, wide, curled, and
directions.
396 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
will be the most helpful to move each learner to a
higher skill level.
Balancing While Supporting the Weight of a Partner
Setting: Suffi cient mats for children to work safely
without bumping others
Cues
Wide Base (A wide base of support provides
greater stability.)
Extensions (Extensions beyond the line of
gravity require extensions in the op-
posite direction for counterbalance.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Working with your partner, create a balance that
shows one wide and one narrow shape. You and
your partner must be helping each other by par-
tially supporting the other’s weight.
T Create different balances with your partner in
which you are partially supporting each other’s
weight. If you are not the same weight, which of
you will be the supporting partner?
T Create a balance in which the base partner is sup-
porting the weight of the top partner, who is in an
inverted position.
Base partner. Your bases of support — for example,
your arms and legs — should be no farther apart
than the width of your hips and shoulders. Top
partner: Make sure you put your weight over your
partner’s arms and hips, never in the middle of the
back, which is unsupported.
C Create two new balances supporting your partner’s
weight ( Figure 22.16 ). You will need to make deci-
sions based on the weight of both partners: Will
you partially support each other, or will one of you
totally support the other? Draw your two balances
on a sheet of paper and post them at the partner
balance center.
The combination of partner/group balancing, tumbling,
and dance has evolved into an activity called Acrosport.
Groups perform routines of supportive dynamic and static
balances connected by tension balance positions.
Balancing on Hanging Ropes
Setting: Hanging ropes with suffi cient mats below for
children to work safely
Figure 22.16 Student-created
balances supporting a partner.
CHAPTER 22 Balancing 397
Balances can be performed alone, with a partner, or in a group.
Figure 22.17 Head-up balances on hanging
ropes.
Cue
Tight Muscles (Tighten your muscles to
support body weight and
maintain balance on
ropes.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T On a hanging rope, support your weight with both
hands, then your hands and your legs, and fi nally
one hand. Create each of the basic shapes —wide,
narrow, curled, twisted —with your free body parts
( Figure 22.17 ). Perform your balances on the hang-
ing ropes with your head upward.
T Create a series of symmetrical and nonsym metrical
shapes while supporting your weight on the rope.
Permit inverted balances on the hanging ropes at
low height and only for children with suffi cient
upper-arm /shoulder strength.
Transferring off Equipment with Weight on Hands
Setting: Gymnastics apparatus positioned throughout
general space, with suffi cient mats for children to work
safely
Cues
Alignment (Feet over hips, over shoulders,
over hands for a straight-line
weight on hands.)
Tight Muscles (Muscular tension is the key to
holding the balance.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Balance momentarily on your hands on the ap-
paratus, make a quarter turn, and transfer your
weight from your hands to your feet on the mat.
Remember the cues for safety as you land.
T Practice this skill on the fl oor and on the low ap-
paratus to be sure you can turn to the right or to
the left.
398 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Be sure students have mastered this skill on the
fl oor or mats and on low apparatus before they at-
tempt it on higher, narrower apparatus.
Performing Apparatus Sequences That
Combine Stationary Balances and Traveling
with Movement Concepts
Setting: Gymnastics apparatus positioned throughout
general space, with suffi cient mats and spacing for
children to work safely
Cues
Individual cues as needed
Tasks /Challenges:
T Select a piece of equipment that will be your choice
for your fi nal gymnastics project. Your assignment
will be the design of a sequence combining stationary
balances and travel in relation to that piece of ap-
paratus. The sequence must include the following:
1. An approach to the apparatus and a mount onto
the apparatus
2. A series of stationary balances and travels on
the apparatus
3. A dismount from the apparatus
You can add excitement and interest to your
sequence with:
• Contrasts in fast and slow actions
• Turning, twisting, curling actions
• Changes in levels and directions
• Combinations of slow, controlled movements
and quick, sharp movements
• Inverted balances and actions
Practice your sequence as if you were preparing for
the Olympics. When you have completed and timed
it with your music, show it to a friend and then to
me. We will videotape the sequence for inclusion in
your portfolio.
T Select a grouping of three to four pieces of gym-
nastics apparatus for your fi nal project. Design a
sequence that combines stationary balances and
travel in relation to each piece of apparatus, as well
as travel between the pieces of apparatus. The se-
quence must include the following:
1. An approach to the fi rst pieces of apparatus and
a mount onto the apparatus
2. A series of stationary balances and travels on
the apparatus
3. A dismount from the apparatus
4. Travel to the next piece of apparatus
5. A series of balances and travels on that apparatus
6. A repeat of steps 4 and 5 until you have visited
each of the three (or four) pieces of apparatus in
the grouping
7. A dismount and ending shape
Remember, excitement and interest are
added to your sequence with changes and con-
trasts in movement concepts . (See listing above.)
Also, grouping the apparatus and traveling be-
tween them frees the inner spirit for creativity, as
dance and gymnastics are combined for your fi nal
project.
Portfolio. It is good to provide portfolio opportunities
as an option for students. As an example, you might
tell students the following: Practice your sequence as
if you were preparing for a gymnastics competi-
tion or a recital. When you have completed and
timed it with your music, show it to a friend and
then to me. If you wish, we will then videotape the
sequence for inclusion in your portfolio as your
self-expression in gymnastics. Refer to Chapter 14,
“Assessing Student Learning,” for the use of portfolios
for assessment in physical education.
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. In your own words, defi ne balancing. Be sure to
include the meanings of base of support and center
of gravity .
2. Draw or diagram (stick fi gures are best) the three
key teaching concepts that are emphasized in pro-
viding balance experiences.
3. What is the difference between a static balance
and a dynamic balance?
4. What are the characteristics of balancing for each
of the skill levels? For example, what does a pre-
control-level balance look like?
5. List three concepts or skills typically used as sub-
themes with balance.
6. Why are muscular tension, counterbalance, and
alignment of body parts important in the teaching
of gymnastics for children?
7. List fi ve different pieces of equipment that chil-
dren can use to practice balancing. Include a task
you might use with each piece of equipment.
8. Educational gymnastics does not require Olympic-
style apparatus. List or diagram four pieces of non-
Olympic gymnastics equipment that can be used
CHAPTER 22 Balancing 399
for balancing. List three tasks for your balance
study on the equipment.
9. What does inverted balance mean?
10. Why are jumping and landing studied in conjunc-
tion with balances on apparatus?
11. How is transfer of weight typically combined with
balancing to present challenging tasks to children
at the utilization and profi ciency levels?
References /Suggested Readings
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 1995 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. St. Louis, MO: Mosby .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2004 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. 2nd ed. Reston, VA: NASPE .
400 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
400
C H A P T E R
23
Transferring Weight and Rolling
CHAPTER 23 Transferring Weight and Rolling 401
transfers onto specifi c body parts with stretching and
twisting. Challenging activities include:
• Vaulting over apparatus
• Mounting apparatus by using inverted positions
• Traveling on apparatus with curling actions
Children profi cient in transferring weight enjoy the
transfer from feet to feet with aerial actions between the
contacts. They combine stretching, curling, and twisting
with fl ight onto, off, and over apparatus. Profi ciency-
level weight transference includes many Olympic-style
stunts and specifi c gymnastics apparatus. These tasks
are best taught by trained coaches in club gymnastics.
The progression in gymnastics is from mats on the
fl oor to low apparatus with a large surface to higher
apparatus with a narrow surface. Our progression spi-
ral (page 402) presents the full spectrum of weight
transfer, from the precontrol level to the profi ciency
level. Alternative ways of further developing the ideas
are discussed in Chapter 13.
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration of Weight Transfer
Tasks at the precontrol level are designed for the ex-
ploration of transferring weight to different body
parts. Through this exploration children will begin to
T o travel —walking, running, leaping, rolling,
stepping, springing, sliding — is to transfer weight
on hands, on feet, on different body parts. The
infant creeping on trunk and elbows is transferring
weight, as is the toddler shifting weight from side to
side during the beginning phase of walking unassisted,
the gymnast performing a walkover, the Russian dancer
executing a series of rapid mule kicks, the athlete
poised to shift her weight to fake an opponent, and
the dancer collapsing to the fl oor in an expression of
grace and control. Locomotion is transfer of weight.
Probably the most common form of weight transfer
is from foot to foot. In its simplest form, this is walk-
ing. At an advanced level— and when combined with
the stretching, curling, and twisting actions of layouts
and with full-body twists — it demands extraordinary
kinesthetic awareness, muscular strength, and control.
While we have chosen to develop transferring weight
and rolling separately in this chapter, rolling is simply
one form of weight transfer, and often the two ideas
are developed simultaneously. See Box 23-1 for infor-
mation on weight transfer from the National Standards
for Physical Education.
Levels of Skill Profi ciency in Transferring Weight
Children at the precontrol level are still trying to achieve
control of their bodies when they transfer weight to dif-
ferent body parts. They enjoy traveling on body parts
other than their feet, and they enjoy ex ploring appara-
tus. Activities at the precontrol level include:
• Traveling on specifi c body parts (such as feet and
seat or hands and feet)
• Transferring weight by sliding, slithering, or creeping
Children at the control level are ready to trans fer
their weight onto specifi c body parts, such as the back
for rolling actions and the hands for inverted balances
and travel. Activities at the control level focus on:
• Stretching, curling, and twisting into transfers
• Transferring weight following step-and-spring
takeoffs
• Transferring weight onto and off equipment using
different body parts
• Transferring weight from feet to hands
Children at the utilization level are ready to transfer
their weight onto their hands for travel and balances,
for spring takeoffs, and for walkovers. At this level,
weight is also transferred by rolling. At the utilization
level, the child tries movements that combine the
The Skills of Transferring Weight and Rolling in the National Standards for Physical Education
The movement skill of transferring weight is referenced in
the National Association for Sport and Physical Education’s
National Standards for Physical Education (NASPE 2004)
under Standard 1: “Demonstrates competency in motor
skills and movement patterns needed to perform a variety
of physical activities.”
Sample performance outcomes from the National Stan-
dards include:
• Develops and refi nes a gymnastics sequence demon-
strating smooth transitions (3 – 5)*
• Designs and performs gymnastics sequences that com-
bine traveling, rolling, balancing, and weight transfer into
smooth, fl owing sequences with intentional changes in
direction, speed, and fl ow (6 – 8)*
*Grade-level guidelines for expected student learning.
Box 23-1
402 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
develop an awareness of the body parts best suited for
weight transfer.
Locomotor Actions
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Skill Theme Development Sequence
Transferring Weight Profi ciency Level
Club gymnastics
Olympic-style transfers
Utilization Level
Combining weight transfer and balances into sequences on
mats and apparatus
Combining skills on mats
Transferring weight on bars
Transferring weight to hands on low apparatus
Transferring weight by rolling (bench, box, or table)
Transferring weight along apparatus
Transferring weight over apparatus (vaulting box)
Transferring weight onto bars (parallel bars, climbing frame)
Transferring weight to head and hands on apparatus (box,
beam, table)
Transferring weight onto large apparatus
Transferring weight to hands and forming a bridge
Transferring weight to hands and twisting
Transferring weight to hands: walking
Control Level
Transferring weight to hands by stepping: cartwheels
Maintaining transfer from feet to hands
Transferring onto low apparatus
Traveling over low apparatus
Making spring /step takeoffs with sequences
Transferring off low apparatus (bench, crate, or low table)
Performing spring /step takeoffs onto crates and /or benches
Performing spring /step takeoffs
Stretching, curling, and twisting into transfers
Transferring weight from feet to combinations of body parts
Transferring weight with a rolling action
Transferring weight to hands across mats
Precontrol Level
Transferring weight onto and off equipment
Transferring weight to hands momentarily
Transferring weight with a rocking action
Locomotor actions
Tasks /Challenges:
T All locomotor movements are actions of transfer-
ring weight. When you walk, hop, skip, or gal-
lop, you transfer your weight from foot to foot.
Let’s review some of the locomotor movements.
Travel throughout general space with a skip or
gallop.
T Travel with a jump — two feet to two feet.
T Hop on one foot. Do you transfer weight to differ-
ent body parts when you hop? No, you move on
one foot only.
Additional exploration:
T Travel and jump high in the air like a basketball
player.
T Travel and jump over a brook; a large, flat rock;
a pu ddle. This jump is sometimes called a leap —
taking off on one foot and landing on the
other.
T Explore other ways to travel throughout general
space, transferring weight from foot to foot; twirl,
spin, slide . . .
T Explore traveling on body parts other than your
feet: slither, crawl, walk like a crab . . .
When you skip, you transfer weight from what
body part to what body part? When you jump,
you transfer from what to what? What is the differ-
ence between a jump and a hop?
Transferring Weight with a Rocking Action
Setting: Individual mats and /or carpet squares through-
out general space, with suffi cient room between for
children to work safely
Tasks /Challenges:
T Squat on your feet with your back rounded like an
egg. Transfer your weight from your feet to your
back with a rocking action.
T Transfer your weight from your feet to your
rounded back, and return to your feet with the
rocking action.
T Give the rocking action a little extra effort, trans-
ferring your weight from feet to rounded back, to
feet, and then returning to a standing position.
Transferring Weight to Hands Momentarily
Setting: Large gymnastics mats and /or small mats that
will not slide as children transfer weight, scattered
throughout general space
CHAPTER 23 Transferring Weight and Rolling 403
Tasks /Challenges:
T When we were exploring transferring weight, you
practiced taking your weight on your hands and
bringing your feet to the fl oor at the same place.
Practice taking your weight on your hands and
bringing your feet down safely at a new place — to
the right or the left of their original place.
T Now you are going to transfer your weight from
your feet to your hands to travel across your mat
or rope. Begin at one end of your mat (carpet
square or rope), transfer your weight to your hands,
and bring your feet down on the other side. You
will travel across your mat by transferring your
weight from feet to hands to feet.
You may want to begin in a squat position with
your feet on the fl oor and your hands on the other
side of the rope or carpet square, or relatively close
to your feet on the mat. Transfer your weight to
your hands and bring your feet down a short dis-
tance away — just over the rope or carpet square.
C When you are comfortable taking your weight on
your hands a longer time and you are landing
safely, kick your legs higher in the air to remain on
your hands even longer. Stretch your legs as you
kick them higher.
T Stand at the side of your mat (square, rope) in a
front-back stance. Extend your arms upward. Step
forward with your lead foot, and transfer your
weight to your hands. Bring your feet to the fl oor
on the opposite side of your mat (square, rope). If
you stretch your trunk and legs as you transfer
your weight to one hand and then the other, you
will begin to do a cartwheel.
Transferring Weight with a Rolling Action
Setting: Small mats and /or carpet squares scattered
throughout general space
Cues
Rounded Back (Keep your back
rounded, body curled for
a good roll.)
Push with Your Hands (Remember to push with
your hands so your head
does not get stuck when
you roll.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Remember when you did the rocking action by
transferring your weight from your feet to your
rounded back? We are going to use that action
Tasks /Challenges:
T Transfer your weight from your feet to your hands
to your feet, momentarily taking your weight on
your hands only.
Wedge mats or folded or rolled mats may be easier for chil-
dren just beginning to take weight on their hands and /or for
those uncomfortable with transfer from standing position
to mat on fl oor.
Transferring Weight onto and off Equipment
Setting: Low gymnastics equipment —benches, tables,
balance beams, and so on — scattered throughout gen-
eral space
Carefully examine all equipment to be used for
gymnastics in elementary school physical educa-
tion. Extended edges of gymnastics equipment
and bases/supports of apparatus sometimes need
extra padding to assure safety and prevention of
injury for children.
Tasks /Challenges:
The focus for exploration of equipment at the precontrol
level is safety — getting on and off equipment with personal
safety and without creating an unsafe situation for others.
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development in Weight Transfer
Tasks at the control level are designed to help children
transfer their weight to specifi c body parts — feet to
back, to hands, to head and hands — as they travel and /
or balance. For children to maintain control of their
bodies during weight transfer is the goal at this level.
A note about cues: Although several cues are listed for
many of the learning experiences, it’s important to fo-
cus on only one cue at a time. That way, the children
can really concentrate on that cue. Once you provide
feedback to the children and observe that most have
learned a cue, then it’s time to focus on another one.
Transferring Weight to Hands across Mats
Setting: Small mats (carpet squares or ropes stretched
on the fl oor) scattered throughout general space with
suffi cient room between for children to work safely
Cues
Strong Muscles (Strong arms and shoulders —
no collapse.)
Stretch Your Legs (Extend your legs upward —
stretch to the sky.)
404 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
now for a roll. Transfer your weight from your feet
to your rounded back. As you rock back to your
shoulders, push with your hands to roll backward
across the mat. Remember to push hard with your
hands so your neck doesn’t get stuck.
If this is the children’s fi rst experience with rolling, follow
the teaching progression for rolling in the second half of this
chapter. If this is a revisitation, review the progression care-
fully with the children.
Rolling backward is a weight-transfer skill. What
body part do you transfer to in a backward roll?
Feet to what?
T Think of the forward roll. When you do a forward
roll, you transfer your weight from your feet to
what? What is the critical cue for rolling? Now
travel across your mat, transferring your weight, as
in a forward roll.
Peer Observation. After successfully completing
transfers of weight with a forward or a backward
roll, maintaining a rounded back, a friend could
then observe the roll. That person should then re-
cord the date and initial the roll on a gymnastics
checklist in children’s portfolios. Refer to Chapter 14,
“Assessing Student Learning,” for more on the use of
peer observation for assessment in physical education.
Forward and backward rolls should always be op-
tional for children; insisting that students perform
specifi c rolls can result in serious neck injuries.
Transferring Weight from Feet to Combinations of
Body Parts
Setting: Small mats and /or carpet squares scattered
throughout general space, with suffi cient room be-
tween for children to safely transfer weight
Cues
Strong Muscles (Strong arms and shoulders
for the transfer to hands — no
collapse.)
Rounded Back (Curl your back and body for
all rolling skills.)
Stretch Your Legs (Extend your legs upward, as
if there is a string attached
pulling your legs to the sky.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Transfer your weight from your feet to other com-
binations of body parts as you travel across your
mat or carpet square. Always return to your feet
( Figure 23.1 ).
Stretching, Curling, and Twisting into Transfers
Setting: Small mats and /or carpet squares scattered
throughout general space
Cues
Smooth Transitions (Move smoothly through
the transition from balance
to off balance to balance.)
Tight Muscles (Tighten your abdominal
muscles as you transfer
weight, for control of the
action.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Balance on one foot. Bend at the waist, extending
your arms forward and your free leg backward.
Stretch your arms forward until you are off balance;
then transfer your weight to your hands and next to
your curled back to roll forward out of the balance.
Children should demonstrate a mastery of rolling
forward with a rounded back before they attempt
this task.
T Balance on your knees and one hand. Extend your
free arm under your body, twisting your trunk until
your weight transfers to your shoulder and new
bases of support. Twist gently into the new balance.
T Balance in a shoulder stand with your weight on
your shoulders, upper arms, and head, stretching
your legs toward the ceiling. Twist your legs and
trunk, bringing your feet to the mat behind you in
a new balance.
T Balance on your chosen base of support. Twist un-
til you are momentarily off balance; transfer your
weight onto a new base of support.
T Balance on your chosen base again. Use different
stretching, curling, and twisting actions to transfer
onto new bases of support.
Performing Spring /Step Takeoffs
Before practicing spring and step takeoffs in weight transfer,
children should be at the control level of jumping and land-
ing (Chapter 21).
Setting: Large gymnastics mats throughout general space
Cues
Heads Up (Keep your head and shoulders
erect for a balanced landing.)
Soft Landings (Bend your knees on landing to
absorb the force.)
CHAPTER 23 Transferring Weight and Rolling 405
Tasks /Challenges:
T Approach your gymnastics mat from a distance of
10 to 12 feet. Just before you reach the mat, use a
two-foot takeoff to spring high in the air; land
softly in the center of the mat. The spring takeoff in
gymnastics is very similar to the approach on the
diving board.
The spring takeoff is used for gymnastics skills requiring
power — for example, mounts onto beams and parallel bars,
handsprings, and vaulting. It is a jump for height; that is
why the arms are extended upward. It is also the takeoff
used for a basketball jump ball or rebound.
T Approach the mat, spring off your two feet,
make a quarter turn, and land in a balanced
position. Now try the turn in the opposite
direction.
T When you are comfortable with the quarter turn,
try a half turn. Remember to practice both clock-
wise and counterclockwise turns.
T Approach the mat from the distance of 10 to 12 feet.
Using a step takeoff , land on your two feet in the
center of the mat.
The step takeoff is the takeoff used for gymnastics skills
requiring slow control. Who can give some examples of
those? Right, walkovers and cartwheels. It is also the take-
off needed for a layup in basketball.
Performing Spring /Step Takeoffs onto
Crates and /or Benches
Setting: Milk crates positioned against large gymnas-
tics mats
Figure 23.1 Transfer of
weight from feet to other
body parts.
406 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Place the crates against mats to prevent them from
sliding.
Cues
Heads Up (Keep your head and shoulders erect
for a balanced landing.)
Easy On (Slowly absorb weight on crate —with
control.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Approach the crate or bench from a distance of 10
to 15 feet. Using either a spring or a step takeoff,
land in a balanced position on the crate.
C Practice each takeoff until you can transfer your
weight onto the crate or bench in a balanced posi-
tion three times.
T Approach the crate or bench, use a spring takeoff,
and transfer your weight to your feet and hands
on the crate or bench. Remember to take your
weight momentarily on your hands and
then softly lower your body to the crate or
bench.
T Approach the crate or bench, use a step takeoff,
and transfer your weight momentarily to your
hands only on the crate or bench. Remember,
strong arms for weight on hands. Transferring off Low Apparatus (Bench,
Crate, or Low Table)
Setting: Benches, crates, and /or low tables surrounded
by mats and positioned throughout general space
Cues
Rounded Back (Keep your back rounded, body
curled with chin tucked for a
good roll.)
Soft Landings (Bend your knees on landing to
absorb the force.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Transfer your weight off the bench or crate by as-
suming a kneeling position, placing your hands
on the mat, slowly lowering your weight to the
mat, and rolling forward.
Transferring off apparatus by rolling should be in-
troduced only after children have mastered rolling
on the fl oor or mats.
T Transfer your weight off the bench or low table with
a jump. Make a wide body shape by extending your
arms and legs while in the air. Land in a balanced
position on two feet on the mat. Remember to keep
your head and shoulders erect as you jump.
T Transfer off the bench or low table with a jump,
making curled, narrow, and twisted shapes while
in the air, and then each time land in your bal-
anced position.
T Transfer off the bench or low table with a jump,
turning in the air so that you land facing in a dif-
ferent direction. Remember to twist your shoulders
in the direction you wish to turn.
T When you are comfortable with a quarter turn, try
to execute a half turn in the air so you land facing
in a different direction.
Revisit /review “Jumping to Form a Body Shape During
Flight” in Chapter 21(page 363) for additional tasks. Al-
though specifi c tasks for transferring weight with large
apparatus aren’t listed until the utilization level, children
at the precontrol and control levels need exploration time
on large apparatus to become familiar with the equip-
ment and to gain confi dence moving on it.
Making Spring /Step Takeoffs with Sequences
Setting: Benches, crates, and /or low tables surrounded
by mats
Cues
Soft Landings (Absorb the force; land softly on
and off the equipment.)
Smooth (Move with control from balance,
Transitions to transfer, to balance . . .)
Rounded Back (Remember, a curled body with
chin tucked for all rolls.)
Children should be able to tell you the critical cues for the
skills and demonstrate the individual skills before combin-
ing skills in sequences.
Tasks /Challenges:
T Approach the bench (crate, table), and use either a
step or a spring takeoff to transfer onto it. Decide
what body parts are going to serve as your fi rst
bases of support before you begin; this will deter-
mine whether you use a step or a spring takeoff.
T Create a series of four balances by transferring your
weight to different body parts on the bench (crate,
table).
Review “Balancing on Different Bases of Support” (page 379),
“Balancing in Different Body Shapes” (page 380), and “Bal-
ancing Symmetrically and Nonsymmetrically” (page 380) in
Chapter 22.
CHAPTER 23 Transferring Weight and Rolling 407
T Transfer off the bench (crate, table) in one of the
following ways: (1) jumping and turning; (2) jump-
ing and making a shape while in the air; (3) rolling;
or (4) using a transfer that you have created.
Have the student tell you if the transfer off the low
apparatus includes inversion or weight on hands;
if so, be sure the student demonstrates mastery on
the fl oor or mats before attempting a transfer off
the low apparatus.
Traveling over Low Apparatus
Setting: Milk crates, benches, low tables, hurdles, and
milk-jug /rolled-newspaper or dowel-rod “hurdles”
throughout general space ( Figure 23.2 )
Cues
Strong Muscles (Strong arms and shoulders —
no collapse.)
Stretch Your Legs (Extend your legs upward —
stretch to the sky.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Travel over the various pieces of low equipment
by transferring your weight from your feet to
your hands to your feet. At the hurdles and the
newspaper or dowel rods, place your hands on
the mat on the other side of the hurdle or rod,
and then transfer your weight over, landing on
your feet. At the benches and milk crates, place
your hands on the equipment, take your weight
on your hands only, and land on your feet on the
opposite side of the equipment.
T As you become comfortable taking your weight on
your hands, kick higher toward the ceiling, stretch-
ing your legs and trunk.
Transferring onto Low Apparatus
Setting: Benches, crates, and /or low tables surrounded
by mats in general space
Cues
Strong Muscles (Strong arms and shoulders for
transfer onto hands.)
Soft Landings (Absorb the force on feet and /or
hands and lower body gently
onto apparatus.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Use the benches (crates, low tables) to practice
transferring your weight onto equipment. Transfer
your weight from your feet to your hands on the
equipment by springing off your two feet and
landing on your hands and feet. Take your weight
momentarily on your hands, then softly lower to
your feet; don’t jump onto the equipment.
T Using your spring takeoff, transfer your weight to
your hands and knees on the apparatus. Yes, you still
take your weight momentarily on your hands only.
T Use a front-back stance and step into the transfer,
momentarily taking your weight on your hands
only on the equipment, then lowering your total
body onto additional body parts. Be sure your
hands are fi rmly planted on the equipment so you
won’t slip when you transfer to hands-only.
Low bench
Vaulting box
Onto/off
Onto/off and over
Low table
Onto/off
Dowel rod resting on milk crates
Dowel rod between milk jugs
Over
Over
Over
Milk crates
Onto/off
a b
c
d
e
f g
Figure 23.2 Equipment setups for transfer
of weight when traveling over low apparatus.
408 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Maintaining Transfer from Feet to Hands
Setting: Large gymnastics mats scattered throughout
general space, with suffi cient room between for children
to work safely
Cues
Strong Muscles (Strong arms and shoulders to
take weight on hands.)
Stretch to the Sky (Stretch your trunk and legs
upward.)
Alignment (Feet over hips, over shoulders,
over hands—in a straight line.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Transfer your weight from your feet to your hands
to your feet, momentarily taking your weight on
your hands only. Reach downward, not forward,
with your hands. Stretch your legs toward the ceiling and tighten your stomach muscles to
maintain your balance.
You may want to begin in a squat position with
your hands and feet touching the fl oor. Transfer
your weight to your hands by kicking your feet in
the air.
Use a step action to transfer your weight to your
hands; try to have your shoulders directly over
your hands when you kick your legs up.
T When you are comfortable with your feet being
just a few inches off the fl oor, begin to kick your
feet higher in the air.
C Practice until you can balance for 3 seconds on
your hands. Transfer your weight back to your feet
in their original position each time.
Teach children in the practice stages of taking
weight on hands to twist the trunk, doing a quar-
ter turn and bringing feet down to the fl oor safely,
if they begin to overbalance. This prevents falling
on the back in the event of an overbalance.
Journal. This is an opportune time to have chil-
dren record in their journals the date on which
they successfully took their weight on their hands
for 3 seconds. Have them describe the feeling of
“weight on hands.” Refer to Chapter 14, “Assessing
Student Learning,” for the use of journals in physical
education.
Transferring Weight to Hands by
Stepping: Cartwheels
Setting: Large gymnastics mats throughout general
space, with suffi cient room for children to work safely
Cues
Strong Muscles (Strong arms and shoulders to
take weight on hands.)
Stretch (Stretch your trunk and legs
toward the sky — legs straight.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Using a step action, alternate transferring your
weight to your feet and to your hands, returning
to your feet in a step action, as in a cartwheel. Your
weight transfers momentarily from one foot to the
other foot, to one hand, to the other hand, to the
foot, to the other foot.
T Experiment with beginning the cartwheel by fac-
ing the mat or by standing sideways with one
shoulder toward the mat. You may choose either
starting position.
T As you feel comfortable with the foot-foot-hand-
hand-foot-foot transfer, try to make a straight
pathway with your feet and hands along the mat.
T Practice leading fi rst with your right and then with
your left side so you can do a cartwheel in either
direction.
Traveling over, under, and through apparatus builds youngsters’ skills
in transferring weight to a variety of body parts, as well as their
comfort with the equipment.
CHAPTER 23 Transferring Weight and Rolling 409
Taking weight on the hands from a piece of equipment is a utilization
level task.
C Practice until you can perform your cartwheel in a
straight line three times.
Portfolio. Achievements in weight transference
are exciting for children. When they can perform
a cartwheel in a straight line, with legs fully
stretched in the air, have a partner assess the
skill. Have them record the date on a gymnastics
checklist in their portfolios. Refer to Chapter 14,
“Assessing Student Learning,” for guidelines on
assessment.
T Transfer your weight to your hands, as in the cart-
wheel. While you are balanced in the inverted po-
sition, bring your feet together, twist a half turn,
and bring your feet down quickly to face in the
opposite direction; this is a roundoff.
Children won’t master gymnastics tasks in only one or two
30-minute lessons. A station format plus revisitation (see
Chapter 13) provides opportunities for distributed practice
of skills.
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development in Weight Transfer
Children at the utilization level of transferring weight
learn to transfer their weight to their hands for longer
periods of time and in combinations with stretching,
curling, and twisting actions. Tasks are designed to
teach children to transfer weight onto, over, and off
large apparatus. The tasks also emphasize the develop-
ment of more complex sequences involving weight
transference.
A note about cues: Although several cues are listed
for many of the learning experiences, it’s important to
focus on only one cue at a time. That way, the chil-
dren can really concentrate on that cue. Once you
provide feedback to the children and observe that
most have learned a cue, then it’s time to focus on
another one.
Transferring Weight to Hands: Walking
Setting: Large gymnastics mats throughout general
space, with suffi cient room for children to work safely
on transfers
Cues
Strong Muscles (Strong arms and shoulders for
weight on hands.)
Stretch (Stretch your trunk and legs
toward the sky — legs straight.)
Alignment (Feet over hips, over shoulders,
over hands — in a straight
line.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T When you are confi dent and comfortable balanc-
ing on your hands for 3 seconds, try walking on
your hands.
Children should attempt walking on their hands
only if they have suffi cient upper-body strength to
support weight in the inverted position for several
seconds and can move into and out of a balance
on their hands only with control.
Transferring Weight to Hands and Twisting
Setting: Large gymnastics mats throughout general
space, with suffi cient room for children to work safely
on transfers
Cues
Strong Muscles (Strong arms and shoulders for
weight on hands.)
Stretch (Stretch your trunk and legs
toward the sky — legs straight.)
Alignment (Feet over hips, over shoulders,
over hands — in a straight
line.)
410 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Tasks /Challenges:
T Transfer your weight to your hands, twist your
body a half turn, and bring your feet to the fl oor so
that you are facing in the opposite direction.
T While balanced on your hands, slowly walk on your
hands a half turn to face in the opposite direction.
Transferring Weight to Hands and Forming a Bridge
Setting: Large gymnastics mats throughout general
space
Cues
Strong Muscles (Strong arms and shoulders for
supporting weight on hands.)
Tight Muscles (Tighten the abdominals for con-
trol.)
Extend (Stretch from your fi ngertips to
your toes as you transfer from
feet to hands to feet.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Using a step action, transfer your weight to your
hands with suffi cient force to continue the forward
motion. Your feet should remain in the steplike
stance as they move upward over your hands. Just
before your feet contact the fl oor, bring them to-
gether, and bend your knees slightly. You will then
balance in a “bridge” with your feet and hands
supporting your weight. Keep your legs in the step-
like stance throughout the transfer.
T As your feet contact the surface, push with your
hands to continue your transfer to a standing posi-
tion. This transfer without a pause is a walkover.
Transferring Weight onto Large Apparatus
Setting: Large apparatus — benches, tables, vaulting
boxes, balance beams, parallel bars, large climbing
frames — placed around the gym. Many transfers at the
utilization and profi ciency levels of transferring weight are
specifi c to particular pieces of apparatus; the name of the
apparatus appears in parentheses following the task title.
Cues
Heads Up (Keep your head and shoulders
erect as you approach the
apparatus.)
Soft Landings (Absorb the force on your feet
and /or hands and lower your
body slowly to the apparatus.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Transferring weight onto large apparatus in gymnas-
tics usually includes an approach to build momen-
tum, a spring or step takeoff, and the transfer onto
the apparatus. Approach the apparatus from about
15 feet. Using a spring takeoff, transfer your weight
from your feet on the fl oor to your feet and hands on
the apparatus (box, beam, table). Remember, you
will need a spring takeoff for power and/or height;
a step takeoff is a slower way to transfer weight.
T Transfer your weight to your feet and hands with
your body curled in a tuck position. (Model.)
T Transfer your weight to your feet and hands with
legs extended in a straddle position. (Model.)
T Transfer your weight to your feet and hands in a
“wolf” position: one knee bent, one leg straight
( Figure 23.3 ). (Model.)
T Approach the apparatus from the sides as well as
the front. Practice both spring and step takeoffs to
transfer your weight to various body parts on the
apparatus. Remember, you will need a spring
takeoff for power and/or height; a step takeoff
is a slower way to transfer weight. Many of the control-level tasks for transferring weight onto
and off low apparatus can be repeated for large apparatus.
This is good practice because it enables children to adjust
comfortably to the increased height and narrower surface of
large apparatus.
Transferring Weight to Head and Hands
on Apparatus (Box, Beam, Table)
Setting: Large apparatus placed throughout general
space, with suffi cient mats for children to work safely
Cues
Heads Up (Keep your head and shoulders
erect as you approach the
apparatus.)
Strong Muscles (Strong arm and shoulder
muscles to support weight on
the apparatus.)
Soft Landings (Absorb the force on your feet
and /or hands and lower your
body slowly to the apparatus.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Approach the apparatus, and use a spring takeoff to
transfer your weight to your hands and head on the
apparatus. Push hard with your legs on the takeoff
for suffi cient height and time for the transfer, taking
CHAPTER 23 Transferring Weight and Rolling 411
your weight fi rst on your hands only and then gen-
tly, with control, on your head and hands.
Have the children approach the box, beam, or table
from the end rather than the side for this transfer
to head and hands. This allows suffi cient space for
rolling across the apparatus if they overbalance.
Teach the children to roll slowly across the apparatus
if they overbalance on the head-and-hands transfer;
teach them to transfer weight back to their feet on
the fl oor if they do not have suffi cient push to move
into the inverted position on the apparatus.
Transferring Weight onto Bars
(Parallel Bars, Climbing Frame)
Setting: Large apparatus placed throughout general
space, with suffi cient mats surrounding for safety
Cues
Heads Up (Keep your head and shoulders
erect as you approach the
apparatus.)
Strong Muscles (Strong arm and shoulder
muscles to support weight on
the apparatus.)
Soft Landings (Absorb the force on your feet
and /or hands and lower your
body slowly to the apparatus.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Standing under the apparatus, use a spring takeoff
to transfer your weight to your hands on a high
bar. Hanging on the bar, pull up with your arms as
you swing your legs over a lower bar and balance
in a sitting position.
T Approach the apparatus with a series of steps. Us-
ing a spring takeoff, grasp the bar with your hands
and jump up. Push really hard with your arms to
lift your body above the bar; balance with your
hands and upper thighs on the bar. Swing a leg
over the bar so you can straddle the bar.
T Approach the apparatus with a series of steps. As you
step under the bar, grasp the bar with your hands,
and kick your rear leg forcefully upward to bring
your hips to the bar. Keeping your arms bent and
pulling your body close to the bar, assume a pike
position by bending at the hips. The momentum of
the leg kick will cause your body to circle the bar.
Balance on your hands and upper thighs on the bar.
Figure 23.3 Tuck, wolf, and straddle positions on large apparatus following spring takeoffs.
412 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
C You have now practiced jumping into a hip mount
and doing a hip circle with the body in a pike posi-
tion. Practice these skills until you master them.
Then add them to your gymnastics checklist in
your portfolio.
T Approach the apparatus from the back, front, and
side; practice both spring and step takeoffs to
transfer your weight to various body parts on the
apparatus.
Transferring Weight over Apparatus (Vaulting Box)
Setting: Vaulting boxes, with suffi cient mats for safety,
in general space
Cues
Heads Up (Keep your head and shoulders
erect as you approach the
apparatus.)
Strong Muscles (Strong arm and shoulder
muscles to support weight on
the apparatus.)
Soft Landings (Bend your knees for a con-
trolled landing.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Approach the vaulting box with light running steps,
keeping your weight on the balls of your feet. Using
a spring takeoff, plant your hands fi rmly on the
box, shoulder-width apart. Travel over the vaulting
box, landing on your two feet on the mat.
Position yourself at the vaulting station when chil-
dren are transferring weight over the apparatus. As
a spotter, you should not help the children per-
form the skill, but you can help prevent serious
injury from a fall. Because spotting techniques dif-
fer for each skill, you should consult a gymnastics
text or certifi ed gymnastics coach before attempt-
ing to spot students in specifi c gymnastics tasks.
T Now transfer over the box by placing your hands
shoulder-width apart on the apparatus, bringing
your legs up between your arms in a tuck or curled
position. Pause momentarily on the box in this
curled shape; then jump forward to the mat.
T Push harder with your hands this time to bring
your body into a curled position, and push your-
self over the box without pausing in the tuck posi-
tion on top of the box.
Children should attempt vaulting over the box
with a curled, straddle, or wolf vault only after
they have mastered transferring onto the appara-
tus with these techniques.
T Transfer over the vaulting box by bringing your
feet and legs together, stretched to one side, as you
cross over the box. Place your hands shoulder-width
apart on the box, and shift your weight to one
hand as you swing your legs over the box. Push off
from the vaulting box with the supporting hand,
Transfer of weight on low equip-
ment precedes the use of high
equipment.
CHAPTER 23 Transferring Weight and Rolling 413
landing on two feet with your back to the vaulting
box. This is called a fl ank vault. That spring takeoff
we practiced earlier becomes increasingly important
as you work on mounts onto and transfers over
large apparatus.
T Transfer your weight onto the vaulting box in a
wide shape by placing your hands shoulder-width
apart and stretching your legs to either side of the
box, supporting your weight momentarily on your
feet and hands. From a standing position on the
vaulting box, transfer your weight to your feet by
jumping to the mat. You will need a really strong
takeoff to gain the height for this transfer.
T Transfer your weight over the vaulting box by taking
your weight on your hands, shoulder-width apart,
and bringing your feet over the box in the stretched,
wide shape. Keep your head and shoulders erect to
prevent losing your balance. This is called a straddle
vault. Do not attempt this vault without the spotter
(teacher or qualifi ed adult) at the station.
Always have the children tell you which vault they
are attempting and whether they are stopping on
top or transferring over before they begin their ap-
proach. This allows you to be ready for the proper
spotting of that skill.
Transferring Weight along Apparatus
Setting: Stationary bar, tables and benches of various
heights, vaulting boxes, balance beam, a stage
Many of the gymnastics skills learned on the fl oor and on
low equipment can also be performed on large apparatus.
Before children try them on a large apparatus, they should
review the skills on the fl oor or mats, then on the low equip-
ment, concentrating on the skill and its critical cues.
Transferring Weight by Rolling (Bench, Box, or Table)
Setting: Benches, vaulting boxes, and /or tables of vari-
ous heights, surrounded by suffi cient mats for children
to work safely
Cues
Rounded Back (Keep your back curled, chin
tucked for a good roll.)
Control (Tight muscles, slow-motion
action for control throughout the
roll.)
Tasks /Challenges:
Remind children to position themselves at one
end of the bench, box, or table to start the roll so
that they will have enough surface to complete the
rolling action.
T Transfer your weight to your feet and hands on the
bench, box, or table, with your back curled. Place
your thumbs and the sides of your palms on top of
the bench or box, with your hands and fi ngers on
the sides of the apparatus. (Although this position
is quite different from that used for rolling on
mats, it provides a steady grip and constant aware-
ness of the width of the surface.) Tuck your head,
and slowly roll forward across the apparatus.
T Transfer your weight to your feet and hands with a
curled back. Slowly transfer to your curled back and
hands for rolling backward across the bench, box, or
table. Extend your hands above your head to hold
onto the sides of the box or bench; place your head
to one side, and roll backward over one shoulder.
T Roll backward on the apparatus by transferring your
weight from your curled back to one bent knee with
one leg extended. This backward transfer is often
easier when balancing on the small surface.
Permit students to transfer weight by rolling across
the apparatus only after they have demonstrated
sustained control of the rolling action on the low
apparatus. They should be able to stop the move-
ment at any point in the rolling action.
This student practices transferring off an apparatus, taking weight
on hands.
414 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Transferring Weight to Hands on Low Apparatus
Setting: Tape lines on the gym fl oor, with suffi cient
space between for children to work safely; low benches
surrounded by mats
Cues
Strong Muscles (Strong arms and shoulders to
take weight on hands.)
Stretch (Stretch your trunk and legs
toward the sky—legs straight.)
Muscular Tension (Maintain tension through
arms, trunk, and legs for full
extension — stretched for
cartwheels, arched for
walkovers.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Practice a cartwheel on a tape line on the fl oor
until you can do it perfectly three times. Now
transfer your weight from your feet to your hands
in a cartwheel on the low bench.
Teaching by invitation or intratask variation (Chapter 11)
is very effective when working with transferring weight on
apparatus. Permit only those children who are clearly
ready to do so to practice inverted weight transference
along apparatus.
T Transfer your weight from your feet to your hands,
as in a walkover, on the bench.
T Transfer your weight from your feet to your hands,
slowly execute a half turn, and bring your feet
down on the apparatus surface facing the opposite
direction.
Teach children to push with their hands to move the
body away from the bench and to transfer weight to
their feet on the fl oor if they feel off balance or un-
able to complete the transfer after inverting.
C Create three ways to transfer your weight while
moving along the apparatus. Consider changes in
levels and directions of travel. Diagram and /or de-
scribe your transfers on paper. Show your three
transfers to a friend; ask the friend to give you
pointers to make your transfers even better.
Peer Observation. Children working together, as
in the preceding task, can be an excellent type of
assessment. Refer to Chapter 14, “Assessing Student
Learning,” for more information on peer assessment.
Transferring Weight on Bars
Setting: Parallel bars and /or large climbing frame, with
suffi cient mats surrounding
Cues
Strong Grip (Maintain a strong grip on the
bars to work safely.)
Strong Muscles (Strong arm and shoulder
muscles to maintain control on
the bars.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Transfer your weight to different body parts as you
move from bar to bar on the parallels or other
climbing apparatus. Make some of your transfers
very slowly; others, quickly.
T Circle the bar with your body curled, in a pike
position.
T Use twisting actions to move your body off balance
and into the transfer.
Combining Skills on Mats
Setting: Large gymnastics mats in general space, with
suffi cient room between for children to work safely
Cues
Individual cues as needed
Tasks /Challenges:
T Travel the length of your mat, transferring your
weight from your feet to other body parts, in various
combinations to create a sequence. For example:
• Perform slow movements and then very quick
movements for contrast.
• Do movements that show strength and then
movements that demonstrate slowness and
smooth control.
• Perform twisting, turning actions — for example,
a roundoff, weight on your hands, a 360-degree
turn on your hands.
• Travel the length of your mat, combining a
balance, a jump, a roll, and a hands/feet action.
• Travel the length of your mat, transferring your
weight from your feet to your hands, followed
by a roll and an ending balance.
Combining Weight Transfer and Balances
into Sequences on Mats and Apparatus
Setting: Large and small gymnastics apparatus, the
large apparatus positioned in general space
Cues
Individual cues as needed
CHAPTER 23 Transferring Weight and Rolling 415
Tasks /Challenges:
Gymnastics routines on mats and apparatus are combi-
nations of weight transfers and balance. Children at the
utilization and profi ciency levels of balance and weight
transfer are ready for sequences involving combinations of
skills and travel. Figure 23.4 gives an example of an as-
signment, plus guidelines for completing it.
Assessment Example
From the National Standards for Physical Education
Event Task
As the fi nal project in gymnastics, students are to de-
sign a 90-second routine for either mats or apparatus.
They may choose to work alone or with a partner; the
partner relationship may be mirror or side by side.
The routine must include an approach, development,
and ending shape or dismount. The development
portion of the routine must include the following: a
minimum of four balances of different shapes and
bases of support, a minimum of three locomotor
and /or nonlocomotor actions, weight transfer, and
at least two inversions. The selection of music for
the routine is a student decision. The routine is to
be diagrammed or written on paper and practiced
until the sequence is memorized in its entirety. The
routine will be videotaped for inclusion in student
portfolios.
Name
Final Project: Gymnastics
Grade 6: (a) mat sequence, (b) equipment sequence
Alone; with a partner: mirror, side by side
1. Beginning
A. Approach:
distance, starting point, pathway
walk, run, leap, roll, walkover, cartwheel
other
B. Takeoff:
spring, step
2. Development of sequence: Mix in any order for interest.
A. Balances:
minimum of four body shapes/four different bases of support
B. Actions:
minimum of three
stretch, curl, twist, turn
C. Transfers:
movement
feet to hand, back, head/hands
(headstands, cartwheels, rolls, etc.)
D. Inversion:
minimum of two
3. Ending shape or dismount
A. Music selection: ninety seconds
B. On back side of page, list the progression of section 2; illustrate it if you wish.
Figure 23.4 Sample assignment
for utilization- or profi ciency-level
weight-transfer and balance
sequence.
416 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Criteria for Assessment
a. Routine includes all necessary components: approach,
balances, weight transfers, inversion, dismount (end-
ing shape).
b. Routine matches music in length.
c. Demonstrates changes in tempo in routine.
d. Selects balances and weight transfers that can be
correctly performed (i.e., skills matched to personal
gymnastic ability).
e. Maintains stillness in balances.
f. Displays creativity in routine design.
g. Transitions between movement are smooth.
NASPE (1995, pp. 47– 48)
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development in Weight Transfer
Tasks at the profi ciency level focus on increasing the
horizontal and /or vertical distance of the weight trans-
fer, as well as the intricate maneuvers (twisting and
curling actions) that the body and its parts perform as
weight is transferred from and received by different
body parts. Examples include hands-only vaulting;
performing stretching and twisting actions while air-
borne; and dismounting from apparatus by transfer-
ring weight from hands to feet combined with aerial
twists, turns, and curls.
Activities at this level use specifi c gymnastics equip-
ment and more closely resemble Olympic-style stunts.
These skills are most often learned through club gym-
nastics. We do not teach them to the total class because
very few children attain this level of performance. For
those children who are ready to learn these skills or
already profi cient in these tasks, we provide individual
teaching or coaching (see Chapter 30).
Levels of Skill Profi ciency in Rolling
Children fi nd the sensations of rolling — dizziness, loss
of perception, and not knowing where they are or how
they’ll fi nish a roll— fascinating. The feeling of not
knowing where you are or where you will end up,
which is characteristic of a child’s fi rst attempts at roll-
ing, is both intriguing and perplexing. So children love
to roll. As they become adept at rolling, the fascination
of traveling upside down is augmented by the pleasure
of being able to roll in different directions and at vari-
ous speeds. Rolling is the act of transferring weight to
adjacent body parts around a central axis. In physical
education classes, rolling is generally dealt with in a
Skill Theme Development Sequence
Rolling Profi ciency Level
Club gymnastics
Utilization Level
Rolling, catching, and throwing
Rolling and striking
Rolling to meet and part
Rolling and balancing on equipment
Rolling onto low equipment
Rolling while throwing, and catching
Rolling to express an idea
Rolling, balancing, and rolling
Traveling and rolling between pieces of equipment
Rolling off low equipment
Rolling on low equipment
Rolling over low hurdles
Rolling, jumping, and traveling in relationship to others
Rolling and traveling quickly
Control Level
Rolling while traveling, jumping, and landing
Rolling, levels, directions, and jumping
Rolling after jumping over equipment and landing
Rolling after jumping from different heights
Rolling after jumping for height and landing
Rolling after jumping off equipment and landing
Rolling using different directions and speeds
Linking rolls
Rolling from different directions and positions
Rolling in different directions
Rolling backward
Handclasp backward roll
Back shoulder roll
Rolling at different speeds
Rolling from different positions
Rocking backward over the shoulders
Rolling forward
Rocking backward
Rolling sideways over a shoulder
Rolling sideways on different body parts
Rolling in a long, narrow position (log roll)
Rocking to match a partner
Precontrol Level
Curling to roll
Rolling sideways
Rocking on different body parts
Making curled shapes
CHAPTER 23 Transferring Weight and Rolling 417
gymnastics context, as a transference of weight. In
gymnastics, safety through rolling is a skill introduced
early to help children avoid crashing to the fl oor when
they lose their balance. In dance and games, rolling is
dealt with briefl y to increase the children’s range of
movement and to enhance expressive abilities (see the
progression spiral on page 416).
The precontrol level of rolling is characterized by
exploration of various ways in which the body is able
to be round. This exploration includes rocking ac-
tions from the head to feet on the back and stomach.
At this level, children are challenged when asked to
perform actions such as rocking back and forth like a
rocking chair or rolling in a stretched position like a
log. Rocking in a ball-like position, in preparation for
rolling, is also explored at this level. When a child
fi rst begins to roll, the arms and hands are of little
use. The child may “get over,” but the whole body
usually uncurls in the middle of the roll, and the child
lands sitting down.
At the control level, children become capable of
controlling their bodies while rolling. They are able to
roll in different directions, using their arms and hands
to push while the body stays curled. The emphasis at
this level is on control and the ability to roll in various
situations. Rolls are performed as fl oor activities, and
rolling is developed as a safety skill. Tasks such as the
following can be presented to children:
• Changing the direction of the rolls —backward,
sideways, forward
• Changing the speed of the rolls — fast or slow
• Rolling from different positions — starting from low
or standing positions and different balances (on one
foot, two feet, or three body parts)
• Combining jumping, landing, and rolling
• Traveling and rolling
At the utilization level, children no longer have to
“think about” staying round and are able to use the
roll in combination with other skills and on equip-
ment and large apparatus. Additionally, they can use
rolling as an expressive form and in combination with
manipulative skills. Activities such as the following
challenge children at this level:
• Rolling with something in their hands
• Rolling after catching an object
• Rolling on or over low equipment
• Combining rolling with other locomotor forms as
an expressive movement.
Children profi cient in rolling enjoy rolling over
high equipment and aerial rolls. They also combine
rolling as a means of weight transfer between vari-
ous forms of balance and other forms of weight
transference. At this level, children are capable of
diffi cult and sophisticated rolls, but because of safety
considerations, the teacher’s skills, equipment re-
quirements, and the student – teacher ratio of physi-
cal education classes, we do not teach them. Such
rolls as dive rolls; rolls along high, narrow equipment;
and rolls from aerial positions are better left to club
gymnastics.
Children who master the skill of rolling are able to
participate comfortably and safely in activities that in-
volve the risk of being off balance and falling, because
they possess suffi cient recovery techniques. This skill
also gives children a fl uid way to connect different bal-
ancing actions and to change direction and /or speed
in a dynamic, unpredictable situation.
When introducing the skill of rolling, we prefer to
have one mat for each child. When we don’t have a mat
for each child, we use as many mats as possible. We’ve
found that a good ground rule for any rolling situation
is to have only one child at a time on the mat. This does
not mean that the other children must stand in line and
wait; they can stand around the mat and roll, in turn, as
soon as the mat is empty. (See Figure 23.5 for a class
setup that maximizes rolling opportunities for each
child.) Sometimes we set up learning centers to prevent
long waits in line. Grassy areas or carpeting can also
serve as appropriate areas for practicing rolling. When
children roll on or over equipment, we make sure that
Rolling is a skill that fascinates children.
418 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
the surrounding area is covered with mats. When teach-
ing rolling, it is especially important to employ the
back-to-the-wall observational technique discussed in
Chapter 12.
The key observation points in Box 23-2 show the
correct and incorrect forms for rolling. Observe chil-
dren carefully to help them overcome any problems
with rolling.
As with any weight-bearing activity, it is critical to
give careful consideration to the physical maturity
and skill of each child. Before they’re ready to at-
tempt “traditional” forward and backward rolls, chil-
dren must be able to support their body weight with their
arms. We believe that children should not be forced
to do any specifi c forward or backward roll. We are
especially concerned about asking children to do
“traditional” backward and forward rolls when they
haven’t yet developed the strength they need to pro-
tect themselves from back and neck injuries. Thus,
we have provided illustrations of the hand and body
positions for a variety of rolls.
Finally, while children love the sensation of roll-
ing, it is an activity that cannot be done for ex-
tended periods. In an effort to maintain the quality
of the skill and to prevent off-task behavior because
children are “too dizzy,” we have often found it
more productive to focus on rolling for only part of
a lesson. Thus, especially in the early stages of roll-
ing, children are able to “recover” between practices
of rolling.
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration of Rolling
At the precontrol level, children explore arching or
rounding their bodies as a prerequisite to rolling. Once
they are able to curve their bodies, they explore rocking
and rolling actions that can be used for traveling and
transferring weight.
Making Curled Shapes
Setting: A mat, space on a mat, or a carpet square in a
grassy area for each child; children positioned so that
they will not rock into each other (Figure 23.5)
Tasks /Challenges:
T On your mat try to fi nd as many ways as possible
to curl your body so that it is round. Three differ-
ent ways would be good.
Rocking on Different Body Parts
Setting: A mat, space on a mat, or a carpet square in a
grassy area for each child; children positioned so that
they will not rock into each other
Tasks /Challenges:
T In self-space, you’re going to pretend to be a rock-
ing horse. But this rocking horse can do special
things. First, you want to fi nd out what it is like
to rock on your back. To rock on your back, you
must make your back round, because fl at things
can’t rock.
T Now your special rocking horse is going to try to
rock on its stomach. Remember to make your
stomach round so you can rock smoothly.
T Now you are going to try to do what no rocking
horse has ever done: you are going to try to rock
on your side. Can you make your side round?
Try it.
T Your rocking horse is just getting warmed up, so
let’s see if it can go faster. See if you can rock so fast
on your back that it takes you up to your feet.
T Now see if you can keep rocking on your back
without stopping, almost as if you can’t stop. If it
helps, use your hands and arms.
Rolling Sideways
Setting: A mat for every child or two or a large grassy
space; children positioned so that they do not roll into
each other
Figure 23.5 Mat positions that minimize the likelihood children will
rock or roll into each other.
CHAPTER 23 Transferring Weight and Rolling 419
Box 23-2
Key Observation Points: Rolling
1. Do the child’s hands and arms receive the body weight evenly at the begin-
ning of the roll without the body collapsing to one side?
2. Does the child’s head slide through as the weight goes from the hands to
the upper back and leave the mat as soon as the shoulders touch?
3. Do the child’s arms come off the mat as soon as the shoulders touch?
4. Does the child’s body stay curled and does the roll end on the feet?
5. When children are at the mature stage of rolling, do
their rolls look similar to the following sequence?
NO YES
NO YES
NO YES
NO
YES
420 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Tasks /Challenges:
T Now we are going to try something different: roll-
ing sideways, like a log. Try to roll slow and fast.
T Can you fi nd another way to roll sideways? Maybe
like an egg?
Curling to Roll
Setting: A mat for every child or two or a large grassy
space; children positioned so that they do not roll into
each other
Tasks /Challenges:
T Can you make your body like a ball? How many
ways can your ball move around your space? Re-
member, only round balls roll.
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development in Rolling
At the control level, children learn to roll in different
directions and from different positions so they’re able
to perform other movements safely and to use rolling
as a response to a fall. Children also practice rolling as
a conclusion to jumping and landing.
A note about cues: Although several cues are listed for
many of the learning experiences, it’s important to fo-
cus on only one cue at a time. That way, the children
can really concentrate on that cue. Once you provide
feedback to the children and observe that most have
learned a cue, then it’s time to focus on another one.
Rocking to Match a Partner
Setting: Partners side by side on a mat or in a grassy
area, with enough space between them so that they do
not hit each other
Cues
“C” Bodies (Curve your body like the letter C to
rock.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T To warm up a bit, practice rocking back and forth
on your mat. See if you can make your rocks very
smooth.
T This time you are going to play a game called Twin
Rockers. You and your partner will be side by side.
On the signal, you’ll start to rock on your back. The
challenge is to rock the same way and at the same
time as your partner so that you look like twins.
T This time, rock on your stomach.
C Now see if you and your partner can develop two
other Twin Rockers. Practice them until you can
do them so that they match exactly.
Rolling in a Long, Narrow Position (Log Roll)
Setting: A mat (no larger than 4 feet by 6 feet) for every
child or two or a large, grassy space; children posi-
tioned so that they do not roll into each other
Cues
Stretch Arms (Stretch your arms above your
head.)
Straight Body (Straighten your body.)
Feet Together (Bring your feet tight together.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T On your mat make your body long and skinny
with your arms over your head. You could call this
a log or pencil. See if you can roll to the right and
to the left in this position. Practice until you can
go both ways just as smoothly.
T This time try to make your log roll go in a straight
line, still keeping your body position. Try to go from
one end of your mat to the other without rolling off.
T Try changing the speed of your log roll: Sometimes
roll slowly as if you were rolling on fl at land and
sometimes move quickly as if rolling downhill.
T If you feel comfortable doing your roll with your
hands over your head, try to do it with your arms
at your sides.
C Try to make a sequence of rolls in this narrow
position — for example, one slow to the right, two
quickly to the left, one slow to the right, and then
repeat the sequence. Be sure to stay in your space
or on your mat.
Portfolio. Children can write their sequences out,
date them, and include them in their portfolios as
an assessment task.
Rolling Sideways on Different Body Parts
Setting: A mat for every child or two or a large grassy
space; children positioned so that they do not roll into
each other
Cues
“C” Bodies (Curve your body like the letter C to
roll.)
Hold Knees (Hold your knees together, either
from the outside or from the inside
out; see Figure 23.6 .)
CHAPTER 23 Transferring Weight and Rolling 421
Tasks /Challenges:
T This time try to roll sideways like an egg in a
curled position. Practice rolling this egg in differ-
ent directions — sometimes left, sometimes right.
T Try rolling on different body parts—shoulder, back,
even upper legs.
T In your space or on your mat, practice using the egg
roll to travel. Can you roll around the whole space?
T Roll at different speeds around your space or mat.
Rolling Sideways over a Shoulder
Setting: A mat for every child or two or a large grassy
space; children positioned so that they do not roll into
each other
Cues
Drop (Drop one shoulder to the mat.)
Tuck (Tuck the elbow and knee of the dropped
shoulder under.)
Roll (Roll over.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T This time we are going to roll over a shoulder. To
do that you need to start on your hands and knees,
drop one shoulder to the mat, tuck your elbow
and knee under your body, and roll over. Your roll
should take you back up to your hands and knees.
(Demonstrate the roll.) Let’s all do it together this
fi rst time. Ready? Hands and knees, drop, tuck,
roll. Good.
T Practice the roll on your own. Say the cues out loud
as you go, to help you remember the process. Do
one roll across your mat, get up, and try another
one. You know you are really good when you can
come up to your hands and knees each time.
T Once you feel comfortable rolling in one direc-
tion, try dropping the other shoulder and rolling
that way.
C See if you can do three rolls in each direction that
stay round throughout the whole roll.
T If you feel really good about rolling on your shoul-
der from your hands and knees, you may want to
try it from a squatting position. The cues are the
same; just the starting position changes. (If this task
is worded in this way, it is “teaching by invitation”
allowing children to progress at their own speed. See
Chapter 11 for more about this concept.)
Children’s Drawing. This would be a wonderful
time to use children’s drawings of rocking and roll-
ing to assess their knowledge of the critical cues.
See Chapter 14 for the development of children’s draw-
ings as assessment items.
Rocking Backward
Setting: Each child with a space at a mat or in a large
grassy area; children positioned so that they do not
roll into one another; music conducive to rocking and
a CD player
Cues
“C” Back (Round your back like the letter C.)
Tuck (Tuck your chin to your chest.)
Knees to Chest (Pull your knees to your chest
and hold.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Remember when we explored rocking horses and did
Twin Rockers? This time we are going to try a back
rocker. Start by squatting down with your back to the
mat, place your fi ngers on the fl oor, slowly transfer
your weight backward to the mat, and, as your back
reaches the mat, tuck your chin in, bring your knees
to your chest, wrap your arms around them, and rock
backward until your head touches the mat. Rock for-
ward to your starting position. Watch me as I show
you. (Demonstrate.) Squat, lower, tuck, knees, rock.
T Practice the back rocker on your own. Don’t ever
go over your head. See how smoothly you can
make the rock.
T As you rock, try to come back up to your feet at the
end. What does it take to do this?
C See if you can keep your back rocker going for as
long as I play the music. (Play music in increasingly
longer intervals, beginning with about 5 to 10 seconds.)
What does it look like when body parts are round?
Show me.
Figure 23.6 Arm positions for keeping ankles and knees together
while rolling sideways on different body parts.
422 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Rolling Forward
Setting: Each child with a space at a mat or in a large
grassy area; children positioned so that they do not
roll into one another
Cues
Hands (Your hands should be on the fl oor on the
outside of your knees.)
Lean (Lean forward.)
Hike (Hike your bottom up high into the air.)
Look (Look back through your legs.)
Tip (Tip over; place the top of your shoulders
on the mat.)
We do not force children to do a specifi c roll. Some
may still prefer to roll over their shoulder at this
point. If so, we place the emphasis on being round
and staying in control. Gradually, we encourage
children to move to positions higher than their
hands and knees — for example, squatting — and
to start the roll from there.
Tasks /Challenges:
T Now we are going to try rolling forward. This roll
goes over your head. To do it, begin in a squat po-
sition, lean forward, hike your seat up in the air,
look through your legs, and tip over. Everyone
watch me do it once. (Demonstrate.) Now, let’s do it
together on the cues: Hands, lean, hike, look, tip.
T Now practice on your own. Practice once across
your mat. Say the cues as you roll so you don’t
forget them. Get up and go again.
C See if you can do three rolls that stay round all
the way.
T When you can stay round all the way through the
roll, you may want to try and return to a standing
position after the roll. The starting position is the
same.
Cues
“C” Back (Round your back like the letter C.)
Tuck (Tuck your chin to your chest.)
Hike (Hike your bottom up high into the
air.)
Push (Push off with your legs and make
sure your weight is on your arms so
that your shoulders and back touch
the mat in a very controlled way. The
top of your head should not touch the
mat. Imagine there is paint on the top
of your head; try not to get any on
the mat.)
Have children touch the back of their heads with
their hand so that you know they can distinguish
between the back and top of their heads.
Children should not be forced to roll over their
heads if they cannot support their body weight
with their hands or are uncomfortable with the
roll.
Tasks /Challenges:
T Now we are going to try a forward roll. Squat
down at your mat and place your hands on the
mat just to the outside of your knees. Make your
back really round like the letter C. Tuck your chin
all the way down to your chest. Hike your bottom
way up in the air. Push with your arms and roll.
Watch me while I show you how it will look.
(Demonstrate.) Practice once with me all together
as we say the steps: Hands ( Figure 23.7 ), C, tuck,
hike, push, and roll.
Some children may be more comfortable doing a
shoulder roll. Encourage them to concentrate on
roundness and tucking, while gradually trying to
get them to raise their starting position farther off
the ground to kneeling or squatting.
Figure 23.7 Hand positions on forward roll.
CHAPTER 23 Transferring Weight and Rolling 423
Rocking Backward over the Shoulders
Setting: Each child with a space at a mat or in a large
grassy area; children positioned so that they do not
roll into one another
Cues
“C” Back (Round your back like the
letter C.)
Hands Behind Head (Clasp your hands behind
your head with your elbows
sticking out to the sides;
see Figure 23.8 .)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Start by squatting down with your back to the mat,
clasp your hands behind your head with your el-
bows out as far as possible, slowly transfer your
weight backward to the mat, and as your back
slowly reaches the mat, tuck your chin in, bring
your knees to your chest, and rock backward as far
as possible until your weight is on your elbows.
Rock forward to your starting position. Watch me
Bubble Gum = Head Down
Getting children to keep their heads down is often diffi cult
when they are fi rst learning to roll. Two hints we have seen
used are asking children to think of bubble gum connecting
their chin and chest or having children hold a beanbag with
their chin to their chest. Both ideas work.
Point of Contact
There is some debate regarding the point of contact on the
forward roll. Some prefer the shoulders and back; others
indicate the back of the head. In our research we have found
both. (We advocate the shoulders.) Regardless of which
point of contact is used, several key points ensure the safety
of the skill: (1) the weight is held by the arms, not the neck
and head; (2) the body parts are in a round position; and
(3) the transference of weight occurs under control so that
there is no sudden crunching of weight onto any body part.
T Now practice on your own. Do one roll, get up, and
start again. Roll straight across the mat. Say the cues
aloud as you practice so you won’t forget them.
C See if you can do three forward rolls that stay
round from beginning to end. Remember to stop
and reset yourself between the rolls.
T If you feel really good about your forward roll, try
to come up to your feet at the end.
C See if you can do fi ve forward rolls that the Olympic
judges would give a “10.”
What parts of your body have to be round to roll
forward? Show me.
Inclined Surfaces
For many children it is easier to learn to roll forward on an
inclined surface. To do this, use a wedge mat approximately
10 inches high at the top tapering to 2 inches high at the
bottom, and at least 30 inches long and 18 inches wide. You
will need a box for children to stand on at the top of the mat.
With this task, be sure that children start their rolls from a
squatting position. The cues remain the same.
Smaller mats are adequate for
introducing children to rolling;
larger mats can be used for rolling
in sequences and in relation to
apparatus.
424 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
as I show you. (Demonstrate.) Practice it once with
me: Squat, clasp, lower, tuck, knees, rock.
T When you feel comfortable bringing your weight
back on your elbows, challenge yourself a little
more—try to make your feet touch the mat over
your head. Then rock back to the starting position.
C Try to do fi ve rocks in which your feet touch the
mat over your head.
Rolling from Different Positions
Setting: Each child with a space to roll on a mat or
grassy area
Cues
Round Body (Round your back and tuck your
chin for a good roll.)
Strong Muscles (Use strong arms and shoulders
to slowly transfer weight to the
roll.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T So far you have been starting your rolls from a low
position, close to the mat. Now we are going to try
starting your rolls from different positions. The
fi rst position we will try may be easier than the
low position you have been using. It is called a
straddle position. Watch me as I show you.
Stand behind your mat with your feet wide apart;
stretch your hands to the ceiling. Now put your
hands on the mat almost between your feet (don’t
reach forward), tuck your chin to your chest, and
roll forward. You will land sitting down. As with all
rolls, keep your back rounded. Let’s practice one
together as we say the steps out loud: feet apart,
stretch arms, hands on mat, tuck chin, slowly roll.
T Practice the straddle roll on your own until you
can do it slowly and smoothly.
T Now that you can roll from the squatting position
and the straddle position, see if you can fi nd other
positions from which to roll. You may want to try
your knees, standing, one leg, and one arm. Each
time, remember to use strong muscles to lower
slowly to the mat. Try to fi nd four different start-
ing positions.
T Choose the starting position you like most. See if
you can do four rolls from that position that stay
rounded and lower slowly to the mat. When you
think you can, ask a friend to watch you and give
a thumbs-up for each roll that you do correctly.
Rolling at Different Speeds
Setting: Each child with a space to roll on a mat or
grassy area without rolling into each other
Cues
Round Body (Round your back and tuck your
chin and knees for a good roll.)
Arms (Your arms are your brakes and
accelerator for these rolls.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Do you remember when you worked on traveling
at different speeds? Now you are going to roll at
different speeds. Sometimes you will roll fast,
sometimes you will roll slowly, and sometimes you
will roll at a medium speed. Practice now doing
rolls at different speeds. Your speed should be so
clear that I can tell which speed it is just by watch-
ing. I shouldn’t have to ask you.
C Now I am really going to give you a challenge. I’ll
call out a speed, and you roll at that speed. I’ll be
watching to see if you really roll at the speed I call
out.
Back Shoulder Roll
Setting: Each child with a space at a mat or in a large
grassy area; children positioned so that they do not
roll into one another
Cues
Round Body (Round your back and tuck your
chin and knees for a good roll.)
Arm to Side (Keep the arm of the shoulder you
are going to roll over out to the
side of your body.)
Head to Side (Tuck your head to one side as you
go over.)
Figure 23.8 Handclasp position for rocking over the shoulders.
CHAPTER 23 Transferring Weight and Rolling 425
Tasks /Challenges:
T We are going to try rolling backward over a shoul-
der with our hands on the mat to push. Watch me
as I show you what it looks like. (Demonstrate.)
Squat with your back to the mat with your hands
on the fl oor in front of you, push with your hands
and rock backward to the mat, bring the arm of
the shoulder you are going to roll over out to the
side of your body and the other arm back over
your head, tuck your head to one side, push with
your arms, and roll over that shoulder. Let’s prac-
tice one together as we say the steps: Squat, hands
in front, push and rock back, arm to side, tuck
head, roll ( Figure 23.9 ).
T Now practice the back shoulder roll on your own,
each time saying the steps so that you don’t
forget them.
T When you feel good about going over one shoulder,
try to tuck your head the other way and go over
that shoulder.
C Try to do four backward rolls that stay round all
the way through. When you think you can do it,
raise your hand and ask me to come watch, or have
a friend watch.
What parts of your body have to be round to roll
backward over your shoulder? Show me.
Handclasp Backward Roll
Setting: Each child with a space at a mat or in a large
grassy area; children positioned so that they do not
roll into one another
Cues
Round Body (Round your back and tuck
your chin and knees for a
good roll.)
Hands Behind Head (Clasp your hands
behind the base of your
head.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Now we’re going to practice rolling backward. It
will be almost like when we did the rocking action
with our hands behind our head, except this time
we will try to roll over. Watch me as I show you
what it looks like. (Demonstrate.) Squat with your
back to the mat, clasp your hands behind the base
of your head with your elbows sticking out to the
sides, sit down quickly, tucking your knees and
chin to your chest, and roll completely backward.
Your weight should be on your elbows. Let’s prac-
tice one together while I say the steps out loud:
Squat, clasp, sit, tuck, roll.
T Practice the backward roll this way on your own.
Remember, one roll at a time. Stay round.
If children cannot roll over backward, allow them
to practice rocking back and forth with the elbows
out. In no case should anyone apply force to a
child’s hips to attempt to help the child “get over.”
Rolling Backward
Children should not attempt to roll backward with
the “traditional” backward roll until they can sup-
port their bodies with their arms. Until then, have
them practice with their hands clasped at the base
of their heads or have them do a shoulder roll.
Force should never be applied to the hips to help
a child “get over.”
Setting: Each child with a space at a mat or in a large
grassy area; children positioned so that they do not
roll into one another
Cues
Mickey Mouse Ears (Hands back by shoulders,
fi ngers pointing toward
shoulders, thumbs near ears.)
Tight Ball (Keep a tight, round shape
all the way through the roll.)
Push (Push with your arms all the
way through the roll.)
Figure 23.9 Hand and head positions for rolling backward over a shoulder.
426 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Tasks /Challenges:
T Now you are going to do a backward roll that goes
over your head and uses your arms to push. This
combines the two backward rolls you have done
before. Watch me as I show you what this one
looks like. (Demonstrate.) Start from a squatting po-
sition, place your hands on the fl oor in front of
you, push and rock backward, tuck your knees and
chin tight to your chest, bring your hands to your
shoulders and make Mickey Mouse ears, push with
both arms, and roll over your head. Let’s do it to-
gether. Squat, hands in front, push, rock back,
tuck, hands to shoulders, push , and roll. Practice
rolling backward ( Figure 23.10 ).
T Practice on your own. Remember to say the hints
as you roll.
When trying to roll backward, children often get stuck and
roll no farther, usually because they:
• Make a fl at rather than a round shape (knees
move away from the chin), so they fi nd it virtu-
ally impossible to roll
• Fail to place their hands in the proper position
and thus are unable to push with the force
needed to complete the roll
Practicing to overcome these two critical errors will enable
children to roll backward.
C Do two backward rolls that stay tight and round.
When you can do them, yell, “Yes!” Remember to
stop in between the rolls to get set again.
T A little more practice with the backward roll: This
time, try to roll so that you can land on your feet
instead of your knees at the end of the roll.
This is a good time to use teaching by invitation or intra-
task variation (Chapter 11) to let children practice the rolls
they need to work on.
T This time, you are going to practice your backward
rolls with a partner. Your partner will be your
coach. He or she will watch and tell you if you
have followed all the hints for the backward roll:
tight ball, Mickey Mouse ears, push, and land on
feet. After three tries, switch places.
Peer Observation. This task works well as a peer
observation opportunity, even with young chil-
dren, provided the cues are simple and clear. It
also gives children an opportunity to take respon-
sibility for helping someone else learn.
Rolling in Different Directions
Setting: Each child with a space on a mat or grassy area
to roll or multiple large mats scattered around the area
with ample space in between
Cues
Round Body (Round your back and tuck your
chin and knees for a good roll.)
Three Directions (Make sure you roll backward,
sideways, and forward.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T You have practiced rolls that went sideways, for-
ward, and backward. Now you are going to put
all three together. Practice rolls from all three
directions — one roll at a time. Remember as you
work that only one of you rolls on the mat at a
time; however, as soon as the person ahead of
you fi nishes, you can roll. I shouldn’t see anyone
standing in line, just rolling from all places
around the mat.
T This time I am going to add one more thing to
what I would like to see. Each time you roll, try
to end up on your feet, not your knees or your
seat.
T Decide which roll is the hardest for you to do.
Practice that roll until you feel it is as good as your
others.
Figure 23.10 Hand positions for rolling backward.
CHAPTER 23 Transferring Weight and Rolling 427
Rolling from Different Directions and Positions
Setting: Each child with a space on a mat or grassy area
to roll
Cues
Round Body (Round your back and tuck
your chin and knees for a
good roll.)
Strong Muscles (Use strong arms and shoulders
to slowly transfer weight to
the roll.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T We are going to combine two things you have done:
rolling in different directions and rolling from
different positions. There are many combinations.
Why not start by rolling forward from a standing
position? You can use any version of forward, back-
ward, and sideways rolls you want.
T Next roll backward from a sitting position.
T Now roll sideways from a squatting position.
T On your own, practice as many ways to roll as you
can think of. You should always be able to tell me
the direction of your roll and the position you are
starting from.
C Now that you’ve practiced on your own, fi nd three
different direction /position combinations that
you like, and practice them until they are very
smooth and fl owing. Be able to tell me what posi-
tion and direction you are using.
Exit Slip. This would be an appropriate time to use
an exit slip (see Chapter 14) that asks the children
to record the three combinations of rolls used and
react to the diffi culty they had in making the se-
quence fl ow together.
Linking Rolls
Setting: A large mat or a soft grassy space for each child
to roll, or multiple large mats scattered around the area
with ample space in between
Cues
Round Body (Round your back and tuck
your chin and knees for a
good roll.)
Strong Muscles (Use strong arms and shoulders
to control your body from
one roll to the next.)
Smooth Transfer (Pause between rolls.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Now you get a chance to do what you have wanted
to do for a long time: more than one roll at a time.
First, practice by doing two forward rolls in a row.
When you can do two smoothly, balance and try
two more. To make the links look good, the transfer
between rolls should be smooth. To make it smooth,
pause for a second and then go into your next roll.
Use only a pause, not a stop.
T When you feel comfortable doing forward rolls,
try two backward rolls.
T Try sideways rolls: one, then a pause, then two.
T This time we are going to put together a sequence
of three different rolls. For starters, try forward,
backward, forward. There should be one pause or
balance in your sequence.
C Now make up your own sequence. It should have
three or four rolls, pauses, and two directions.
When you can do your sequence really well, ask a
friend to watch. See if your partner can name the
sequence of rolls. Then watch your partner’s se-
quence and name the rolls.
Rolling Using Different Directions and Speeds
Setting: Each child with a space on a mat or grassy area
to roll; two bags: one containing index cards with a
speed category on each card and the other containing
index cards with a direction on each card; the number
of cards in each bag should equal or exceed the number
of children in the class; paper and pencil for each child
Cues
Round Body (Round your back and tuck your
chin and knees for a good roll.)
Arms (Your arms are your brakes and
accelerator.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Here’s another combination — directions and
speeds. This means, for example, that sometimes
you will roll backward at a fast speed and some-
times at a slow speed. Practice on your own using
Multiple Rolls
Having children do multiple (more than two) rolls in a
row is not helpful— and can be dangerous. When more than
two rolls are asked for in a sequence, some other movement
or a balance should come between them.
428 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
all three speeds — fast, medium, and slow —
combined with all three directions—forward, back-
ward, sideways. That makes nine different ways you
can roll; practice all of them.
T Now you are going to draw your speeds and direc-
tions out of a bag. On the signal, one at a time
come and draw one card from each bag. One card
will have a direction on it, and the other card will
have a speed on it. The two cards together will give
you the direction and speed you are to practice.
T Now for the hardest rolling task yet. Imagine you
are in the Olympics and you are going to do a roll-
ing sequence that combines directions and speeds.
Let’s start with this sequence: forward, fast; pause,
backward, slow; forward, fast. The sequence is
written on the board in case you forget.
C Now make up your own combination. Practice it
until it fl ows together well. When you fi nish, write
it down. You can use the example on the board as
a guide to tell you how to write it. Practice your
combination three more times.
Portfolio. The previous task can be used as an as-
sessment task by having children record the se-
quence as an entry in their portfolios. This is also
an opportune time to use a live or videotaped
teacher/peer observation checklist to assess the
critical cues of rolling.
Rolling after Jumping Off Equipment and Landing
Setting: A low box, milk crate, or low step aerobics
platform placed against every mat the children are us-
ing for rolling
You can sometimes get milk crates from the local dairy.
Low boxes can be made by fi lling soft-drink cases [24-can
size] with fl at newspapers and taping the outside of the
boxes shut securely. Place crates, boxes, or platforms against
the mat so that they won’t slide.
Cues
Jump, Land, Roll ( Jump; land on your feet; then
roll.)
Strong Muscles (Use strong muscles to lower
slowly to the roll.)
Round Body (Round your back and tuck your
chin and knees for a good roll.)
The cues for the following tasks focus largely on rolling,
not on jumping and landing. This assumes that children
have already mastered jumping and landing. If they
crash when they land or do not use soft landings, you
will want to revisit jumping and landing (Chapter 21)
before progressing.
The fi rst observation you need to make after chil-
dren begin this task is whether they are landing on
their feet before they roll. Quite often, children
begin dive-rolling here. If they do, stop the task
immediately, and refocus or provide another dem-
onstration that shows the correct way.
Tasks /Challenges:
T You’re now going to jump off a box (crate), land,
and then roll. There’s a box (crate) at the end of
your mat. One at a time, jump off the box (crate),
land on your feet, and then roll. Go slowly at fi rst
until you get the hang of it. Always be sure to land
on your feet. The next person can go as soon as the
person in front gets off the mat. Don’t rush, but go
quickly.
Make sure children jump up, not out. When they
jump out, they push against the box or crate, send-
ing it sliding across the fl oor, which causes them
to fall.
T It’s getting harder. This time, change the direction
of your jump. Sometimes jump backward, some-
times sideways, and sometimes forward; then roll
in any direction you want. If you aren’t sure about
jumping backward, just try stepping off until you
get used to it.
T We’re going to change the activity again. This time,
you’ll still jump off in different directions, but
you’ll roll in the same direction as the jump. So if
you jump sideways, you roll sideways; if you jump
backward, you roll backward.
What does it mean to land before you roll?
Rolling after Jumping for Height and Landing
Setting: A low box or milk crate placed against every
mat the children are using for rolling
Cues
Jump, Land, Roll ( Jump, land on feet, then roll.)
Strong Muscles (Use strong muscles to lower
slowly to the roll.)
Round Body (Round your back and tuck
your chin and knees for a
good roll.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T This time, instead of changing directions, you’re
going to practice jumping higher off the boxes
(crates), still landing and rolling. Do you remember
when we worked on jumping? What do you do to
make your jump go higher? Right —you bend
your knees and throw your arms up as if you
CHAPTER 23 Transferring Weight and Rolling 429
were reaching for the sky. To warm up, just prac-
tice jumping high off the box (crate) and landing
on your feet. If you fall on the landing, you know
that you’re jumping too high.
T Now add a roll after your jump and landing. Ev-
erything should be in control. If you’re falling on
your landing or crashing into your roll, you’ll
know that you’re jumping too high. Try it: High
jump, land, and roll.
T So far, most of what I’ve been seeing are jumps,
lands, and rolls in forward directions. Go back and
add different directions to your high jumps.
Jumping backward from the equipment is diffi cult for some
children, as well as scary. Have the youngsters fi rst step
backward if they’re hesitant or fearful.
Permit children to jump backward only to a height
that they can control when they land. They should
be able to land on their feet, on balance, absorbing
their weight.
Rolling after Jumping from Different Heights
Setting: Boxes and benches of varying heights at sta-
tions around the room ( Figure 23.11 ); arrows pointing
from station to station on the fl oor; children in groups
of four; mats at each station
Cues
Jump, Land, Roll ( Jump, land on your feet, and
then roll.)
Strong Muscles (Use strong muscles to lower
slowly to the roll.)
Round Body (Round your back and tuck your
chin and knees for a good roll.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T We’re working at stations for this task, which will
give you practice jumping from objects of different
heights. This is how the activity works. There will
be four of you at each station. On the signal, you’ll
begin to practice jumping, landing, and rolling
from the equipment at your station. On the next
signal, stop, rotate to the station the arrow on the
fl oor points to, and then start all over again. Re-
member, you’re practicing jumping, landing, and
rolling from the equipment that’s at your station.
Rolling after Jumping over Equipment and Landing
Setting: A hurdle set up at the end of each mat; see
Chapter 18 (Figure 18.3) for hurdle construction details
Cues
Jump, Land, ( Jump, land on your feet, and
Roll then roll.)
Strong Muscles (Use strong muscles to lower
slowly to the roll.)
Round Body (Round your back and tuck your
chin and knees for a good roll.)
The hurdle should be only as high as children are
able to jump over without diffi culty and land in
control (see Chapter 21). The hurdle should be an
obstacle to cross, not a challenge to jump. Our
Bench
Bench
Benches
Mat
Box (1 level)
Box (3 levels)
Box (2 levels)
5
6
1 2 3
4
Figure 23.11 Stations to facilitate jump-
ing from different heights, landing, and
rolling.
430 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
hurdles are no higher than about 8 to 12 inches
and may be as low as 3 to 4 inches.
Tasks /Challenges:
T Your task now is to jump over the hurdle, land,
and roll. Remember, just as in jumping off objects,
you must land on your feet before you roll.
T This time, change the direction of your jump.
Sometimes try to jump sideways and backward as
well as forward.
T Now change the direction of your roll after the
jump to match the direction of the jump. So if you
jump backward, roll backward. Controlled jumps
and round rolls are our goal.
T You can also change the speed of the jump and of
the roll. This time, practice mixing up the speeds
of the jump and roll. In other words, you might
mix a slow-motion jump with a fast roll or com-
bine a fast jump and a fast roll. Make whatever
speeds you use very clear.
What does it mean to have controlled jumps?
What do they look like?
Rolling, Levels, Directions, and Jumping
Setting: A jumping and rolling space for each child; a
task sheet ( Figure 23.12 ) for each child
Name Teacher
Rolling Task Sheet
Friend's Check-off Challenge
I can roll forward, coming up to my feet.
I can roll sideways, coming up to my feet.
I can roll backward, coming up to my feet.
I can jump, land, and roll forward.
I can jump, land, and roll sideways.
I can jump, land, and roll backward.
I can jump over an obstacle, land, and roll, coming back to my feet
I can jump, land, change directions, and roll.
I can jump, twist in the air, land, and roll without falling down.
I can jump off a box, land, and roll without falling down.
I can jump off a box in different directions, land, and roll.
I can jump off a low box, make different body shapes in the air, land, and roll.
I can jump off a box, twist in the air, land, and roll without falling down.
I can . . . (make up your own sequence)
Figure 23.12 Task sheet for
rolling.
CHAPTER 23 Transferring Weight and Rolling 431
Cues
Jump, Land, Roll ( Jump, land on your feet, and
then roll.)
Strong Muscles (Use strong muscles to lower
slowly to the roll.)
Round Body (Round your back and tuck
your chin and knees for a
good roll.)
Tasks /Challenges:
C Today I’ll give you the chance to test yourself and
see how well you can do the rolls you’ve been
practicing. I’ll also give you time to practice the
rolls that have been hardest for you. Each of you
has a task sheet. Your challenge is to do all the
tasks on the sheet. When you think you can do
something well, have a friend watch you; if the
friend thinks you did the challenge correctly, the
friend puts his or her initials on the sheet. The area
has been set up so that there’s space to practice
each challenge.
Self-assessment. This task can serve as a self- and /
or peer assessment. When completed, it can be in-
cluded in the child’s portfolio. See Chapter 13 for
information on developing task sheets.
Rolling While Traveling, Jumping, and Landing
Setting: Mats spread throughout general space with
suffi cient space between for travel. Groups of three or
four at each mat.
Cues
Jump, Land, Roll ( Jump, land on your feet, and
then roll.)
Strong Muscles (Use strong muscles to lower
slowly to the roll.)
Round Body (Round your back and tuck
your chin and knees for a
good roll.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Now you’re going to use only the mats, but you’re
going to jump, land, and roll at your mats all on
your own. Practice jumping, landing, and rolling
in different directions at your mat. Remember, you
can start or end at any place around the mat, so
there should be no lines.
T This time, begin to travel around the outside of the
mat. When the mat is empty, take a little jump,
land, and roll. You’ll almost be jumping from a
moving position, but not quite. You’ll travel, jump,
pause, and roll, so you really come to a short stop
before you roll. If you crash, you’re going too fast.
One person on the mat at a time.
T Here’s a new challenge. Instead of just jumping
this time, try jumping over the corners of the mat;
then land, and roll. Remember to practice all the
different jumps you learned: one foot to the other,
one to the same, two to one, one to two, and two
to two.
T Now I’ll challenge you even further. As you jump
the corners of the mat, add a twist or turn in the
air before you land. You still have to land on your
feet before you roll.
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development in Rolling
At the utilization level, children no longer focus on
rolling as an isolated skill but concentrate on using
rolling for other purposes. Children develop the ability
to combine rolling with other skills, such as catching
and throwing. Much of their rolling at this level is di-
rected toward its use as a form of weight transfer be-
tween balances. Additionally, rolling is used to transfer
weight onto, from, and over large apparatus.
Because at this level rolling is most often used not as an
isolated skill but as an act of weight transference, many
tasks at the utilization level of rolling are included in the
earlier weight transference section of this chapter. When
that occurs, reference is provided.
A note about cues: Although several cues are listed for
many of the learning experiences, it’s important to
focus on only one cue at a time. That way, the children
can really concentrate on that cue. Once you provide
feedback to the children and observe that most have
learned a cue, then it’s time to focus on another one.
Rolling and Traveling Quickly
Setting: Mats spread out throughout the space. Three
or four children at a mat.
Cues
Jump, Land, Roll ( Jump, land on your feet, and
then roll.)
Strong Muscles (Use strong muscles to lower
slowly to the roll.)
Round Body (Round your back and tuck
your chin and knees for a
good roll.)
432 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Two tips:
1. If students are not able to safely decide who is
to roll when, specify the order in which they’ll
roll before they begin.
2. This is an exhausting task; if children are really
doing it well, they usually can’t continue it for a
long time.
Tasks /Challenges:
T This is a game called Busy Mat. It’ll really give you
a workout, so get ready. The object of the game
is to always have someone rolling on the mat
while the others are traveling around the outside
of the mat. As soon as one person fi nishes roll-
ing, another person should start. The timing
should be split-second. Everyone should always
be moving, either on the outside by jumping
and landing, or on the mat by rolling. Let’s do a
practice round.
Rolling, Jumping, and Traveling in Relationship
to Others
Setting: Mats spread out throughout the space. Three
or four children at a mat.
Cues
Off Balance (Be slightly off balance toward
the mat as you land.)
Strong Muscles (Use strong arms and shoul-
ders to smoothly lower to the
roll.)
Round Body (Round your back and tuck
your chin and knees for a good
roll.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Now you’re going to practice making your
jumps, landings, and rolls more professional.
We could call them touch-and-go rolls. So far
you’ve been coming to a clear stop after landing
and before rolling. Now you’re going to roll with
no hesitation. Your feet should barely touch the
floor before you’re into the roll. Your roll just
flows, but your feet still have to hit the floor
before you roll. To do this, you’ll really have
to bend your knees on landing, let your arms
absorb your weight, and make sure your shoul-
ders are round.
T Practice making your jumps so that you land a
little off balance right before you move into the
roll. You are trying to make it as smooth as possible,
as if to save yourself from crashing. No stopping —
touch and go.
T Make sure you sometimes change the direction of
your land and roll, making it backward or side-
ways as well as forward, and still keeping your
touch-and-go actions.
Aerial Rolls
Because of safety considerations, the student – teacher ratio,
the varied student skill level, and the high skill level required
to teach and spot aerial rolls, we feel that they are best left
to the private setting. To explain this to the students who are
capable of such tasks, we simply say that we don’t have the
facilities to practice the rolls and don’t want to encourage
the children who aren’t ready to try them. The more skilled
students can instead use physical education class for
refi ning their skills or helping others. We do not advocate
teaching aerial or dive rolls in physical education classes.
Rolling over Low Hurdles
Setting: A low hurdle at each mat
The height of the hurdle should be low enough so
that children can put their hands on the ground
on the other side with no effort. Hurdles may be as
low as 3 to 4 inches and no higher than 10 to
12 inches. Hands must be on the fl oor before the
feet leave the fl oor.
Cues
Strong Muscles (Use strong arms and shoulders
to slowly lower into the roll.)
Round Body (Round your back and tuck your
chin and knees for a good roll.)
Hands on Floor (Start with your hands on the fl oor
on the other side of the hurdle.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Place your hands on the mat on the other side of
the hurdle and try to roll over the hurdle without
touching it. You really have to raise your bottom
in the air and push off with your legs. Remem-
ber to tuck your head to keep your body round.
As you do this, make sure that your arms really
give when your feet leave the fl oor. Bending
your arms a little as you push off helps you let
yourself down softly.
Rolling on Low Equipment
(See Transferring Weight by Rolling [Bench, Box, or
Table] on page 413.)
CHAPTER 23 Transferring Weight and Rolling 433
Rolling on equipment should be introduced only
after children have mastered rolling on the fl oor
or mats.
Setting: Low, wide benches and tables around the
room with mats under them
At this point, the equipment should be low and
wide, not more than 18 inches off the fl oor.
Cues
Round Back (Round your back and tuck your
chin and knees for a good roll.)
Control (Tight muscles, slow-motion action
for control throughout the roll.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T At your piece of equipment, get on it in any way
you like, and practice rolling on the top of it,
lengthwise; then get off in any way you like. To do
this, place your thumbs and the sides of your
palms on the top of the bench, with your hands
and fi ngers on the side of the bench. Although
this position is very different from the one you use
for rolling on mats, it provides a steady base on
equipment. Tuck your head and slowly roll for-
ward on the equipment. If you fall off a lot, you
may want to go to a wider piece of equipment.
T As you practice now, try to make your rolls very
smooth.
T Now try to roll backward by very slowly transfer-
ring your weight to a rounded back. Extend your
hands above your head to hold on to the sides
of the equipment, place your head to one side,
and roll slowly over your shoulder.
C Now you’re going to make up a sequence using all
you’ve practiced. First fi gure out how you want to
get on the equipment; you don’t have to get on by
rolling. When you’re on the equipment, roll along
the equipment, get off any way, and roll after your
dismount. The sequence will go like this: Get on,
roll along, get off, roll on the mat. Practice on your
own until your sequence looks the same each time
you do it.
Practice your sequence three more times, just to
make sure that it’s really in your memory. When
you fi nish, write it down ( Figure 23.13 ).
Rolling off Low Equipment
Setting: Low boxes, benches, and tables scattered
throughout the space; mats around and under each
piece of equipment. Children must be able to reach the
mat from the equipment.
Cues
Round Body (Keep your back round and tuck
your chin and knees for a good roll.)
Strong (Use strong arms and shoulders
Muscles to lower slowly into the roll.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Assume a kneeling position at the end of your piece
of equipment, place your hands on the mat, slowly
lower your weight to the mat, and roll forward.
T Once you feel comfortable with one piece of equip-
ment, try another one.
This task should be preceded by the task of rolling
over low hurdles. To do this activity safely, chil-
dren must be able to absorb their body weight with
their arms.
What is the key to rolling off equipment safely?
Traveling and Rolling between Pieces of Equipment
Setting: Two pieces of low, wide equipment placed
about 2 to 3 feet apart at each station; mats under,
around, and between all equipment
Cues
Round (Keep your body round and tuck
Body your chin and knees for a good roll.)
Control (Use tight, strong muscles to roll slowly.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T This next activity is similar to others you have done.
As you can see, there are two pieces of equipment
at each station. Your task now is to get on the fi rst
Figure 23.13 Child’s rolling sequence.
434 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
piece of equipment, roll one way on it, travel to the
second piece of equipment without touching the
fl oor, roll a different way on the equipment, jump
to get off, and roll on the mat. The sequence goes
like this: Get on, roll, travel across, roll another
way, jump off, roll. Practice these ideas.
C Now pick one sequence that you really like, and
practice it until it’s smooth and fl uid. There should
be no breaks, and you shouldn’t have to stop and
think about what comes next. Make sure you land
on your feet after you jump off and before you roll.
Video/Digital Analysis. As children develop se-
quences using selected skills, the videotaping of
their sequences provides an excellent opportunity
for videotaped assessment. As children watch the
video for the fi rst time, have them write down the
moves they used to develop the sequence. When
they watch for the second time, have them assess
their execution of those skills in relation to the
critical cues.
Rolling, Balancing, and Rolling
(See also Traveling into and out of Balances by Roll ing on
page 393 of Chapter 22, “Balancing.”)
Setting: Mats around the room large enough for chil-
dren to roll and balance
Cues
Round Body (Keep your body round and tuck
your chin and knees for a good
roll.)
Control (Tight, strong muscles to roll slowly.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T You worked on balancing before; now you’re go-
ing to combine balancing and rolling. At your mat,
practice rolling forward into a symmetrical bal-
ance. Try to roll right into the balance so that
there’s no pause between the roll and the balance.
T This time try to focus on the connection between
the roll and the balance. Instead of stopping after
the roll and before the balance, see if you can
roll right into the balance.
T Most of you are balancing on very stable body
parts, such as knees and hands. This time, try some
body parts that aren’t quite so stable and see if you
can still balance.
T Now try rolls from different directions —backward
and sideways — and still roll straight into the bal-
ance. Hold the balance still. Shifting some of your
weight backward, just as you balance, might
make your balances a little easier.
Rolling to Express an Idea
Setting: A soft, grassy area; children in pairs
Cue
Round Body (Keep your back round and tuck
your chin and knees for a good roll.)
Tasks /Challenges:
C This time you’re going to roll to express an idea.
You’re going to pretend and tell a story by rolling.
The fi rst thing you’re going to tell is “being scared.”
Here’s how it works. Your partner will come close to
you and pretend to scare you, without using words.
You’re so scared that you fall down and roll backward
trying to get away. Make sure that your roll really
shows that you’re afraid; it should be a very stiff roll.
After two turns, switch places with your partner.
C You’re going to tell a desert story this time. Have
any of you seen those old Westerns on television
where tumbleweeds go blowing across the desert,
with nothing stopping them? Well, you’re going to
be a tumbleweed, just blowing and rolling all over
the desert. Remember, a tumbleweed is loose and
bouncy as the wind just bumps it along.
T Instead of being a loose piece of tumbleweed, this
time you’re going to be a seed. The wind is blow-
ing you all over; you’re bouncing all around. Sud-
denly, the wind stops and you sprout roots and
start to grow. When you start to grow, remember
the ideas we talked about earlier about rising and
spreading. Your sequence goes like this: The wind
blows you around, the wind stops, you send out
roots and grow into a big tree or fl ower.
Rolling While Throwing and Catching
Setting: A soft grassy area (or if done inside, a very
large mat [like a wrestling mat] or a space completely
covered with smaller mats); children in pairs; a variety
of objects (beanbags, fl ying discs, balls) for each set of
partners to throw and catch
Cues
Tuck Shoulder (Tuck your shoulder so that it is
round.)
Round Body (Round your back and tuck your
chin and knees for a good roll.)
CHAPTER 23 Transferring Weight and Rolling 435
Tasks /Challenges:
T With your partner, throw and catch the beanbag.
Throw so that your partner has to really stretch
to catch the beanbag. Remember to make your
partner stretch: you have to throw at a point
away from your partner.
T Now that you’re stretching to catch, as soon as
you catch the beanbag, roll in the direction
you had to stretch to catch the beanbag. Keep
the beanbag in your hand as you roll. Remember
the whole sequence: Stretch to catch, catch, and
then roll.
T Now, for just a little while, practice throwing and
catching the beanbag to yourself. Throw to your-
self so that you have to jump to catch the beanbag
in an off-balance position and then roll to break
the fall from being off balance. The hardest part is
throwing so that you force yourself to be in an
off-balance position.
T Now go back to working with your partner. Try
the same task. Throw so that your partner has to
fi rst catch the beanbag in an off-balance position
and then roll after catching it. Catchers, make
sure you’re really off balance and have to roll
to re cover your balance or so that you won’t be
hurt. Throwers, really force the catchers off bal-
ance when they catch.
T Once you feel comfortable with a beanbag, try us-
ing another object, such as a fl ying disc or football.
Successful throwing and catching with partners depends on
throwers’ ability to force the catchers to be off balance or to
move to catch. Before exposing children to these ideas,
make sure they’re at the utilization level of throwing and
catching.
Rolling onto Low Equipment
Setting: Benches or low boxes with mats surrounding
them
Cues
Round Body (Round your back and tuck your
chin and knees for a good roll.)
Control (Tight muscles, slow-motion action
for control throughout the roll.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Use a roll to get onto your piece of equipment.
Stand at the end of the equipment. Place your
thumb and the sides of your palms on the top of
the equipment and your hands and fi ngers on
the sides of the equipment; then slowly lower
into a forward roll to get on the equipment. Get
off in any way you like.
T Now I’m going to add to your task. Roll onto the
equipment, travel any way that you want while
on the equipment, jump to get off, land, and roll.
Again, make sure that you’re actually using a roll
to get onto the equipment.
Rolling and Balancing on Equipment
Setting: Tables, benches, and beams spread throughout
the room, with mats surrounding all the equipment
Spotting
The question of spotting — physically assisting a child with a
skill— often arises with gymnastics programs. Spotting isn’t
used often in educational gymnastics programs as it often
encourages or forces children to attempt a skill before they
are ready. See Chapter 30 for a more complete discussion
on the use of spotting.
Cues
Round Body (Round your back and tuck your
chin and knees for a good roll.)
Control (Tight muscles, slow-motion
action for control throughout
the roll.)
Stillness (Keep balances motionless.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T At your equipment, practice mounting the equip-
ment, balancing on the equipment, rolling out of
the balance, and dismounting. Make sure your
rolls out of the balances are going in the direction
that seems natural for the balance, not necessarily
the easiest way for you.
T Now, keep the same balances, but for each balance
fi nd at least one more roll, going in a different di-
rection than the fi rst roll. Thus, you should have
two rolls out of each balance, each roll going in a
different direction.
C See if you can develop fi ve balances and rolls that
you can do so they are smooth and round.
Student Display. A fun assessment project at the
utilization level is for students to develop a poster
or bulletin board that displays how rolling is used
in sports other than gymnastics. See Chapter 14 for
the development of scoring rubrics to accompany such
a project.
436 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Rolling to Meet and Part
Setting: Groups of fi ve; a large grassy area or wrestling
mats
Cues
Smoothness (Make your rolls fl ow smoothly
into and out of each other.)
Planned Pauses (Be sure any stops in your rou-
tine are on purpose.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T You’re going to work with the idea of meeting and
parting. There will be fi ve people in each group.
Start by spreading apart from one another and
coming together by traveling on your feet. When
you get together, make any group shape that you
want and hold it still for a few seconds. Next, each
of you leaves your group by rolling away and freez-
ing in a shape by yourself. You need to plan your
rolls so that all of you come together at the same
time to form the group shape, and you know ex-
actly when to roll away.
C Practice your routine until you can repeat it three
times in a row, always doing it the same way. When
you’ve done that, we will show the routines to the
rest of the class.
Video/Digital Analysis. Videotaping routines pro-
vides an excellent assessment option for seeing if
children can both use the rolling cues and incor-
porate them with smoothness to express an idea.
Either teachers or peers could use a checklist to
assess the tape.
Rolling and Striking
Setting: A large grassy area; a plastic ball or training
volleyball or the like for each person; children by them-
selves initially and then in pairs
Cues
Tuck Shoulder (Tuck your shoulder so that it is
rounded.)
Round Body (Round your back and tuck your
chin and knees for a good roll.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T In a space by yourself, strike a plastic ball with any
body part so that you fall off balance when you
strike and have to roll in the direction that you’re
falling. Make sure that you really strike the ball
before you roll, and roll in the direction that you’re
falling, not some other direction.
T Try to strike the ball so that you have to roll in di-
rections other than forward, such as backward or
sideways.
T Now work with a partner. The partner throws the
ball to you; you try to strike the ball back to your
partner, roll, and be ready for the next throw. The
thrower should always throw the ball so the striker
really has to reach for it. After fi ve strikes, change
places.
Catching, Throwing, and Rolling
Setting: A large grassy area; partners; one ball or bean-
bag per pair
Cues
Tuck Shoulder (Tuck your shoulder so that it
is rounded.)
Round Body (Round your back and tuck
your chin and knees for a good
roll.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T This is a really tough task. Your partner will throw
you a ball so that you have to stretch and roll to
catch it. Your job is to try to throw the ball back to
your partner as you begin the roll. The secret is to
keep your eyes open and try to catch with your
throwing hand. Remember, you must throw as
you begin the roll, not after you’ve rolled. After
fi ve times, switch places.
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development in Rolling
At the profi ciency level, children enjoy aerial rolls that
defy gravity and intricate combinations of rolls with
other movements. Because of time limitations, equip-
ment requirements, safety aspects, and the normal
student – teacher ratio, we do not teach skills at this
level. However, if you have students who have pro-
gressed to this level and enjoy the sensation these types
of movements produce, encourage them to pursue out-
of-school gymnastics clubs. These organizations allow
children to increase their skill level beyond what we can
do in a class setting.
CHAPTER 23 Transferring Weight and Rolling 437
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. List several examples of weight transfer.
2. What is the most common example of weight
transfer?
3. Children at the precontrol, control, utilization,
and profi ciency levels are ready for what types of
weight-transfer experiences?
4. Which relationship concepts are typically used as
a subfocus in the study of weight transfer?
5. What does the question “Do the feet come down
with control?” mean?
6. What are weight-transfer tasks at the utilization
level designed to do?
7. What is the difference between a spring takeoff
and a step takeoff? What is the purpose of each in
gymnastics?
8. Defi ne rolling and rocking.
9. How is rolling used in dance and in games?
10. In what way is rolling a safety skill?
11. What are the characteristics of rolling for each of the
four skill levels? For example, what does a control-
level roll look like?
12. What is our position on spotting? Why?
13. What problems does a child usually encounter
when rolling backward?
14. What are the safety issues of backward rolls? When
should children be allowed to practice backward
rolls?
15. Identify three key safety points you would observe
when teaching rolling.
16. Why don’t we advocate teaching aerial rolls in
physical education class?
References
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 1995 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. St. Louis, MO: Mosby .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2004 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. 2nd ed. Reston, VA: NASPE.
438
C H A P T E R
24
Kicking and Punting
CHAPTER 24 Kicking and Punting 439
A young boy kicking a stone along the sidewalk as
he walks home from school, a neighborhood
game of kick the can, kickball on the school
playground at recess, an aspiring athlete practicing the
soccer dribble, and the professional punter — all are ex-
ecuting a similar movement: the kick. This movement
requires accuracy, body control, point of contact, force,
and direction. Some children seem to perform the kick
with intense concentration; others, effortlessly.
We try to give children a variety of opportunities to
practice kicking so that they’ll develop a foundation of
kicking skills that they can use in different situations.
We emphasize the development of mature kicking pat-
terns by focusing on experiences designed to elicit
such patterns. For example, kicking for distance leads
to the development of a mature kicking pattern, but
this isn’t true of kicking for accuracy. See Box 24-1 for
information from the National Standards for Physical
Education on kicking and punting.
Levels of Skill Profi ciency in Kicking
Children at the precontrol level of kicking are chal-
lenged by the task of simply making contact with a
stationary ball. They explore kicking a variety of balls,
kicking balls just for fun at large targets, and tapping a
ball as in the beginning skills of soccer. Appropriate
precontrol-level tasks include:
• Kicking a ball from a stationary position
• Running to kick a stationary ball
• Tapping a ball along the ground while moving be-
hind it
At the control level, children are introduced to con-
tacting a ball with different parts of the foot — inside,
outside, back, and front. They’re also given challenges
that involve dribbling with either foot, at various
speeds, and in different directions. Appropriate control-
level activities include:
• Sending a ball along the ground or through the air
to a partner
• Kicking toward a target
• Making quick kicks
• Starting /stopping, changing directions with the
soccer dribble
Children at the utilization level of kicking are able
to kick for both distance and accuracy. They enjoy and
learn from the challenge of one-on-one keep-away sit-
uations (trying to prevent another child from getting
the ball), which combine the skills of tapping a ball
along the ground with the skills needed to dodge an
opponent. Dynamic game situations children at the
utilization level enjoy can involve:
• Kicking a ball to a target while on the run
• Kicking for accuracy while trying to maneuver
around an opponent
• Differentiating high from low kicks
Children who’ve reached the profi ciency level in
kicking enjoy group participation with more players,
more complex relationships, and the excitement of
strategy development. Sample tasks include:
• Kicking for a target against defense
• Gamelike situations
• Kicking at moving targets
The entire spectrum of kicking experiences, from
precontrol through profi ciency, is represented in our
progression spiral on page 443. The tasks are stated in
terms that imply a direct approach (see Chapter 13),
but teachers are encouraged to vary the approach
according to the purpose of the lesson and the charac-
teristics of the class.
The key observation points in Boxes 24-2 and 24-3
illustrate correct and incorrect ways of kicking along
the ground and in the air, respectively. Ask yourself the
questions in the boxes as you observe the youngsters
in action.
The Skills of Kicking and Punting in the National Standards for Physical Education
The movement skills of kicking and punting are referenced in
the National Association for Sport and Physical Education’s
National Standards for Physical Education (NASPE 2004)
under Standard 1: “Demonstrates competency in motor
skills and movement patterns needed to perform a variety of
physical activities.” The standard speaks of younger children
demonstrating progress toward achieving mature form in the
more complex manipulative skills, such as the foot dribble,
and achieving mature form in the less complex manipulative
skills. Older children then use the skills in dynamic and
complex environments, and in combinations.
A sample performance outcome from the National
Standards:
• Taps the ball from foot to foot, shifting weight and bal-
ancing the body on the nondribbling foot, while in one
location, i.e., not moving (K– 2) *
* Grade-level guidelines for expected student learning.
Box 24-1
440 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Box 24-2
Key Observation Points: Kicking along the Ground
Soccer Dribble
Does the child contact the ball for the dribble behind the ball, rather than on top?
NO YES
Dribble/Kick for Distance
NO YES
1. Does the child make contact with the top of the foot (shoelaces), not with the toes?
2. Is the child’s trunk inclined slightly backward for the kick?
NO YES
CHAPTER 24 Kicking and Punting 441
Box 24-3
Key Observation Points: Kicking in the Air
1. Does the child make contact below the center of the ball, not on top?
NO YES
2. Is the child’s kicking foot extended for contact on the shoelaces, not on the toes?
NO YES
3. Does the child’s kicking leg bend in preparation for the kick and follow through after contact?
NO
YES
442 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Box 24-3 (continued)
4. Does the child’s trunk incline slightly backward for the kick?
NO YES
Mature Stage
When children are at the mature stage of kicking, do their kicks look similar to the following sequence? The approach to the ball involves
one or more steps, with the distance just before the kick covered with a leap. The kicker is airborne in the approach. The knee of the
kicking leg is slightly fl exed because of the leap just before kicking. The trunk is inclined backward before and during contact. The kicker
disperses the momentum of the kick by hopping on the support leg and stepping in the direction of the object that was struck.
Source: Adapted from V. Seefeldt and J. Haubenstricker, “Developmental sequence of Punting,” mimeographed materials presented at the
University of Georgia, Athens, June 1978; and R.L. Wickstrom, Fundamental Motor Patterns, 2 nd ed. (Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1977).
CHAPTER 24 Kicking and Punting 443
Kicking a Stationary Ball from a Stationary Position
Setting: A variety of plastic, foam, and rubber balls for
kicking, placed around the gymnasium approximately
10 feet from the wall
Tasks/Challenges:
T Stand behind a kicking ball. Kick the ball really
hard so it travels to the wall.
C Practice until you can kick the ball three times in a
row to the wall.
T Practice kicking with one foot and then with the
other foot.
T Practice kicking the ball, making it go sometimes
along the ground, sometimes in the air.
What determines whether the ball travels along
the ground or in the air?
T Move outdoors and practice your kicking in an
open space for maximum distance.
Kicking at Large Targets
Setting: Large targets on the wall at low level; free-
standing targets placed 4 to 5 feet from the wall ( Fig-
ure 24.1 ); a variety of plastic, foam, and rubber balls
for kicking
Tasks/Challenges:
T Stand behind your kicking ball. Kick the ball toward
the target, trying to hit it.
T Try kicking at the different types of targets.
Which is your favorite? Which is your best for
accuracy?
T Choose your favorite target; stand 8 feet away from
the target and kick. When you can hit the target
two times in a row, take a giant step backward and
try from that distance.
Approaching a Stationary Ball and Kicking
Setting: Balls for kicking, placed around the gymna-
sium approximately 10 feet from the wall ( Figure 24.2 )
Tasks/Challenges:
T Stand 3 to 4 feet behind the kicking ball. Approach
the ball and kick it forward to the wall.
T Alternate kicking with your right foot and your
left foot so you will be skilled at using either
foot.
C Practice until you can successfully approach and
kick to the wall three times. Success equals foot
contacting the ball, and ball contacting the wall.
Skill Theme Development Sequence Kicking Profi ciency Level
Playing Cone Soccer
Playing Alley Soccer
Playing Soccer Keep-Away
Playing Mini Soccer
Kicking at a moving target
Kicking at small stationary targets
Utilization Level
Playing two-on-one soccer
Passing to a partner in general space
Kicking to a traveling partner
Kicking to a partner from various angles
Playing Soccer Golf
Playing one-on-one soccer
Traveling and kicking for a goal
Performing a continuous tap/dribble and change of direction
Changing directions: tap/dribble
Control Level
Keeping It Perfect: Zero, Zero
Dribbling around stationary obstacles
Traveling in pathways
Starting and stopping
Tapping the ball along the ground (Soccer Dribble)
Kicking to a partner
Kicking a rolling ball from a stationary position
Kicking to targets
Kicking to a distance zone
Kicking for distance
Kicking in the air
Kicking on the ground
Precontrol Level
Tapping the ball
Approaching a stationary ball and kicking
Kicking at large targets
Kicking a stationary ball from a stationary position
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration of Kicking
At the precontrol level, we want children to make con-
tact with a stationary ball for kicking. When they are
able to do this, we add an approach to a stationary ball
and tapping a ball gently along the ground.
444 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Tapping the Ball
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space,
with foam balls at their feet
Tasks/Challenges:
T Gently tap the ball from one foot to the other, us-
ing the inside of your foot.
T On the signal, begin tapping the ball from foot
to foot; continue until you hear the signal to
stop.
C I will time you for 30 seconds. Try to continue
tapping between your feet for the full amount of
time.
T Walk through general space, tapping the ball from
foot to foot — left, right, left, right — as you go.
Keep the ball between your feet throughout the
travel.
T Walk through general space, tapping the ball from
foot to foot, avoiding collisions with others. This
means you must control for the tap and control
for no collisions.
After a couple of years, the 8½-inch inexpensive plastic balls
become partially defl ated. These half-life plastic balls are ex-
cellent for kicking, especially indoors. We mark them with a
large K so children know which balls are for kicking, which
ones for dribbling. Playground balls and kickballs can also be
partially defl ated for beginning practice and for use indoors.
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development in Kicking
At the control level, we want children to make consistent
contact with a ball. We provide a variety of kicking ex-
periences that include kicking for accuracy, kicking in
Figure 24.2 Arrangement for the approach
and kick of a stationary ball.
Geometric figures on wall
Cones Weighted jugs with plastic wands
Cones with a half-hoop
Figure 24.1 Target
arrangement for kicking
at large targets.
CHAPTER 24 Kicking and Punting 445
different directions, and partner relationships. We en-
courage use of different parts of each foot and greater
control of speed and directions.
A note about cues: Although several cues are listed
for many of the learning experiences, it’s important
to focus on only one cue at a time. That way, the chil-
dren can really concentrate on that cue. Once you
provide feedback to the children and observe that
most have learned a cue, then it’s time to focus on
another one.
Kicking on the Ground
Setting: A variety of balls for kicking — foam, plastic,
rubber — placed around the gymnasium approximately
10 feet from the wall (see Figure 24.2)
Cues
Shoelaces (Contact the ball with the top
of your foot — not your toes.)
Behind the Ball (Contact the ball directly behind
center for travel forward at a
low level.)
Beside the Ball (Place your nonkicking foot
beside the ball.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T When we were exploring kicking, you kicked balls
that were positioned on the ground with you
standing behind them. You also kicked balls placed
on the ground with you running to the ball. Prac-
tice kicking the ball to the wall from both starting
positions.
T Kick the ball hard so it hits the wall with enough
force to rebound back to you.
Place a series of 2-inch tape markers on the walls of the
gym, approximately 3 feet above the fl oor.
T Kick the ball so it hits the wall below the tape line.
Remember, contact the ball directly behind
center so it will travel at a low level.
T Practice your kicking with both your right and
your left foot. In game situations, you need to be
skilled with both feet.
C Practice kicking with each foot until you can kick
three times in a row with each foot, the ball con-
tacting the wall below the tape line.
T The balls for kicking are scattered around the edge
of the gymnasium. Begin traveling in general space,
avoiding collisions with others or the balls on the
fl oor. On the signal, approach the ball nearest you
and kick it toward the wall. Quickly retrieve the
ball you kicked and place it 10 to 12 feet from the
wall. You are now ready to move again. Ready?
Travel in general space. Remember to listen for
the signal to kick.
Exit Slip. This would be an excellent time for an exit
slip to assess student understanding of the critical
cues for kicking. The exit slip might be a drawing of
a shoe with directions for the child to circle the part
of the foot that should be used for contact on the
ball; a verbal statement, “shoelaces” versus “toes,” to
a partner or the teacher; or a whisper to the teacher
as each child exits the gymnasium.
Kicking in the Air
Setting: A variety of balls for kicking — foam, plastic,
rubber — placed around the gymnasium approximately
10 feet from the wall (see Figure 24.2)
Cues
Shoelaces (Contact the ball with the top of
your foot — not your toes.)
Under the Ball (Contact the ball below center for
travel upward through the air.)
Step-Hop (Step-hop on your nonkicking leg
to complete a running approach.)
The skill of kicking improves with practice.
446 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Tasks/Challenges:
T When we were exploring kicking, you kicked balls
that were positioned on the ground with you stand-
ing behind them and you kicked balls placed on the
ground with you running to the ball. Practice kick-
ing the ball to the wall from both starting positions.
T Assume a starting position 5 to 6 feet behind the ball.
Approach the ball for the kick; immediately after you
kick the ball, take a small hop on your nonkicking
leg, and then step forward in the direction of the kick.
This step-hop checks your forward momentum.
T Practice your kicking with the step-hop, sending
the ball through the air so it contacts the wall
above the tape line.
C Practice kicking through the air until you can
successfully complete the aerial kick fi ve times.
Kicking for Distance
Setting: Balls for kicking placed in a large circle on the
playground ( Figure 24.3 ); children positioned inside
the circle, facing outward
Cues
Shoelaces (Contact the ball with the top
of your foot — not your toes.)
Behind the Ball (Contact the ball directly behind
center for travel at a low level,
along the ground.)
Under the Ball (Contact the ball below center for
travel upward through the air.)
Step-Hop (Step-hop on your nonkicking
leg to complete the running
approach.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Stand inside the circle, just behind a ball, facing
away from the center of the circle. You are going to
practice kicking along the ground and in the air.
There’s enough room for you to kick as hard as you
wish. Practice your fi rst series of kicks standing just
behind the ball— no running approach. Kick the
ball so it travels along the ground, at low level.
After you kick, retrieve the ball and quickly bring
it back to your starting place for the next kick.
T Now kick the ball with your nonpreferred foot.
Does the ball travel as far?
T Kick the ball with your preferred foot, sending it
through the air. Remember to stand just behind
the ball for the kick.
What is the key for sending the ball along the
ground? In the air? Where on the foot do you
make contact for each kick?
T Place the ball on the ground, and take three or
four steps back from the ball. Approach the ball
with three or four running steps, and then kick
the ball along the ground ( and in the air ). Don’t
forget the step-hop on the nonkicking leg as
you make contact.
C Practice kicking both along the ground and
through the air. Challenge yourself to kick farther
each time. Can you attain that distance both along
the ground and in the air?
Numbering the balls 1, 2, 3, 4, and so forth, eliminates
confusion about which ball belongs to which child.
Kicking to a Distance Zone
Setting: Marker cones or plastic milk cartons placed at
10-foot intervals across the playground, numbered
consecutively so the children can see the numbers
from the kicking line ( Figure 24.4 )
Cues
Shoelaces (Contact the ball with the top of
your foot — not your toes.)
Under the Ball (Contact the ball below center for
travel upward through the air.)
Step-Hop (Step-hop on your nonkicking leg
to complete a running approach.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Place the ball you are going to use at the kicking
line. Approach the ball from about 5 to 6 feet. Kick
the ball so it travels as far as possible through the
air. Note the number of the zone in which the ball Figure 24.3 Circular pattern for distance kicking.
CHAPTER 24 Kicking and Punting 447
fi rst contacts the ground. Kick fi ve times, trying to
improve your distance.
C Try to kick the ball so that it lands in the same
zone three times in a row.
Kicking to Targets
Setting: A series of targets of different heights arranged
throughout the gymnasium ( Figure 24.5 ); a variety of
balls for kicking
Cues
Shoelaces (Contact the ball with the top of
your foot — not your toes.)
Under the Ball (Contact the ball below the center
for travel upward through the air.)
Behind the Ball (Contact the ball directly behind
center for travel at a low level,
along the ground.)
Watch the Ball (Focus on the ball, not the target,
until the ball leaves your foot.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Spaced around the gym are targets for kicking —
suspended hoops, marker cones to kick between
and to hit, ropes hung between chairs for kicking
over, tape squares on the wall.
I’ll assign you to a station; at that station practice
kicking at the target. Place the ball at the kicking
line. Approach the kicking line with two or three
steps before you make contact. After your turn,
retrieve the ball and return to your group to wait
As they practice, children will
discover that the force required to
kick a ball for accuracy is initially
different from that required to kick
a ball for distance.
1 2 3 4 5
10'
Figure 24.4 Numbered distance zones.
448 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
your next turn. Continue practicing at your sta-
tion until the signal is given to change to another
kicking station. You may need to adjust your force
when you’re kicking to hit a target.
Here’s what you’ll do at the different stations. At
the hoops, kick the ball through the circle. At the
large and small marker cones, kick the ball hard
enough to make the cone fall over. At the rope be-
tween the chairs and the rope stretched between
the standards, kick the ball so it travels over the
rope. At the marker goals, kick the ball along the
ground between the cones. At the tape square, kick
the ball so it touches the wall inside the square.
Weighted jugs, cones, or tape marks on the wall can serve
as goals. Vary the width of the goal according to individual
abilities.
Peer Observation. Station practice provides an op-
portune time for peer observation of critical cues.
Designate one station, for example, marker cones,
and have partners observe each other kicking for
travel along the ground. When partners are observ-
ing for a critical cue, such as contact behind the ball
or on shoelaces, remind the observers of what their
focus is; accuracy of the kick is not what is being as-
sessed. See Chapter 14, “Assessing Student Learning,”
for development and recording of peer observation.
Kicking a Rolling Ball from a Stationary Position
Setting: Partners positioned 10 to 12 feet from each
other, each pair with a ball for kicking
Cues
Shoelaces (Contact the ball with the
top of your foot — not your
toes.)
Behind the Ball (Contact the ball directly
behind center for travel at a
low level.)
Under the Ball (Contact the ball below center
for travel through the air.)
Watch the Ball (Focus on the ball, not your
partner, until the ball leaves your
foot.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Partner 1: Roll the ball along the ground to partner 2.
Partner 2: Kick the ball so it travels back to partner 1.
Kick only hard enough for the ball to travel to your
partner.
T Practice the kick along the ground with both your
right foot and your left foot.
T Practice the kick through the air to your partner.
Sometimes in game situations you want to kick
along the ground; sometimes you need to kick in
the air.
C Practice until you can kick the ball along the
ground fi ve times to your partner so your partner
does not have to move from self-space to retrieve
the ball—fi ve times with the left foot, fi ve times
with the right.
15'
Marker cones
Kicking lines
Suspended hoops
Tape on wall
Rope between standardsRope between chairs
Figure 24.5 Targets for kicking.
CHAPTER 24 Kicking and Punting 449
C Can you meet the challenge of kicking the ball
through the air so your partner does not have to
move to retrieve it? Give it a try!
Kicking to a Partner
Setting: Partners facing each other, 15 to 20 feet apart,
each pair with a ball for kicking
Cues
Sender
Shoelaces (Contact the ball with the top of
your foot — not your toes.)
Behind the Ball (Contact the ball directly behind
center for travel at low level,
along the ground.)
Watch the Ball (Focus on the ball, not your
partner, as you kick and as you
receive.)
Receiver
Trap (Gain control of the ball by
rotating your nonsupport leg
outward /knee slightly bent,
raising the nonsupport foot off
the ground /toes up, and giving
slightly to absorb the motion of
the ball.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Kick the ball along the ground (or fl oor) to your
partner so he or she can gain control of the ball
without moving from self-space. This is called
trapping the ball. To trap, rotate the nonsupport
leg outward /knee slightly bent, raise the foot off
the ground /toes up, and give slightly to absorb the
force of the traveling ball.
T Practice sending and receiving — kicking and
trapping—with your partner. Always gain control of
(trap) the ball before kicking it back to your partner.
C Practice until you can kick fi ve times to your part-
ner so he or she can trap without moving from
self-space.
T When you are comfortable with your skill and can
kick accurately fi ve times, take a large step back-
ward and repeat the task. Practice at different dis-
tances to determine your maximum distance for
accuracy with your partner.
Tapping the Ball along the Ground (Soccer Dribble)
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space,
with plastic (foam, rubber) balls for kicking; listening
position is one foot resting on the ball
Cues
Tap, Tap (Gently tap the ball so that it
stays within 3 to 4 feet of you at
all times.)
Inside of Foot (Tap the ball with the inside of
your foot — left and right.)
Open Spaces (Look for open spaces as you
travel.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T When we were exploring kicking, you practiced
tapping the ball between your feet, inside to in-
side. Practice that skill of gently tapping back and
forth.
T On the signal, begin traveling through general
space, tapping the ball with the inside of your foot.
When you hear the signal, quickly rotate the non-
support leg slightly outward, raise the foot off the
ground, and give to absorb the force of the moving
ball— trap the ball.
T Alternate tapping on your right foot and then your
left foot; turn your feet out like a duck.
C On the signal, begin traveling in general space,
tapping the ball in the soccer dribble. Try to travel
and tap with alternate feet and without letting the
ball get away from you or colliding with another
person. Ready? Tap, tap . . . open spaces.
C Now dribble in general space. See if you can keep
it up for 30 seconds without colliding ball to ball
or person to person.
As the children improve, you can increase the time to 45 sec-
onds and then to 1 minute.
T Begin traveling in general space, dribbling the soc-
cer ball as you go. Gradually increase your speed,
keeping the ball within 3 to 4 feet of you at all
times. Increase and decrease the speed of your
travel, adjusting the force of your kick as you in-
crease and decrease the speed.
C I will time you again for a 30-second dribble.
Challenge yourself to dribble at your personal
maximum speed —with soccer ball and using body
control.
Teacher Observation. Teacher observation of criti-
cal cues in a dynamic, noncompetitive setting is
important at this point. See Chapters 12 and 14 for
teacher observation examples.
Starting and Stopping
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space,
each with a ball for kicking
450 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Cues
Tap, Tap (Gently tap the ball so that it
stays within 3 to 4 feet of you at
all times.)
Inside of Foot (Tap the ball with the inside of
your foot — left and right.)
Trap (Gain control of the ball by rotating
the leg outward /knees slightly
bent, raising the foot/toes up,
giving to absorb the force.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Begin dribbling in general space. When you hear the
signal, quickly trap the ball. Maintain a balanced,
ready position (weight centered over support leg)
so that you can move again quickly. Ready? Begin.
This activity provides practice in stopping the ball quickly.
Frequent signals will be needed: 10 seconds of dribbling,
stop; 30 seconds of dribbling, stop . . .
T Travel through general space, dribbling as you go.
Each time you meet another person, trap the ball
quickly, execute a quarter turn, and continue drib-
bling. The ability to stop and start quickly is an
important offensive skill that helps you maintain
control of the ball and avoid your opponents.
C Test your dribbling and trapping skills with this
2-minute activity: On the signal, begin dribbling
in general space. Each time you hear the drum or
meet another person, trap the ball; execute a quarter
turn; and continue dribbling. Your goal is to stop-
start for 2 minutes without losing control of the
ball or bumping another person or ball. The signal
at the end of the 2 minutes will be a double drum-
beat. Look for the open spaces.
Traveling in Pathways
Setting: Various pathways taped on the fl oor or spray-
painted on the grass; children scattered throughout
general space, each with a ball for kicking
Cues
Tap, Tap (Gently tap the ball so that it stays
within 3 to 4 feet of you at all times.)
Inside/ (Use both the inside of your foot
Outside and the outside of your foot — left and
right — to tap the soccer ball.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T On the ground are straight, curved, and zigzag
pathways. Travel through the formations using
the soccer dribble, traveling at a speed you can
control— no collisions, no loss of the ball. Be sure
to travel all the pathways.
T As you tap/dribble the different pathways, you
begin to discover that the inside of the foot is per-
haps not always the best surface to use for the tap/
dribble. Practice the tap/dribble with the outside
of your foot as well as the inside. Keep the tap
gentle —with control.
Dribbling around Stationary Obstacles
Setting: Marker cones and /or milk jugs positioned
throughout general space; a kicking ball for each child
Cues
Tap, Tap (Gently tap the ball so that it stays
within 3 to 4 feet of you at all times.)
Inside/ (Use both the inside of your foot and the
Outside outside of your foot—left and right—to
tap the soccer ball.)
Heads Up (Keep your head up to avoid collisions—
people, obstacles, soccer balls.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Tap/dribble the ball throughout general space,
alternating contact with your right foot and your
left foot. Avoid bumping into the cones (jugs)
with either the ball or your body. Travel in zigzag
and curved pathways to avoid the obstacles. Your
visual range must now include the ball you’re
dribbling, other people, the balls they’re using,
and the obstacles.
Kicking a moving ball requires visual focus and cocentration.
CHAPTER 24 Kicking and Punting 451
T Tap/dribble in general space. Each time you ap-
proach an obstacle, trap the ball, execute a quarter
turn to either the right or the left, and continue
dribbling.
T Vary the speed of your travel— sometimes approach
a cone (jug) very quickly, sometimes slowly.
T Tap/dribble in general space. As you near a cone
(jug), tap the ball gently with the inside of your
right foot, passing the ball to the left of the cone
(jug). Quickly continue the dribble.
T Tap/dribble in general space. As you near a cone
(jug), tap the ball gently with the inside of your left
foot, passing the ball to the right of the cone (jug).
T Tap/dribble in general space. As you near the cone
(jug), tap the ball gently with the outside of your
right foot, passing the ball to the right of the cone
(jug).
T Tap/dribble in general space. As you near a cone
(jug), tap the ball gently with the outside of your left
foot, passing the ball to the left of the cone (jug).
C This time as you practice dribbling, trapping, and
turning, pretend you have 100 points. If the ball
you are dribbling contacts a cone (jug), subtract 10
points from your score. If you have a collision with
another person, subtract 25 points. Try to com-
plete your practice with 100 points!
Keeping It Perfect: Zero, Zero
Setting: Marker cones and /or milk jugs positioned
throughout general space; a kicking ball for each child
Cues
Tap, Tap (Gently tap the ball so that it stays
within 3 to 4 feet of you at all times.)
Inside/ (Use both the inside of your foot and the
Outside outside of your foot—left and right—
to tap the soccer ball.)
Heads Up (Keep your head up to avoid collisions—
people, obstacles, soccer balls.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Thus far in our tap/dribble study, you’ve practiced
dribbling with control, trapping the ball, avoiding
obstacles, changing the speed of your travel, and tap-
ping the ball to the right or the left, as in passing.
The game of Keeping It Perfect: Zero, Zero will give
you a chance to test these skills.
Each of you has a perfect score of zero. The ob-
ject of the game is to still have the perfect score at
the end of the 2 minutes of activity. On the signal,
begin to tap/dribble in general space. You may
travel at any speed you choose, increasing and de-
creasing your speed as you wish. When you hear
the drum, trap the ball quickly; I’ll give a verbal
“Go” for you to continue.
You earn negative points if you:
• Don’t trap the ball within 2 seconds of the
drumbeat (–1)
• Bump into another person or the ball they’re
dribbling (–1)
• Bump into a marker cone (–1)
The key is control. Ready? Go.
You can use this activity to focus on specifi c skills. For ex-
ample, in the fi rst 2 minutes, children are to travel in gen-
eral space (control); in the second 2 minutes, they are to
travel in each area of the gymnasium (speed); in the third 2
minutes, they are to zigzag around as many cones as pos-
sible (passing, accuracy).
At the end of each 2 minutes, stop, rest, and calcu-
late your scores. Remember, a perfect score is zero.
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development in Kicking
At the utilization level, we focus on providing experi-
ences for applying kicking skills in unpredictable situa-
tions of increasing complexity. Performing skills on the
move and in relation to an opponent are important
challenges. A great degree of accuracy and control is
the goal at this level.
A note about cues: Although several cues are listed
for many of the learning experiences, it’s important to
focus on only one cue at a time. That way, the chil-
dren can really concentrate on that cue. Once you
provide feedback to the children and observe that
most have learned a cue, then it’s time to focus on
another one.
Changing Directions: Tap/Dribble
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space,
each with a ball for kicking.
Cues
Tap, Tap (Gently tap the ball so that it is always
within your control— no more than
3 to 4 feet from you — even with
increased speed.)
Middle of (Contact directly behind the middle of
Ball the ball, using the insides, outsides,
and heels of your feet for the dribble.)
452 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Tasks/Challenges:
T Begin traveling in general space, tapping the ball 3
to 4 feet in front of you as you go. When you are
comfortable with your control of the dribble, tap
the ball ahead of you, run quickly beyond the ball,
tap it gently with your heel, quickly turn, and con-
tinue the dribble. Be sure you run beyond the ball
to tap the front of it; contact on top of the ball will
cause you to fall.
Performing a Continuous Tap/Dribble and
Change of Direction
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space
Cues
Tap/ Tap (Tap the ball with control so
that it stays within 3 to 4 feet of
you at all times.)
Inside/Outside/ (Tap the ball with different parts
Heels of Feet of your feet as you dribble.)
Heads Up (Keep your head up to avoid
collisions — people, soccer
balls.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T You learned to change the direction of the ball by
tapping it to the right or left with the inside or
outside of your foot. And you just learned one
method of changing direction front to back. Travel
within the boundaries of our work area using
changes of direction to avoid contact with others
and to avoid crossing the outside boundaries. Your
task is continuous dribbling. Ready? Begin.
T Approach a boundary quickly; use the heel tap to
change the direction of the dribble at the last
moment, to prevent crossing the boundary.
T Purposely approach some other students; use a
pass to the right or left to avoid contact with
them.
C Challenge yourself by increasing your speed to the
maximum rate you can travel with a controlled
dribble and frequent changes of direction.
Videotape. As children begin combining skills,
the videotaping of their practice provides an
excellent opportunity for self-assessment. Have
them watch the video and code the number of
skills they included in their practice, for example,
inside of foot, outside of foot, trapping with heel.
As they watch the video clip the second time, have
them assess their execution of those skills relative
to the critical cues.
Traveling and Kicking for a Goal
Setting: Hoops or milk jugs scattered throughout gen-
eral space; marker cones for goals ( Figure 24.6 )
Cues
Behind the Ball (Contact the ball directly behind
center for travel along the
ground.)
Gentle Taps/ (Gently tap the ball for the
Hard Kicks dribble; kick hard for the goal.)
Figure 24.6 Setup for combination dribble and
kick with varying degrees of force.
Hoop Cone
CHAPTER 24 Kicking and Punting 453
Dribbling in open space allows
children to focus on kicking and
their relationship to others.
Tasks/Challenges:
T Travel at your own speed and tap the ball while
avoiding obstacles and other people. On the sig-
nal, travel quickly to an open space, and kick for
the goal. Retrieve the ball; begin dribbling again,
listening for the signal to kick for the goal.
T Practice dribbling around obstacles and kicking for
the goal on your own; I won’t give the signal for
the kick.
Playing One-on-One Soccer
Setting: Sets of partners in general space; kicking balls;
marker cones (milk jugs) for goals
Cues
Gentle Taps/ (Gently tap the ball for the
Hard Kicks dribble; kick hard for the goal.)
Heads Up (Keep your head up to avoid
collisions — people, soccer balls.)
Inside/Outside/ (Tap the ball with different parts
Heels of Feet of your feet as you travel.)
Offense Open Spaces . . . Look for Them,
Move to Them
Defense Trap or Tap to Gain Possession
Tasks/Challenges:
T Select a partner whose tap/dribble skills are very sim-
ilar to your skills. Cooperatively decide the bound-
aries for your area; a small area provides more
practice. Partner 1 begins to travel and dribble the
soccer ball within that area; partner 2 attempts to
gain possession of the ball by using the feet to trap
the ball or tap it away. Follow these rules:
1. Contact the ball, not the person.
2. Gain possession of the ball; don’t kick it away.
3. If you gain possession of the ball, begin your
dribble as the offensive player; your partner will
be the defense.
If partners are unmatched in skill, give a signal for the
change from offense to defense. That is, each time partner
2 gains possession of the ball, that person will give it back
to partner 1, who continues to tap/dribble until the signal
to switch positions is given.
T Within your area, set up two marker cones (milk
jugs) as a goal. Partner 1 will tap/dribble until
within scoring range ( 10 to 12 feet of the goal ) and
then kick for the goal. Partner 2 will attempt to
gain possession of the ball, using the feet only.
After each kick for the goal, switch positions.
C You may want to design a game using the skills of
the soccer dribble and kicking for the goal. Work
cooperatively with your partner to decide the rules
of the game, scoring, boundaries. Can you think of
a name for your game? ( See Chapter 31. )
Playing Soccer Golf
Setting: Obstacle course arrangement ( Figure 24.7 ); a
kicking ball for each child
Cues
Behind the Ball (Contact the ball directly behind
center for travel along the
ground.)
Under the Ball (Contact the ball slightly below
center for travel upward
through the air.)
Gentle Taps/ (Gently tap the ball for the
Hard Kicks dribble; kick hard for the
goal.)
454 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Tasks/Challenges:
T The game of Soccer Golf involves the skills of drib-
bling in pathways, kicking for a goal, and kicking
over a low height. The playground is arranged as a
golf course. Your task is to complete the course
with the fewest number of kicks. There are boxes
to dribble around, zones to zigzag through, hoops
to kick into, and poles to kick over. Count your
kicks as you proceed through the course. When
you fi nish the course, begin again, trying to lower
your score.
To decrease waiting time, have the children begin at differ-
ent holes on the course rather than having everyone start at
the fi rst hole.
Kicking to a Partner from Various Angles
Setting: Partners positioned 15 to 20 feet from each
other, each pair with a kicking ball
Cues
Behind the Ball (Contact the ball directly behind
center for travel along the
ground.)
Foot, Not Toes (Kick the ball with the inside or
the outside of your foot, not
with your toes.)
Kick Hard (Kick the ball with enough force
to send it to your partner.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Review the skill of kicking along the ground (the
fl oor) so that your partner can trap the ball with-
out moving. When you are comfortable with the
kick, take three to four steps to the right so you
are at an angle to your partner. Kick the ball from
this position so it travels directly to your partner.
Kick with the inside of your right foot and the
outside of your left foot until you can kick four
out of fi ve times directly to your partner with each
foot.
T Move to the left three to four steps from your orig-
inal position. Kick the ball to your partner from
this angle. Practice the kick with the inside of your
left foot and the outside of your right foot. Then
practice with the outside of your left foot and the
inside of your right foot.
T Position yourself at different angles in relation to
your partner, and practice kicking to your partner
from these positions. The ability to kick at different
angles is important in passing the ball to teammates
and in kicking for a goal in games.
Kicking to a Traveling Partner
Setting: Sets of partners at one end of the playing
fi eld (gymnasium) approximately 15 feet from each
other; one partner with the ball for kicking ( Fig-
ure 24.8 )
Cues
Behind the Ball (Contact the ball directly behind
center for travel along the
ground.)
Inside of Foot (Kick the ball with the inside of
your foot, not with your toes.)
Kick Hard (Kick the ball with enough
force to send it to your partner.)
Sender
Ahead of Partner (Kick beyond your partner.)
Receiver
On the Move (Don’t stop and wait for the ball.)
Hoop Chairs or poles (over) Between
Hoop
Marker cones
Hoop
Box
Starting line
Figure 24.7 Soccer Golf course
arrangement.
CHAPTER 24 Kicking and Punting 455
Tasks/Challenges:
T Travel the length of the playing fi eld (gymnasium)
passing the ball to each other as you travel. Re-
member to pass to your partner while you are on
the move; don’t stop to execute the kick.
T Pass the ball ahead of your partner so he or she can
continue traveling, rather than having to stop to
receive the pass.
The second set of partners may begin their travel/pass
when the partners in front of them are one-third the dis-
tance of the fi eld (gymnasium) or you may signal when
each set of partners is to begin traveling.
Passing to a Partner in General Space
Setting: Sets of partners in general space, each set with
a ball for kicking
Cues
Heads Up (Keep your head up to
avoid collisions —
people, soccer balls.)
Pass at an Angle (Use the inside /outside
of your feet [right/left]
to send the ball to your
partner.)
Pass to the Open Space (Kick the ball to the
open space ahead of
your partner.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Travel in general space, dribbling and passing to
your partner. All other players will be traveling
and passing at the same time, so it is important
that you be aware of others and of passing to open
spaces. Ready? Begin.
T Challenge yourself always to pass the ball ahead of
your partner — to the open space. If you are suc-
cessful, your partner will never have to stop to re-
ceive the pass. Try for fi ve successful completions:
open space, partner on the move.
Playing Two-on-One Soccer
Setting: Groups of three in general space; marker cones
for goals; balls for kicking
Cues
Pass at an Angle (Use the inside /outside of your
feet [right/left] to send the ball
to your partner.)
Pass to the (Kick the ball to the open space
Open Space ahead of your partner.)
Gentle Taps/ (Gently tap the ball for the
Hard Kicks dribble; kick hard to pass and to
make a goal.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Form groups of three; two of you will be offensive
players, and one of you will be a defensive player.
The two offensive players will tap/dribble and pass
to each other within the boundaries of your soccer
area. The defensive player will attempt to gain pos-
session of the ball by intercepting passes or tap-
ping the ball away on the dribble.
The offensive team will have possession of the
ball for 2 minutes. See how many goals you can
score within that interval; remember there is no
goalie! The offensive team must execute at least
two passes before attempting a kick for the goal.
At the end of each 2 minutes, I will give the signal
for the defensive player to rotate to offense and
one offensive player to rotate to defense, thus
changing the two-on-one teams.
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development in Kicking
At the profi ciency level, we give children opportunities
to use the skill of kicking in group games and for learn-
ing the strategy of offensive /defensive participation.
Children play self-designed games, or the teacher
chooses the games. These games involve relationships
15'
Figure 24.8 Kicking to a traveling
partner.
456 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
that are made increasingly complex by the number of
players and types of strategies required.
A note about cues: At the profi ciency level, tasks are
more complex, typically requiring children to coordi-
nate several movements simultaneously in a dynamic
context. A list of cues is provided to assist the children
in being more successful in the learning experience.
The challenge for the teacher is in determining which
cue will be most benefi cial for each child . . . and
when. Thus, careful observation and critical refl ection
become very important as you watch the children
move and then decide which cue will be the most
helpful to move each learner to a higher skill level.
Kicking at Small Stationary Targets
Setting: Sets of marker cones 6 feet apart to serve as
targets; a line for kicking 15 to 20 feet from each target
( Figure 24.9 )
Cues
Individual cues as needed
Tasks/Challenges:
T Each person will have 10 kicks at the goal; men-
tally record your personal score. After each person
has kicked 10 times, move the cones closer to-
gether until they are 3 feet apart. Now kick 10
times at this target. Compare this score with your
score for the 6-foot target.
T Position yourself at an angle facing the target. Re-
peat the tasks, kicking at an angle rather than in a
direct line to the target. Compare your scores to
your direct-line kicks.
C Set a personal goal for successful kicks. Practice to
meet that goal for both direct and angle kicks.
Teacher Observation. At the utilization and profi -
ciency levels, children’s kicking should show ma-
ture patterns as well as accuracy. Checklists for
recording accuracy scores can also include analysis
of errors and correction cues. See Chapter 12 for
the development of observation checklists.
Kicking at a Moving Target
Setting: Hoops suspended from a rope hanging from a
frame, wall bars, or outdoor playground equipment
(partners may also hold hoop for each other)
Cue
Ahead of the Target (Kick the ball to the open
space just beyond the
moving target.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Partner 1 starts the suspended hoop swinging or
moves back and forth, holding the hoop in the
hand. Partner 2, approximately 10 to 12 feet away,
kicks the ball at the moving target, attempting to
kick the ball through the hoop. After fi ve trials,
partners change places.
This learning experience reinforces kicking to the open space
and kicking at angles, which were introduced earlier. Remind
children to kick the ball to the space where the hoop will
swing, not to the space where the hoop is when they execute
the kick, thus the concepts of angle and open-space target!
Playing Mini Soccer
Setting: Milk jugs and marker cones as boundaries;
children in groups of four, six, or eight
Cues
Offensive
Pass at an Angle to
Teammates
Pass to Open Space (Pass ahead of the receiver.)
3'
6'
15'
Figure 24.9 Kicking at small targets.
Angles and Open Spaces
Kicking (passing) at angles and kicking (passing) to the open
space are two of the most critical skills for game play. They
provide the “bridge” between skill mastery in a static situa-
tion and successful skill execution in a dynamic environment.
CHAPTER 24 Kicking and Punting 457
Body between Ball (Keep your body between the
and Opponent ball and the defender at all
times; quickly switch the tap/
dribble to the outside foot.)
Defensive
Tap or Trap
Tasks/Challenges:
T With your group, design a game of Mini Soccer,
using the skills we have been practicing. Coopera-
tively decide the rules, scoring, and the boundar-
ies. I will place only one limitation on the game:
Each member of the offensive team must dribble
the ball before making a kick for the goal.
Journal. After children are involved in a dynamic
kicking /dribbling situation involving combining
of skills, have them refl ect on their play with a
journal entry. See Chapter 14, “Assessing Student
Learning,” for journal entry guidelines.
Playing Soccer Keep-Away
Setting: Children in teams of three to six; large open
space
Cues
Offensive
Pass at an Angle to
Teammates
Pass to Open Space (Pass ahead of the receiver.)
Body between Ball
and Opponent
Defensive
Close the Open Spaces (Move quickly to close
the open spaces.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T The object of Soccer Keep-Away is to keep the ball
away from your opponents using the tap/dribble
and passing skills you have been practicing. There
is no kicking for the goal, only passing and drib-
bling in the game. To begin the game, one person
throws the ball (two hands, overhead) in from the
sideline. Play continues with the ball being drib-
bled and passed as the other team attempts to gain
possession by trapping, intercepting, or gaining
control of the dribble. At the end of each 3 min-
utes of play, I will signal for the other team to ex-
ecute the throw-in to begin a new game.
Alley Soccer and Cone Soccer (below) are profi ciency-level
games that demand combinations of skills. Because it is
rare that all the students in a class will be ready for this
type of game at the same time, some children will benefi t
from practicing different types of kicking while others are
playing the game (see Chapter 31).
Playing Alley Soccer
Setting: A playing fi eld divided into fi ve equal alleys ( Fig-
ure 24.10 ); marker-cone goals 6 feet apart at each end
of the fi eld; six-member teams
Cues
Offensive
Pass at an Angle
to Teammates
Goalie
Players on one team Players on other team
Alley
Alley
Figure 24.10 Alley Soccer.
458 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Pass to Open Space
Body between Ball
and Opponent
Defensive
Close the Open Spaces (Move quickly to close
the open spaces.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Alley Soccer is an activity that uses dribbling,
passing, and kicking for a goal. Each team has six
players — one player for each alley plus a goalie.
Players may travel the length of their alley but can’t
cross into another alley. Your task is to dribble,
avoid the opponent in your alley, pass to team-
mates, and kick for the goal. At regular intervals,
I’ll give the signal to rotate alleys; this rotation
will allow each of you to play each position.
Playing Cone Soccer
Setting: A marker cone placed at either end of the play-
ing area with a circle (spray paint or marking dust) 10
feet in diameter surrounding each cone ( Figure 24.11 );
teams of two to six members
Cues
Offensive
Kick at an Angle to Teammates
Pass to Open Space
Gentle Taps to Dribble/Hard Kicks to the Target
Body between Ball and Opponent
Defensive
Close the Open Spaces
Tasks/Challenges:
T Cone Soccer emphasizes dribbling, passing, and
kicking for accuracy. The object of the game is to
kick the ball, knock over the other team’s cone, and
protect your own cone. No one is allowed inside the
circle to kick or to defend. If one team makes body
contact, the other team gets a free kick on the spot;
everyone must be 3 feet away for the free kick.
A good way to form teams for equal skill is to ask children
to select a partner and then place the selected partners on
opposite teams.
Levels of Skill Profi ciency in Punting
Punting is a form of kicking: a ball is released from the
hands and kicked while it is in the air. This is a diffi cult
skill for children to master. Because the punt involves
a complex coordination of body movements — moving
the body forward, dropping the ball accurately, and
kicking it before it reaches the ground —we have found
it best to introduce the punt after children have prac-
ticed other types of kicking.
When children fi rst try to punt, they toss the ball up
and then “kick” it with a knee or leg rather than the
foot. Often the novice punter will contact the ball after
it bounces. We give children at the precontrol level
round lightweight balls and balloons, challenging
them to contact the “ball” with the foot before it
touches the ground.
Children at the control level are challenged to con-
sistently contact the ball for the punt, to drop rather
than toss the ball, and to move forward to make con-
tact rather than standing in one place. When children
can consistently contact the ball with the foot before
the ball hits the ground, we begin to expand the basic
skill with experiences that include:
• Punting for distance
• Punting for height
• Punting different types of balls
• Punting for accuracy
At the utilization level, experiences are designed to
combine punting with other factors. Appropriate ac-
tivities include:
• Punting to a partner
• Catching and punting within a limited time
At the profi ciency level, children are able to punt in
relation to unpredictable, dynamic situations, such as
might occur in a football or a rugby game.
Ideas for varying the contexts in which punting
skills can be practiced are presented in our progres-
sion spiral on page 459. As in previous chapters, we
encourage you to alter the method of organization, as
suggested in Chapter 13. Box 24-4 contains key ob-
servation points illustrating correct and incorrect
punting. Ask yourself the questions in the box as you
observe children punting.
10' 10'
Figure 24.11 Cone Soccer. Dimensions of the playing area
may be adjusted to the size of the available area and the number
of players.
CHAPTER 24 Kicking and Punting 459
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration of Punting
At the precontrol level, children explore punting dif-
ferent types of lightweight balls, sometimes with a
bounce before contact, sometimes contacting the ball
before it touches the ground. At this level we are not
concerned with mastery, but with children enjoying a
variety of experiences as an introduction to the skill
of punting.
Dropping, Bouncing, and Kicking Lightweight Balls
Setting: Lightweight balls (plastic, foam) positioned
around the perimeter of the gym, approximately 15 feet
from the wall
Tasks/Challenges:
T Drop the ball to the fl oor. After the fi rst bounce,
contact the ball with your shoelaces, sending it to
the wall.
T Try the kick with your right foot and with your left
foot to determine which is your preferred foot.
C With your preferred foot, drop and kick the ball
after the bounce fi ve times. Repeat several times to
determine your personal best.
Dropping and Punting
Setting: Kicking balls (plastic, foam) positioned around
the perimeter of the gym, approximately 15 feet from
the wall
Tasks/Challenges:
T Stand behind the kicking line, holding the ball in
both hands. Drop the ball and kick it to the wall,
making contact before the ball touches the fl oor.
This drop-kick action is called a punt.
Children who are having diffi culty with the drop-kick action
can benefi t from practicing punting with a balloon. This
helps them understand the concept of dropping—rather than
tossing — the object to be punted.
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development in Punting
At the control level, children need experiences to deve-
lop consistency in contacting the ball for the punt.
After they can consistently make contact, they are
provided opportunities to punt different types of
balls, to increase distance on the punt, and to improve
accuracy.
This child practices punting, a diffi cult skill for youngsters to master.
Skill Theme Development Sequence
Punting Profi ciency Level
Playing Punt-Over
Punting while traveling
Receiving and punting against opponents
Utilization Level
Playing Rush the Circle
Punting within a limited time
Receiving a pass, then punting
Punting to a partner
Punting at angles
Control Level
Punting for height
Punting for accuracy
Using punting zones
Punting for distance
Punting different types of balls
Punting with an approach
Punting over low ropes
Punting for consistency
Precontrol Level
Dropping and punting
Dropping, bouncing, and kicking lightweight balls
460 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Box 24-4
Key Observation Points: Punting
1. Does the child drop the ball rather than toss it in the air for the punt?
2. Is the child’s kicking foot extended for contact on the top of the foot (shoelaces) rather than with the toes?
3. Does the child make contact at the right height for a 45-degree angle of fl ight rather than too soon or too late?
CHAPTER 24 Kicking and Punting 461
Box 24-4 (continued)
Mature Stage
When children are at the mature stage of punting, do their punts look similar to the following sequence? The child makes a rapid ap-
proach of one or more steps that culminates in a leap just before contact. If a leap does not precede contact, the child can enhance
the forward momentum by taking a large step. The child makes contact with the ball at or below knee level as a result of having re-
leased the ball in a forward and downward direction. The momentum of the swinging leg carries the punter upward off the surface
and forward after contact.
Source: Adapted from V. Seefeldt and J. Haubenstricker, “Developmental sequence of Punting,” mimeographed materials
presented at the University of Georgia, Athens, June 1978; and R.L. Wickstrom, Fundamental Motor Patterns, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia:
Lea & Febiger, 1977).
462 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
A note about cues: Although several cues are listed
for many of the learning experiences, it’s important
to focus on only one cue at a time. That way, the chil-
dren can really concentrate on that cue. Once you
provide feedback to the children and observe that
most have learned a cue, then it’s time to focus on
another one.
Punting for Consistency
Setting: Lightweight balls for punting, placed around
the perimeter of the gym, approximately 20 feet from
the wall
Cues
Shoelaces (Contact the ball with the top
of your foot — not your toes.)
Eyes on the Ball (Watch the ball until it contacts
your foot.)
Drop (Drop the ball for the punt;
don’t toss it upward.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T When we worked on punting earlier, you punted
just for fun. Sometimes the ball went through the
air, sometimes backward over your head, and
sometimes nowhere! Today we will begin to prac-
tice punting so we can consistently kick the ball
forward through the air. Stand behind the ball,
holding it in both your hands at waist height. Take
a small step on your nonkicking leg, then extend
your kicking foot for contact on the shoelaces.
Drop the ball as you swing your kicking leg for-
ward; contact the ball just before it touches the
fl oor (ground).
T Punt the ball fi ve times. How many times did you
contact the ball before it touched the fl oor
(ground)? Continue your practice until you make
three or more contacts.
T Good, you are now consistently contacting the ball
before it touches the fl oor (ground). Now let’s focus
on the ball consistently traveling forward when
you punt. Continue your practice with sets of fi ve
punts; mentally record how many times in each set
you are successful at punting with your shoelaces
and sending the ball forward to the wall.
Punting over Low Ropes
Setting: Ropes suspended between standards or across
chairs at a height of 4 to 6 feet; lightweight balls for
punting
Cues
Extend (Extend your foot to contact the
ball with your shoelaces, not
your toes.)
Eyes on the Ball (Watch the ball until it contacts
your foot.)
Drop (Drop the ball for the punt;
don’t toss it upward.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Stand approximately 10 feet behind the rope. Punt
the ball so it travels over the rope. Retrieve the ball
and punt from the opposite side of the rope.
C Give yourself a point each time you are successful
at punting the ball over the rope. How many
points can you make out of 10 trials?
Teacher Observation. Before children incorporate
skills into dynamic situations, observation of criti-
cal cues is very important. A teacher observation
checklist is useful here.
Punting with an Approach
Setting: Lightweight balls for punting, placed around
the perimeter of the gym, approximately 20 feet from
the wall. If indoor space is not suffi cient for this task,
move the class outside and punt away from the circle; see
Figure 24.3.
Cues
Nonstop Approach (Take a few running steps;
then punt without stopping
your forward momentum.)
Step-Hop (Make your last step before
contact a step-hop on your
nonkicking leg, so that you’ll
be airborne for the punt.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Take a series of quick steps forward. As your kick-
ing leg moves back to front for the contact with
the ball, hop slightly on your supporting leg so
you are actually airborne for the contact. Quickly
straighten your kicking leg at the moment of con-
tact. (Demonstrate or ask a child to demonstrate the
step-hop action.)
T Continue to practice the approach and punt. As
you become more comfortable with the step-hop
action, you will probably want to lean slightly
backward as you kick to counterbalance the force-
ful swing of your kicking leg.
CHAPTER 24 Kicking and Punting 463
C Practice until you can punt successfully three times
in a row. When I watch your punting action, I
should see the following:
1. A series of quick steps
2. Your body airborne for contact
3. The ball being dropped, not tossed
4. The top of your foot (your shoelaces) making
contact with the ball
Punting Different Types of Balls
Setting: A variety of balls for punting — plastic, foam,
defl ated rubber, Nerf footballs — placed around an out-
door teaching area
Cues
Extend (Extend your foot to contact the
ball with your shoelaces, not
your toes.)
Eyes on the Ball (Watch the ball until it contacts
your foot.)
Drop (Drop the ball for the punt;
don’t toss it upward.)
Step-Hop (Make your last step before
contact a step-hop on your
nonkicking leg, so that you’ll
be airborne for the punt.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Scattered around the practice area are punting
balls of different types and sizes. Practice punting
with each type of ball, using your running approach
and airborne action for the kick.
C Practice with each type of ball until you can punt
successfully three out of fi ve times.
T Select a football for punting. What is very different
about this ball? Yes, all the others are round. Hold
the football with one end facing the direction in
which the ball is to travel; all your other actions
are the same as for punting other types of balls.
Compare how well you’re able to punt the football
with your success with the other types of balls.
When footballs are added to the selection, some children
may want to practice punting only with the footballs;
encourage the children to practice punting with each type
of ball.
Punting for Distance
Setting: A variety of balls for punting; colored jugs for
use as markers; children positioned at one end of an
outdoor practice area
Cues
Extend (Extend your foot and your kicking
leg for a really good punt.)
Step-Hop (Make your last step before contact
a step-hop on your nonkicking leg,
so that you’ll be airborne for the
punt.)
Kick Hard (Kick hard to send the ball really far.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Take a series of running steps, and punt the ball as
far as possible. Place a colored jug at the spot where
the ball fi rst touches the ground, and then try to
punt beyond that spot. Remember, making the
ball travel at a 45-degree angle when you punt it
gives you the best distance. To achieve that angle,
extend your foot and contact the ball just be-
fore it touches the ground.
Continue to practice your punting, trying to
extend your distance with each punt. Each time
you better your distance, move your marker to
that spot. Straightening your kicking leg when
you contact the ball will increase your power
for distance.
When a new factor (distance) is added, children may mod-
ify their kicking patterns. Some may need verbal cues as
they practice.
Using Punting Zones
Setting: Colored tape, spray paint, marker cones, or col-
ored streamers to mark a series of target zones, each ap-
proximately 15 feet in length ( Figure 24.12 ); a variety of
balls for punting (target zones may be numbered, color-
coded, or named for states, professional teams, etc.)
Cues
Extend (Extend your foot and your kicking leg
for a really good punt.)
Step-Hop (Make your last step before contact a
step-hop on your nonkicking leg, so
that you’ll be airborne for the punt.)
Nonstop (Take a few running steps; then punt
Approach without stopping your forward
momentum.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Approach the kicking line with a series of running
steps; punt the ball for maximum distance. Men-
tally note the zone the ball fi rst lands in. Retrieve
the ball and be ready for another turn.
464 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
A key component in punting for distance is practice. Keep-
ing the same distances and codes (colors, names) for zones
permits children to check themselves against their best dur-
ing previous lessons.
Punting for Accuracy
Setting: Colored tape, spray paint, marker cones, or
colored streamers to mark a series of target zones, each
approximately 15 feet in length (see Figure 24.12); a
variety of balls for punting
Cues
Extend (Extend your foot and your kicking
leg for a really good punt.)
Step-Hop (Make your last step before contact a
step-hop, so that you’ll be airborne
for the punt.)
Hard Kick, (Use a hard kick for maximum distance,
Soft Kick a soft kick for shorter distances.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T We previously used the target zones in punting
for dis tance. Now we will use them to focus on
accuracy — making the ball land within a particu-
lar area. Practice punting with a running approach
to review the skill and to determine the zone that
is your best distance. Try to punt the ball consis-
tently to that zone.
C Punt the ball fi ve times, attempting to make it land
within the same zone each time.
T Punt the ball so it lands within the fi rst target zone.
To do that you must adjust the amount of force
behind the kick.
T Choose a zone midway between the fi rst target
zone and your best distance. Punt the ball so it
lands within that target zone.
C Select three zones as your targets. Practice until
you can successfully punt three out of fi ve balls
into each of those zones.
T Repeat the process for your three selected zones
using each type of ball— foam, defl ated rubber,
soccer ball, football. Compare your accuracy with
the different types of balls.
Being able to adjust force to kick a shorter distance is an
important punting skill for playing games and one that
does not come easily for children. Encourage them to select
zones of varying distances, not just their maximum.
Punting for Height
Setting: Colored tape, spray paint, marker cones, or
colored streamers to mark a series of target zones, each
approximately 15 feet in length (see Figure 24.12); a
variety of balls for punting.
Cues
Under the Ball (Contact the ball below center
to send it upward and forward.)
Eyes on the Ball (Watch the ball until it contacts
your foot.)
Kick Hard (Make a fi rm step-hop and
swing of leg for good height.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Sometimes in a game you want the ball to travel
in a high aerial path rather than at a 45-degree
angle so that you can adjust the forward distance
of the punt. What did we learn earlier about con-
tacting a ball to send it upward rather than for-
ward? Right, contact must be made directly
underneath the ball for travel upward. You will
also get more height on the punt if you con tact the
ball closer to waist height. Take a series of small
Approach area
15'
Figure 24.12 Punting zones.
CHAPTER 24 Kicking and Punting 465
steps, then punt the ball so it travels as high as
possible.
T Punt the ball high in the air; see if you can catch it
before it touches the ground.
Because of the hazard of running to catch while
looking up, this task must be done in a large out-
door fi eld space. If such a space is not available,
some children can practice punting for height
while others practice punting for distance.
T Select one of the fi rst three target zones as your
target area. Punt the ball so it travels in a high
aerial path to that zone.
Children highly skilled in punting for accuracy will enjoy
the challenge of smaller targets, such as hoops.
What makes the difference between the ball travel-
ing in a very high aerial path versus a 45-degree
angle for distance?
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development in Punting
At the utilization level, we provide punting experi-
ences in dynamic situations. This encourages children
to use punting skills in combination with other fac-
tors, such as time and accuracy. To stress relationships
with a partner, focus on punting so that a partner can
catch the ball on punting or shortly after receiving a
throw from a partner.
A note about cues: Although several cues are listed
for many of the learning experiences, it’s important to
focus on only one cue at a time. That way, the chil-
dren can really concentrate on that cue. Once you
provide feedback to the children and observe that
most have learned a cue, then it’s time to focus on
another one.
Punting at Angles
Setting: Spray paint, marker dust, or milk jugs to mark
target zones divided by width and length ( Figure 24.13 );
lightweight balls for punting
Cues
Extend to Target (Extend your kicking foot and
leg toward the target, to the
right or left.)
Individuals and /or classes may need reminders of earlier
cues (e.g., Eyes on the Ball, Drop, Step-Hop).
Tasks/Challenges:
T Practice punting into the different target zones — to
the right and to the left of where you’re standing.
T Select a target zone, and practice until you can
consistently punt the ball into that zone. Then se-
lect a zone on the opposite side.
C Practice until you can select a target zone, tell a
partner which one you’ve chosen, and then punt
three out of fi ve balls into that zone. How about
fi ve out of fi ve?
Punting to a Partner
Setting: Colored tape, spray paint, marker cones, or
streamers to mark target zones, each approximately
15 feet long; partners, each pair with a lightweight ball
for punting ( Figure 24.14 )
Approach area
Children punting
Highest accuracy zone
Highest accuracy zone
Figure 24.13 Punting at angles.
466 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Cues
Eyes on the Ball (Watch the ball— not your
partner —until it contacts your
foot.)
Step-Hop (Make your last step before
contact a step-hop, so that
you’ll be airborne for the
punt.)
Adjust (Adjust your power to match
the distance your partner is
from you.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Using the target zones as a measure of distance,
tell your partner where to stand for the two of you
to punt to each other; choose a distance at which
both of you have been successful. Punt the ball so
your partner can catch it without moving more
than a couple of steps.
T Punt so your partner can catch without moving
from self-space.
T From behind the kicking line, practice punting to
your partner in each of the target zones: near/far,
right/left angles.
T Punt some balls high and lofty, others at a 45-degree
angle.
Receiving a Pass, Then Punting
Setting: Partners scattered throughout general space
in an outdoor area; a variety of balls for punting —
playground balls, soccer balls, footballs
Cues
Eyes on the Ball (Watch the ball, not your
partner.)
Step-Hop-Punt (Take a couple of steps only;
then punt.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Select a partner with whom you can work well
independently. Separate to a distance at which
you can both throw and catch successfully. Part-
ner 1 throws the ball to partner 2; partner 2
receives the ball and then quickly takes a couple
of steps and punts the ball across the playing fi eld.
Your goal is to punt as quickly, yet correctly, as
possible. Alternate positions as passer and punter.
With children throwing, catching, and punting,
space awareness can be a safety factor. Organize
this activity with all passes and punts traveling in
the same direction — across the playing area or end
to end, not in multiple directions.
Punting within a Limited Time
Setting: Partners scattered throughout general space
in an outdoor area; a variety of balls for punting —
playground balls, soccer balls, footballs
Cues
Eyes on the Ball (Watch the ball, not your partner.)
Step-Hop-Punt (Take a couple of steps only;
then punt.)
Approach area
Children punting Children receiving
Highest accuracy zone
Highest accuracy zone
Figure 24.14 Punting to a partner.
CHAPTER 24 Kicking and Punting 467
Tasks/Challenges:
T Partner 2 throws the ball to partner 1. As soon as
partner 1 receives the pass, partner 2 begins to
count “one alligator, two alligators, three alligators.”
After receiving the pass, partner 1 punts it across
the playing fi eld as quickly as possible, trying to
complete the punt before partner 2 counts “three
alligators.” Partner 1 retrieves the ball and switches
positions with partner 2. Follow all the proper
steps, even though you’re punting quickly.
Videotape. It would be benefi cial to videotape a
game situation containing a punt with added pres-
sure. Use self-analysis or peer analysis or both of
the execution of the punt. To structure the obser-
vation, provide the children with lead questions:
Was the punt as well executed as it was when you
were not rushed by a partner? What makes the
difference? Should there be a difference in the ex-
ecution? What cue do you consider most critical
for success in this situation? Why?
Playing Rush the Circle
Setting: A spray-paint or marker-dust circle drawn on a
fi eld, with a diameter of 10 feet or larger, and a passing
line approximately 15 feet from the edge of the circle
( Figure 24.15 ); children with partners; a variety of balls
for punting — playground balls, soccer balls, footballs
Cues
Eyes on the Ball (Watch the ball, not your partner.)
Step-Hop-Punt (Take a couple of steps only;
then punt.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Select a partner whose throwing and catching skills
are similar to yours. The punter will be positioned
inside the circle; the passer will be approximately
20 feet away, behind the passing line. The passer
throws the ball from behind the passing line. When
the punter receives the catch, the passer runs to-
ward the circle, trying to reach the circle before the
punter can kick the ball. The punter punts the ball
as quickly as possible when he or she receives the
pass. In other words, the punter tries to punt the
ball before the passer reaches the circle.
At this level of punting and kicking combined with throw-
ing and catching, some children will enjoy developing
point systems and minigames for each task. Others will
continue to enjoy practicing the skill in the dynamic
environment.
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development in Punting
Punting experiences at the profi ciency level lead to the
ability to punt accurately and for distance in dynamic
and unpredictable situations. The relationships are
more complex. Emphasis is on punting while traveling
and on working with others in game situations.
A note about cues: At the profi ciency level, tasks are
more complex, typically requiring children to coordi-
nate several movements simultaneously in a dynamic
context. A list of cues is provided to assist the children
in being more successful in the learning experience.
The challenge for the teacher is in determining which
cue will be most benefi cial for each child . . . and when.
Thus, careful observation and critical refl ection be-
come very important as you watch the children move
and then decide which cue will be the most helpful to
move each learner to a higher skill level.
Receiving and Punting against Opponents
Setting: Groups of three, each group with a ball for
punting
Cues
Focus on the ball, not your opponents. Drop —
don’t toss — the ball, even under pressure. Re-
member the approach, even with opponents.
Individual cues as needed
Tasks/Challenges:
T Working in groups of three, two partners will as-
sume the offensive positions of passer and punter.
The other player will be the defense, attempting
to block the punt. Offense: Partner 1 (the pass er)
throws the ball to partner 2 (the punter) from a
distance of about 20 feet. Partner 2 punts the ball
down the playing fi eld. Defense: Rush the punter,
Approach circle
Punter Passer and rusher
Flight of pass
Figure 24.15 Partner pass-and-rush punting: Rush the Circle.
468 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
starting from the 20-foot distance at which the
passer is standing, to tag the punter before the
punter releases the kick. You can’t begin the rush
until the punter receives the pass.
Alternate positions until each person has been
the punter, the passer, the defense.
Punting While Traveling
Setting: Spray paint, marker dust, or milk jugs to mark
distance zones approximately 15 feet in length; a variety
of balls for punting
Cues
Nonstop Approach (Take a few running
steps; then punt without
stopping your forward
momentum.)
Step-Hop (Make your last step before
contact a step-hop on your
nonkicking leg, so that
you’ll be airborne for the
punt, even with a longer
approach.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Run with the ball the distance to two target zones,
then quickly punt the ball. Focus on accuracy of
contacting the ball for forward travel.
T Focus on making the ball land accurately in a spe-
cifi c zone.
T Focus on punting for maximum distance.
Playing Punt-Over
Setting: Spray paint or marker dust to mark target
zones, approximately 10 feet in length; teams of four
or six players; a choice of football or playground ball
for each team
Cues
Individual cues as needed
Tasks/Challenges:
T The object of the game Punt-Over is to punt the
ball over your opponents so it lands in the end
zone. You can play it in groups of four or six. Here
are the basic rules:
1. Play begins with the punting team in their fi rst
zone; one person punts the ball toward the op-
posite end zone.
2. If the opponents catch the ball, they advance
forward one zone before they punt.
3. If the opponents retrieve the ball short of the
end zone, they punt from that spot.
4. The game consists of alternate punts; the num-
ber of points awarded for landing in the end
zone corresponds to the zone from which the
ball was punted ( Figure 24.16 ).
The groups decide cooperatively:
1. If the defensive team catches the ball on the
punt, can they run to the opposite end zone to
score?
2. Can members of the opposite team rush the
punter after the punter has received the pass?
Punter
End zone End zone
6 5 4 2 13
1 2 3 5 64
Receiver opponent
Figure 24.16 Punt-Over.
CHAPTER 24 Kicking and Punting 469
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. What is the difference between a kick and a punt?
2. What is a mature kicking pattern? What is a ma-
ture punting pattern?
3. What kicking tasks lead to the development of a
mature kicking pattern?
4. Describe appropriate kicking tasks for each of the
four levels of skill profi ciency.
5. At the precontrol level, why do you number the
balls?
6. Where does a child’s foot need to contact the ball
so that it travels into the air? Along the ground?
7. What experiences do children have at each of the
four skill levels when they’re learning to punt a
ball?
8. What is the outcome when a child makes contact
with the ball too soon in a punt? What happens
when the child makes contact too late?
9. How is the tap/dribble of soccer different from a
regular kick?
10. List the kicking skills needed for success in soccer.
References /Suggested Readings
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2004 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. 2nd ed. Reston, VA: NASPE .
Wickstrom , R. L. 1977 . Fundamental motor patterns. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger .
Wickstrom , R. L. 1983 . Fundamental motor patterns. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger .
470
C H A P T E R
25
Throwing and Catching
CHAPTER 25 Throwing and Catching 471
T hrowing and catching go together just as nicely
as soup and a sandwich. The two skills, however,
are opposite in movement focus and unusually
diffi cult for young children to master.
Although throwing and catching are complemen-
tary, we’ve learned that children have limited success
in combining throwing and catching in game situa-
tions unless each skill has been given specifi c attention
and developed in appropriate practice situations. It is
important that the teacher be certain that children can
throw and catch with relative success before progress-
ing to the utilization and profi ciency levels. Activities at
those levels — throwing to a running partner or trying
to prevent an opponent from catching a ball— require
mature throwing and catching skills. Too often teachers
neglect catching, feeling it isn’t that important. But
as anyone who has ever watched a professional base-
ball game knows, catching is a skill, a skill that often
Box 25-1
The movement skills of throwing and catching are referenced
in the National Association for Physical Education’s National
Standards for Physical Education (NASPE 2004) under
Standard 1: “Demonstrates competency in motor skills and
movement patterns needed to perform a variety of physical
activities.” The standard speaks of the child’s learning the skills
as simple closed skills, developing a mature motor pattern,
and increasing the variety and versatility of the action.
Sample performance outcomes for throwing and catching
include:
• Drops a ball and catches it at the peak of the bounce (K– 2)*
• Throws a ball underhand using mature form (e.g., places
feet together and shoulders square to target, swings throw-
ing arm straight back, shifts weight forward by stepping
onto the opposite foot, rolls ball off fi ngers, and fi nishes with
throwing arm outstretched toward target) (K– 2)*
• Catches a fl y ball using mature form (e.g., has eyes on ball,
moves to position, reaches with hands, catches with hands
only rather than trapping the ball, bends elbows to pull ball
into chest to absorb force) (3 – 5)*
• Throws a ball overhand and hits a target on the wall (6-foot
square centered 4 feet above the ground) from a distance
of 40 feet (3 – 5)*
• Throws a ball overhand to a partner 15 yards away using
mature form (e.g., turns side to target, uses T-position [ball
held close to and behind ear], rotates hips and chest to-
ward target, twists, releases, follows through across body)
after fi elding a ball (3 – 5)*
The skill theme of throwing and catching is also referenced
under Standard 2: “Demonstrates understanding of movement
concepts, principles, strategies, and tactics as they apply to
the learning and performance of physical activities.” This stan-
dard speaks of the child’s identifying the characteristics of a
quality movement pattern and safety.
The sample performance outcomes state:
• Recognizes appropriate safety practices in general space
by throwing balls only when others are not in the direct line
of the throw (K– 2)*
• Corrects movement errors in response to corrective feed-
back (e.g., remember to twist your tummy when throwing
the ball) (K– 2)*
• Accurately recognizes the critical elements of a catch
made by a fellow student and provides feedback to that
student (3 – 5)*
The skill theme of throwing and catching is further refer-
enced under Standard 3: “Participates regularly in physical
activity.” In this standard, throwing and catching are used in
nonschool settings.
The sample performance outcome states:
• Participates in a variety of activities that involve the manipu-
lation of objects in and outside of physical education class
(e.g., tossing ball, juggling) (K– 2)*
*Grade-level guidelines for expected student learning.
The Skills of Throwing and Catching in the National Standards for Physical Education
determines whether a game is won or lost. Box 25-1
contains information on throwing and catching from
the National Standards for Physical Education.
Levels of Skill Profi ciency in Throwing
Throwing is a basic movement pattern performed to
propel an object away from the body. Although throw-
ing style (overhand, underhand, sidearm) and purpose
may vary, the basic pattern remains consistent:
1. An object to be sent away is grasped with one or
both hands.
2. In a preparatory phase, momentum builds for the
throw.
3. The actual propulsive phase — the release of the
object — is performed.
472 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
4. In a follow-through phase, the body maintains con-
trol and balance while using up the momentum of
the throw.
In the elementary school setting, a wide range of
throwing abilities among a class will be observed. Ini-
tially, the teacher should focus on ascertaining each
child’s skill level. When the youngsters manipulate
objects such as beanbags or yarn balls, the teacher
can observe individual children for signifi cant devel-
opmental characteristics. (As a guide, see Box 25-2 for
the key observation points for throwing.)
After making a gross assessment of each child’s de-
velopment in throwing, the teacher has a basis for
structuring appropriate instructional tasks. (See our
progression spiral for throwing and catching activities
on page 474.)
For children at the precontrol level, the tasks are de-
signed to provide exploration of a multitude of throwing
experiences. Many of these experiences are designed to
elicit distance throws, which force children to use a more
mature throwing pattern. Tasks at this level are purely
explorational and include such things as:
• Throwing against a wall
• Tossing to self and catching
We expose children at the control level to various
contexts so that they use throwing actions in different
but relatively static situations:
• Throwing fast/throwing slow
• Varying the distance of throws
• Throwing under/throwing over (a net or other
obstacle)
• Tossing a beanbag at a target
• Throwing a yarn ball through a hoop
• Throwing a foam ball into a basket
When children begin to focus primarily on hitting a
target, they appear to regress to ineffi cient throwing
patterns. What they are actually doing is using a pattern
that allows them to be accurate — a pattern in which
they control as many segments as possible and thus
use as few body parts as possible. They have adapted
their skill level to the task. The normal characteristics
of a mature throw are appropriate only for throwing
for distance and speed. Asking children to use a mature
throwing pattern when throwing at a close or small
target is really an inappropriate request for the task.
Generally, longer throws to a large target elicit mature
throwing patterns. Therefore, it is a good idea to vary
the distance of the throw, sometimes fostering success
at hitting the target, other times enhancing the devel-
opment of a mature throwing pattern.
Once the children are able to perform smooth
throwing actions in a variety of static contexts, they’re
ready for utilization-level experiences. At this level,
children are given tasks that encourage refi nement of
skills and an increase in the breadth of throwing abili-
ties. Appropriate activities include:
• Throwing accurately while running
• Throwing to a moving target (for example, a partner)
• Throwing at a goal while off the ground
• Throwing a fl ying disc accurately
Children are at the profi ciency level of throwing
when they are able to throw effectively in unpredict-
able, dynamic contexts and are ready to practice throw-
ing as it’s used in the relatively complex and changing Young children use extreme concentration to catch.
CHAPTER 25 Throwing and Catching 473
Box 25-2
Key Observation Points: Throwing
1. Does the child take a forward step on the foot opposite the throwing arm?
2. Do the child’s hips and spine rotate so that they can uncoil in forceful derotation?
3. Is the child’s elbow fl exed and held away from the body and extended on the backswing?
NO YES
NO YES
NO YES
Skill Theme Development Sequence
Throwing and Catching Profi ciency Level
Throwing and catching while using simple offense and defense in a small-sided invasion game
Throwing and catching with a team handball in a small-sided invasion game
Throwing and catching with a football in a small-sided invasion game
Throwing and catching with a fl ying disc in a small-sided invasion game
Throwing and catching in a small-sided basketball-type invasion game
Throwing at a stationary object while being defended
Throwing and catching in a small-sided invasion game
Throwing to avoid a defender
Throwing and catching in a fi eld, run, and score game-like situation
Throwing and catching a fl ying disc in different places around the body with a partner
Utilization Level
Throwing while in the air
Catching to throw quickly to a target
Catching to throw quickly to a partner
Throwing fl ying discs at targets
Target backaway
Throwing for distance and accuracy
Throwing to a moving target
Throwing to make a partner move to catch
Throwing on the move
Throwing and catching while traveling
Moving to catch
Control Level
Catching off a bounce
Throwing and catching over a net with a partner
Throwing and catching with a partner
Throwing for distance
Throwing a ball against a wall and catching the rebound
Catching off the fl y
Catching with a scoop
Throwing a fl ying disc
Throwing backhand to a target
Throwing to high targets
Throwing underhand to targets: hoops
Throwing underhand to targets: jugs
Throwing overhand at a low stationary target
Throwing overhand at a high stationary target
Catching in different places around the body
Throwing an object to different levels and catching it
Bouncing a ball to self and catching it
Overs, Unders, and Sides
Throwing sidearm
Throwing overhand
Throwing underhand
Precontrol Level
Tossing to self and catching
Drop —Catch
Catching from a skilled thrower
Catching a rolling ball
Throwing at a large target
Throwing a yarn ball against the wall
CHAPTER 25 Throwing and Catching 475
Box 25-3
Key Observation Points: Catching
1. Are the child’s elbows fl exed rather than extended in preparation for making the catch?
2. Does the child make the catch with the hands alone rather than by trapping the ball against the body?
NO YES
NO YES
environments characterized by gamelike situations.
Appropriate tasks include:
• Throwing a ball at a target (for example, as in team
handball) as an opponent attempts to block and de-
fl ect the throw
• Throwing a ball to a partner so it can be caught
without being intercepted by an opposing player
• Throwing a ball within a group of players to keep it
away from another group of players
Levels of Skill Profi ciency in Catching
Catching is the receiving and controlling of an object
by the body or its parts. Initially, a young child’s reac-
tion to an oncoming object is to fend it off, to protect
self — often by using the whole body rather than the
arms and hands. Typically, a ball bounces against the
young child’s chest as the remainder of the body scram-
bles to surround it and still maintain equilibrium.
Children’s catching abilities, like their throwing
skills, vary immensely. The teacher who plans learning
sessions in which young children manipulate soft, tex-
tured objects (such as beanbags, foam balls, or yarn
balls) can observe for the developmental characteris-
tics of catching. (See the key observation points for
catching in Box 25-3 as a guide.)
The progression spiral for throwing and catching
(page 474) has activities the teacher can expand while
leading children from the precontrol to the profi ciency
level. Initially, children need experiences that let
them explore the whole action of catching — trying to
476 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Box 25-3 (continued)
3. Are the child’s elbows extended as the catch is made so the child can absorb the force of the ball?
4. Do the child’s eyes track the ball into the hands?
NO YES
NO YES
accurately manipulate their arms and hands into a po-
sition to receive an object. When focusing on catching
at the precontrol level, we simply let children explore
catching in varying contexts —with different equip-
ment, with the ball coming from different places. At
this level, it is important to note that children are often
also at the precontrol level of throwing and thus have
diffi culty throwing an object accurately to themselves or
to a partner, and an inaccurate throw is diffi cult to catch.
Consequently, we have found it helpful to fi nd ways to
minimize throwing inaccuracy. We often teach the
skill of throwing before catching. More skilled throwers,
such as older children or parents and grandparents serv-
ing as teacher aides, can gently and accurately throw a
ball to children who are at the precontrol level. Addi-
tionally, children can work as partners. For example,
one child stands on a chair with a ball held in an out-
stretched hand and drops the ball to the partner, who
is positioned directly below, ready to catch. Children at
the precontrol level generally have an easier time and
experience more success when soft, textured, relatively
large balls are used. The primary task for precontrol-level
children is to explore the act of catching a ball thrown
directly to them.
Children at the control level need opportunities to
develop the skills used when catching with the right
and left hands, on either side of the body, and at vari-
ous levels. Appropriate tasks for children at this level
include:
• Catching in different places around the body
• Catching objects thrown to different levels
CHAPTER 25 Throwing and Catching 477
• Moving one step in any direction to catch
• Catching with the right hand and the left hand
• Catching with an implement
When children are consistently able to catch a variety
of objects with one or both hands, they’re at the utiliza-
tion level and can begin to use their catching skills in
dynamic, unpredictable situations. Appropriate tasks
include:
• Catching a passed football while traveling
• Catching a kicked soccer ball
• Catching a rebounding ball
Children at the profi ciency level are ready to learn
to catch in changing environments. They are chal-
lenged by using catching skills in combination with
other skills in gamelike situations. Appropriate activi-
ties include:
• Losing a defender to catch a ball
• Catching a rapidly thrown or hit ball that bounces
against the ground
• Catching a ball with one hand while off balance or
in the air
• Catching a ball that someone else is trying to catch
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration
Instructional tasks at the precontrol level give children
opportunities to repeatedly explore the activities of
throwing and catching. Emphasis is placed on catch-
ing throws made directly to the child and on throwing
in static situations, to enable success.
Throwing a Yarn Ball against the Wall
Setting: Spots about 10 feet from the wall, one square
for each child; one yarn ball per child (see Figure 25.1
for construction of a yarn ball)
Targets for Throwing
A student teacher once embellished Throwing at a Large Target
(page 478) with his own creativeness. It was Halloween, so on
the target he painted the school, a full moon, corn stalks, and
other autumn scenes. The children certainly threw hard to try
and hit the target once there was a little colored paint and a
semblance of a drawing at which to aim! You don’t have to be
an artist—a little tempera paint, a little imagination, and a good
story to tell the children are all that it takes.
Wind yarn around
doughnuts until center
hole is filled.
Two cardboard
doughnuts
Figure 25.1 Construction of a yarn ball.
1. Cut two “doughnuts”— rings made from cardboard —with
a diameter 1 inch larger than you want the diameter of the yarn
ball to be. The center hole of each doughnut should be about 1 inch
in diameter.
2. Cut several 10-foot lengths of yarn. Rug yarn is excellent, but any
heavy yarn will do. A 1-ounce skein will make two 3-inch balls.
3. Place one doughnut on top of the other. Wind yarn around each
doughnut (through the hole and around the circle) until the cardboard
is covered and each hole is full of yarn.
4. Slip scissors between the doughnuts at the outer edge, and cut
the yarn all the way around.
5. Slip nylon string between the doughnuts, making a circle around
the yarn in the middle. Pull tight, and then make a strong knot.
6. Pull the doughnuts off, and fl uff the ball. You can trim any longer
strands of yarn to make a smoother, rounder ball.
At the control level, remind youngsters to concentrate on the catching
cues: Eyes on the Ball, Reach, Pull It In.
478 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Tasks/Challenges:
T Throw the ball against the wall as hard as you can.
Use the hand you hold your pencil with.
C Practice until you can hit the wall three times in a
row.
T Practice throwing the ball with your other hand —
the one you do not hold your pencil with.
T This time move three steps farther away from the
wall and try to hit the wall.
T See how many different ways you can throw —
sometimes overhand, sometimes underhand, and
sometimes from the side of your body.
Throwing at a Large Target
Setting: Several large targets suspended in various
places around the room; several balls or beanbags for
each child; spaces marked on the fl oor about 10 feet
from each target for four children to throw at each tar-
get (For the large targets, old sheets work well. Attach
the top of the sheet to a broom or dowel stick, and
weight the bottom with heavy washers. Attach a rope
to both ends of the rod at the top of the sheet, and then
hang the rope from basketball goals or rafters.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Now you have a target at which to aim. This kind of
target will soak up your ball; your ball won’t come
bouncing back to you. Your job is to throw at the
target as hard as you can and try to make the target
move. Throw all the balls you have, then bring them
back and start again. Remember not to get your balls
until everyone at your target has thrown and not to
throw until everyone is back to the throwing space.
T When you can make the target move three times in
a row, take one giant step backward and try again.
T Move back to your starting position, and try to make
the target move by throwing with your other hand.
T When you can make the target move three times,
take a giant step backward and try again.
T Move back to your fi rst spot and try to throw a dif-
ferent way than you threw the fi rst time. Practice
that throw about 15 times.
For children at the precontrol level, the emphasis is on pro-
viding many throwing experiences. Varying the context too
early (for example, placing children in gamelike situations)
causes children to use immature throwing patterns in an
attempt to achieve the called-for results.
Catching a Rolling Ball
Setting: Partners about 5 feet apart; one large plastic or
rubber ball per pair
Tasks/Challenges:
T With your partner, you’re going to practice catching
the ball. You should be seated facing each other,
with your legs like a V. One of you rolls the ball to
the other, and the other one of you catches it with
your hands. The second partner then rolls the ball
back to the fi rst.
T When the two of you can make fi ve catches in a
row, both of you should move backward a little
and try again.
C See if the two of you can make 10 catches without
missing.
Catching from a Skilled Thrower
Setting: A skilled thrower (older students, classroom
teacher, parents, or grandparents) partnered with each
child; one light, medium- to large-sized ball per pair
This activity is a wonderful way to actively involve others
in the physical education program. It serves as a great pub-
lic relations activity.
Tasks/Challenges:
T For this task you have a “big” partner. You and your
partner will stand about 4 to 5 feet apart in your
own space. Your big partner will throw the ball to
you so you can practice catching. When you catch
the ball, throw it back to your big partner so that
he or she can throw it to you again.
T After you can make fi ve catches in a row from your
partner, take one giant step backward. When you
can make fi ve more catches, take another giant
step backward.
Drop—Catch
Setting: A stable chair (one that will not move or col-
lapse) for every pair of partners; one light, medium- to
large-sized ball per pair
Tasks/Challenges:
T This is a fun task. One of you will stand on the
chair and hold the ball in your hands with your
arms straight out from your body. The other one of
you will stand close to the chair where your hands
and arms can be under the ball. The partner on the
chair drops the ball, and the other partner catches
it. After fi ve turns, switch places.
C Say one letter of your name every time you catch.
See if you can spell your name before missing.
Tossing to Self and Catching
Setting: Self-space; a yarn ball, beanbag, or lightweight
ball for every child
CHAPTER 25 Throwing and Catching 479
Tasks/Challenges:
T In a space by yourself, you’re going to practice
tossing and catching by yourself. Toss the ball
(beanbag) very close to your body, close enough so
the ball (beanbag) doesn’t go very high over your
head or very far out from your stomach. Catch it.
T When you can toss and catch the ball (beanbag)
fi ve times in a row, keeping it very close to your
body, then toss it just a little farther away and see
if you can still catch it.
C This is your challenge for the day. See if you can
toss and catch the ball (beanbag) 10 times in a
row without moving more than one step from
your space.
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
Children at the control level still need practice devel-
oping mature throwing and catching patterns, yet
they are also ready to focus on more complex learning
experiences that still allow them to throw and catch
in static situations. For example, they are challenged
by catching at different levels, catching at different
places around their bodies, and using either hand to
catch. Throwing experiences are designed to help chil-
dren learn to throw for accuracy and with varying de-
grees of force, and to throw a variety of objects.
A note about cues: Although several cues are listed for
many of the learning experiences, it’s important to fo-
cus on only one cue at a time. That way, the children
can really concentrate on that cue. Once you provide
feedback to the children and observe that most have
learned a cue, then it’s time to focus on another one.
Reed and Sophie, both 5 years old, were playing a
game in which they threw a ball under their legs to
knock over a pile of tin cans. Reed placed his head a
bit too far under his legs and inadvertently fell into a
forward roll as he released the ball. With an expres-
sion of sheer excitement, Reed announced that he’d
discovered the “fl ip throw.”
Throwing Underhand
Setting: Tape marks or spots on the fl oor about 15 feet
from the wall; one ball per child
Cues
Face Wall (Your body should be looking at
the wall.)
Arm Way Back (Your throwing arm should
come back behind your seat.)
Step with (Step forward on the foot
Opposite Foot opposite the hand you are using
to throw.)
Follow Through (Make your arm follow your
throw straight to the wall.)
Make sure to demonstrate the throw.
Tasks/Challenges:
T This time, instead of throwing overhand, you are
going to practice throwing almost as if you were
At the utilization level, children profi t from stretching and /or jumping
to catch.
480 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
bowling. You are going to throw to the wall, just
like before. This is called an underhand throw.
T Move back three steps, and practice again.
T Move back to your fi rst spot, and try to throw with
the other hand.
T Again, move back, and try to throw with the hand
you don’t write with.
Throwing Overhand
Setting: Tape marks or spots on the fl oor about 15 feet
from the wall; one ball per child; children alone at fi rst
and later with a partner
Cues
Side to Target (Make sure the side of your
body away from the hand you
are throwing with is toward the
wall; if you were to walk
straight ahead, you would walk
along the wall, not toward it.)
Arm Way Back (Bring your throwing arm way
back so that your elbow is al-
most above your ear and your
hand is behind your head.)
Step with (Step forward on the foot
Opposite Foot opposite the hand you are
using to throw.)
Follow Through (After you throw, make your
arm follow the ball. Your hand
should end up almost at your
knee.)
Tip: It is useful to demonstrate these cues. After the chil-
dren understand them, it is easy to reduce them to one-word
cues: Side, Arm, Step, Follow.
Some children have a hard time remembering which
foot to step with to achieve opposition. To help these
children, place an old wrist sweatband around the ap-
propriate foot as a reminder to step with the opposite
foot. You can also use a large loose-fi tting rubber band
for this purpose.
Tasks/Challenges:
T At your own mark, practice throwing at the wall.
Throw the ball overhand as hard as you can. Re-
member, in an overhand throw, your arm comes
above your shoulder.
T This time move three steps farther away from the
wall, and practice overhand throwing.
T Move back to your fi rst spot and try to throw with
your other hand — the one you don’t write with.
T This time you will have a partner, who is your coach.
You throw three times, with your favorite hand, and
your partner has to tell you if you used each of the
cues: Side, Arm, Step, Follow. The partner gives you a
thumbs-up if you did them all or a thumbs-down if
you didn’t. If you didn’t use the cues, the partner
tells you which part to practice, and you practice
that two times. Then switch places.
Throwing Sidearm
Setting: Tape marks or spots on the fl oor about 15 feet
from the wall; one ball per child
Cues
Face Wall (Your body should be looking
straight at the wall.)
Arm Way Back (Your throwing arm should
come back sideways, behind
your back.)
Step with (Step forward on the foot
Opposite Foot opposite the hand you are
using to throw.)
Follow Through (Make your arm follow your
throw across your body.)
Demonstrate the throw.
Tasks/Challenges:
T Now you are going to try another throw. Instead of
throwing overhand or underhand, you are going
to throw from the side. This is called a sidearm
throw. To do this, you bring your arm around from
the side of your body. You would use a throw like
this to throw a fl ying disc. Remember, it’s not a
fl ing. Let loose of the ball just as your hand faces
straight at the wall.
T After you can hit the wall eight times in a row,
move back one giant step. Try again.
Which way should your body face when you are
throwing overhand? Underhand? Sidearmed?
Overs, Unders, and Sides
Setting: Tape marks or spots on the fl oor about 15 feet
from the wall; one ball per child
Cues
Face Wall/Side (Remember, depending upon
to Wall your throw, your body should
be looking straight at the wall or
be turned sideways to it.)
CHAPTER 25 Throwing and Catching 481
Arm Way Back (Your throwing arm should
come way back behind your
back, head, or seat depending
upon the throw.)
Step with (Step forward on the foot
Opposite Foot opposite the hand you are using
to throw.)
Follow Through (Follow your throw.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Now that you know the names for the three differ-
ent kinds of throws, you’re going to practice the
throws on your own. You can practice the throws
in any order you want, but make sure that you
practice each one at least 15 times.
C Here’s some more practice. Pick out the throw
you’re having the most trouble with. Practice
only that throw until you can hit the wall 10 times
in a row. After you can hit the wall 10 times with
the throw you found the most diffi cult, pick
another throw you’re having trouble with, and
practice it until you can hit the wall 10 times in
a row.
T When you can hit the wall 10 times in a row with
all three throws, take three giant steps backward
and try again.
Exit Slip. This would be a good time to include a
Helping Murgatroid (see Chapter 14) exit slip that
has children explain to Murgatroid how to throw
correctly.
Bouncing a Ball to Self and Catching It
Setting: Self-space; a playground ball (or tennis ball if
you want to increase the complexity of the task) for
each child
Cues
Hands (Always use your hands—not
your arms or stomach—to catch.)
Watch the Ball (Your eyes should be on the ball.
You should see the ball as it
comes into your hands.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T You’re going to practice catching this time so you
can get used to catching a ball that’s coming down
toward you. In your own space, bounce the play-
ground ball (tennis ball) so that it barely goes over
your head, and try to catch it as it comes down,
before it hits the fl oor.
T If you can catch the ball six times in a row, bounc-
ing it the way that you have been, try bouncing it
a little higher and still catching it using only your
hands. If you have to use your body to catch the
ball, you know you’re bouncing the ball too high.
Throwing an Object to Different Levels
and Catching It
Setting: Self-space; a beanbag or yarn ball for each
child
Cues
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball; see it
come into your hands.)
Reach (Reach to meet the ball; don’t
wait for it to come to your
hands.)
Pull It In (Pull the ball toward you so your
catches are soft and quiet; give
with the ball.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T This task is to give you more practice catching. In
your own space, throw the beanbag (yarn ball) up
in the air and catch it. To warm up, throw the
object at about head level.
T Now that you’re warmed up, practice throwing
the object about arm’s length above your head
and catching it. This makes catching a little more
diffi cult because there’s more force involved.
T Once you’re able to catch the object 10 times in
a row using soft, quiet catches, you’re ready to
throw it a little higher still, maybe 5 feet over
your head. Always remember that you must still
be able to catch quietly at each level you throw
to. If you can’t, then you know you’re throwing
too high and need to bring the throw down a
little.
Catching in Different Places around the Body
Setting: Self-space; a beanbag or yarn ball for each child
Cues
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball;
see it come into your hands.)
Reach (Reach to meet the ball; don’t wait
for it to come to your hands.)
Pull It In (Pull the ball toward you so your
catches are soft and quiet; give
with the ball.)
482 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Tasks/Challenges:
T You practiced catching an object that goes to dif-
ferent heights; now you’re going to practice catch-
ing an object that goes to different places around
your body. Standing in your own space, throw the
beanbag (yarn ball) so you have to reach in differ-
ent places around your body to catch it. This may
mean catching it to the sides sometimes, or be-
hind your head. See how many different places
you can fi nd to catch the beanbag (ball) from with-
out leaving your self-space.
Throwing Overhand at a High Stationary Target
Setting: Targets about 5 or 6 feet high on the wall, one
for each student (paper plates with pictures on them
make good targets), a spot for each child (to help main-
tain their spacing); a ball for each child.
When drawing targets for children to throw at, we do not
draw faces on the targets. Putting faces on targets subtly
reinforces the idea of throwing at people, a violent concept
we do not support in physical education programs.
More Targets for Throwing
Two student teachers came up with a great target for
Throwing Overhand at a Stationary Target. They partially
fi lled self-tie plastic kitchen trash bags with old aluminum
cans. On the outside of each bag they drew a target and
then inserted a coat hanger in the top of each bag, closed it,
taped it for reinforcement, and hung each one from various
things in the gym. The children loved it — the targets were
big and made noise when they were hit. The cleanup was
much simpler than with plates, more than one child could
work at a target, and the targets were reusable.
Staying in Self-Space and Catching
While this task asks that youngsters throw and catch in self-
space, if they are pushing themselves to really accomplish
the task, the balls and beanbags will often force them out of
their self-space. This is the nature of the task and necessary
for skill development, so it is important that they be taught
how to retrieve objects when they enter someone else’s
space and to return to their space to resume practice.
C Most of us don’t like to practice places that are
really hard. This time as you practice, pick out
two places that you tried to catch and had the
hardest time with. Practice those two places until
you can catch the beanbag (yarn ball) four out of
fi ve times.
T This time practice your same catches in new places
around your body. Always try to see that the
catches are as quiet as possible.
T I’m going to make this task a little harder still. It’s
easy to catch the beanbag (ball) when it’s fairly
close to your body, but now I want you to prac-
tice catching the beanbag (ball) so you have to
reach to catch it. Really stretch so you feel you’re
almost going to fall over. It helps to think of keep-
ing one foot glued in place all the time. You
stretch from that glued foot — the foot that can’t
move.
T Don’t forget, as you’re stretching to catch, to keep
trying to catch in different places. So the task
should be like this: stretch and reach to catch in
different places around your body.
The child’s success with the previous tasks depends a great
deal on the child’s ability to throw so that she or he has to
stretch. It helps to practice stretching without the throw or
simply throwing away from the body. If the students aren’t
catching on as you think they should, look to see if the rea-
son is the throw.
Cues
Eyes on Target (Your eyes should be on
the target all the time.)
Side, Arm, Step, Follow (Don’t forget the cues for
throwing — always use
them.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T This time you’re going to throw at targets. You’ll
have to keep your eyes on the target. Each of you
has a target in your own space. See how often you
can hit it.
T When you can hit your target three times in a
row, take a giant step backward and try from that
distance.
This same task can be changed for underhand throwing by
lowering the targets to 2 to 3 feet from the fl oor. The second
cue would change from Side to Face, Arm, Step, Follow.
Assessment Example
From the National Standards for Physical Education
Peer Observation
Using an appropriate size ball, students practice throw-
ing at a target on the wall, alternating with a partner in
CHAPTER 25 Throwing and Catching 483
fi ve-throw turns. The students should be instructed to
concentrate on the critical elements of throwing as
taught by the instructor (i.e., ready position, arm prep-
aration, opposite side to the target, step with leg op-
posite the throwing arm, follow-through, accuracy of
throw). After each bout of fi ve throws the partner gives
feedback on one of the critical elements by drawing a
smiley face on a score sheet each time the element was
employed as instructed. Note changes in performance
with subsequent fi ve-throw bouts.
Criteria for Assessment
a. Recognizes critical elements of basic movement
pattern.
b. Adjusts conditions for success following feedback.
NASPE (1995, p. 20)
Throwing Overhand at a Low Stationary Target
Setting: Partners; one ball or beanbag per pair; institu-
tional food cans stacked on benches or other objects
(or on the fl oor) to form a can target for each pair;
spots as starting points
Children love this activity because of the noise. Beware
of the noise level of the cans, especially if you have a tile
fl oor.
Cues
Eyes on Target (Your eyes should be
on the target all the
time.)
Side, Arm, Step, Follow (Always use the throw-
ing cues.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T With a partner, you’re going to practice throw-
ing at the tin cans stacked in front of you. Stand
behind your spot as you throw. To start, one of
you is the thrower, one of you the stacker. The
stacker stands far enough behind the cans so as
not to get hit if the thrower hits the cans but
close enough to pick them up quickly if they
topple. After six throws, trade places. The secret
is in the stacking: the faster you stack, the faster
the game goes.
T If you can knock the cans over two times in a row,
move your spot back three giant steps and try
throwing from the new distance.
When practicing throwing at targets, we always try to have
a throwing area for each child or group or pair of partners
to maximize the number of throwing opportunities.
Throwing Underhand to Targets: Jugs
Setting: Partners, each with a target on the fl oor (such
as several 2-liter plastic bottles, weighted with sand or
dirt or plastic bowling pins) and a 4- to 6-inch play-
ground ball
Cues
Eyes on Target (Your eyes should be
on the target all the
time.)
Face, Arm, Step, Follow (Don’t forget the cues
for throwing — always
use them.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T With a partner, you’re going to practice throwing at
targets on the ground by using an underhand throw
that rolls along the fl oor. One of you is the setter;
the other is the bowler. Using an underhand throw,
roll the ball and try to knock the pins over. The set-
ter will set the pins up again and roll the ball back to
you. This is like bowling. After fi ve turns, trade places.
T If you knock the pins over twice in a row, move
one giant step back and try again.
Throwing Underhand to Targets: Hoops
Setting: Partners with a hoop (on the fl oor between
them) and a beanbag for each pair. Tape marks on the
fl oor at various places around the hoop.
Cues
Eyes on Target (Your eyes should be
on the target all the
time.)
Face, Arm, Step, Follow (Don’t forget the cues
for throwing — always
use them.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T This time you’re going to practice throwing so your
beanbag lands in the hoop that’s in the middle of
your space on the fl oor. Throw the beanbag so it
lands inside the hoop. Move one giant step back
each time the beanbag lands in the hoop. Your
partner will collect the beanbag and throw it back
to you. After fi ve throws, switch places. Remember,
the best way to do this is to throw underhand.
C A game you can play is called Around the World.
Start in one place and try to hit the hoop. If you hit
484 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
the hoop from that place, move to the next spot,
and try to hit the hoop from there. You can keep
adding new spots to throw from as you get better.
Assessment Example
From the National Standards for Physical Education
Peer Observation
Students are given a task of practicing the underhand
throw at a target with a partner. Students may choose
the type and size of ball, distance from the target
(enough distance to produce a throw and not a toss),
and the height of the target. Partners assist each other
by marking a score sheet for accuracy for each of fi ve
throws. Partners change roles after fi ve throws. Take as
many turns as time allows.
Criteria for Assessment
a. Chooses appropriate ball and placement of target
for personal competence.
b. Records partner’s performance accurately and hon-
estly.
c. Assists partner by speaking politely and taking
turns.
d. Assumes personal responsibility for the results of
the activity.
NASPE (1995, p. 27)
Throwing to High Targets
Setting: Partners, with a beanbag or ball for each pair;
ropes with hoops attached strung across the space
( Figure 25.2 ) at different heights as targets: some at
chest height, others above the heads
Cues
Eyes on Target (Your eyes should be on
the target all the time.)
Side, Arm, Step, Follow (Don’t forget the cues
for throwing — always
use them.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T You’re going to be aiming at a high target or goal—
the hoops. This task will give you good practice for
basketball later. Decide how far away from your
goal you want to stand. Use your overhand throw
for this task.
C This time you’re going to test yourself. Pick a place
to stand, and see how many throws in a row you
can put through the hoop. When you make 8 out
of 10 goals, move to a new spot and try for 8 out of
10 goals again.
Throwing Backhand to a Target
Setting: Individuals or partners; sticks (similar to horse-
shoe stakes) in the ground and plastic deck rings for
each child
Cues
Eyes on Target (Your eyes should be on the target
all the time.)
Throwing Side (The side of the arm you throw
to Target with should be facing the target.)
Arm Way (Instead of bringing it to the
across Body back, bring the arm you throw
with way across your body.)
Step with (This is one of the few times that
Same Foot you step toward the target with
the foot on the same side as the
arm you’re throwing with.)
Follow Through (Make your arm follow your
throw toward the target.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Try to throw the ring so it goes over your stick. This
activity is a little different from anything you’ve
done before, so start very close. The throwing ac-
tion is also different; instead of throwing overhand
or underhand, you’re actually throwing sort of
backward — sidearm using a fl ick of your wrist away
from your body toward the stick. (The teacher or a
skilled child should demonstrate the throw.)
T If you can ring the stick six times in a row from
where you’re standing, move back a couple of steps
and try it again.
Throwing a Flying Disc
Setting: Partners; one fl ying disc per pair
Cues
Eyes on Target (Your eyes should be on the tar-
get all the time.) Figure 25.2 Hoops suspended from rope as targets.
CHAPTER 25 Throwing and Catching 485
Throwing at a large target
challenges youngsters at the
control level.
Cues
Watch the Bag (Keep your eyes on the bag; see it
come into your hands.)
Reach (Reach to meet the bag; don’t wait
for it to come to your hands.)
Pull It In (Pull the scoop toward you so
your catches are soft and quiet —
give with the bag.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T In your self-space, practice throwing the beanbag
up with your hand and catching it in the scoop. To
be a good catch, the beanbag must stay in the
scoop and not bounce out.
T Now your partner will throw the beanbag to you,
and you’ll catch it with the scoop. The partner
shouldn’t be very far away to begin. After seven
throws, trade places.
T The way you reach and pull in with the scoop as
you catch the beanbag has changed a little now
that a partner is throwing to you. Instead of reach-
ing up and pulling down, as you did when you
Throwing Side (The side of the arm you
to Target throw with should be facing
the target.)
Arm Way (Instead of bringing it to
across Body the back, bring the arm you
throw with way across your
body.)
Step with (This is one of the few times
Same Foot that you step toward the target
with the foot on the same side
as the arm you’re throwing
with.)
Follow Through (Make your arm follow your
throw toward the target.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Now you get to practice throwing a fl ying disc. The
action involved is similar to the one you just did
with the ring: a fl ick of the wrist to make the fl ying
disc fl y. (A demonstration is essential here.) Practice
throwing the fl ying disc toward your partner, and
have your partner throw it back to you. Don’t worry
about aiming — just try to throw to the general area
where your partner is. You’ll know you’re getting
better when the fl ying disc fl ies fl at (not tilted) each
time you throw it.
T Now try to throw the fl ying disc so it goes fairly
close to your partner. Start off pretty close to-
gether, and slowly move farther apart as you
improve.
Catching with a Scoop
Setting: Individuals alone at fi rst, and then partners; a
plastic scoop ( Figure 25.3 ) for each child
Figure 25.3 Plastic scoop. You can make scoops for throwing and
catching by cutting the end and part of the side from large plastic
jugs that have grip-type handles. For protection, place tape over the
cut edges.
486 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
caught from a throw you made yourself, you
have to reach out and pull back.
Why is it so important to “watch, reach, and pull
it in” when catching with a scoop?
Catching off the Fly
Setting: Large space; groups of three or four; one play-
ground ball and one beanbag per group
Cues
Watch, Reach, Pull (Watch the ball, reach for
it, and pull it in.)
Get Behind (As the beanbag comes to-
ward you, position your
body so that you are be-
hind the beanbag, not to
the side of it.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T This task could be called Flying Beanbag Catch
(Humphries, Lovdahl, and Ashy 2002). We are go-
ing to practice catching a beanbag on a hop. This
is like baseball players catching a baseball on a
bounce. To do this, one person puts the beanbag
on the ball and drops the ball. (A demonstration
would be good here.) When the beanbag “fl ies” off
the ball, the closest person to it catches it. Switch
“droppers” after fi ve turns.
C How many fl ying beanbags can you catch in a
row?
Throwing a Ball against a Wall and Catching
the Rebound
Setting: A wall with enough space so that the chil-
dren can spread out and not be in each other’s way as
they throw; spots as helpful reminders of self-space;
one tennis ball per child; a line on the wall 3 feet
above ground and one on the ground 10 feet from
the wall
Cues
Throwing
Eyes on Target (Your eyes should be
on the target all the
time.)
Side, Arm, Step, Follow (Don’t forget the cues for
throwing — always use
them.)
Catching
Watch, Reach, Pull (Watch the ball, reach for
it, and pull it in.)
Get Behind (As the ball bounces off
the wall, position your
body so that you’re be-
hind the ball, not to the
side of it.)
Thumbs/ Little Fingers (When you catch over
your head, make sure
your thumbs are to-
gether; if the catch is
low, make sure your little
fi ngers are together.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T At your spot, throw the ball against the wall, let it
bounce on the ground on the return, and catch it.
T As you practice this time, try to catch the ball at
stomach or chest level.
T As you practice now, sometimes throw the ball
hard and sometimes soft so that you have to move
forward and backward to catch it.
T To make it a little harder, now try to catch the ball
without letting it bounce.
T Now throw from behind the line on the ground so
the ball hits the wall above the line on the wall.
Catch the ball as it rebounds before it hits the
ground. Give it a try. Intratask variation can be used to adjust the catching task to the skill
level of the children.
CHAPTER 25 Throwing and Catching 487
C We’ll make a game out of it this time. I’ll time you
for 1 minute. Count to yourself how many times
you can hit the wall above the line and catch the
ball in the air on the rebound. Remember the
number, because we’ll do it again so you can try to
improve your score.
Assessment Example
From the National Standards for Physical Education
Peer Observation
Have partners observe the preparatory phase of a des-
ignated skill in an attempt to ascertain the correct use
of critical elements. For example, student A will throw
a ball toward a target fi ve times using the overhand
pattern while student B observes the performance,
focusing on a single critical element during the prepa-
ratory phase (e.g., opposite foot forward, side to target,
arm pulled way back). The observing student gives a
thumbs-up if the critical element is correct; if incor-
rect, the observing student tells what is needed to
improve the movement.
Criteria for Assessment
a. Thrower displays the critical element that is the
focus of the observation.
b. Observer makes an accurate judgment on the
performance.
NASPE (1995, p. 33)
Throwing for Distance
Setting: Partners in a large outdoor fi eld, each pair with
a bucket of about 10 tennis balls; beanbags to mark
where the balls land (often you can get old tennis balls
from parents who play tennis. Send parents a note at
the beginning of the year asking tennis players to save
old tennis balls; collect them regularly. It doesn’t take
long to accumulate more balls than you need.)
Cues
Side to Target (Turn your hips and upper body
toward your throwing hand
when you pull it back in
preparation to throw.)
Arm Way Back (Pull your throwing arm way
back before you begin the
throw.)
Step (Step forward on the foot
opposite the hand that is
throwing the ball.)
Follow Through (Follow through toward the
target, ending at your knees.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T You’re going to practice throwing long distances —
like playing the outfi eld in baseball. Throw each
tennis ball as far as you can. With markers, your
partner will mark your farthest throw and collect
the balls. Each time, try to beat your last throw.
After you’ve thrown all the balls you have, trade
places with your partner.
Baseball Gloves
A baseball glove is an implement that can be used to catch
an object, but generally we prefer not to use gloves in our
program. When children bring their own gloves to school,
there are problems. Many children prefer to not share their
gloves with children who don’t have gloves. We also have a
hard time justifying the expense of purchasing gloves for a
physical education program. In the schools we’ve taught in,
we’ve always wanted other equipment that needs to be
purchased and is more important than baseball gloves.
Throwing and Catching with a Partner
Setting: Partners about 10 feet apart; one ball (varying
the object used to throw and catch increases or decreases
the complexity of this task) per pair
Cues
Throwing
Eyes on Target (Your eyes should be on
the target all the time.)
Face, Arm, Step, Follow (Don’t forget the cues
for throwing — always
use them.)
Catching
Watch, Reach, Pull (Watch the ball, reach
for it, and pull it in.)
Get Behind (As the ball comes toward you, position
your body so that you’re
behind the ball, not to
the side of it.)
Thumbs/ Little Fingers (When you catch over
your head, make sure
your thumbs are to-
gether; if the catch is
low, make sure your lit-
tle fi ngers are together.)
488 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Tasks/Challenges:
T Throw the ball so that your partner doesn’t have to
move to catch it. You’ll probably want to start with
an underhand throw.
T If you and your partner can make 10 throws and
catches from the place where you are now without
missing, then both of you move back two giant
steps and practice from there. Do the same thing
as before: make good throws so your partner
doesn’t have to move more than a step in either
direction to catch.
T Try to make sympathetic throws. These are throws
that have enough force to get to your partner but
are not so strong that your partner can’t catch
them.
C From wherever you are standing, see how many
throws and catches you can make without a miss.
To count, the ball must be caught, not just batted
back to your partner.
C This time we’ll play a game called One Step, which
goes like this: Each time you and your partner
make a catch, both of you move back one giant
step; if you miss, you both move toward each other
one giant step.
T Change and use an overhand throw. First, just
practice back and forth. When you can make 10 in
a row, move back two giant steps.
If children are relatively close to one another, don’t expect
mature throwing patterns. As the distance between the part-
ners increases, you should start observing more mature
patterns.
Assessment Example
From the National Standards for Physical Education
Event Task
Have the students pretend that Rapunzel recently
enrolled in your school. She knows nothing about
catching a ball. Students are asked to explain what
Rapunzel needs to know to catch a ball thrown to her
from the front at about chest height. Instruct the stu-
dents to imagine themselves practicing with Rapunzel
and providing feedback after each attempted catch.
Have them imagine looking for critical elements
(ready position, hand and arm position, eye contact,
and absorption of force).
Criteria for Assessment
a. Identifi es critical elements of catching.
b. Uses appropriate feedback to improve performance.
NASPE (1995, p. 21)
Throwing and Catching over a Net with a Partner
Setting: Partners; nets or ropes between two chairs at
various heights, enough for one per pair; beanbags and
yarn balls
Cues
Throwing
Eyes on Target (Your eyes should be on
the target all the time.)
Face, Arm, Step, Follow (Don’t forget the cues for
throwing — always use
them.)
Catching
Watch, Reach, Pull (Watch the ball, reach for
it, and pull it in.)
Get Behind (As the ball comes toward
you, position your body
so that you’re behind the
ball, not to the side of it.)
Thumbs/Little Fingers (When you catch over
your head, make sure
your thumbs are together;
if the catch is low, make
sure your little fi ngers are
together.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T With your partner, choose a net (rope) that you
want to practice throwing and catching over and a
beanbag or a yarn ball. After you’ve chosen your
net (rope), begin throwing underhand and catch-
ing. Try to throw so that the throw has an arch on
it and your partner doesn’t have to move more
than one step in either direction to catch the bean-
bag or ball.
C See how many throws and catches you and your
partner can make without missing. Watch the ob-
ject closely. Use sympathetic throws.
T If you are really good with the underhand throws
over the net, change to overhand throws.
C See if you and your partner can get 20 overhand
throws and catches in a row without missing.
Accommodating Different Skill Levels
Teachers often ask, “How do I accommodate different skill
levels in one class?” More specifi cally, “How do I do this with
little equipment?” We’ve found that the best way is to vary the
major task using intratask variation or teaching by invitation for
individual children according to their needs (see Chapter 11
CHAPTER 25 Throwing and Catching 489
Catching off a Bounce
Setting: Partners each pair with a playground ball and
a bench or table
Cues
Throwing
Eyes on Target and (Your eyes should see your
Bench (Table) partner and the bench (table)
at the same time — they are
both targets.)
Catching
Watch, Reach, Pull (Watch the ball, reach for it,
and pull it in.)
Get Behind (As the ball comes toward
you, position your body so
that you’re behind the ball,
not to the side of it.)
Thumbs/ Little (When you catch over your
Fingers head, make sure your thumbs
are together; if the catch is
low, make sure your little
fi ngers are together.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Let’s call this Bench Bounce Catch. You will need to
bounce the ball on your side of the bench (table) so
that it travels over the bench (table) and your part-
ner catches it. Your partner shouldn’t have to move
more than one step in either direction to catch the
ball. Remember, the ball should bounce on the fl oor
on your side of the bench, not on the bench itself.
T As you bounce the ball over the bench (table),
sometimes bounce it with one hand and some-
times with two hands.
C Try to keep the ball going back and forth as long as
you can, using the bounce throw over the bench
(table). To do this you will have to remember
your quick feet. Remember, this is a throw and
catch, not a volley across the bench.
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
Throwing tasks at the utilization level are designed to
help children learn to throw while traveling, to throw
accurately at moving targets, and to jump to throw.
Catching experiences include catching while travel-
ing, while in the air, and in gamelike activities that
require the ability to catch while moving in relation-
ship to various objects and /or people.
A note about cues: Although several cues are listed for
many of the learning experiences, it’s important to fo-
cus on only one cue at a time. That way, the children
can really concentrate on that cue. Once you provide
feedback to the children and observe that most have
learned a cue, then it’s time to focus on another one.
Moving to Catch
Setting: Individuals in self-space with a lot of extra
space around each one; one ball per person
Cues
Throwing
Away, But Close (Throw away from your
body so that you have to
move, but don’t throw so
far that you can’t catch
the ball.)
Catching
Under or Behind Ball (Move to a position
that puts you under or
behind the ball, not to
the side.)
Watch, Reach, Pull (As always, watch the ball,
reach for it, and pull it in.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T You’re going to practice throwing so that you have
to move to catch. Each of you has to be in your
own self-space with much space around you so
you don’t run into others. To begin, toss the ball so
you have to move just one step to catch it — put
the ball just barely out of your reach. This is a skill
often used in football and basketball.
T Practice throwing and catching in all places around
your body: forward, backward, and sideways.
for more on these concepts). Often you can reduce or
increase the complexity of the task without substantially
changing the equipment used.
Consider the task of throwing a ball to a partner so that
the partner is fully extended to catch. You can reduce the
complexity of this task by changing the equipment from a
ball to a beanbag or by having the partner use an out-
stretched arm as the target. Then, by changing the task so
that the throw forces the partner to take a step to catch the
ball, you increase the complexity of the same task.
You can make such changes by moving from group to
group, observing, and modifying accordingly. In this way, the
entire class is then practicing variations of the same task.
490 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
T I see some people catching at the same place; try to
catch at different places, especially toward the back
of your body.
Setting: A large area (a full-size gymnasium or, prefer-
ably, outdoors in a large, open space)
Tasks/Challenges:
T This task will take a lot of concentration on your
part, not only to catch the ball, but to make sure
that you do not run into or hurt others. It’s fun, but
it must be done with a great deal of safety. You
practiced moving one or two steps to catch the
ball; now you are going to practice moving a long
way to catch. Throw the ball away from you so that
you have to move several steps to catch it. Make
the catch; then throw again so you have to move to
catch the ball. Your throws should always be catch-
able. In other words, don’t throw so far that there
is absolutely no way that you could possibly catch
the ball. Start out with throws that make you move
only a few steps and then try longer throws. Re-
member, if at all possible, you should be under
and behind the ball when you catch it.
T After each successful catch, see if you can throw the
ball a little farther the next time. In other words, see
how far you can really move to make the catch.
Teacher Observation. This would be an excellent
time to use a teacher observation checklist (video-
tape or live) of the critical catching cues developed
at the control level. You know real learning has
occurred if the children are able to catch in the
dynamic situations of the utilization level using
the cues.
Throwing and Catching While Traveling
Setting: Individuals in self-space with a lot of extra space
around each one; one ball or beanbag per person
Cues
No Stopping (Both the throws and the
catches should be on the
move, with no stops.)
Throwing
Away, But Not Too Far (Throw away from your
body so that you have to
move, but not so far that
you can’t catch the ball.)
Catching
Under or Behind Ball (Move to a position that
puts you under or behind
the ball, not to the side.)
Watch, Reach, Pull (As always, watch the
ball, reach for it, and pull
it in.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T You practiced throwing that made you move to
catch, but you were standing still when you
threw. Now you are going to throw and catch
while moving. To begin, toss the ball into the air
and catch it while you walk around the space.
You must be very careful while you do this and
use two sets of eyes: one to watch the ball and
one to watch out for other people so you don’t
run into them.
Mastery of space awareness — moving in relation
to others — is a prerequisite to this activity.
T If you can catch the ball almost all the time when
you are walking and throwing and catching, try
slowly jogging as you travel. Always watch closely
so that you don’t collide with others.
Throwing on the Move
Setting: A large space; partners; relatively large, sta-
tionary targets (a hoop hanging from a basket, a tire
hanging from a tree, a target placed on a backstop) for
each pair; one ball or beanbag per pair
Throwing and catching different objects increases children’s physical
activity options.
CHAPTER 25 Throwing and Catching 491
Cues
Straight Pathway (The ball should travel in a
straight pathway, not curved
or arched.)
No Stopping (The throws should be on the
move, with no stops.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T With a partner, you’re going to practice throwing
at a target while running. Run across in front of
your target, and try to throw the ball through or
into your target. Your partner will give the ball back
to you so you can throw again. After four throws,
trade places.
T Sometimes when people perform this task, they
tend to run, stop, and then throw. What you re-
ally want to be doing is throwing as you run, so
the throw just seems to fl ow out of the run and
you keep running afterward. This time, have
your partner watch you closely as you run and
throw. Your partner’s task is to tell you whether
you stop and throw or throw on the run. Some-
times it is hard to feel what we are actually doing;
partners make good observers.
Throwing to Make a Partner Move to Catch
Setting: A large space; partners; one ball or beanbag
per pair
Cues
Throwing
Throw Beyond (Throw beyond your partner.
Pick a spot just beyond your
partner and aim for it.)
Catching
React Quickly (As soon as the ball leaves the
thrower’s hand, move to the
spot to catch.)
Watch, Reach, (Watch the ball, reach for it, and
Pull pull it in.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T With your partner, throw back and forth so that
your partner has to stretch or move a few steps to
catch. The idea is not to make your partner miss,
but to force your partner to really stretch or move
to catch so he or she can practice diffi cult catches.
Assessment Example
From the National Standards for Physical Education
Event Task
Students are requested to design a game of throwing
and catching for one or two persons to play. The
game must include the underhand throwing skill
that has been taught in class. Students write a de-
scription of the game so students in another class
could, after reading the information, play the game.
They are also asked to describe how the critical ele-
ments of the skill might change when used in differ-
ent conditions.
Criteria for Assessment
a. Game incorporates use of underhand throwing and
catching skills.
b. Description of game adequately identifi es needed
skills and critical elements of each.
c. Description accurately describes how critical elements
might change under varying conditions.
NASPE (1995, p. 35)
Throwing to a Moving Target
Setting: A large space; partners; one ball per pair
Cues
Throwing
Lead the Receiver (Throw to an open space
just in front of the catcher.)
Catching
Know Where to Go (Know where the throw is
supposed to go and run
toward that spot.)
Watch Passer, (Watch the passer as you
Then Ball start to run, and then after
the ball is thrown, track it
all the way into your
hands.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T We are going to practice throwing the ball to your
partner, who is moving. Your ultimate goal is to
throw so that your partner doesn’t have to stop
moving or turn around to catch the ball. The
thrower should remain still; the catcher jogs away
from the thrower. After six tries, trade places. (Call
the class together and ask where the ball should be so
that the catcher can keep moving. There will be multi-
ple responses that include: to them and in front of
them.)
T Let’s practice again. This time try to throw the ball
to the receiver. Take fi ve turns and trade places.
(Gather the class. How did that work? Could the
492 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
catcher catch without having to stop? The answer is
almost always no. What should we do? Throw the ball
in front of the catcher.)
T This time try to throw the ball in front of the
catcher. After fi ve tries, switch places. (Ask the class,
Was the catcher able to catch without stopping? Usual
answer: Sometimes. Why? Our timing was off. Some-
times it went in front and sometimes it didn’t. How
could we help that? Throw to a place in front of the
catcher that both of us decide on.)
T This time practice throwing to a place that the two
of you decide on. Seven times each and switch.
How did that work?
T Instead of your partner running away from you,
change so your partner is running across in front
of you. As before, you still throw the ball to a
space in front of the runner; the runner is sim-
ply coming from a different direction. Decide
ahead of time where you are going to try to give
the runner the ball. (A similar line of questioning can
be used here, if needed.)
T There’s one more way to practice this idea. This
time the runner must be coming toward the
thrower. Again, target a space in front of the
runner so that the runner doesn’t have to stop
and turn around to catch the ball.
T Until now, each set of partners decided where the
catch was to be made. Now practice without decid-
ing ahead of time where you’ll throw the ball. This
means the thrower will have to be very accurate
with the throws, and the catcher will have to be
always on the alert to catch the ball whenever and
wherever it goes.
Assessment Example
From the National Standards for Physical Education
Teacher Observation/Observational Record
Students are asked to receive and send a basketball
pass to a partner on the move. The teacher observes
the passing and uses a checklist to annotate the
performance.
Criteria for Assessment
a. Receives the pass and sends it in one motion.
b. Passes ahead of the moving player (receiver does not
have to stop).
c. Receiving student cuts into a space to receive the
pass.
NASPE (1995, p. 32)
Throwing for Distance and Accuracy
Setting: A large space; partners; one ball per pair
Cues
Watch the Target (Look at your partner
the whole time.)
Side, Arm, Step, Follow (For long throws you
really have to do all of
these.)
Almost Straight (The ball should travel
in a pathway that is
almost halfway
between the ground
and straight up in
the air — at about a
45-degree angle.)
Shooting a basketball is a version of throwing at a target.
CHAPTER 25 Throwing and Catching 493
Tasks /Challenges:
T The object of this task is to practice throwing and
catching accurately to someone far away. You and
your partner need to start throwing about 10 yards
apart. Throw so your partner doesn’t have to move
to catch the ball. You want the ball to go straight
to your partner.
T If you can throw successfully 10 times to your part-
ner 10 yards away, each of you back up two giant
steps and try again. Each time you can successfully
make 10 throws, back up another two giant steps.
Try to fi nd your maximum distance.
Exit Slip. This is a wonderful place to use an exit
slip that asks each group of partners to evaluate
the throwing and catching and plan an initial ac-
tivity for the next class that will let students prac-
tice what they need to work on.
Target Backaway
Setting: A large space; stationary targets in various
places (against baseball backstops, trees, or playground
apparatus) around the space
Cues
Watch the Target (Look at the target the whole
time.)
Side, Arm, Step, (For long throws you really
Follow have to do all of these.)
Almost Straight (The ball should travel in a
pathway that is almost half-
way between the ground and
straight up in the air — at
about a 45-degree angle.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T The task is now to try to hit the target from far
away. Start close enough so you know you can
hit the target. When you hit it three times, back
up about fi ve steps and throw again. After fi ve
successful throws, back up again.
C See how far you can get and still hit the target.
C See how many throws out of 10 you can make
right to the target.
Throwing Discs at Targets
Setting: A fl ying disc for each student; a fl ying disc
golf course: use hoops tied between two chairs or
hoops suspended from trees as targets. The distance and
angle of the targets from the starting lines can vary,
depending on the amount of space available and the
skill of the students. Trees, playground apparatus,
fences, or backstops can be used as obstacles to throw
over and around.
Cues
Watch Target (Always look at the target.)
Throwing Side (The side of the arm you
to Target throw with should be
facing the target.)
Arm Way across (Instead of bringing it to the
Body back, bring the arm you
throw with way across your
body.)
Step with Same Foot (This is one of the few
times that you step toward
the target with the foot
on the same side as the
arm you’re throwing
with.)
Follow Through (Make your arm follow
your throw toward the
target.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T The name of this game could be Disc Golf. The
object is to throw the disc for distance, and often
around obstacles, eventually placing it through a
target hoop. You want to use as few throws as pos-
sible. Here are the rules:
1. All players make their fi rst throw from behind
the starting line.
2. Players make the second throw and all throws
after that from the landing spot of the previous
throw. Players are allowed to take one step in
throwing.
3. Players count how many throws were needed to
place the disc through the hoop.
Assessment Example
From the National Standards for Physical Education
Self-Assessment /Check List
Following a period of working on throwing different
types of objects (fl ying discs, footballs, deck tennis
rings), students are asked to identify the number of
different objects they have thrown and the types of
throwing patterns they have used with these objects.
They are also asked to do a self-assessment of their
throwing performance using a check list provided by
the teacher.
494 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Criteria for Assessment
a. Recognizes difference in various types of throws.
b. Compares and contrasts throwing of different ob-
jects for different purposes.
c. Analyzes personal throwing skills accurately.
NASPE (1995, p. 47)
Catching to Throw Quickly to a Partner
Setting: Partners; one ball or beanbag per pair
Cues
Move and Face (Move toward the approaching
ball and begin to face the
direction you are to throw.)
It is helpful to demonstrate
this cue.
Flow (The catch and the throw
should fl ow together; simply
move directly into the
throw.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Sometimes it is necessary to throw very quickly
after you catch the ball, much as baseball players
do when they are trying to make a double play.
With your partner you are going to practice
throwing quickly after catching. Your partner
will throw the ball to you; you throw it back as
quickly as possible, like a hot potato. The throw
to your partner needs to be accurate as well as
quick. To begin, one of you practices quick
throws; the other one simply makes the fi rst
throw and is a target. After seven throws, switch
places.
T When most of the throws go directly to your part-
ner, back up a few steps and try the task again.
T Now, to make the task even harder, try to catch the
ball with one hand and throw it with the same hand.
This is almost as if you don’t really want to hold the
ball—as if you need to get rid of the ball quickly.
You may want to use a beanbag for this task.
Catching to Throw Quickly to a Target
Setting: Partners; fairly large (2-by-2-feet) targets spread
around the area
Cues
Move and Face (Move toward the approach-
ing ball and begin to face
the direction you are to throw.)
It is helpful to demonstrate
this cue.
Flow (The catch and the throw should
fl ow together; simply move
directly into the throw.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T With your partner, you’re going to practice catch-
ing and throwing quickly to a target. This skill is
used, for example, in the game of team handball.
Your partner throws you the ball; you catch it and
quickly throw it to the target. You’re trying for a
quick throw so no one can block your shot. After
six times, switch places.
C See how many times out of 10 you can hit the tar-
get. Remember, quick throws only; ones that
stop don’t count. Your partner is the judge.
Many of the throwing and catching skills at the utilization
level can be transformed into gamelike situations for children.
Some children at this level enjoy practicing in nongame
contexts, whereas others are interested in practicing only if
the skill is used in a gamelike situation. Generally, these are
the children who continually want to know, “When do we
get to play the game?”
Throwing While in the Air
Setting: A large grassy space; partners; one ball or bean-
bag per pair
Cues
Face Target (When you are in the air, your
upper body should be facing
the target.)
Follow (Follow through to the target.)
Throw in Air (Be in the air when you throw;
don’t jump, land, and then
throw.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Sometimes when you throw you need to be in the
air. This type of throwing is harder than throwing
when you’re on the ground. To start, run a few
steps, jump in the air, and throw the ball to your
partner while you’re in the air. Make the throw as
accurate as possible.
T Often when people practice this task they aren’t
in the air when they think they are. Sometimes
people run, throw, and then jump; sometimes
they run, jump, land, and then throw. It’s hard
CHAPTER 25 Throwing and Catching 495
to tell exactly what you’re doing without some
help, so your partner’s job is to watch you very
carefully to see if you’re really in the air as you
throw. For now, your partner takes the place of
the teacher —your partner must tell you exactly
what he or she saw.
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
Experiences at the profi ciency level include throwing
and catching in relation to an opponent who attempts
to prevent the throw or the catch. These tasks foster
development of consistent degrees of accuracy and dis-
tance in throwing. Children learn to catch a variety of
objects while traveling rapidly and suddenly changing
direction and level.
Many of the activities at the profi ciency level re-
semble traditional games. Yet they are designed to en-
hance skill development. Thus they are all designed to
be played in small groups with multiple games being
played at once. They are not designed to be played
with large groups, for if we played with large groups,
many students would be waiting and not participat-
ing. Strategies for achieving maximum activity in game
settings are included in Chapter 31.
A note about cues: At the profi ciency level, tasks are
more complex, typically requiring children to coordi-
nate several movements simultaneously in a dynamic
context. A list of cues is provided to assist the children
in being more successful in the learning experiences.
The challenge is in determining which cue will be most
benefi cial for each child . . . and when. Thus careful
observation and critical refl ection become very impor-
tant as you watch the children move and then decide
which cue will be the most helpful to move each
learner to a higher level.
Throwing and Catching a Flying Disc in Different
Places around the Body with a Partner
Setting: A large space; partners; one fl ying disc per
pair
Cues
Catching
Behind and Under (Move so that you are
behind and under the disc
when you catch it.)
Watch, Reach, Pull (Watch the disc, reach
for it, and pull it in to
your body.)
Throwing
Throw Away (Pick a spot just barely out
of your partner’s reach and
aim for it.)
Tasks/Challenges:
C The object of this activity is to throw the fl ying
disc so that your partner has to stretch to catch
it. The scoring is this: If the fl ying disc is caught,
that counts as one point. If the body is stretched
a long way while reaching to catch the fl ying
disc, that counts as three points. I’m going to
throw a few to Mary. Let’s watch to see how many
points she’ll get for each of her catches. (Select a
skilled catcher and throw, or have someone else throw
the fl ying disc so that the catcher has to stretch to
make the catch.)
C You may want to change the way you score the
game. You can work together to see how many
points you can make; or you may want to play
against your partner. Remember, though, that
you’ll have to make good throws if your partner is
going to have a chance.
Throwing and Catching in a Field, Run, and
Score Game–Like Situation
Setting: Two teams, four players each; four bases as in
baseball; one ball
Cues
Watch Target (Your eyes should always watch
the target. This time it is the
chest of the catcher.)
Move and Face (Move toward the approach-
ing ball and begin to face
the direction you are to
throw.)
Flow (The catch and the throw
should fl ow together; simply
move directly into the throw.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T The object in this situation is to throw a ball
around the bases twice before a runner can circle
the bases once. Here are the rules:
1. The fi elding team places a player at each base —
fi rst, second, third, and home plate.
2. The player at home plate (the catcher) begins
with the ball. On the signal, two runners try to
496 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
run the bases before the fi elders throw the ball
to each base twice.
3. If the runners travel the bases before the fi elders
throw and catch the ball twice, they score a run.
If all the fi elders throw and catch twice before
the runners circle the bases, it’s an out.
4. After three outs or when all runners have had a
chance to run the bases twice, the teams switch
roles.
Adjust the distance between the bases according to the
throwers’ ability and the runners’ speed.
Intercepting
Hips (To tell where a person is
going to move, watch the hips
or the belly button.)
Play the Ball (Always go after the person
with the ball— to force the
person to pass it.)
It is very helpful to children to demonstrate the concept of
moving away from the thrower at an angle of about 45 de-
grees ( Figure 25.4 ).
Tip: When playing against a defense, the concept of
catching changes to being able to catch while outmaneu-
vering the opponent. We assume that children at this point
have mastered space awareness and dodging. The ability
to move to an open space at an angle (approximately 45 de-
grees) away from the thrower is initially very diffi cult to
understand. To get students to move away from the passer
at an appropriate angle, a skilled soccer coach once pro-
vided these cues: See the Passer, See the Ball, See as Much
of the Field as Possible. You may want to try using them.
Tasks /Challenges:
T In this task, you’ll practice throwing to someone
against a defense. One of you is the thrower, one
is the receiver, and the other one is the intercep-
tor. Thrower, your job is to get the ball to the re-
ceiver. Use quick moves, and get rid of the ball
when you have a chance. Receiver, move to an
open space to catch the ball. Interceptor, make
them throw the ball, but don’t forget that you
A Thematic Approach to Games
Almond (1986) proposed a thematic approach to classifying
games that is now used in Tactical Games approach (Griffi n,
Mitchell, and Oslin, 1997). The approach, which classifi es
games according to conditions, goals, and tactics used to
play the game versus individual sports, parallels the notion of
skill themes, and we have chosen to use it here. Striking and
fi elding games involve games in which an object is struck
into a space defended by players with accuracy and force
so that the striker can run between two points. Invasion
games involve two groups invading the other’s space to
score, and net /wall games include those activities that re-
quire striking an object into court space so that an opponent
cannot return it. We have chosen to use these designations
as they allow more options for youngsters without “trapping”
them (or us) into preconceived notions of traditional games
and allow for more conceptual transfer.
Throwing to Avoid a Defender
Setting: A 15-by-15-foot space; groups of three; one
ball or beanbag per group
Cues
Throwing
Lead the Receiver (Throw to an open space just
in front of the catcher.)
Quick (Make your throw quickly, as
soon as you know the receiver
is open.)
Catching
Move to Open (Move to a space that is at an
Space angle from the thrower.)
Watch Passer, (Watch the passer as you start
Then Ball to run, and then after the ball
is thrown, track it all the way
into your hands.)
Passer
G ood passing angle
45˚
G oo
d pa
ss in
g an
gl e
45 ˚
Bad passing angle;
easy to defend againstCatcher Catcher
Catcher
Figure 25.4 Passing angles for throwing against a defense.
CHAPTER 25 Throwing and Catching 497
are not allowed to touch the re ceiver or the
thrower. After fi ve throws, change places.
What is one strategy that you can use to throw
successfully when being defended? What can the
catcher do to be successful in catching? What can
you do to intercept the ball?
Throwing and Catching in a Small-Sided
Invasion Game
Setting: Self-determined space; cones for markers;
groups of three; one ball
Cues
Throwing
Lead the Receiver (Throw to an open space just
in front of the catcher.)
Quick (Make your throw quickly, as
soon as you know the receiver
is open.)
Catching
Move to Open (Move to a space that is at an
Space angle from the thrower.)
Watch Passer, (Watch the passer as you
Then Ball start to run, and then after
the ball is thrown, track
it all the way into your
hands.)
Intercepting
Hips (To tell where a person is
going to move, watch the hips
or the belly button.)
Play the Ball (Always go after the person
with the ball— to force the
person to pass it.)
Tasks/Challenges:
C This is really a Keep-Away-like game. One of you
will be trying to take the ball away from the other
two. Here are the rules:
1. Decide your boundaries and mark them off with
cones.
2. You can only catch the ball in the air.
3. If you get the ball, trade places with the person
who threw it.
4. You may run with the ball, but you can’t keep it
for longer than 5 seconds.
Throwing at a Stationary Object While
Being Defended
Setting: Groups of six; six pins and one ball ( Fig-
ure 25.5 )
Cues
Throwing
Lead the Receiver (Throw to an open space
just in front of the
catcher.)
Quick (Make your throw quickly,
as soon as you know the
receiver is open.)
Catching
Move to Open Space (Move to a space that is
at an angle from the
thrower.)
Watch Passer, Then Ball (Watch the passer as you
start to run, and then
after the ball is thrown,
track it all the way into
your hands.)
Intercepting
Hips (To tell where a person
is going to move, watch
the hips or the belly
button.)
Play the Ball (Always go after the
person with the ball —
to force the person to
pass it.)
Goal area
Pin
Goal area
Pin
Pin
Pin
Pin
Pin
Ball
Figure 25.5 Setup for throwing at a stationary target while being
defended.
498 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Tasks/Challenges:
C This task could be called Hit the Pin; the object is
to knock over one of the other team’s pin. Here are
the rules:
1. There are three players on each side.
2. Players can take only two steps when they
have the ball; then they must pass the ball to
a teammate or shoot (throw the ball) at the
pin.
3. No players are allowed in the goal area.
4. If the ball touches the ground, the last player to
touch the ball loses possession. The other team
begins play at that location.
Throwing and Catching in a Small-Sided
Basketball-Type Invasion Game
Setting: Half a basketball court or comparable area
around a basket or large target on the wall; teams of
three; one ball per court
Cues
Throwing
Lead the Receiver (Throw to an open space
just in front of the catcher.)
Quick (Make your throw quickly, as
soon as you know the re-
ceiver is open.)
Catching
Move to Open Space (Move to a space that is at
an angle from the thrower.)
Watch Passer, (Watch the passer as you
Then Ball start to run, and then after
the ball is thrown, track it
all the way into your hands.)
Intercepting
Hips (To tell where a person is
going to move, watch the
hips or the belly button.)
Play the Ball (Always go after the
person with the ball —
to force the person to
pass it.)
Tasks/Challenges:
C This is a basketball game with one exception: It is
all throwing and catching — no dribbling. Here are
the rules:
1. When a player has the ball, the player must
shoot it to the basket (or target) or pass it to a
teammate. No dribbling or steps are allowed.
2. Every player must touch the ball before a shot.
Throwing and Catching with a Flying Disc in a
Small-Sided Invasion Game
Setting: Playing fi eld set up as in Figure 25.6 ; teams of
two to four; one fl ying disc (alternatives: a ball or a
beanbag)
Cues
Throwing
Lead the Receiver (Throw to an open space just
in front of the catcher.)
Quick (Make your throw quickly, as
soon as you know the receiver
is open.)
Figure 25.6 Setup for throwing and catching with a fl ying disc in
a small-sided invasion game. There are no boundaries other than the
two goal areas, each of which is 30 feet in diameter. Generally, the
farther apart the goal areas can be placed, the more interesting
the game is.
Goal area
Team A
30 feet
Goal area
Team B
30 feet
Shooting Baskets
In addition to throwing and catching in relation to others, the
game of basketball involves a specifi c type of throwing at a
target — shooting a basket. When children are fi rst learning
the skill of shooting baskets, the following cues will be helpful:
Preparation
• Keep eyes focused on the goal.
• Bend the knees.
• Keep elbows close to the body, not extended outward
from the body.
• Place hands behind the ball, fi ngers (not palms) touching
the ball.
Release
• “Push” the ball upward from the chest toward the basket.
• Extend legs as arms extend toward the target.
• Arch the ball upward and over the front rim of the basket.
Have the children focus on traveling, with changes in direc-
tion, when they don’t have the ball. When they receive the
ball, have them focus on getting rid of it quickly — to a
teammate or toward the goal.
CHAPTER 25 Throwing and Catching 499
Catching
Move to Open (Move to a space that is at an
Space angle from the thrower.)
Watch Passer, (Watch the passer as you
Then Ball start to run, and then after
the fl ying disc is thrown,
track it all the way into your
hands.)
Intercepting
Hips (To tell where a person is going to
move, watch the hips or the belly
button.)
Play the Ball (Always go after the person with
the ball— to force the person to
pass it.)
Tasks /Challenges:
C This task is like modifi ed ultimate fl ying disc. The
object is to catch the fl ying disc in the other team’s
goal area. Here are the rules:
1. When a player has the fl ying disc, he or she can
take no more than three steps before passing it
to a teammate.
2. A point is scored when a player catches the fl y-
ing disc in the opposing team’s goal area.
3. If the fl ying disc touches the ground, the team
that touched the fl ying disc last loses posses-
sion. The opposing team puts the fl ying disc in
play from that location. There is no out-of-
bounds.
4. The fl ying disc can only be intercepted in the
air. It can’t be taken from someone’s hands.
As you observe, you may see a need to stop the game
and ask the children to practice throwing to a partner
who’s traveling or to reduce the diffi culty by having the
children practice two against two or two against one. The
emphasis needs to be on leading the partner with the
throw.
T To make the game a little harder, this time you
always have to throw to a partner who is moving.
T To make the game a little easier, play two versus
two or two against one.
Throwing and Catching with a Football in a
Small-Sided Invasion Game
Setting: A large space with goals on each end, about
20 yards from midfi eld (size of the fi eld depends some-
what on the type of ball being used; children must be
able to throw the football into the other team’s goal
area); teams of two; a foam football
Cues
Throwing
Lead the Receiver (Throw to an open space just
in front of the catcher.)
Quick (Make your throw quickly, as
soon as you know the receiver
is open.)
Catching
Move to Open (Move to a space that is at an
Space angle from the thrower.)
Watch Passer, (Watch the passer as you start
Then Ball to run, and then after the ball
is thrown, track it all the way
into your hands.)
Intercepting
Hips (To tell where a person is
going to move, watch the hips
or the belly button.)
Play the Ball (Always go after the person
with the ball— to force the
person to pass it.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T This football game has just throwing and catching,
no running with the foam football. You and your
partner are a team. You try to throw the ball to
your partner, who’s being guarded by someone on
the other team. Here are the rules:
1. Each team has four chances to throw and catch
the ball in an attempt to move the ball from
their goal line to the opposing team’s goal area.
2. When on offense, one player is the thrower. He
or she may not move forward. The thrower tries
to accurately throw the ball downfi eld to her or
his teammate, the receiver.
3. When on defense, one player tries to stay with
the receiver to block or intercept the ball. The
other player remains at the location where the
play starts. That player counts aloud, “One alli-
gator, two alligators,” up to “fi ve alligators,” and
then rushes the thrower, trying to touch the
thrower or block the thrower’s pass.
4. A play is over when the ball touches the ground
or when a defensive player touches the offen-
sive player who has possession of the ball.
Throwing and Catching with a Team Handball
in a Small-Sided Invasion Game
Setting: A large open space (see Figure 25.7 for setup);
teams of three or four; a 5-inch playground ball or
team handball
500 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Cues
Throwing
Lead the Receiver (Throw to an open space just
in front of the catcher.)
Quick (Make your throw quickly,
as soon as you know the
receiver is open.)
Catching
Move to Open (Move to a space that is at an
Space angle from the thrower.)
Watch Passer, (Watch the passer as you
Then Ball start to run, and then after
the ball is thrown, track it
all the way into your hands.)
Intercepting
Hips (To tell where a person is
going to move, watch the
hips or the belly button.)
Play the Ball (Always go after the person
with the ball— to force the
person to pass it.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T This game is a little like soccer because there’s a
goalie, but you throw the ball rather than kick it.
The object is to throw the ball through the other
team’s goal. Here are the rules:
1. Players must stay out of the semicircle.
2. The goalie must stay in the semicircle. She or he
tries to collect the ball, to prevent it from going
through the goal.
3. A player who has the ball can bounce it, pass it
to a teammate, or throw it toward the goal.
Once a player stops bouncing the ball, he or she
must pass or shoot it; she or he can no longer
dribble it.
Throwing and Catching While Using Simple Offense
and Defense in a Small-Sided Invasion Game
Setting: A large open space (see Figure 25.8 for setup);
teams of three; any type of ball or beanbag
Cues
Throwing
Lead the Receiver (Throw to an open space just
in front of the catcher.)
Quick (Make your throw quickly as
soon as you know the receiver
is open.)
Catching
Move to Open (Move to a space that is at an
Space angle from the thrower.)
Watch Passer, (Watch the passer as you start
Then Ball to run, and then after the ball
is thrown, track it all the way
into your hands.)
Intercepting
Hips (To tell where a person is
going to move, watch the hips
or the belly button.)
Play the Ball (Always go after the person
with the ball— to force the
person to pass it.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T This game is a little like football. The object is to
pass a ball to someone on your team who’s in the
other team’s goal area. It helps to decide the type of
pathways the receivers will be running before each
play: straight, curved, or zigzag. Here are the rules:
1. The quarterback must remain behind the line
spray-painted across the middle of the fi eld. No
defensive player may cross the line.
Goal
area
Team A
Goal
area
Team B
Line spray-
painted across
center of field
Figure 25.8 Setup for throwing and catching while using simple
offense and defense in a small-sided invasion game. Adjust the
dimensions of the fi eld according to the children’s ability.
G o a l
G o a l
Figure 25.7 Setup for throwing and catching with a team handball
in a small-sided invasion game. Goals can be made of stacked tires;
semicircles can be spray-painted on the ground.
CHAPTER 25 Throwing and Catching 501
2. The offensive team has three plays or attempts
to have successful pass completions. Then the
teams switch roles.
3. A point is scored each time a receiver catches
the ball. Two points are scored when a receiver
catches the ball in the end zone.
4. After each play, the ball is again placed at
midfi eld.
5. No player may purposely bump or block
another.
6. All players rotate to different positions after
each play.
Assessment Example
From the National Standards for Physical Education
Journal
Students are asked to perform a self-assessment of their
progress on throwing different types of objects (e.g.,
fl ying disc, football, softball, deck tennis rings) and
record this information in their journal. Moreover,
they should describe the differences and similarities in
throwing these objects and discuss which objects were
easy/diffi cult to throw.
Criteria for Assessment
a. Correctly identifi es personal status on the use of
critical elements of throwing.
b. Identifi es differences and similarities that occur
when applying principles of throwing different ob-
jects.
c. Describes which objects they found easy/diffi cult to
throw.
NASPE (1995, p. 49)
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. Name the three styles of throwing. What type of task
encourages children to practice overhand throws?
2. What does the term trunk rotation mean when
throwing a ball?
3. What does throwing in a static context mean? De-
scribe an example of a task that includes throwing
in a static context and an example of a task that
includes throwing in a dynamic context.
4. Why do we focus on throwing before catching?
5. Name two characteristics of an individual at the uti-
lization level in catching.
6. What does tracking a ball mean? How can a teacher
tell if a child is tracking a ball appropriately?
7. Rank the following tasks by placing the number 1 in
front of the easiest (most basic) task, the number 2
in front of the next more diffi cult task, and so on.
( ) Throw and catch while using simple offense
and defense in a small-sided invasion game.
( ) Toss up a beanbag and try to catch it with a
plastic scoop.
( ) While running, throw a ball to a partner who’s
also running.
( ) Toss a yarn ball high in the air so you have to
travel to catch it.
( ) Throw and catch with a partner.
8. What four cues do we use to remind children about
the correct way of throwing a ball overhand? Ex-
plain the meaning of each cue.
9. What three cues do we use to remind children about
the correct way of catching a ball? Explain the
meaning of each cue.
References /Suggested Readings
Almond , L. 1986 . Refl ecting on themes: A games classi- fi cation. In Rethin k ing games teaching, ed. R. Thorpe , D. Bunker , and L. Almond , pp. 71–72 . Loughborough, England: University of Technology .
Griffi n , L. , S. Mitchell , and J. Oslin . 1997 . Teaching sports concepts and skills: A tactical games approach. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Humphries , C. , P. Lovdahl , and M. Ashy . 2002 . Elementary physical education and the National Standards. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 73(5): 42 – 45 .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 1995 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. St. Louis, MO: Mosby .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2004 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. 2nd ed. Reston, VA: National Associa- tion for Sport and Physical Education .
502
C H A P T E R
26
Volleying and Dribbling
CHAPTER 26 Volleying and Dribbling 503
T he word volley brings images of a high net, two
teams, and the sport of volleyball, but the skill of
volleying is much broader, as proved constantly
by children’s creative games. Games designed by
youngsters, games of different cultures, and innovative
equipment have opened our eyes as teachers to volley-
birds, foot bags, bamboo balls, and balzacs, as well as
to Don’t Bounce Count, Power, and Hand Bumping.
Volleying is no longer limited to volleyball; dribbling
is no longer confi ned to basketball.
Volleying
For our purposes, we defi ne volleying as striking or giv-
ing impetus to an object by using a variety of body
parts — for example, hands, arms, head, or knees. Drib-
bling is a subdivision of volleying. Although our dis-
cussion here is divided into two separate sections —
volleying and dribbling —when teaching, you may
choose to develop dribbling and volleying together.
Volleying and dribbling are almost exclusively game
skills and are used in such sports as soccer, volleyball,
handball, basketball, and speedball. See Box 26-1 for
information on volleying from the National Standards
for Physical Education.
Levels of Skill Profi ciency in Volleying
Children at the precontrol level of volleying are still
struggling to achieve the hand– eye coordination re-
quired to contact the ball. They are rarely able to in-
tentionally direct the fl ight of a ball when contact is
made. Therefore at the precontrol level we provide a
variety of activities for the exploration of volleying.
Appropriate activities at this level include:
• Striking balloons in the air
• Striking a variety of lightweight objects
• Striking with different body parts
At the control level, children are able to strike a ball
continuously (letting it bounce) in their own space.
They’re able to control the amount of force that they
put into the volley so that they can control the ball in
their own space. At the control level, children begin:
• Volleying balls with different body parts
• Striking a ball using the overhand and underhand
patterns
• Striking with partners over low nets and lines on
the fl oor with partners
At the utilization level, children can control the
direction as well as the force of their strikes. They’re
able, with a variety of body parts, to produce a
level surface with which to strike the ball. The chil-
dren can also combine several different concepts with
the skill of striking. Children at the utilization level
have mastered the basic skill patterns and can con-
centrate on:
• Continuously volleying with body parts
• Playing wall and corner handball games
• Volleying over a high net
When children are able to strike an object and si-
multaneously focus on the activity around them,
they’re able to function at the profi ciency level. Ap-
propriate tasks include:
• Volleying with different body parts while traveling
• Striking to targets
• Playing competitive games involving different strik-
ing patterns
We focus on volleying as a major skill in many of
our game situations. Effi cient striking patterns are
generally the last of the fundamental manipulative
patterns to develop because of the fi ne perceptual
and motor adjustments that the child must make.
Once the child does begin to strike an object, the
range of possible activities is enormous. Our progres-
sion spiral for volleying (page 504) indicates activities
and experiences at various levels. The text ideas in-
clude suggestions for children at the different levels,
and a range of activities and experiences within each
level, stated rather directly. Remember, though, that
we encourage you to modify the suggested orga-
nizational structure to satisfy your objectives (see
Chapter 13).
The Skill of Volleying in the National Standards for Physical Education
The movement skill of volleying is referenced in the National
Association for Sport and Physical Education’s National
Standards for Physical Education (NASPE 2004) under
Standard 1: “Demonstrates competency in motor skills and
movement patterns needed to perform a variety of physical
activities.” The standard speaks of the child’s showing
progress toward achieving mature form in manipulative skills
(grades K–2) * and using the skills in dynamic and complex
environments (grades 3–5).
* Grade-level guidelines for expected student learning.
Box 26-1
504 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration
At the precontrol level, children need a variety of ac-
tivities involving the skill of volleying. As with all skills
involving sending and /or receiving an object, they will
need to watch the object as it approaches (and con-
tacts) the hand or body part used for the volley. At this
exploration level, variety is the focus; contact is the
measure of success.
Striking Balloons in the Air
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space,
each with an infl ated balloon and a carpet square (or
poly spot) to designate self-space
Tasks/Challenges:
T Strike the balloon upward with your open palm so
it stays in the air. Try to keep the balloon from
touching the fl oor.
T Strike the balloon high above your head. Practice
striking with both your right and your left hand so
you will be equally good with each hand.
C See if you can volley the balloon 10 times without
letting it touch the fl oor.
T Volley the balloon in the air, staying close to your
carpet square or spot.
C As you volley in the self-space of your carpet square
or poly spot, say one letter of the alphabet for each
volley. Can you get to Z?
Striking a Balloon Forward
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space,
each with an infl ated balloon
Tasks/Challenges:
T Strike your balloon in the air so it travels forward
as you walk through general space.
T Strike your balloon so it travels forward as you
walk in curved pathways. Can you travel in zigzag
pathways as you volley the balloon?
C Travel across the gymnasium (blacktop area) as
you volley the balloon forward. Can you complete
your volley/travel without letting the balloon
touch the ground?
Where on the balloon is contact made for it to
travel upward? Where is contact made for the bal-
loon to travel forward?
Skill Theme Development Sequence
Volleying Profi ciency Level
Playing modifi ed volleyball
Volleying in a line formation
Spiking
Striking downward with force
Serving overhand over the net
Striking with different body parts while traveling
Utilization Level
Serving underhand over the net
Volleying three-on-three
Volleying continuously to a partner
Volleying over a net
Striking to the wall—varying levels, force, and body
position
Volleying with a volleybird
Playing Aerial Soccer
Volleying with the foot
Striking a ball continuously with different body parts
Volleying game: child-designed
Control Level
Obstacle-Course Volley
Playing One-Bounce Volleyball
Playing Keep It Up
Volleying to a partner (overhead pattern)
Volleying a ball upward (overhead pattern)
Volleying to the wall (overhead pattern)
Striking over a low net (underhand pattern)
Playing Four Square, Two Square (underhand pattern)
Playing Hoop Volley (underhand pattern)
Striking a ball over a line (underhand pattern)
Striking a ball to the wall (underhand pattern)
Striking a ball upward with the forearms (the bump)
Striking a ball upward (underhand pattern)
Striking a ball noncontinuously with different body
parts
Precontrol Level
Striking balloons in the air
Striking a balloon forward
Striking lightweight objects
Striking with different body parts
CHAPTER 26 Volleying and Dribbling 505
while walking slowly through general space. Now we
will try the volley with different types of lightweight
balls. Select the ball (or balloon) of your choice and
volley it upward in your self-space. On the signal,
you will exchange that ball or balloon for a different
type (rotate each 2 to 3 minutes until the children
have volleyed with each type of ball or balloon).
T When you begin to volley with some of the balls,
you may wish to let the ball bounce after each vol-
ley; the skill then becomes “volley, bounce, volley,
bounce. . . .” Remember to strike the ball upward
when you volley.
T Let’s try one more exploration: This time the se-
quence will be “volley, bounce, catch; volley,
bounce, catch. . . .” Are you discovering that some
types of balls are better for the volley; that some
some require volley, bounce; and that others re-
quire volley, bounce, catch?
T Count the number of times you can volley the ball
or balloon before it touches the ground. Repeat the
task for a second trial; remember to count your score.
After two tries, switch to a different type of ball or a
balloon. Which did you like best? Which one was
easiest? Which gave you the highest score?
C Choose your favorite type of ball or balloon to vol-
ley. Choose your type of volley: continuous volley;
volley, bounce, volley, bounce; or volley, bounce,
catch. See how many times you can complete your
volley sequence without a mistake.
Striking with Different Body Parts
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space,
each with an infl ated balloon
Tasks/Challenges:
T Keep the balloon in the air by striking it with dif-
ferent body parts. How many different body parts
can you use to volley the balloon upward?
T Volley the balloon upward by striking it with your
head, then your hand. Try a combination of hand,
elbow, head. Try alternate volleys from foot to hand.
C Count how many times you can volley the balloon
before it touches the fl oor. Don’t use the same
body part two times in a row.
T Let’s try a combination of more than two body
parts. Volley the balloon with these body parts:
hand, head, knee, elbow.
C Make your own combination of volleys using dif-
ferent body parts. You may choose a two-, three-,
or four-body-part sequence.
Striking Lightweight Objects
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space;
a variety of lightweight objects for exploration of the
volley —beach balls, lightweight plastic balls, balloons,
foam balls, newspaper balls, and so forth
Tasks/Challenges:
T You have been exploring volleying with balloons —
striking them upward in self-space and forward
As children become more skilled they enjoy volleying with a small group.
Volleying with Lightweight Objects
At the precontrol and control levels, volleying activities are best
done with larger, lightweight objects, such as beach balls,
balloons, or inexpensive plastic balls. They fl oat slowly, pro-
viding more time for visual tracking. This allows children time
to move under the object and volley it without the fear that
accompanies heavier objects. Most equipment companies
have also developed a large lightweight volleyball that provides
an excellent progression between the very lightweight objects
and a regulation-weight ball. These “trainer” balls are lighter in
weight and larger, yet their fl ight is true. None of these objects
works outside well on windy days, however.
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
At the control level, children learn an underhand and an
overhead volley. They volley with different body parts,
volley in relation to other people, and with a variety of
506 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
objects. Children at this level still fi nd that it helps to
let the ball bounce between volleys so they can gain
control of the volley; they will eliminate the bounce
when they are ready to do so.
A note about cues: Although several cues are listed for
many of the learning experiences, it’s important to
focus on only one cue at a time. That way, the children
can really concentrate on that cue. Once you provide
feedback to the children and observe that most have
learned a cue, then it’s time to focus on another one.
Striking a Ball Noncontinuously with Different
Body Parts
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space,
each with a lightweight ball (beach ball, foam ball,
plastic ball)
Cues
Flat Surface (Keep the striking surface —
your leg, foot, hand — as fl at as
possible for contact.)
Extend to Target (Extend upward as you contact
the ball.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Strike the ball upward with different body parts:
foot, elbow, upper thigh, shoulder, head, hand.
Catch the ball after each volley.
T Of the body parts you used for the volley, which
parts can provide a fl at surface for the volley? This
time as you volley the ball upward, contact the
ball with the fl attest surface possible—foot, upper
thigh, hand. Where is the contact surface for a
head volley?
C Practice until you can do three single volleys, with
a catch after each, without moving from your self-
space. Practice with your foot, your thigh, your
hand, your head.
T Try your body-part volleys with a beach ball, a
foam ball, a plastic ball. When you are comfort-
able with the upward volley, you may wish to try
the skill with a playground ball or soccer ball.
Striking a Ball Upward (Underhand Pattern)
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space,
each with a beach ball, a foam ball, or an 8-inch plas-
tic ball
Cues
Flat Surface (Extend your hand with your
palm fl at, like a pancake.)
Extend to Target (Extend your hand upward on
contact.)
Quick Feet (Move your feet quickly to
always be in position to volley
the ball upward.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Strike the ball with your hand, palm fl at, so it travels
directly upward. Where on the ball will you need
to make contact if you want the ball to travel in
a straight pathway upward?
T Volley the ball directly upward so you can catch it
without moving from your self-space.
T Volley the ball directly upward a distance of 4 to
5 feet above your head.
C Practice until you can do this underhand volley
fi ve times, never leaving your space.
T Volley the ball upward continuously. Move your
feet quickly to always be in position directly
“under” the ball.
C Record your personal best for today by counting
the number of consecutive volleys you can com-
plete without a mistake.
This youngster experiments with using the fl at surface of the thigh
to volley.
CHAPTER 26 Volleying and Dribbling 507
Peer Observation. This is an excellent time for a
peer observation of critical cues, for example, “fl at
surface for volley,” “quick feet to be in position
under the ball.” Peer assessment can also include
verbal recall of cues and peer feedback for improve-
ment. See Chapter 14, “Assessing Student Learning,”
for development of peer observations.
Striking a Ball Upward with the Forearms (The Bump)
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space,
each with a lightweight ball
Cues
Flat Surface (Extend your arms forward,
forearms together, to create a
fl at surface.)
Extend to Target (Extend your arms upward on
contact.)
Quick Feet (Move your feet quickly to
always be in position to volley
the ball upward.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Toss the ball slightly upward. Quickly extend your
arms, bringing your forearms together to form a fl at
surface. Volley the ball upward above your head so
it returns to you. Catch the ball after each volley.
T Toss the ball, and then volley (bump) it upward
two times before you catch it again.
T How many volleys (bumps) can you do without a
mistake?
Striking a Ball to the Wall (Underhand Pattern)
Setting: Children spaced around the perimeter of the
gymnasium, facing the wall at a distance of about 6
feet; a lightweight plastic ball for each child
Cues
Flat Surface (Keep your palm fl at, like a
pancake.)
Extend to Target (Extend your legs, body, striking
arm toward the wall.)
Quick Feet (Move your feet quickly to always be in position behind
the ball.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Bounce the ball one time, then strike it with your
open palm, underhand volley, so it travels to the
wall. As the ball rebounds from the wall, let it
bounce one time and then catch it ( Figure 26.1 ).
Where on the ball do you need to make contact
for it to travel forward to the wall? Right,
slightly below center and behind the ball.
Select two children who are using the correct pattern to
demonstrate for the class.
C Practice until you can execute the drop-hit-bounce
pattern three times. Remember to catch after each
sequence.
T Using the underhand action, strike the ball with
your open palm so the ball contacts the wall 3 to 4
feet above the fl oor. Continue the volley after each
bounce. The pattern will be this: volley, bounce;
volley, bounce. . . . The ball will not always come
back exactly to you; move your feet quickly to be
in position to extend toward the target as you
volley.
C Count the number of volleys you can make with-
out a mistake. A mistake is two bounces on the
rebound or a volley that hits the ceiling.
T Practice the volley with each hand. When the ball
comes to your right side, contact it with your right
hand; when it rebounds to your left side, use your
left hand.
Figure 26.1 Underhand striking
pattern.
1. Hold ball in one hand, with feet in
front-back stance.
2. Let ball bounce once. Bring hitting
arm back so it’s ready to hit.
3. As ball bounces back, hit it from
underneath with open palm and with
body extending forward.
508 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
T You have been practicing volleying to the wall by
yourself. Now you are going to add a partner. The
rules are the same, except after you volley the ball,
the next hit will be taken by your partner. You will
be alternating volleys. Now your quick feet will
really be important!
C See how many times you and your partner can vol-
ley without missing.
Peer Observation. Partner work provides an oppor-
tune time for children to observe /assess the critical
cues — for example, Flat Surface, Extend to Target.
See Chapter 14 for development of peer assessments.
Striking a Ball over a Line (Underhand Pattern)
Setting: Sets of partners scattered throughout general
space; tape line on fl oor between each set
Cues
Flat Surface (Keep your palm fl at, like a
pancake.)
Extend to Target (Extend your legs, body, striking
arm toward the target.)
Quick Feet (Move your feet quickly to always
be in position behind the ball.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T You’ll be practicing underhand hits with your part-
ner. Stand approximately 3 feet from the tape line
and face your partner across the line. Using the
underhand action, strike the ball so it crosses the
line and bounces on the other side. Your partner
will then volley the ball back to you so it bounces
on your side.
T Practice striking the ball with each hand so you
will be skilled with your right and your left hand.
C Cooperate with your partner to see how many times
you can strike the ball back and forth over the line.
Set a personal goal for your volleys over the line.
Playing Hoop Volley (Underhand Pattern)
Setting: Children with partners/three hoops and one
lightweight ball for each group; arrange two of the
hoops across from each other; place the third hoop in
the middle ( Figure 26.2 )
Cues
Flat Surface (Keep your palm fl at, like a
pancake.)
Extend to Target (Extend your legs, body,
striking arm toward the target.)
Control (Adjust your force to control
the volley.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T You have been practicing the underhand volley,
striking the ball to the wall and over a line. Today
you will practice striking the ball to send it to a
partner; however, the ball must bounce inside the
middle hoop on its way to the partner! Remember,
we are practicing the underhand pattern; that is
the skill you must use in your game.
Volley the ball through the center hoop. You
need to stay in your hoop, and you can volley the
ball only after it bounces in the center hoop com-
ing from your partner.
C See how many times you can keep the ball going
without missing.
Playing Four Square, Two Square (Underhand Pattern)
Setting: Children’s choice: Some children in groups of
four (Four Square); others in groups of two (Two
Square); squares marked off on the fl oor for the games
( Figure 26.3 )
Cues
Flat Surface (Keep your palm fl at, like a
pancake.)
Extend to Target (Extend your legs, body,
striking arm toward the target.)
Quick Feet (Move your feet quickly to always
be in position behind the ball.)
Figure 26.2 Setup for Hoop Volley.
1 4
2 3
5–8 feet
1
2
5–8 feet
Figure 26.3 Four Square and Two Square courts.
CHAPTER 26 Volleying and Dribbling 509
Tasks/Challenges:
T Stand outside your assigned square. Serve the
ball by dropping it and hitting it underhand af-
ter the bounce. The server can hit the ball to any
of the other three courts (Four Square). The
player receiving the ball must keep it in play by
striking the ball with an underhand hit to any
square. Play continues until one player fails to
return the ball or commits a fault. Faults include
hitting the ball sidearm or overhand, stepping in
another square to play the ball, catching the
ball, and letting the ball touch any part of the
body other than the hands. After each mistake,
rotate positions and servers. ( Use two squares for
a two-person game. )
T Play your game cooperatively by counting the
number of volleys made by your group before a
mistake. Hit the ball so the person will be in the
best position to contact the ball.
T Play the game competitively by changing force
and angles of travel for the ball; however, the vol-
ley must be underhand — no sides, no overs. The
receiver will really need quick feet to move into
position for the volley.
Teacher Observation. Game play provides an ex-
cellent setting for teacher observation of critical
cues in dynamic situations, that is, alternative as-
sessment. See Chapter 14, “Assessing Student Learn-
ing,” and Chapter 12, “Observing Student Responses,”
for examples.
Striking over a Low Net (Underhand Pattern)
Setting: Partners; nets at varying heights (lower stan-
dard nets or improvise nets from ropes: Figure 26.4 )
throughout the gym; one lightweight ball for each
pair
Cues
Flat Surface (Keep your palm fl at, like a
pancake.)
Extend to Target (Extend your legs, body, strik-
ing arm toward the target.)
Quick Feet (Move your feet quickly to al-
ways be in position behind the
ball.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T You have practiced the underhand volley against
the wall and over a line on the fl oor. Now you are
ready to use the same skill to send the ball over a
net to a partner. The server bounces the ball one
time and then sends it over the net with the under-
hand volley. The partner returns the volley after
the ball bounces one time.
C When you are ready, keep a collective score of how
many volleys you and your partner can do before
making a mistake.
T Slant your net from high to low, and repeat the skill,
volleying the ball over the net at differing heights.
T Practice varying the force with which and the an-
gles at which you volley the ball to your partner.
Remember, the ball must bounce one time on each
side before the contact.
C Based on your scores from the collective game,
set a personal goal and see if you and your part-
ner can attain that goal for the underhand volley
over the net. Remember to volley the ball so your
partner will always be in the best position for the
return.
T Challenge your partner to a competitive game of
volleys over the net. Add to the challenge with
changes in force and angles; however, the hit must
be the underhand volley you have practiced.
Volleying to the Wall (Overhead Pattern)
Setting: Lines taped on the wall, at heights of 5 to
7 feet; a lightweight ball or beach ball for each child
Cues
Crab Fingers (Curl your fi ngers for contact
on the pads.)
Bend and Extend (Bend your knees in pre para-
tion; extend your legs and
arms upward on contact.)
Quick Feet (Move your feet quickly to
be in position behind and
under the ball for contact.) Figure 26.4 Construction of a net. Suspend a rope between two chairs.
510 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
Tasks/Challenges:
T Stand approximately 4 feet from the wall at the
tape height you choose. Toss the ball slightly in
front and above your head, then volley it to the
wall with both hands. Catch the ball after the vol-
ley and begin again.
Select two children who are contacting the ball with their
fi ngerpads and using their legs for the force of the volley to
demonstrate the key concepts of the skill. Point out the crit-
ical cues to the children as they are demonstrated.
C Practice until you can execute three overhead vol-
leys to the wall without catching the ball or letting
it drop below the tape line.
C Count the number of volleys you can hit to the
wall above the tape line. Remember, the volley
must be with two hands; don’t catch the ball.
Peer Observation. As with all skills, the continued
use of the critical cues is crucial to success in dy-
namic situations. A peer observation assessment
of critical cues with appropriate feedback for im-
prove ment would be useful here.
Volleying a Ball Upward (Overhead Pattern)
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space,
each with either a beach ball or a lightweight plastic
ball
Cues
Crab Fingers (Curl your fi ngers for contact
on the pads.)
Bend and Extend (Bend your knees in pre para-
tion; extend your legs and
arms upward on contact.)
Quick Feet (Move your feet quickly to
always be in position under
the ball.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Using your fi ngerpads, volley the ball upward
above your head so the ball returns directly to you.
Catch the ball after each volley.
T Toss the ball upward, and then volley it one time 2
to 3 feet above your head.
T Toss and then volley the ball upward two times
before you catch it.
C How many times can you volley the ball before it
touches the ground?
T Toss and then volley the ball from medium level: Let
the ball drop until it’s 3 to 4 feet from the fl oor; then
volley. This really requires you to bend your knees!
C Now that you know how to volley the ball at a
lower level, count the number of times you can
volley before the ball touches the fl oor.
Volleying to a Partner (Overhead Pattern)
Setting: Sets of partners scattered throughout general
space; one lightweight ball for each set of partners
Cues
Crab Fingers (Curl your fi ngers for contact
on the pads.)
Bend and Extend (Bend the knees in pre para-
tion; extend the legs and arms
upward on contact.)
Quick Feet (Move your feet quickly to
always be in position under
the ball.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Stand 3 to 4 feet from your partner. Using the
overhead skill you just learned, volley the ball back
and forth to your partner. Each of you gets two
hits on your side: Volley the ball fi rst to yourself
for control and then to your partner.
T When you are comfortable with two volleys per
side, try doing the task with only one hit per side.
C On the signal, begin your partner volleys. I will
time you for 30 seconds. Try to continue without a
mistake for the entire time . . . and beyond!
Playing Keep It Up
Setting: Groups of four or fi ve children (the smaller the
group, the more participation /practice of the skill each
child gets); a lightweight ball (or a volleyball trainer — a
larger, lightweight volleyball) for each group
Cues
Crab Fingers (Curl your fi ngers for contact
on the pads.)
Bend and Extend (Bend the knees in pre para-
tion; extend the legs and arms
upward on contact.)
Quick Feet (Move your feet quickly to
always be in position under
the ball.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T The object of the game Keep It Up is to see how
many times your team can volley the ball before
it touches the ground. There are only two rules:
CHAPTER 26 Volleying and Dribbling 511
A player cannot hit the ball twice in a row, and the
hit must be the overhead volley. Practice several
times; then count your team volleys.
T Continue your cooperative volleys with your team,
this time calling out the volley number as you
contact the ball.
T This time as your group plays Keep It Up, be sure
each person in the group does a volley before any-
one takes a second turn.
C As a group, set a goal for the number of volleys you
wish to attain, then play the game to see if you can
reach that number without a mistake.
Keep It Up can be played with the forehand volley (the bump)
or with a combination of the bump and the overhead volley.
Teacher Observation. Cooperative games provide
an opportune time for teacher observation of criti-
cal cues. See Chapters 12 and 14 for development of
teacher observation assessments.
Playing One-Bounce Volleyball
Setting: Children in teams of equal numbers (three or
four per team) on either side of a low net; a lightweight
ball that will bounce
Cues
Bend and Extend (Bend the knees in preparation;
extend the legs and arms
upward on contact.)
Quick Feet (Move your feet quickly to
always be in position under
the ball.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T A player begins the game by bouncing the ball one
time and striking it over the net with an underhand
serve (much like the underhand volley action). The
receiving team may let the ball bounce one time be-
fore hitting it back (or may volley the ball with no
bounce). Only one bounce is permitted before the
ball is volleyed back over the net; however, any num-
ber of players may volley the ball before it crosses the
net. You may use either the overhead volley (crab
fi ngers) or the forearm volley (the bump). The serv-
ing team scores a point when the receiving team fails
to return the ball over the net within bounds or
when the ball bounces more than one time.
Obstacle-Course Volley
Setting: Prior setup. See Figure 26.5 for an example of
a volley obstacle course. Once the course is ready, the
class pretty much runs itself. Challenges in the obstacle
course can require a student to use a number of different
volleying skills. It may be helpful to provide a number
of different objects to volley, to allow for differences in
skill development.
Tasks/Challenges:
T Work your way through the course, following the
instructions at each station. (This activity was
adapted from Mustain 1990.)
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
For continuing skill development in volleying, chil-
dren must develop consistency and accuracy. They
should be able to use various body parts to volley and
to move in relationship to other people and objects.
Strategic placement skills in a relatively stable situa-
tion are developed at the utilization level.
A note about cues: Although several cues are listed for
many of the learning experiences, it’s important to fo-
cus on only one cue at a time. That way, the children
can really concentrate on that cue. Once you provide
feedback to the children and observe that most have
learned a cue, then it’s time to focus on another one.
Volleying Game: Child-Designed
Setting: A variety of lightweight balls; paper and pen-
cils for children to record their games
Cues
Flat Surface For underhand volley: (Keep
your palms fl at, like a pancake.)
Extend to Target (Extend your legs, body, striking
arm toward the target.)
Quick Feet (Move your feet quickly to
always be in position under
the ball.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Earlier in our work you practiced striking the ball
against the wall and over a line using the under-
hand volley — striking with an open palm. You are
very good at that volley. Today you will use that
skill in a game situation. Your task is to design an
original game for two partners or a small group
to provide practice of the underhand volley in a
dynamic, on-the-move situation. You can design
your game so it can be played against the wall or
over a line on the fl oor. Remember, the focus is
512 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
Volley with hands while walking the length of the beam.
STOP! Volley from one hand to the other 10 ⫻.
STOP! Volley 10 ⫻ with eyes closed.
Practice volleying using at least four different body parts.
Walk, volleying continuously while changing levels.
Can you sign your name with one hand and volley with the other simultaneously?
Practice continuous volleying while turning 360˚, touching toes, and/or doing a heel slap.
Volley while traveling in different pathways—zigzag and curved.
Walk, volley only with your nondominant hand.
(carpet squares)
(jump ropes) (jump ropes)
(taped X’s)
(hoops)
(table with paper and pencils)
Figure 26.5 Setup for Obstacle-
Course Volley.
Source: Adapted from Wendy
Mustain, “A Manual of Physical
Education: Skill Theme Activities
for Physical Education Specialists
to Use in Collaboration with Class-
room Teachers,” unpublished mas-
ter’s project, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State University,
Blacksburg, Virginia, 1990. Used
with permission.
the underhand volley; your game must use that
skill. You will need to decide the following:
• Will your game be against the wall or over a line?
• Will the game be cooperative or competitive?
• Will you keep score?
• How does a player score a point?
• Will the game be played with a partner or in a
small group?
• What are the boundaries?
• What are the rules?
Record your game on a piece of paper so you
can refer to it later and others in the class can learn
how to play it. You may give your game a name if
you wish ( Figure 26.6 ).
Children not experienced in designing games will need more
direction from the teacher and fewer opportunities to make
CHAPTER 26 Volleying and Dribbling 513
decisions; for example, the teacher decides whether the
game is against the wall or over a line and whether the
game is cooperative or competitive. See Chapter 31 for more
on child-designed games.
Striking a Ball Continuously with Different
Body Parts
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space,
each with an object suitable for the volley — plastic
ball, soccer ball, playground ball, foot bag
Cues
Flat Surface (Keep the body part as fl at as
possible for contact.)
Bend and Extend (Bend your knees to be
in position for the head
volley; extend upward on
contact.)
Quick Feet (Move your feet quickly to
always be in position under
the object.)
Figure 26.6 Child-designed games over a line (Hand Bumping)
and against the wall (Don’t Bounce Count; Pomer).
514 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
Tasks/Challenges:
T Volley the ball (foot bag) from your thigh to your
foot by striking it with your upper thigh and then
with the top of your foot. Catch the ball (foot bag)
after the volley from your foot.
T Practice with your right leg and foot as well as
with your left. You want to be equally skilled with
both.
T When you are comfortable with the volley from
your thigh to your foot (three times with no mis-
takes), add your head: In other words, volley the
ball (foot bag) from your head — this is called head-
ing in soccer — to your thigh to your foot, or from
your head to your foot to your thigh.
T Now choose any three body parts to keep the ball
(foot bag) going. See if you can keep it going from
part to part without letting it touch the ground.
C This time you are going to see how well you can
use different body parts for consecutive volleys.
Choose the three body parts with which you like
to volley. Try to keep the ball (foot bag) going with
your three parts. Can you keep it going for 15 sec-
onds? 30 seconds? One minute?
Volleying with the Foot
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space,
with access to beach balls, plastic balls, and /or play-
ground balls
Cue
Flat Surface (Make the inside, outside, top of
your foot as fl at as possible for the
contact.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Volley the beach ball with your foot, keeping the
ball in the air for several contacts. Use the inside,
outside, and top of your foot and your heel to send
the ball upward.
T If consecutive volleys with the beach ball are easy,
try the plastic or the playground ball.
C On the signal, begin your foot volley. I’ll give the
count each 10 seconds; keep the ball in the air as
long as possible.
Playing Aerial Soccer
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space,
with 6-inch woven bamboo balls (or balls similar in
texture, size, and weight)
Cues
Flat Surface (Make the foot surface as fl at
as possible for the contact.)
Bend and Extend (Bend the knees to be in
position for the head volley;
extend the legs and body
upward on contact.)
Quick Feet (Move your feet quickly to
always be in position for a
good volley —under and /or
behind the ball.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Practice your skills of heading, foot volleys, aerial
kicks, and foot-to-head volleys with the bamboo
ball. When you feel comfortable with the individ-
ual skills of Aerial Soccer and can keep the ball
What Is a Foot Bag?
A very popular game that has made a resurgence in the past
few years is foot bag. Foot bags are small leather-covered (or
crocheted) beanbag-type balls. The game requires a great
deal of skill but delights children and adults for hours. Chil-
dren at the utilization and profi ciency levels will enjoy using
a foot bag at times instead of a ball. Foot bags are relatively
in expensive and are great on the playground or fi eld trips.
aloft for at least 10 seconds, you can play a game
of Aerial Soccer with a partner or in a small group.
The ball must stay aloft at all times. You will need
to decide the following:
• Is the game to be cooperative or competitive?
• How many will be in the group? (Not more than
six — three-on-three.)
• Will you play in self-space or travel in general
space?
• What boundaries do you need?
This game was observed at Regent’s Park in London, England.
It’s exciting for observers to watch and challenging for highly
skilled soccer players.
Volleying with a Volleybird
Volleybirds are fl at-bottomed shuttlecocks that have been
used in Taiwan for centuries. The volleybirds are volleyed
with different body parts, including hands, thighs, the instep
of the foot, and the inside and outside of the foot. Because
the volleybirds are fl at bottomed, they can also be caught
on different body parts. Young children fi nd these relatively
slow moving and brightly colored “birds” very attractive.
CHAPTER 26 Volleying and Dribbling 515
Setting: Children scattered in general space, each with
a volleybird
Cues
Flat Surface (Make your hand, thigh, foot surface
as fl at as possible for the contact.)
Quick Feet (Move your feet quickly to always
be in position for the volley —under
the volleybird.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T See how many times in a row you can strike the
volleybird before it touches the ground. Start with
one hand; then try your other hand. Other body
parts you can use are your thigh, the instep of your
foot, or the inside or outside of your foot.
C Make up a sequence that uses three different body
parts. See if you can repeat the sequence without
a miss.
Striking to the Wall—Varying Levels, Force, and
Body Position
Setting: Lines marked on the wall at heights of 3 and
7 feet; a variety of balls for a combination of volleying
and bouncing (plastic balls, playground balls)
Cues
Flat Surface (Flat/open palm for contact.)
Extend to Target (Extend your legs, striking arm,
and body toward the target.)
Quick Feet (Move your feet quickly into
position for the volley.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Strike the ball to the wall between the 3- and 7-foot
tape marks so the ball contacts the wall at different
levels. Strike the ball so it sometimes hits the wall at
a high level, just below the 7-foot mark, and some-
times at a low level, just above the 3-foot mark.
T Vary your striking action; sometimes use an under-
hand strike, sometimes an overhead one.
T Vary the amount of force you use when hitting the
ball. Sometimes hit the ball hard so it rebounds far
from the wall; sometimes use just enough force to
get the ball within the tape zones. How will the
ball rebound this time? Right — close to the wall.
T Strike the ball from different positions in relation to
your body. Contact the ball while it’s high over your
head, close to the fl oor, on your right side, on your
left side. Being able to contact the ball from different
positions is important in game situations when you
don’t always have enough time to get in position.
T With a partner, play handball. Your target is the
area between the 3- and 7-foot tape marks. Try to
strike the plastic (playground) ball to the wall so
your partner can’t return the shot. Challenge your
partner to a game of 15 points.
Each time you select a partner, both of you
should agree on the rules, including the outside
boundaries, type of hits, how to keep score, and
number of bounces permitted on the rebound.
Possible rules include alternating hits and hitting
the ball to a certain space on the wall.
T With a group of two or four, play Hand Corner Ball.
(See Figure 26.7 for court setup.) The rules are these:
1. It can be a singles or a doubles game.
2. You serve by dropping the ball and underhand-
volleying it against the wall.
3. The ball must contact the wall above the 18-
inch line and rebound back into one of the
three activity zones.
4. Volleying alternates between teams. In doubles
play, it also alternates between players. So, if player
1 on team A serves and player 1 on team B returns
it, player 2 on team A takes the next volley.
5. If a team is unable to return the ball, the other
team earns the number of points of the zone in
which the ball landed.
6. A game is 15 points.
Videotape/Digital Analysis. Game play at the utili-
zation and profi ciency levels provides an excellent
opportunity for videotaping or digital picture anal-
ysis of performance and student self-assessment.
Students assess themselves in authentic settings
in relation to the critical cues of skills performed in
dynamic environments.
5 feet
10 feet
15 feet
18
inches 3
2
1
Cornerball
Figure 26.7 Setup for Hand Corner Ball.
516 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
Volleying over a Net
Setting: Nets at a 7-foot height; a variety of beach balls,
8-inch plastic balls, and volleyball trainers
Cues
Crab Fingers (Curl your fi ngers for contact
on the pads.)
Bend and Extend (Bend your knees in prepara-
tion; extend your legs and
arms on contact.)
Quick Feet (Move your feet quickly to be
in position under and behind
the ball.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Select a partner; stand on either side of the net,
and face each other. Partner 1 tosses the ball over
the net; partner 2 volleys the ball back over the net
to partner 1 with the two-hand overhead hit. Part-
ner 1 catches the ball and then tosses again. After
10 tries, partner 2 tosses, and partner 1 volleys.
T Volley the ball so your partner can catch it without
moving from self-space.
T For this task, you will need four people, two on each
side of the net. One of you will be on the court, and
the other waits behind the end line. The activity is
almost the same as the last one, with one exception:
After you hit the ball, you run off the court, and the
person behind comes up to return the shot. Then,
that person runs off the court, and you come back
on ( Figure 26.8 ). The game goes very quickly, so you
must be ready to move as soon as your partner hits
the ball.
T Now that you understand the basics of the activity,
let’s make one change: You may choose to let the
ball bounce on your side and then use an under-
hand volley (the bump), or you may choose to
take the volley before the bounce with an over-
head volley. Remember the cue for the under-
hand volley —Flat Surface with Forearms.
Volleying Continuously to a Partner
Setting: Nets at 7-foot height; a variety of beach balls,
8-inch plastic balls, and volleyball trainers
Cues
Crab Fingers (Curl your fi ngers for contact
on the pads.)
Bend and Extend (Bend your knees in prepara-
tion; extend your legs and
arms on contact.)
Quick Feet (Move your feet quickly to be
in position under and behind
the ball.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Partner 1 tosses the ball slightly above the head,
then volleys the ball over the net to partner 2.
Partner 2 volleys the ball back over the net. Con-
tinue to volley, using the overhead volley for balls
at both high and medium levels.
C Set a personal best goal with your partner. See if
you can attain that goal. Give your partner your
best volley each time.
The above tasks /challenges can be used for continuous vol-
leys with the underhand volley (the bump) or a combina-
tion of overhead and underhand volleys. Review with the
children the differences between the critical cues for the
overhead and the underhand volleys.
Volleying Three-on-Three
Setting: Children in groups of six, with three on each
side of the net ( Figure 26.9 )
Figure 26.8 Two-person running volley. Figure 26.9 Three-on-three volleys: two patterns.
CHAPTER 26 Volleying and Dribbling 517
Cues
Crab Fingers (Curl your fi ngers for contact
on the pads.)
Bend and Extend (Bend your knees in prepara-
tion; extend your legs and
arms on contact.)
Quick Feet (Move your feet quickly to be
in ready position for the ball.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Use only the overhand volley to hit the ball in the
air three times on your side of the net. On the third
contact, volley the ball over the net to the other
team. Each team volleys the ball three times, sending
it over the net on the third hit. A different player
makes each one of the three hits.
T Rotate positions, so that you hit the ball from dif-
ferent places.
C Work cooperatively to keep the ball in the air as
long as possible. Remember: three hits per side,
one hit per person.
T Challenge the other team to a three-on-three game.
Rather than cooperating to keep the ball in the air,
use strategies to outscore the other team. Rather than
just hitting the ball over the net, direct it to a certain
location; vary the amount of force on the volley,
sometimes sending it just over the net, sometimes
sending it deep into the court. A point is scored when
the ball hits the fl oor or lands out of bounds.
Serving Underhand over the Net
Setting: Lines marked on the wall 7 feet from the fl oor;
nets at a 7-foot height; plastic balls and volleyball
trainers
Cues
Watch the Ball (Watch the ball until the strik-
ing arm contacts it.)
Extend to Target (Extend the striking arm to-
ward the target — over the net.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T You learned the underhand action of striking the ball
with your open palm, swinging your arm forward/
backward, stepping forward on your opposite foot,
and contacting the ball slightly below center and
back. Now you’re going to modify that skill slightly
for the underhand action of a volleyball serve. Stand
10 to 15 feet from the wall; serve the ball to the
wall; your target is the area just above the 7-foot
tape line.
T I’ll walk around and observe the underhand action
of your serve. When it’s correct and you feel success-
ful, select a partner for practice over the net. Partner 1
stands 10 to 15 feet from the net and serves the ball
over the net. Partner 2 retrieves the ball and then
serves it back over the net.
T After you feel successful serving over the net, your
partner will select a position on the court and stand
in that spot. Serve the ball away from your partner
so your partner can’t catch the ball without moving
from self-space.
The last task may seem a bit backward from “what has always
been done.” It is. When children begin by “serving” to a part-
ner, they tend to do the same thing in a game situation—the
exact opposite response from the one required. This way, we
get them to practice serving to an open space early on.
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
Children at the profi ciency level should be able to move
consistently and accurately in relation to others and to
react effectively to increasingly dynamic and unpre dict-
able situations. They can simultaneously focus on volley-
ing and on the game activity around them.
A note about cues: At the profi ciency level, tasks are
more complex, typically requiring children to coordi-
nate several movements simultaneously in a dynamic
context. A list of cues is provided to assist the children
in being more successful in the learning experience. The
challenge for the teacher is in determining which cue
will be most benefi cial for each child . . . and when.
Thus careful observation and critical refl ection become
very important as you watch the children move and
then decide which cue will be the most helpful to move
each learner to a higher skill level.
Striking with Different Body Parts While Traveling
Setting: A variety of lightweight balls: 8-inch plastic,
foam, volleyball trainers
Cue
Quick Feet (Move your feet quickly to always be
in position to volley the ball.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Travel the length of the gym, volleying the ball with
different body parts as you go. Don’t catch the ball
at any time, and don’t let it touch the fl oor.
T Select a partner. Travel throughout general space,
volleying the ball back and forth with different
body parts. Both of you should always be moving.
518 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
T This time as you travel and volley with your part-
ner, vary the level of the volley — sometimes high,
sometimes medium level. Remember, Flat Surface,
Quick Feet.
Serving Overhand Over the Net
Setting: Nets at a 7-foot height; the court on one side
of each net divided into four areas, using tape or chalk
to mark divisions ( Figure 26.10 ), and each of the target
areas numbered; a variety of lightweight balls — plastic,
foam, volleyball trainers — for partner practice
Cues
Good Toss (Toss the ball slightly in front of
and above your head.)
Watch the Ball (Watch the ball until your hand
makes contact.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Earlier you learned an underhand striking action
that can be used as a serve in volleyball. However,
when you watch a skilled volleyball team, you will
notice they serve with an overhand striking action.
The opponents have less time to get ready for this
serve because it travels with less of an arch.
Stand 15 to 20 feet from the net, and face a part-
ner on the opposite side of the net. With your
nonstriking hand, toss the ball slightly above your
head. Contact the ball directly behind center with
the heel or palm of your hand, so the ball travels
just above the net to the opposite side. Your part-
ner will retrieve the ball and then serve it back to
you. (Demonstrate toss of ball, arm action, forward-
backward stance.)
T Tell your partner where to stand in the opposite
court. Serve the ball so your partner can catch it
without moving from self-space.
T Now serve the ball so your partner must move
from self-space to catch — serve not to the person,
but to the open space.
T Stand 15 to 20 feet from the net and serve the ball
into each target area.
C Practice serving to each target area until you can suc-
cessfully serve four out of fi ve tries to each area. Prac-
tice both your underhand and your overhead serve.
Striking an object requires visual tracking. Server
15–20 feet from net
1
4
2
3
Figure 26.10 Target areas for serving.
CHAPTER 26 Volleying and Dribbling 519
T Stand 15 to 20 feet from the net (behind the serv-
ing line). Verbally call the number of the zone to
which you are going to serve. Strike the ball to
that zone.
Teacher Observation. As new skills are introduced,
assessment of critical cues is needed. See Chapter 14,
“Assessing Student Learning,” for the development of
appropriate assessments.
Striking Downward with Force
Setting: Tape lines on the wall at about 7 and 2 feet
from the fl oor; a variety of lightweight balls for indi-
vidual practice
Cues
Quick Feet (Move your feet quickly
to always be in position to
volley the ball; transfer
your weight forward as
you volley.)
Up, Up, Up, Down (Volley the ball up, up,
Soft, Soft, Soft, Hard! up, down; soft, soft, soft,
hard.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Standing 10 to 12 feet from the wall, begin volley-
ing the ball between the tape lines, using the under-
hand pattern; you may or may not include a bounce
with the volleys. After several volleys, strike the
ball on top so it travels downward to the wall, con-
tacting the wall just above the 2-foot tape line.
Contact the ball with your hand slightly cupped.
(Demonstrate.)
T Practice a pattern of three underhand volleys fol-
lowed by a downward hit with force.
T Challenge a partner to a handball game against
the wall. Throughout the game, use a combina-
tion of forceful downward hits and underhand
volleys.
T Challenge the same partner to a competitive two
square game over a line. Use the forceful downward
striking to create situations that move your partner/
opponent out of position, making a good return
more diffi cult.
Spiking
Setting: Sets of partners scattered throughout general
space; slanted nets ( Figure 26.11 ) with cones to mark
target area; a variety of lightweight balls
Cues
Step Jump (Take one step and
jump high with a
2-foot takeoff.)
Bend and Extend (Bend the striking
arm in preparation;
extend toward the
target on contact with
the ball.)
Contact High, Hit Hard ! ( Jump high in the air,
striking the ball down-
ward with force.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Spiking is hitting the ball downward in volleyball.
It takes a lot of practice to learn to spike effectively.
We are going to begin our practice with a partner.
Select a partner, and scatter throughout general
space, away from the nets; we will use them later.
Partner 1 tosses the ball upward. Partner 2 jumps
into the air with a spring takeoff (see Chapter 21,
“Jumping and Landing”), and with an overhand hit
tries to hit the ball toward the ground while it is
still overhead. The secret to the spike is to contact
the ball as high as possible. (Select two children to
demonstrate.)
T When you and your partner can spike the ball
consistently (four of fi ve times), move to a net and
continue your practice.
T Now try to spike over the net and into the target
area marked by the cones.
Figure 26.11 A slanted net for children who are learning to spike
the ball.
520 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
Volleying in a Line Formation
Setting: Tape marks on the wall at a height of about
7 feet; groups of four, each in a line formation facing
the wall and 3 to 4 feet from it; a variety of lightweight
balls (8-inch plastic, Nerf, volleyball trainers)
Cues
Crab Fingers (Curl your fi ngers for contact
on the pads.)
Quick Feet (Always keep your feet on the
move to be in position for the
volley.)
Bend and Extend (Bend the knees in prepara-
tion; extend the arms, legs,
and body toward the target on
contact.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T The fi rst person in your line volleys the ball to
the wall so it contacts the wall above the tape line;
then that person moves quickly to the back of
the line. The second person volleys the ball to the
wall, moves quickly to the back, and so on. The
objective is to keep the volley going. Don’t let
the ball touch the fl oor or touch the wall below the
tape mark.
C Count the number of volleys your team can com-
plete without a mistake.
T Continue the line volley, with each person call-
ing “mine” just before he or she contacts the
ball.
T Remaining in your group of four, face another
group, with approximately 10 feet between the
two leaders. Team members should line up behind
the leaders. One leader tosses the ball to the leader
of the other team; that leader then volleys the ball
back and quickly moves to the end of the line.
This game is very similar to the volley against the
wall: each person volleys and then moves to the
end of the line. The objective is to keep the volley
going between the teams.
Playing Modifi ed Volleyball
Setting: Teams of four or six, depending on space
available (place an equal number of children with compa-
rable skills on each team; the size of the court in relation
to the number of players is the crucial element; don’t ex-
pect children to cover the amount of space per person that
adults do in volleyball); a beach ball, plastic ball, or
oversized volleyball
Cues
Quick Feet (Always keep “on the move” to
be in position for the volley.)
Bend and Extend (Bend the knees and arms in
preparation; extend the arms,
legs, and body toward the
target on contact.)
Offense
Open Space (Hit to the open space.)
Defense
Ready (Bent knees, ready hands.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T The game begins with a serve from the back bound-
ary line; you will have two chances to serve the
ball successfully over the net. In a regulation vol-
leyball game, the ball may be hit only three times
on a side; we’ll decide as a class if we want three
hits per side or unlimited. (Discuss; vote.) Here are
the guidelines for play:
1. Remember, you score a point only if your team
is serving.
2. A serve that touches the net is no good; a ball in
play is good even though it touches the net.
3. Although this is not an offi cial rule, try to use the
skills you learned, such as the two-hand volley.
Use one hand only for the spike and the serve.
4. A skilled volleyball game shows this pattern: set,
set, over the net or bump, set, over the net — not
single hits back and forth. Try to use the three-
part sequence for play on your side of the net.
Dribbling
Dribbling is striking or bouncing downward, generally
with the hands. Basketball and team handball are the
traditional sports in which dribbling is used. Drib-
bling a ball on the fl oor or ground, as in soccer, could
have been included in this chapter, but because it’s
also a kicking skill, it’s included in the kicking and
punting discussion (Chapter 24). See Box 26-2 for in-
formation on dribbling from the National Standards
for Physical Education.
Levels of Skill Profi ciency in Dribbling At the precontrol level of dribbling, children are satis- fi ed with making contact with the ball so that the ball
comes back to them, even if the return is somewhat
sporadic. They explore dribbling from a stationary po-
sition with a ball that has a good deal of bounce; they
CHAPTER 26 Volleying and Dribbling 521
The Skill of Dribbling in the National Standards for Physical Education
The movement skill of dribbling is referenced in the National
Association for Physical Education’s National Standards for
Physical Education (NASPE 2004) under Standard 1: “Dem-
onstrates competency in motor skills and movement pat-
terns needed to perform a variety of physical activities.” The
standard speaks of the child’s developing the mature motor
skill in isolation and in combination with other actions and
being able to use the skill in a dynamic situation.
Sample performance outcomes include:
• Drops a ball and catches it at the peak of the bounce (K–2) *
• Dribbles and passes a basketball to a moving receiver (3–5) *
• Dribbles a ball while preventing an opponent from stealing
the ball (6–8) *
* Grade-level guidelines for expected student learning.
Box 26-2 Skill Theme Development Sequence
Dribbling Profi ciency Level
Small-group basketball-type game
Dribble/Pass Keep-Away
Dribbling and throwing at a target
Making up fancy dribbling/passing routines
Dribbling and passing in game situations
Dribbling while dodging
Dribble Tag
Now You’ve Got It, Now You Don’t
Dribbling against opponents: group situations
Utilization Level
Dribbling against an opponent: one-on-one
Dribbling and passing with a partner
Mirroring and matching while dribbling
Dribbling around stationary obstacles
Dribbling while stopping, starting, and turning (pivots and fakes)
Dribbling in different pathways
Dribbling in general space while changing directions
Dribbling and changing speed of travel
Control Level
Moving switches
Dribbling and traveling
Dribbling while changing directions in self-space
Dribbling in different places around the body while stationary
Dribbling with the body in different positions
Switches
Dribbling and looking
Dribbling at different levels
Dribble like a basketball player
All-the-time dribble
Precontrol Level
Dribbling and walking
Bouncing a ball down (dribbling) continuously
Bouncing a ball down and catching it
also explore walking and dribbling. Tasks that are ap-
propriate at this level include:
• Bouncing the ball and catching it
• Bouncing the ball with both hands
• Dribbling the ball in self-space with either hand
• Dribbling with limited, slow travel
At the control level, children are introduced to vary-
ing their dribble while at the same time learning to use
the nondominant hand. They are also given challenges
that involve dribbling and traveling. Appropriate tasks
include:
• Dribbling at different heights and in different posi-
tions around the body
• Dribbling continuously and switching hands
• Dribbling while traveling and looking up
At the utilization level, children enjoy focusing on
traveling while dribbling and on incorporating travel-
ing into dynamic gamelike situations that allow them
to combine the skills of throwing, catching, dodging,
and dribbling. Appropriate tasks include:
• Dribbling around obstacles
• Dribbling in different pathways and while changing
directions
• Dribbling in one-on-one situations
When children reach the profi ciency level, dribbling
seems to be almost automatic. They enjoy dribbling in
larger groups with more complex relationships and the
excitement of strategy development. Appropriate tasks
at this level include:
• Dribbling while dodging
• Dribbling to keep the ball away from an opponent
• Dribbling in gamelike situations
Dribbling is a skill often associated with basketball or
team handball. Yet, because its possible uses are endless,
522 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
we focus on it as one aspect of volleying (or striking)
rather than as a sport-specifi c skill. Children enjoy work-
ing with bouncing and dribbling skills and will spend
many hours practicing the fi nest details of the skill.
Remember, though, that dribbling — like volleying
upward—is one of the last fundamental skills to develop
because it requires fi ne hand– eye coordination. Our
progression spiral for dribbling appears on page 521.
Precontrol Level: Activities for the Exploration of Dribbling
At the precontrol level, we want children to strike a ball
down repeatedly without losing the ball from self-space.
When the children are able to do this, we add limited
dribbling while walking. Relatively light balls—8-inch
rubber playground balls or rubber basketballs — that
bounce true (they aren’t lopsided) are best for introduc-
ing children to dribbling. Be careful when infl ating balls:
too much air equals too much bounce for control.
Bouncing a Ball Down and Catching It
Setting: Children scattered in general space, each with
a ball
Tasks/Challenges:
T Bounce the ball down in front of you so it comes
straight back up to you. Catch it when it comes up.
T Try bouncing the ball with two hands.
T Now try bouncing with one hand.
T Try bouncing with the other hand.
Bouncing a Ball Down (Dribbling) Continuously
Setting: Children scattered in general space, each with
a ball
Tasks/Challenges:
T Bounce the ball with both hands so that it keeps
going. This bounce that keeps going is called a
dribble.
T Try dribbling the ball with one hand.
T Now try the other hand.
C Can you bounce three times in a row?
T Try changing from one hand to the other.
Dribbling and Walking
Setting: Children scattered in general space, each with
a ball
Tasks/Challenges:
T Bounce the ball with two hands and catch as you
walk forward slowly.
T Try bouncing the ball with one hand while you
walk forward slowly.
C See if you can take three steps without losing the
ball.
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development in Dribbling
At the control level, children learn to dribble and travel
at the same time. They’ll also be able to dribble in differ-
ent places around their bodies and vary both direction
and pathway. Some tasks very similar to those suggested
for the precontrol level are repeated at the control level
for continued practice and added skill development.
A note about cues: Although several cues are listed for
many of the learning experiences, it’s important to
focus on only one cue at a time. That way, the children
can really concentrate on that cue. Once you provide
feedback to the children and observe that most have
learned a cue, then it’s time to focus on another one.
All-the-Time Dribble
Setting: Children scattered in general space, each with
a ball (either a smaller basketball or a playground ball)
Cues
Fingerpads (Use the soft parts of your
fi ngers near the end to
dribble, not the very ends.)
Demonstrate.
Knees Bent (As you dribble, bend your
knees a little, keeping your
back straight, just like you
are sitting down a little.)
Hand on Top of Ball (Make sure your hand
touches the ball almost on
its top.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Remember when you bounced a ball down so it
came back up to you and then pushed it down again
so the bounce continued? This continuous bounce
is called a dribble. Practice dribbling now.
C Practice until you can dribble the ball fi ve times
without losing control of it.
C Say one letter of the alphabet for each time you
dribble. Can you get to Z?
CHAPTER 26 Volleying and Dribbling 523
Tip: Children tend to dribble either with the whole palm or
with the ends of the fi ngers. Besides using the term fi nger-
pads, we have also found it useful to put chalk or tape on
the fi ngerpads to help children learn the correct part of their
fi ngers to use.
Point to which parts of your fi ngers are used for
dribbling.
Assessment Example
From the National Standards for Physical Education
Student Drawing
Students are provided with a drawing of a handprint
and are asked to color the portion of the hand that is
used in mature dribbling. Students may also be asked
to draw an entire person dribbling to show the overall
critical elements of this movement task.
Criteria for Assessment
a. Correctly identifi es position of hand used in mature
dribbling.
b. Identifi es the critical elements of dribbling.
NASPE (1995, pp. 20 –21)
Dribble Like a Basketball Player
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space,
each with a ball
Cues
Fingerpads (Remember to use
the soft parts of your
fi ngers.)
Knees Bent (As you dribble, bend
your knees a little,
keeping your back
straight, just like you
are sitting down a
little.)
Hand on Top of Ball (Make sure your
hand touches the ball
almost on its top.)
Forward–Backward Stance (The foot of the
hand you are not
dribbling with should
be a little in front;
see Figure 26.12 .)
Tasks /Challenges:
T Dribble the ball with one hand.
T Dribble the ball with the other hand.
C Count the number of times you can dribble with-
out losing control.
T On the signal, begin dribbling with one hand. Con-
tinue dribbling until the signal is given to stop.
Have children repeat each task with their nondominant
hand throughout all levels of the skill. The profi cient dribbler
is equally skilled with each hand.
Dribbling at Different Levels
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space,
each with a ball
It is diffi cult for children at the precontrol level to dribble continuously.
Figure 26.12 Correct hand and body position for dribbling a ball.
524 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
Cues
Knees Bent (Make sure that your knees
are bent just slightly.)
Firm, Flexible Wrists (Make sure that your wrists
are strong and bendable.)
Hand on Top of Ball (Make sure your hand
touches the ball almost on
its top.)
Tip: The preceding cues focus on the skill of dribbling. At
the same time it is necessary to check to see if children are
also dribbling at the appropriate level. The cues would then
change to high, medium, and low
Tasks/Challenges:
T Staying in self-space, dribble the ball with your
preferred hand. Continue dribbling until you hear
the signal to stop.
T Dribble the ball at a low level so it bounces only to
your knees. Keep your body in a standing position;
don’t kneel or squat to the fl oor.
T Dribble the ball so it rebounds to a level between
your waist and your knees. This medium-level drib-
ble is the one most often used in games and the
one we will concentrate on throughout our work.
T On the signal, begin dribbling the ball at waist level.
Continue dribbling until you hear the drumbeat.
Stay in your self-space.
How do the cues for dribbling change at the different
levels?
Dribbling and Looking
Setting: Children scattered in general space, alone at
fi rst and later with partners, each child with a ball for
dribbling
Cue
Look Up (You may want to fi nd a spot on the
wall to look at to help you look up. Just
sometimes glance down at the ball to
check on it.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Begin dribbling the ball, then raise your head and
continue dribbling without looking at the ball. Your
peripheral vision enables you to look straight ahead
and still see the ball. Your peripheral vision is your
ability to see things at the edges of your fi eld of
vision and straight ahead at the same time. This is
extremely important in a game involving dribbling.
T For this task you will need a partner, and each one
of you will need a ball. Face your partner; decide
which one of you will be the fi rst leader. The leader
starts dribbling at any level he or she wants; the
partner must follow by dribbling at any other level
than the level at which the leader is dribbling. For
example, if the leader is dribbling at a high level,
the partner can dribble at a low or a medium level.
The leader can change levels after three dribbles at
the same level. Use quick changes of level to try to
fake your partner. When you hear the signal (about
30 seconds), change leaders. How many times be-
fore the signal can you catch your partner dribbling
at the same level as you are?
Peer Observation. Dribbling at the control level
lends itself to partner assessment. Check cards (index
cards with the critical cues listed) can be used. The
observer calls out how the partner is to dribble (e.g.,
low and right-handed) and then checks off the criti-
cal cues that are used. Any combination of move-
ment concepts can be combined with dribbling. See
Chapter 14 for examples of peer observation cards.
Switches
Setting: Children scattered in general space, each with
a ball for dribbling
Cue
Hand to Side of Ball (Keep your hand a little
behind and to the outside
of the ball.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Begin dribbling with your preferred hand. After sev-
eral dribbles, switch to the other hand and continue
dribbling. Don’t catch the ball; simply switch from
dribbling with one hand to dribbling with the other.
T Begin dribbling with your preferred hand. Dribble
fi ve times, and then switch to your other hand.
Continue to switch after fi ve dribbles per hand.
One change here from the regular dribbling
hints: Instead of having your hand directly on
top of the ball, it is helpful to push the ball from
the side when you want to change dribbling
hands ( Figure 26.13 ).
C On the signal, begin dribbling with your preferred
hand. Each time you hear the drumbeat, switch
hands. Continue to dribble and switch hands on
each drumbeat until you hear the signal to stop.
When switching hands while dribbling, how does
your hand position on the ball change?
CHAPTER 26 Volleying and Dribbling 525
Dribbling with the Body in Different Positions
Setting: Children scattered in general space, each with
a ball
Cues
Firm, Flexible Wrists (Remember the strong,
bendable wrists we used
before — they are really
important now.)
Ball: Side and Front (Keep the ball a little in
front of your body and out
to the side.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Assume a kneeling position. Balance on one knee
and one foot, with your body at a low level. Dribble
with one hand while you maintain the balanced
position.
T Dribble while in a squat or tuck position, balanced
on both feet at a low level.
C Balance in different positions, dribbling with one
hand. Create three different positions in which
you can dribble with either your right or left
hand.
T Begin dribbling in a standing position. Continue
to dribble as you change your position to a low
level— a kneeling or squatting position. Continue
changing body positions while maintaining the
dribble.
Choose several children to demonstrate the combinations of
body positions they assume while dribbling.
Dribbling in Different Places around the
Body While Stationary
Setting: Children scattered in general space, each with
a ball for dribbling
Cues
Ball Close to Body (Remember, the ball
should be close to your
body so you don’t lose it.)
Firm, Flexible Wrists (Your wrists have to be
really strong and bendable
for this dribbling —fl oppy
will not work.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Standing in self-space, dribble the ball in different
places around your body: on your right, on your
left, behind your legs. As you dribble, remember
to keep the ball close to your body.
Figure 26.13 Changing hands while dribbling.
Dribbling with control requires concentration.
526 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
T Begin dribbling with your right hand; after sev-
eral dribbles, bounce the ball under your right leg
from back to front, and continue the dribble with
your left hand. The hand position will be like
that for switching hands, a little to the side of
the ball.
T Practice the skill from right to left and from left to
right until you can execute it in both directions.
T Dribble the ball directly in front of your body;
bounce the ball between your legs from front to
back. You will need to twist your body to re-
cover the dribble in the back.
T Can you dribble the ball from back to front?
C Put together a dribbling sequence of all the ways
you can dribble in self-space: in front, to the side, in
back, around your body, between your legs. Remem-
ber to change levels as you go and to fi nd different
positions balanced on different parts.
Exit Slip. This might be a good time to include an
exit slip to assess students’ knowledge of different
positions, places around the body, and levels, as
well as a self-assessment of skill. A possible exit slip
could ask children to write out the dribbling se-
quence they performed, indicating which positions
were easy and which they will want to practice in
the future.
Dribble While Changing Directions in Self-Space
Setting: Children arranged in a scattered formation,
about 3 to 4 feet apart, all facing the same direction
( Figure 26.14 ); teacher at the front of the group, facing
the children
Cues
Hand Position (The hand positions we used
before are important here. If you
want to go to the side, your hand
is on the side; to go forward,
hand behind; to go backward,
hand in front.)
Slide (Especially when going sideways,
be sure to slide your feet; don’t
cross them.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Begin dribbling in self-space, keeping your head
up, eyes focused on me. On the fi rst signal, I’ll
point to your left; dribble with your right hand as
you sidestep to your left. When you hear the next
signal, stop your travel but continue to dribble. I’ll
then point forward; travel backward as you dribble.
Stop on the signal. Each time the signal is given,
change the direction of your travel: right, left, for-
ward, backward.
Children need both verbal and visual directional signs as
well as audible signals (via drum or whistle) for change of
directions. The children will mirror your visual cues.
Dribbling and Traveling
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space,
each with a ball
Cue
Hand a Little behind (For walking and dribbling,
the Ball your hand position changes:
Keep your hand just a little
behind the ball.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T This time start dribbling in self-space. After a few
dribbles take two steps, then stop and dribble
two times in self-space, then take two more steps,
then stop and dribble twice. Keep traveling in
general space like this until you hear the stop
signal. As you dribble, push the ball slightly
forward.
Tip: This task works well when children are fi rst learning
to travel and dribble because they are able to regain control
of the ball if they are close to losing it. You can gradually
increase the number of steps and decrease the stationary
dribbles as the skill level increases.
T Begin dribbling and walking in general space.
When you hear the drumbeat, stop in self-space
and continue dribbling. The second drumbeat is
Teacher
Figure 26.14 Formation for practicing dribbling and moving in
directions the teacher suggests.
CHAPTER 26 Volleying and Dribbling 527
the signal to travel again. The pattern is this: drum-
beat, travel with dribble, drumbeat, stop with con-
tinued dribble, . . .
C Each of you has 100 points. On the signal, begin
traveling in general space. If you lose control of the
ball, subtract 10 points; if you collide with another
person, subtract 25 points. I’ll time you for 60 sec-
onds; try to keep all 100 points. Ready? Begin.
Another way to do the challenge is to have it as “keep it
zero.” Each person has no points, and you add points rather
than subtract. It works well if children’s subtraction skills
aren’t as developed as their addition skills.
Teacher Observation. At this point, when children
are beginning to combine skills and practice them
in more dynamic situations, it is appropriate to use
a teacher checklist or observation to assess young-
sters’ continued use of the critical cues.
Moving Switches
Setting: Children scattered in general space, each with
a ball
Cues
Hand Behind and (Your hand position changes
to Side of Ball again, just a little: Keep your
hand a little behind and to
the outside of the ball; see
Figure 26.13. )
Look Up (Remember to look at other peo-
ple’s faces as you dribble and
just sneak glances at the ball.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Start dribbling with your favorite hand while walk-
ing. On the signal, without stopping, change the
dribbling to the other hand and keep walking.
T Begin dribbling in general space; each time you meet
someone, switch hands, and continue to travel and
dribble.
We have now practiced three different hand posi-
tions on the ball. Where should your hand be
for stationary dribbling? Where should it be for
dribbling while traveling? Where should it be for
switching from one hand to the other?
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development in Dribbling
At the utilization level, we increase the complexity
of the dribbling by providing children with situa-
tions in which they must dribble with either hand,
without looking at the ball. We also provide beginning
dynamic, gamelike situations in which youngsters
combine skills.
A note about cues: Although several cues are listed for
many of the learning experiences, it’s important to fo-
cus on only one cue at a time. That way, the children
can really concentrate on that cue. Once you provide
feedback to the children and observe that most have
learned a cue, then it’s time to focus on another one.
Dribbling and Changing Speed of Travel
Setting: Children scattered in general space (alone at
fi rst and later with partners), each child with a ball
Cues
Look Up (Remember to look at faces.)
Ball Low (Dribble the ball only as high as your
waist.)
Tip: You may also need to refocus on speeds here. If so, the
cues would be fast, medium, and slow. (See Chapter 17.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Travel throughout general space, maintaining a
controlled dribble at all times. Travel sometimes
very fast, sometimes slowly.
T Begin moving through general space with a slow,
steady walk. As you’re dribbling, focus your eyes
on a spot on the fl oor 15 to 20 feet away. Without
stopping your dribble, move as quickly as possible
to that spot. When you arrive, stop your travel but
continue dribbling. Visually choose another spot,
and repeat the sequence. The ability to change
speeds and maintain a continuous dribble is a very
important offensive skill in basketball.
T This time as you travel, practice quickly changing
the speed of your dribble as you travel to your cho-
sen point. It will be as if you have almost invisible
stops and starts along the way. Slow down and speed
up, changing the speed of travel in mid-dribble.
T Stand beside a partner whose dribbling skill is very
similar to yours. Partner 1 begins the travel/dribble
throughout space, changing from fast to slow
speeds at will. Partner 2 attempts to stay beside
partner 1 at all times. Both of you will dribble con-
tinuously. When the signal is given, rest for 10 sec-
onds. Then partner 2 becomes the leader.
Dribbling in General Space While
Changing Directions
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space,
each with a ball for dribbling
528 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
Cues
Hand Position (The hand positions we used
before are important here. If you
want to go to the side, your hand
is on the side; to go forward,
hand behind; to go backward,
hand in front.)
Slide (Especially when going sideways,
be sure to slide your feet; don’t
cross them.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Dribble throughout general space, changing direc-
tions as you go: travel forward, backward, to the
right, to the left. Travel slowly when you fi rst be-
gin the travel/dribble with a change of direction.
Maintain the dribble during all your direction
changes; don’t stop and start again.
Traveling backward and dribbling isn’t easy because the
ball must move toward the body and often hits the feet.
Children should develop this direction last and should be
made aware of the diffi culty of dribbling backward.
T Begin dribbling in general space, traveling in a for-
ward direction. Each time you hear the drumbeat,
quickly change the direction of your travel and
continue the travel/dribble.
Dribbling in Different Pathways
Setting: Children scattered in general space (alone at
fi rst, then with a partner), each with a ball
Cues
Ball Close (It is important to keep the ball
close to your body, within half
an arm’s length.)
Ball on Outside (In a curved or a zigzag pathway,
keep the ball on the outside of
the curve, the wide side.) Dem-
onstrate; see Figure 26.15 .
Tasks/Challenges:
T Dribble throughout general space, traveling in
straight, curved, and zigzag pathways.
T Travel in a straight pathway as you dribble. Each
time you meet another person or hear the drum, turn
quickly to your right or left and continue to travel/
dribble in a straight pathway.
T Follow the straight lines on the gym fl oor (or play-
ground) as you travel/dribble.
T Travel in a series of curved pathways as you dribble.
If you curve to the left, dribble with your right
hand; if you curve to the right, dribble with your
left hand. Always keep the ball on the outside
of the curve.
T Travel/dribble throughout general space, quickly
moving from side to side in a zigzag pathway.
Make sure the ball changes hands each time you
move from side to side.
T Travel/dribble in a straight pathway. On the signal,
quickly zigzag to miss an imaginary opponent and
then continue dribbling in a straight pathway.
T Stand approximately 3 feet behind a partner; each
of you has a basketball (playground ball). Partner 1
(in front) travels/dribbles throughout general space,
changing pathways. Partner 2 (in back) attempts to
stay 3 feet behind the lead partner at all times. (Give
each partner several chances to be the leader.)
C Design a traveling/dribbling strategy to move from
the center of the gym (or outside blacktop) to the
end line. Design the strategy using combinations of
pathways to outwit imaginary opponents. Practice
the traveling/dribbling strategy until you can do it
three times exactly the same way. After you are done,
draw and write out your strategy ( Figure 26.16 ).
If I were to place three opponents in your way,
could you still execute your plan?
Setting: The gym set up with four or more “vacation
spots” around the space. Each vacation spot should be
designated with a large cone, a laminated picture of
the vacation spot (e.g., Rocky Mountains #1, Disney
Figure 26.15 Dribbling in a curved or zigzag pathway.
CHAPTER 26 Volleying and Dribbling 529
World #2, Statue of Liberty #3, Joshua Tree National
Park #4) and envelopes for each group with questions
in them. For example:
Envelope #1: Make up a name for your group that
you all agree on!
Envelope #2: Make up a group cheer that you all
agree on. At your fi nal vacation spot, you have to
shout your group cheer as loudly as possible. Exam-
ples: 1, 2, 3, Go Tigers! Give me a T, give me an I, give
me a G, give me an E, give me an R, give me an S!
What’s that spell? TIGERS!
Envelope #3: Introduce yourself and your group name
to the teacher! Example: Hi! My name is ___________.
Our group name is___________________.
Envelope #4: Write down one nice thing about
somebody in your group on a note card.
Children in four or more groups (note the number
of groups and the number of vacation spots should
be the same). Number groups 1 through 4.
C Your group is going on a vacation around the United
States. Each group will start at the vacation spot
that matches your group number. Your group must
dribble with your hands using curved or zigzag
pathways to get to the next vacation spot. Each
group member must use the same pathway to reach
the vacation spot and you must follow the person
in front of you. Once you have arrived at your new
vacation spot, fi nd the envelope with your group
number on it, open the envelope, and follow the
directions found inside the envelope. Before your
group can continue to the next vacation spot, you
will need to complete the directions found in your
group’s envelope and draw the pathway your group
is going to use to get to the next vacation spot. Your
group must travel over the star in the middle of the
map before reaching your next vacation spot.
(This task was created by Jerod Dean and Brian Gerwig,
SES 440 —Worksample, University of Northern Colorado,
Greeley, Colorado.)
Event Task. The above task can easily be used as a
formative or summative assessment.
Dribbling While Stopping, Starting, and Turning
(Pivots and Fakes)
Setting: Children scattered in general space, each with
a ball
Figure 26.16 A child’s dribbling
pathway map.
530 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
Cues
Ball Close (It is important to keep
the ball close to your body,
within half an arm’s length.)
Forward–Backward (When you stop, your feet
Stance should be about 18 inches
apart, with the foot opposite
the hand you are dribbling
with forward.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Begin dribbling in general space. Travel slowly at
fi rst, and then gradually increase your speed until
you are moving quickly while maintaining your
dribble. On the signal, quickly stop both your travel
and the dribble.
T Begin dribbling throughout general space. On the
signal, stop quickly in a forward–backward stance,
maintaining the dribble. Pivot by reversing the way
you are facing; turn on the balls of your feet. Con-
tinue your travel/dribble. To pivot, turn backward
on the foot toward the ball hand. Remember, the
ball changes hands as you turn.
T Choose a point across the gym. Begin dribbling in
general space, moving toward your point. Every
time you come to a line on the fl oor, stop, fake as
if you are going to change pathways, and keep go-
ing. To use a fake, come to a stop, quickly take a
step with one foot as if you are going to change
pathways, and then keep going in the same path-
way. It may be easier if you pretend there is an
imaginary defender in your way whom you have to
get around. When you reach your point, choose
another one and keep going.
T This time, as you travel to your point, sometimes
fake and sometimes change pathways. Remember,
in a game you are trying to outsmart a defender.
Dribbling around Stationary Obstacles
Setting: Marker cones or milk jugs placed randomly
(not in a line) throughout general space (spots do not
work well because children can go over them) with
varying space between the cones or jugs (place some
3 feet apart, others 5 to 6 feet apart)
Cue
Body, Ball, Cone (Remember, the cone [ jug ] is
your opponent. Protect the ball
by putting your body between
the cone [ jug ] and the ball.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Travel/dribble throughout general space, dribbling
around the obstacles.
C See if you can dribble 60 seconds without bumping
into an obstacle or another person — Heads Up.
Setting: The fl oor or blacktop divided into a series of
alleys with colored tape; children in groups, one group
per alley
Tasks/Challenges:
T One person in your group will be the dribbler; that
person will stand at the end of the alley. The oth-
ers in your group should arrange themselves in a
zigzag obstacle pattern in your alley ( Figure 26.17 ).
The dribbler attempts to dribble the length of the
alley, avoiding the obstacles and staying within the
side boundaries. The obstacles try to gain posses-
sion of the ball. Obstacles can stretch and pivot, but
one foot must remain glued in place at all times.
Obstacles can touch only the ball, not the dribbler.
The diffi culty of this task can be increased or decreased by
adjusting the width of the alley or by changing the alley to
a square and spreading the obstacles out.
X
X
X
X
X
Figure 26.17 Dribbling around obstacles/persons.
CHAPTER 26 Volleying and Dribbling 531
Mirroring and Matching While Dribbling
(See Chapter 18, “Relationships,” for a discussion of mir-
roring and matching.)
Setting: Partners of approximately the same skill level
facing each other about 3 to 4 feet apart
Cues
Mirroring (Remember, mirroring is like looking
in a mirror. If your partner uses the
left hand, you use your right hand.)
Matching (Matching is harder than mirroring
when you’re facing your partner. If
your partner uses the right hand, you
use your right hand.)
Look Up (For this activity it is really important
to look at your partner.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Face your partner. The partner whose name comes
fi rst in the alphabet is the fi rst leader. The leader
starts dribbling, and the follower has to mirror the
actions of the leader. Remember, don’t make it too
hard on your partner. On the signal (about 45 sec-
onds) change leaders.
T Now that you have gotten to be so good, try match-
ing your partner’s actions. Remember that if your
partner works with the left hand, you will use
your left hand.
T This one is really hard. The leader can now travel
in general space. The follower must try to copy
exactly what the leader does. This is matching
again.
Dribbling and Passing with a Partner
Setting: Partners, facing the same direction, about 10 feet
apart at one side of the gymnasium or blacktop; one
partner with a basketball for dribbling and passing
Cues
Receiver Slightly (The receiver should be
ahead of Passer ahead of the passer by about
four or fi ve steps.)
Lead Receiver (Pass the ball to the open
space just in front of the re-
ceiver so he or she doesn’t
have to back up to catch it.)
No Stopping (Both the passer and the re-
ceiver should always be
moving to the other side;
never stop moving forward.)
Smooth Transition (Pick up the ball to pass in
one motion without having
to stop; receive the ball from
the pass to the dribble in
one motion.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T The object of this task is to practice passing while
moving forward. You and your partner are travel-
ing in the same direction. Your job is to move across
the space to the other line. Partner 1 will dribble
three or four times and then pass to partner 2, who
has been traveling forward. Partner 2 receives the
pass, dribbles as he or she travels forward, and then
passes back to partner 1. Partners continue to travel/
dribble the length of the space.
Dribbling at the precontrol and
control levels requires an aware-
ness of space.
532 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
Setting: Partners about 15 feet apart, scattered through-
out general space, each pair with a ball
Tasks/Challenges:
T On the signal, begin traveling, dribbling, and pass-
ing to your partner. (Allow about 2 minutes of
activity, and then let the children rest for 10 seconds.
Repeat.)
Dribbling against an Opponent: One-on-One
Before beginning tasks that involve offense and defense, stu-
dents should be skilled with the space awareness and dodg-
ing tasks that ask them to use the offensive and defensive
skills of moving into open space; avoiding other persons; and
using fakes, stops and starts, pivots, and other avoidance
skills without manipulating equipment. (See Chapter 16,
“Space Awareness,” and Chapter 20, “Chasing, Fleeing, and
Dodging.”) Children need to have polished these skills before
they are asked to use them while manipulating equipment.
One key to this task— and to other initial tasks involv-
ing offense and defense — is to clearly defi ne the boundaries
of the space the students are to use. A small space gives an
advantage to the defense; a large space provides an offensive
advantage. Similarly, a long, narrow space gives the advan-
tage to the defense; a wider space helps the offense. Initial
tasks should generally favor the offense.
Setting: Partners facing each other, scattered through-
out general space, each pair with a ball
Cues
Offense
Look Up (You have to be able to see
your partner to avoid him or
her.)
Move to Goal (Always move to your end
line.)
Ball, Body, Defense (Keep your body between
the ball and your defense.)
Defense
Body between (Keep yourself between your
Offense and Goal partner and where he or she is
trying to go. Your back should
be to the partner’s goal.)
Watch Hips ( Just like dodging, watch the
hips or belly button if you
want to know where your
partner will move next.)
Stay About Two or (If you get too close, your
Three Feet Away partner can go right by you.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Select a partner who dribbles while traveling as well
as you do or slightly better. On the signal, partner 1
begins dribbling while traveling toward the end
line; partner 2 (facing partner 1) attempts to gain
possession of the ball by tapping it away. Neither
partner should foul the other by bum ping, pushing
away, or reaching in. Partner 1 attempts to keep
possession of the ball for 30 seconds; if partner 2
gets the ball, he or she gives it back. At the end of
30 seconds, partner 2 will dribble and partner 1 will
try to take the ball away. Begin.
Videotape/Digital Analysis. Videotaping or taking
digital pictures and subsequent self-assessment of the
use of the critical cues is essential when youngsters
start to use skills in dynamic, changing situations.
Students could be provided with a self-assessment
checklist and view the video or pictures with their
partner to analyze “fi lm” as coaches do.
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
Children at the profi ciency level seem to dribble without
thinking about it. They’re able to change direction, speed,
and pathway at will. They’re challenged by situations
that involve other children as partners or as opponents
who make the situation increasingly unpredictable.
A note about cues: At the profi ciency level, tasks are
more complex, typically requiring children to coordi-
nate several movements simultaneously in a dynamic
context. A list of cues is provided to assist the children
in being more successful in the learning experiences.
The challenge is in determining which cue will be most
benefi cial for each child . . . and when. Thus careful
observation and critical refl ection become very impor-
tant as you watch the children move and then decide
which cue will be the most helpful to move each
learner to a higher level.
Dribbling against Opponents: Group Situations
Setting: Children divided into two equal groups, one
group with playground balls for dribbling; initially, a
fairly open space; later, to increase the complexity of
the task, a reduced amount of space
Cues
Offense
Look Up (Remember to look up to see where
your opponents are.)
Use Fakes (You’ll need to use all the fakes we
learned before — stopping and starting,
changing speeds, changing directions—
here.)
CHAPTER 26 Volleying and Dribbling 533
The cues at this level assume mastery of basic dribbling
skills; hence, they are really cues about how to use the
dribble and how to stop the dribble . Many of the cues
are taken from the concepts of space awareness and chas-
ing, fl eeing, and dodging. If needed, return to and reinforce
the dribbling cues and practice the basic offensive and de-
fensive moves, but increasingly move toward children being
able to use these skills in gamelike situations.
Tasks/Challenges:
T Students without balls are the obstacles; you can
spread out anywhere in the space. Your job is to try
to steal the balls as the other group dribbles across
the space. The only rules are you may not touch an
offensive player, and one foot must always remain
“glued” to your spot. In other words, you can step
with one foot, but you cannot move from your
spot. On the signal, the offense will begin dribbling
from one end line and try to get to the other side
without losing the ball. If the defense (the obstacles)
gets a ball, just give it back. We’ll trade places after
three tries.
When the activity is a game situation with competing
skills, it is best if you ask children to form groups with those
“whose skill level is about the same as theirs,” or if you di-
vide the children into groups, so that groups have relatively
equal skill levels.
Now You’ve Got It, Now You Don’t
Setting: Children divided into two groups on opposite
sidelines of the gym or blacktop; one group with play-
ground balls or basketballs
Cues
Offense
Look Up (Remember to look up to
see where your opponents
are.)
Use Fakes (You’ll need to use all the
fakes we learned before —
stopping and starting,
changing speeds, changing
directions.)
Defense
Watch Hips and Ball (The best way to tell where
the dribbler is going is to
look at the hips or belly
button and at the same
time watch the ball.)
Slap Up (If you really want to
knock the ball loose,
slap from the bottom
up.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Each team stands on opposite sidelines of the gym
(blacktop) and faces each other. Each member of
team A has a playground ball for dribbling. On
the signal, team A players begin dribbling toward
the opposite sideline. Team B, without the play-
ground balls, begins moving forward, trying to
take away the balls. If a team B player gains pos-
session of the ball, that player dribbles toward the
opposite sideline. When the players from team A
or team B make it over their goal line, they stay
there until all the balls are behind one sideline.
Team B is then given all the playground balls, and
the task begins again.
Teacher Observation. As children begin to play
in dynamic situations, it is critical that teachers
continue to assess their use of the critical cues as
they pertain to that situation. Any of the tasks at
this level would allow for that. See Chapter 12
for the development of a teacher observation
checklist.
Dribble Tag
Setting: Each child with a playground ball for drib-
bling; two or three children designated “it” wearing
identifying jerseys if possible
Cues
Look Up (Remember to look up to see where
your opponents are.)
Use Fakes (You’ll need to use all the fakes
we learned before — stopping and
starting, changing speeds, changing
directions.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T On the signal, everyone with a ball will begin drib-
bling in general space. The players who are “it” will
try to tag you as you’re traveling and dribbling.
You’re caught if:
1. You’re tagged by an “it.”
2. You lose control of the ball.
If you’re caught, stand and hold the ball above
your head. You’ll be free to travel if a player who is
dribbling touches you. Each 2 minutes, we’ll rest
for 10 seconds while I choose new “its.”
A way to make this activity more complex is to
have the taggers not have to dribble. This small
change calls for a signifi cant increase in dribbling
skills and more closely resembles basketball game-
like activities. Just remember the heightened level
of dribbling skill that is needed.
534 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
Dribbling While Dodging
Setting: Children, each with a basketball or a play-
ground ball and a fl ag tucked in the waist
Cues
Look Up (Remember to look up to see
where your opponents are.)
Use Fakes (You’ll need to use all the
fakes we learned before —
stopping and starting,
changing speeds, changing
directions.)
Ball, Body, Defense (Remember to protect the
ball by keeping your body
between the ball and the
defense.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T You will need a partner of about your same ability
level for this task. You will need to establish clear
boundaries for your area, about 10 feet square.
Start by facing each other and dribbling. The object
is to keep dribbling and pull your partner’s fl ag.
See how many times you can pull your partner’s
fl ag in 2 minutes.
What is one hint for not losing control of the ball
in this activity?
Dribbling and Passing in Game Situations
Setting: A clearly defi ned space (the complexity of the
task is increased or decreased depending upon the size
of the space; initially, a larger space gives the advan-
tage to the offense); groups of three
Cues
Offense
Move to Open Space (When you don’t have the
ball, move to an open
space at an angle to the
passer; see Chapter 25 for a
detailed explanation of this
idea.)
Lead the Receiver (Throw to an open space
in front of the receiver.)
Defense
Go after the Ball (Go after the person with
the ball; otherwise he or she
doesn’t have to throw it.)
Hustle (Move quickly when the
ball changes players.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Working in your group of three, two of you will
dribble and pass while the third player tries to
steal the ball. We’ll rotate the interceptor every
2 minutes. Remember you must either be drib-
bling or passing the ball. You may not hold it; no
touching.
Making Up Fancy Dribbling/Passing Routines
Setting: Groups of four to six; a space about 15 feet
square; any number of basketballs; music and tape
players (optional)
Cues
The cues for this task are dependent upon what
you want students to include in the routine.
Some possibilities:
Pathways (In your routine be sure to include at
least two different pathways: straight,
curved, zigzag.)
Dribbling (The dribbling part of your routine
needs to include different levels of
dribbling and dribbling in different
places around the body.)
Passing (Your routine might also include
passing.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Put together a series of dribbling and passing skills
in a fancy routine—kind of like a basketball warmup
drill. Design the fl oor pattern, ways to travel, indi-
vidual tricks, and partner or group skills. Practice
y our routine until you have it memorized and in
time with the music.
Videotape / Digital Analysis. Routines such as
this are good places to use videotape or digital
pictures for observation and assessment. The vid-
eotaping or picture taking also adds incentive for
students to perform well and do their best. Re-
member to design your scoring rubrics ahead of
time so students know what is expected of their
performance.
Dribbling and Throwing at a Target
Setting: Four-foot-square targets marked with colored
tape on the wall at one end of or the sides of the
gym, approximately 7 feet above the fl oor; each child
with a ball at fi rst, then later with partners and a
shared ball
CHAPTER 26 Volleying and Dribbling 535
Cues
No Stopping (Pick up your dribble and
throw to the target without
coming to a complete stop.)
Watch the Target (To increase your accuracy,
watch the target.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Beginning at the center of the gymnasium, travel/
dribble toward the wall with the target on it. When
you’re within 12 feet of the target, throw the ball,
trying to hit the wall within the target square. Col-
lect the ball, quickly move to the side, and return
to midcourt.
T Select a partner who will serve as defense. Partner
1 dribbles toward the wall and attempts to score by
hitting the target; partner 2 tries to gain possession
of the ball on the dribble or block the throw to the
target. Change partner roles after each try.
T Practice the dribble /target activity with an offen-
sive partner. Combine dribbling and passing to a
partner as you travel toward the target. Alternate
the throw to the target between partners.
Event Task. By having partners join with another
set of partners for a two-on-two game of dribbling,
passing, and throwing at a target, you can create a
self-designed game to be used as an event task. ( See
Chapter 14 for how to design a scoring rubric to use
with self-designed games. )
Tip: Place targets around the walls as space allows. Place
targets on both sides and on end walls to provide maximum
activity.
Dribble/Pass Keep-Away
Setting: Groups of four in a space about one-quarter
the size of a basketball court (or smaller)
Cues
Offense
Don’t Pass Until (Until the defense plays defense
the Defense on you, there is no need to pass.
Commits You might as well keep moving
and dribbling the ball.)
Receiver Move to (Move to an open space at an
an Open Space angle to the passer.)
Stay Away from (Wherever you go, your defense
the Passer goes with you. If you stay
close to the passer, everyone
stays together and the passer
has nowhere to throw.)
Defense
First Player Ball; (Play defense on the person
Second Player with the ball fi rst; then play
Receiver defense on the receiver.)
Go After the Ball (Make the passer throw the
ball.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T In your group, two of you will dribble and pass
while the other two try to gain possession of the
ball either by intercepting the pass or by stealing
the ball on the dribble. Remember, on defense you
cannot touch the other player. When you walk,
you must dribble the basketball.
Small-Group Basketball-Type Game
Setting: Groups of no more than three; half- or short
basketball court with lowered baskets
Cues
Offense
Don’t Pass Until (Until the defense plays defense
the Defense on you, there is no need to
Commits pass. You might as well keep
moving and dribbling the ball.)
Receiver Move to (Move to an open space at an
an Open Space angle to the passer.)
Stay Away from (Wherever you go, your defense
the Passer goes with you. If you stay close
to the passer, everyone stays
together and the passer has
nowhere to throw.)
Defense
Go After Ball (Force the pass by pressuring
the player with the ball.)
Ball, Body, Basket (Keep your body between
the basket and the offensive
player.)
Hustle Back (After a score, run back down
the court.)
Tasks/Challenges:
C If you are comfortable with your skills of drib-
bling, passing, and throwing at a target, you may
want to play a small-group basketball-type game.
The maximum number of players on a team is
three. The one rule I have is that every player
must touch the ball before a shot is made. Match
the skills on your team so the game will be a
challenge for everyone; it’s no fun if the score is
a runaway.
536 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
Event Task. At this point, it is helpful to have stu-
dents think about their skill as well as doing it. Before
beginning team play, have students think of all the
skills needed for being successful in basketball: spatial
awareness, throwing, catching, traveling, dodging,
dribbling, shooting at a target. Within each group,
discuss what a person needs to be able to do with
each skill to be successful in basketball.
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. Discuss the difference between volleying and
dribbling.
2. Name four body parts that can be used to volley
a ball.
3. What is the primary focus of the tasks at the pre-
control level of volleying? What is the teacher
trying to accomplish before moving on to the
control level?
4. List four different types of balls that can be used to
practice volleying at the precontrol level.
5. What does the phrase “strike the ball with a level
body part” mean? What does the phrase “meeting
the ball” mean?
6. Rank the following tasks by placing the number 1 in
front of the easiest (most basic) task, the number 2
in front of the next more diffi cult task, and so on.
( ) Striking a ball to different levels
( ) Striking a ball with two hands
( ) Striking a ball to outwit an opponent
( ) Striking a balloon
( ) Striking a ball to a partner
7. Explain the meaning of the phrase “the location of
the hit determines the direction of travel.”
8. Give two examples of dynamic and unpredictable
situations related to the skill of volleying.
9. What characterizes each of the four skill levels of
dribbling?
10. What does it mean to keep one’s hands fi rm and
fl exible as opposed to fl at and stiff when dribbling?
11. How can you teach a child to use the fi ngerpads
while dribbling?
12. How does the size of the space affect dribbl ing
skills that are used in offensive and defensive
situations?
13. How do the cues for dribbling and volleying
change at the profi ciency level?
References/Suggested Readings
Mustain , W. 1990 . A manual of elementary physical edu- cation skill theme activities for physical education spe- cialists to use in collaboration with classroom teachers. Unpublished master’s project, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 1995 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. St. Louis, MO: Mosby .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2004 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. 2nd ed. Reston, VA: NASPE .
537
C H A P T E R
27
Striking with Rackets and Paddles
538 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
S triking with rackets and paddles, as well as strik-
ing with long-handled implements (Chapter 28),
is one of the last skills that children develop.
There are three basic reasons: (1) Children don’t refi ne
or develop visual tracking until the later elementary
school years, (2) hand – eye coordination at greater
distances from the body is more diffi cult, and (3) most
often in striking situations with rackets and paddles
there are two objects in motion at once — the paddle
and the object being struck. Yet striking with these
implements is a skill children enjoy and can be taught
at younger ages with a few simple equipment modi-
fi cations. Because of the complexities of striking, we
teach the skill of striking with rackets and paddles
after children have been introduced to the skill of
striking with body parts, specifically the hand (see
Chapter 26).
Children learning to strike with a racket or paddle
must coordinate many familiar skills into one new one.
They must learn to accurately toss or drop the object to
be contacted, visually track the object while they’re
traveling to an appropriate location, and contact the
object at exactly the right moment. And simultane-
ously they must adjust to the weight and length of the
implement. A successful striker must coordinate all
these variables. See Box 27-1 for information on strik-
ing with rackets and paddles from the National Stan-
dards for Physical Education.
Levels of Skill Profi ciency
The diffi culty of striking with an implement increases
with the length of the implement. Children at the
precontrol level struggle just to make contact between
the implement and the object and are truly excited
when they do — regardless of where the object goes.
Children at this level benefi t from exploring striking
with short-handled, lightweight implements. Balloons,
which travel slowly, expedite visual tracking and eye –
hand coordination.
Appropriate tasks for children at the precontrol level
include:
• Striking a balloon with a lightweight paddle or hose
racket
• Striking a suspended ball
• Tossing a ball or object upward and hitting it
• Dropping an object and contacting it underhand
• Dropping a ball and contacting it after a bounce
When children are able to strike a ball consistently
in these contexts, they’re ready for control-level ex-
periences, which include contacting a rebounding
ball a number of times in succession, sending the
object in a desired direction, and varying the force of
the contact. We also introduce the sidearm pattern at
this level. Other appropriate control-level experiences
include:
• Striking a ball at a target
• Sending a ball high enough to travel over a net
Children at the utilization level are able to contact a
ball repeatedly without a miss (bouncing it up or down
with a paddle or racket) and send a ball or other object
various distances and in different directions. The
youngsters are now ready to apply these skills in dy-
namic situations, such as moving into various posi-
tions to contact an object at different places around
the body and returning shots to a partner. The skill of
striking is now used in such learning experiences as:
• Striking with a variety of rackets and objects
• Continuously hitting to a rebound wall
• Striking cooperatively with a partner for high scores
• Striking with overhand, forearm, backhand, and
underhand strokes
When the children have attained the profi ciency
level, they demonstrate a mature pattern of striking:
the ability to control both body and implement while
traveling and to select the most effective type of strik-
ing when responding to a partner. Experiences at the
profi ciency level center around gamelike situations.
Striking with Rackets and Paddles in the National Standards for Physical Education
The movement skill of striking with rackets and paddles is
referenced in the National Association for Sport and Physi-
cal Education’s National Standards for Physical Education
(NASPE 2004) under Standard 2: “Demonstrates under-
standing of movement concepts, principles, strategies,
and tactics as they apply to the learning and performance
of physical activities.” This standard speaks of the child’s
recognizing and applying the concept of an appropriate
grip to the striking action and the correct biomechanics of
the striking action. The sample performance outcome
states: “Identifi es and demonstrates key elements of a
proper grip when holding a racket to perform a forehand
strike (3–5).*
*Grade-level guideline for expected student learning.
Box 27-1
CHAPTER 27 Striking with Rackets and Paddles 539
Fast-moving, quick-reacting patterns of striking are re-
quired in both cooperative and competitive games.
Appropriate experiences include:
• Playing cooperative or competitive games
• Offensive – defensive movements involving others
Our progression spiral presents ideas for developing
the skill of striking with rackets and paddles from the
precontrol through the profi ciency levels. The key ob-
servation points in Box 27-2 illustrate correct sidearm
striking with rackets and paddles.
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration
At the precontrol level, we provide exploratory activi-
ties using lightweight paddles to contact balls, shut-
tlecocks, and other objects. These objects are often
suspended from ropes at various heights to make the
task easier.
We recommend balloons at the precontrol level be-
cause the fl ight of a balloon is longer and slower than
that of a ball, and the child therefore has more time for
visual tracking. Heavier balloons, although a bit more
expensive, are more durable than inexpensive, light-
weight balloons. They also tend to be less erratic dur-
ing fl ight and consequently are easier for children to
strike successfully.
Striking is one skill theme in which safety plays
an important role. Be sure to include wrist strings
or guards on all rackets and paddles (and have
children use them), and provide ample space for
children to strike and move safely around one
another.
Paddle Balance
Setting: A paddle and a balloon, beanbag, and ball for
each child. Foam paddles are best because they are light-
weight and easy to control.
Tasks/Challenges:
T You’re going to practice a new skill now. Try to bal-
ance the balloon on the paddle. As you do this,
try to keep the balloon in the middle of the
paddle.
T If you are having a little trouble with the balloon
on the paddle, you may want to try balancing a
beanbag on the paddle.
T The balloon was fairly easy to balance, but this
time we are going to make the task a little harder.
Instead of a balloon, try to balance a ball on your
Skill Theme Development Sequence
Striking with Rackets and Paddles Profi ciency Level
Self-designed racket games
Group striking across a net
Team striking across a net
Aerial striking over a net
Partner striking across a net
Striking to and from different places
Striking at angles to two walls with a partner
Striking to one wall with a partner
Utilization Level
Striking upward in a dynamic situation
Striking in various aerial pathways in dynamic situations
Striking continuously upward with a group
Striking overhead over a net
Striking overhead
Striking to different places around a partner
Hitting cooperatively and continuously with a partner
Hitting from different places
Control Level
Striking continuously over and through a target
Striking a ball rebounding from a wall
Striking an object to send it over a net
Striking through a target
Striking to different places
Striking at high and low targets
To the wall again—sideways (sidearm and backhand pattern)
To the wall—sideways (sidearm and forehand pattern)
Striking for hoops (varying the distance)
Striking for distance (varying the force)
Striking to wall targets
Both Sides (of the paddle) Now
Ups, Downs, and Forwards
Up Against the Wall (striking forward)
Ups and Downs
Ups
Downs
Precontrol Level
Upward Bound
Hit the wall
Striking a suspended ball
Balloon strike (lightweight paddle)
Paddle balance
540 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
Box 27-2
Key Observation Points: Striking with Rackets and Paddles
1. Does the child take a forward step on the foot opposite the striking arm?
NO YES
2. Does the child’s body coil and rotate forward as the child swings the racket?
NO
YES
3. Does the child draw the racket back and then swing it forward along a full arc?
NO
YES
CHAPTER 27 Striking with Rackets and Paddles 541
Box 27-2 (continued)
Source: Adapted from R.L. Wickstrom, Fundamental Motor Patterns, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1977).
Mature Striking Patterns
When children are at the mature stage of striking with rackets and paddles, do their strikes look similar to the following sequence? In the
preparatory phase, weight is shifted to the back foot, the trunk rotates 45 to 90 degrees, the hip and trunk are cocked, and the racket is
drawn back. This is followed by movements that occur in such quick succession that they seem almost simultaneous: The weight shifts,
the body rotates forward, and the racket is swung forward along a full arc (an arc around the body).
paddle. Try to keep the ball on your paddle for as
long as you can.
T If you are really good at keeping the ball on your
paddle so that it doesn’t fall off very often, try
rolling the ball around on the paddle but still
keeping it on the paddle. At times you will really
have to do some fast work to keep the ball on the
paddle.
C I will time you. See if you can keep your object on
the paddle for 15 seconds. Ready? Go.
T This time we are going to try something even
harder. Choose the object you like best. Try to walk
around your self-space and balance the object on
your paddle at the same time.
Volleybirds (badminton shuttlecocks with fl at bottoms; see
Chapter 26) also work well with children at the precontrol
level. The youngsters learn to keep the paddle fl at as they
walk around carrying the volleybird on the paddle.
Balloon Strike (Lightweight Paddle)
Setting: A nylon-hose ( Figure 27.1 ) or foam paddle
and a balloon for each child; a spot or other way of
defi ning self-space for each child. When children fi rst
begin striking balloons with paddles, tie the balloon with
string to the paddle’s handle. This saves much chasing
time and makes it easier for the children to remain in
self-space.
Tasks/Challenges:
T In your own space with your paddle and balloon,
strike the balloon up in the air. Do one hit, then
catch, and start again. Find out how to make the
balloon go in the air.
T Now try to strike the balloon more than once —
maybe twice — then catch.
C How many times can you strike the balloon, keep-
ing it in the air without missing it or moving from
your space? Five would be a really good number.
T So far, you’ve tried to stay still in your own space
while you were striking the balloon. This time try
and move around in your self-space.
T This time we are going to try to walk while striking
the balloon. Go slowly and look where you are go-
ing so you don’t hit others. To be safe, the balloon
should be close to you.
542 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
At the park, I noticed a girl called Sarah. Her older
brothers were busy playing street hockey and tennis
(on the tennis courts). She was about six and, being
ignored by her brothers, was in her own world. The
boys had left a tennis racket and a ball lying aside.
She picked them up, held the racket somewhere in
the middle of the handle, and began to try to hit the
ball. It took four tries before she even made contact,
and the ball rolled away into the grass. It didn’t matter;
you could tell by the smile on her face that she was
delighted. She ran after the ball, picked it up and (after
a few attempts) hit it again, and was again off to
chase it. Her game took her on a journey all over the
park and continued for 20 minutes or so. Then she
proudly walked over to her mother and declared,
“I can play tennis!”
Striking a Suspended Ball
Setting: A ball suspended from a string ( Figure 27.2 )
and a paddle for each child; for the fi rst task, suspend
the balls above shoulder height; place spots or other
markings on the fl oor behind each ball
Tasks/Challenges:
T In your own space you have a ball that is hang-
ing from a string. Try to strike the ball forward
while standing on your spot. After each strike be
sure to stop the ball before you try to hit it
again.
Setting: Balls lowered to waist height; spots moved to
a position beside the suspended balls This young girl is practicing balancing a ball on a paddle as a prereq-
uisite to striking.
Figure 27.1 Construction of nylon-hose
paddles. Lightweight paddles can be made
from old coat hangers, nylon socks (or stock-
ings), and tape.
CHAPTER 27 Striking with Rackets and Paddles 543
Tasks/Challenges:
T Things have changed a little this time. Now your
spot is beside the ball. Again, try to strike the ball
from your spot so that it travels straight forward—as
in baseball. Be sure to stop the ball after each hit.
C You have been striking the ball fairly well. This
time, if you strike the ball well, yell “Whacko!” If
you miss, just start again.
At this point, children should be striking on their preferred
side. When the children begin to strike consistently, chal-
lenge them to strike on the opposite side of their bodies (for
example, backhand).
Hit the Wall
Setting: A foam or wooden paddle and a foam ball,
Nerf tennis ball, or volleybird for each child; spots on
the fl oor about 5 feet away from the wall to identify
self-space
Tasks/Challenges:
T At your spot, strike the ball so that it travels to the
wall. Just try for one hit at a time. Remember, if
the ball goes away from you, collect it and bring it
back to your spot before striking again.
T Try hitting the ball on both sides of your body.
C Try for fi ve single hits; if you can do fi ve, try seven.
By allowing children the choice
of striking implement and type of
object to strike, children are able
to adapt the task to their ability.
Paddles and Safety
Although wooden and Plexiglas paddles are very good for
learning to strike, they do present a safety problem. Paddles
made of foam—with both short and long handles—are avail-
able. We prefer foam paddles whenever the children are
working in close spaces or in groups.
Nerf Tennis Balls
Recently equipment companies have developed a Nerf ten-
nis ball. These balls come in a variety of sizes—some slightly
larger than a regular tennis ball—and have a density that fa-
cilitates striking. We have found that they are more effective
for use with rackets and paddles than dead tennis balls.
Velcro square
Figure 27.2 Suspending balls on strings. Glue a hook-and-loop
tape square to a string and another to a tennis ball to enable the ball
to drop from the string when the ball is struck, or knot string or elastic
into the holes of a plastic whiffl e ball. Balls can be hung from climbing
apparatus, from traveling rings, and between vertical game stan-
dards, and they can be attached to walls in the corners of the gym.
544 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
Upward Bound
Setting: A wooden, foam, or Plexiglas paddle ( Fig-
ure 27.3 ); a shuttlecock or volleybird and a lightweight
ball; a spot or some way to defi ne self-space for each
child
Tasks/Challenges:
T This time try striking the shuttlecock (volleybird)
upward. Drop the object, and try to strike it so it
goes straight up.
T Once you are comfortable with one hit, try to hit
the shuttlecock (volleybird) more than once be-
fore catching it.
C Try to hit the shuttlecock (volleybird) four times in
a row.
T Trade in your shuttlecock (volleybird) for a ball.
Try to hit the ball up in the air. Remember, one
hit and catch it; then hit again.
T Try to strike the ball up more than once — maybe
twice — and then catch it.
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
Experiences at the control level are designed to help
children go beyond just contacting the ball. At this
level, children learn to control the direction, force,
and aerial pathway of an object. One of the fi rst cues
we give children when beginning striking activities is
“watch the ball.” This is hard for many youngsters be-
cause so much else is going on around them. To help
children focus on the ball, paint a bright dot or letter
on it, and direct their concentration toward that mark.
At the control level we introduce children to a variety
of striking implements and to objects with various
surfaces, lengths, and types and degrees of bounce,
including table tennis paddles, racquetball rackets,
paddleball paddles, badminton rackets, tennis rackets,
paddleballs, Nerf tennis balls, tennis balls, racquet-
balls, rubber balls, shuttlecocks, table tennis balls. This
allows teachers to help children choose the equipment
that best meets their needs. We also introduce children
to the sidearm pattern. (At the utilization and profi -
ciency levels, we continue to provide a variety of strik-
ing implements and objects.)
A note about cues: Although several cues are listed for
many of the learning experiences, it’s important to fo-
cus on only one cue at a time. That way, the children
can really concentrate on that cue. Once you provide
feedback to the children and observe that most have
learned a cue, then it’s time to focus on another one.
Downs
Setting: A wooden paddle, a dead tennis ball or foam
ball, and a spot or some way to defi ne self-space for
each child
Cues
Flat Paddle (Keep your paddle fl at as a
pancake.)
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball all
the time.) It’s helpful to paint a
dot on the ball so children have
something on which to focus.
Tasks/Challenges:
T In your own space strike the ball down with your
paddle. See if you can keep it going without a miss.
8" 8" 10" 10"
Wooden
Wrist string
Plexiglas
Wrist string
Figure 27.3 Construction of short-handled paddles. Short- handled
paddles can be cut with a jigsaw from 1/2-inch fi nished plywood or
from 1/4-inch Plexiglas. Sand plywood edges until they’re smooth,
and wrap the handles with fi berglass tape. Each paddle should have
a wrist string for safety.
Equipment Modifi cations
Visual tracking is a skill that is not refi ned until the later
elementary grades; therefore striking, unless modifi ed, is
a diffi cult skill theme for children. A few simple equipment
modifi cations allow young children to experience success in
tracking. The use of large, slow-moving, easy-to-see objects,
such as balloons or beach balls, makes tracking easier. The
use of lightweight, short-handled, easily maneuverable rack-
ets compensates for the developing hand–eye coordination
and limited arm strength and endurance. The basic guideline
to follow is that the equipment should not hamper the move-
ment pattern; if it does, modify the equipment.
CHAPTER 27 Striking with Rackets and Paddles 545
Remember, if the ball starts to get away, just
catch it and start over again.
T Once you can keep the ball going fi ve times or more
in a row without leaving your space, see if you can
strike the ball so it stays below your waist.
C How many down strikes can you get in a row with-
out having to leave your self-space? These strikes
don’t have to be below your waist. Ready? Go.
Ups
Setting: A wooden paddle, a dead tennis ball or a foam
ball, and a spot or some way to defi ne self-space for
each child
Ups and Downs
Setting: A foam or wooden paddle, a dead tennis ball
or a foam ball, and a spot or some way to defi ne self-
space for each child
Cues
Flat Paddle (Keep your paddle fl at as a
pancake.)
Stiff Wrist (Keep your wrist tight; don’t let
it fl op around.)
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball all
the time.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Now let’s see if you can still stay in self-space and
keep the ball going. One time bounce it off the
fl oor, and the next time hit it into the air.
C Let’s make up a sequence. For example, your se-
quence might be: up once, down once, up twice,
down twice, up three times, down three times,
and then start over. Practice until you can do your
sequence two times in a row.
T Can you hit the ball up and down while walking
around your self-space —without losing control of
the ball?
Even the youngest children are fascinated with striking.
Modifying the Task
The diffi culty of all striking tasks can be increased or de-
creased by changing the object being struck. We most often
start with shuttlecocks or volleybirds and progress to foam
balls and dead tennis balls or Nerf tennis balls. We tend to
stay away from “live” tennis balls because they encourage
children to “hit hard” rather than use the correct pattern and
move to receive the ball. Adjust the equipment for each task
as appropriate for your children.
Cues
Flat Paddle (Keep your paddle fl at as a
pancake.)
Stiff Wrist (Keep your wrist tight; don’t let
it fl op around.)
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball all
the time.) It’s helpful to paint a
dot on the ball so children have
something on which to focus.
Tasks/Challenges:
T Now let’s see if you can stay in your self-space and
keep the ball going, but hit it up so that it doesn’t
touch the fl oor. If you need to let it bounce every
so often to gain control, that is OK .
T Can you hit the ball up so that it goes above your
head every time and still stay in self-space?
C Every time the paddle hits the ball, say one letter
of your name. Can you spell your fi rst name? Your
last name? Your best friend’s name? Remember,
each time you miss, you have to start spelling
the word over again.
Show me what a fl at paddle looks like.
546 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
C Try to do your sequence while you walk around in
self-space.
T If that was easy, you might want to try skipping,
or sliding, or galloping in self-space as you strike
the ball.
T This time it becomes harder. We are going to walk
in general space while striking the ball. Walk very
slowly while you continue to strike the ball. For
safety, be sure to look where you are going. If you
think you are going to lose control of the ball,
stand still for a second and catch the ball or let it
bounce on the fl oor until you get control back;
then keep going. If you do lose your ball, walk and
pick it up, and start again.
When children begin moving and striking simul-
taneously, they tend to concentrate so much on
the striking that they forget to watch out for oth-
ers and for rolling balls. Besides reminding them
to watch out, conduct these tasks in the largest
possible space, preferably outdoors.
Cues
Paddle Way Back (Start the paddle back behind
your hips.)
Opposite Foot ( Just as in throwing, step for-
ward on the foot opposite the
arm you are using to strike.)
Slanted Paddle (For this hit, keep the paddle
face fl at, but slant it just
slightly toward the ceiling so
the ball will go to the wall.)
The slight angle (slant) of the paddle face is critical here. It
is helpful to demonstrate the subtle difference between it
and a fl at paddle and what the skill looks like.
Tasks/Challenges:
T Facing the wall and at your own spot, drop the
shuttlecock and try to strike it so it goes straight
ahead—forward toward the wall. This strike is a
little like an underhand throw—you are actually
striking the shuttlecock from slightly under-
neath, not from the side.
T Now trade in your shuttlecock for a ball. This will
be a little harder, but it’s the same idea. Try to
strike the ball with the paddle so it goes strai ght
forward toward the wall. You may want to let
the ball bounce fi rst before you hit it. Remember,
just one hit at a time. Drop, hit, catch — then go
again.
C Practice until you can hit the ball so it travels to
the wall fi ve times.
C Ask the person beside you to watch you strike the
ball. Your neighbor will give you a point if you step
forward on the opposite foot as you hit. You’ll get
a second point if you swing the paddle underhand,
not sidearm or overhead. Practice with your neigh-
bor watching for a few minutes; then watch your
neighbor.
Peer Observation. The preceding task could easily
be turned into a peer assessment of critical cues
by using a peer observation card. See Figure 14.9A,
page 214.
Ups, Downs, and Forwards
Setting: Four stations set up as in Figure 27.4 , with
children divided equally among the stations; at
stations 1 and 3, foam balls or dead tennis balls and
paddles for every child; at station 2, balloons and
paddles for each child; at station 4, yarn balls and
paddles for each child, as well as seven hoops in a
cloverleaf pattern for each pair
Striking Cues
The skill of striking with rackets and paddles is complex and
has a number of critical cues associated with it. These cues
include, for the underarm striking pattern:
Slanted Paddle Follow Through
Paddle Way Back Watch the Ball
Opposite Foot
For the sidearm pattern, cues include:
Paddle Way Back Opposite Foot
Side to Target Follow Through
Flat Paddle Watch the Ball
Firm Wrist Low to High
We have elected to highlight only some of these cues with
various tasks throughout the remainder of the chapter. Feel
free to interchange the cues that will best meet the needs of
your students with those we have selected.
Student Drawing. This would be a great time to
have students draw a picture of themselves striking
up and striking down to assess their knowledge of
the critical cues of fl at paddle and stiff wrist.
Up Against the Wall (Striking Forward)
Setting: A shuttlecock, a foam ball or a dead tennis ball,
and a paddle for each child; children about 5 feet from
the wall, with spots to remind them of their self-space
CHAPTER 27 Striking with Rackets and Paddles 547
Cues
Stations 1, 2, and 3
Flat Paddle (Keep your paddle fl at as a
pancake.)
Stiff Wrist (Keep your wrist tight; don’t
let it fl op around.)
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball all
the time.)
Station 4
Paddle Way Back (Start the paddle back behind
your hips.)
Opposite Foot ( Just as in throwing, step for-
ward on the foot opposite the
arm you are using to strike.)
Slanted Paddle (For this hit, keep the paddle
face fl at, but slant it just
slightly toward the ceiling so
the ball will go to the hoops.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T The stations today provide a chance to practice all
the striking activities we have been doing. Some
are just practice; others are challenges. Do your
best. Change on the signal.
Station 1: How many downward hits can you do
with no mistakes? Count them.
Station 2: Travel across the gym, striking the bal-
loon upward as you go.
Station 3: Can you do fi ve single upward hits with-
out moving from self-space? Try continuous hits.
Station 4: Strike the ball so that it travels forward
and lands in a hoop. Each time you are successful,
increase your distance by taking one giant step
backward. One partner can strike and the other
collect the balls. Switch every fi ve strikes.
Self-Assessment. The preceding task could easily be
turned into a self-assessment by having children
record on cards how they did at each station.
Both Sides (of the Paddle) Now
Setting: A wooden or foam paddle, a dead tennis ball
or foam ball, and a spot or other way to defi ne self-
space for each child
Cues
Flat Paddle (Keep your paddle fl at as a
pancake.)
Stiff Wrist (Keep your wrist tight, don’t let
it fl op around.)
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball at all
times.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T In tennis, racquetball, or badminton, players use
both sides of the paddle. Let’s try this. Keep hitting
the ball up. Try to hit the ball with one side of the
paddle, then the other.
T If that is easy, see if you can use both sides of the
paddle and both sides of the body. Try not always
to strike the ball when it is right in front of you.
T Can you make a rainbow with the ball? Hit it on
one side of your body and then the other so the
ball travels in a rainbow shape. Remember, if you
miss the ball and have to chase it, go back to your
self-space before you start striking again.
C How many rainbows can you make? Each time the
ball goes over your head, it counts as one. Five
rainbows without a miss would be excellent!
Striking to Wall Targets
Setting: A wooden paddle and tennis ball for each stu-
dent; 12- to 20-inch circles about 6 feet up on the wall
in a scattered pattern
Cues
Paddle Way Back (Start the paddle back behind
your hips.)
Opposite Foot ( Just as in throwing, step
forward on the foot opposite
the arm you are using to
strike.)
1 2 3 4
Figure 27.4 Station setup for ups, downs, and forwards.
548 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
Slanted Paddle (For this hit, keep the paddle
face fl at, but slant it just
slightly toward the ceiling so
the ball will go to the wall.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Find a spot about 10 feet from the wall in front of
a circle. Strike the ball to the wall, trying to hit the
circle. Remember, this is a back-to-front swing —
like an underhand throw. If you are doing it cor-
rectly, your arm will almost brush your hip on
the way forward.
T For the next fi ve hits, freeze your follow-through.
Check to see if you have the opposite foot for-
ward and your arm extended, with the racket
face slanted slightly toward the ceiling.
C When you think you can do fi ve perfect hits with
opposition and slanted racket facing the target,
raise your hand and I will come to observe or a
friend can observe for you.
T Try to send the ball to the wall so that it touches
within 2 to 3 inches of the target.
C Can you come that close fi ve times?
T Take a giant step backward. Strike the ball so that
it contacts the wall at the height of the target.
T When you are successful in hitting the target six
times, take another giant step backward.
T Move back to your fi rst space closest to the wall.
See if you can use an underhand strike to make the
ball drop just in front of the wall.
T When you can successfully drop the shot just in
front of the wall, take a giant step backward and
try the drop shot from the longer distance.
C Pick your favorite distance. Count how many
times you can hit the target without a mistake.
How many times can you drop the ball just in
front of the wall?
How does the paddle face differ when striking to
the wall from when striking up or down?
Striking for Distance (Varying the Force)
Setting: Outdoors on a large fi eld (so that children can
work safely without hitting one another); children all
facing the same way, either in a line or away from the
center of a circle; a paddle and a variety of objects to
strike for each child; objects (spots or cones) for use as
markers
Cues
Opposite Foot ( Just as in throwing, step for
ward on the foot opposite the
arm you are using to strike.)
Slanted Paddle (For this hit, keep the paddle
face fl at, but slant it just
slightly toward the ceiling so
the ball will go to the target.
Use less slant for longer hits.)
Low to High (Follow through low to high.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Standing on the line, all facing the same direction
so you won’t hit anyone else, practice striking the
objects, changing the amount of force that you use
for hitting. Sometimes use a lot of force, sometimes
not very much force. Each time, make sure that you
use the proper underarm swing and that you follow
through, no matter what amount of force you use.
Use up all your objects and then go collect them.
C This time you’re going to play a game with your-
self. First, strike an object as far as possible. Take a
marker, and mark the place where your object fell.
Be sure that you can see the mark from the strik-
ing line. Now try to hit an object to halfway
between the striking line and your far object. Prac-
tice until you feel as if you’ve really fi gured out
just exactly the right amount of force to use. Then
see if you can hit the middle spot three times in
a row.
T After you’ve done this task three times in a row, hit
another object as far as you can, mark it, and try
the same thing all over again.
Striking for Hoops (Varying the Distance)
Setting: Partners; a wooden paddle and a variety of
objects to hit for each child; a hoop to serve as a target
for each pair
Cues
Opposite Foot ( Just as in throwing, step for-
ward on the foot opposite the
arm you are using to strike.)
Slanted Paddle (For this hit, keep the paddle
face fl at, but slant it just slightly
toward the ceiling so the ball
will go to the target. Use less
slant for longer hits.)
Low to High (Follow through low to high.)
CHAPTER 27 Striking with Rackets and Paddles 549
Tasks/Challenges:
T Place your hoop on the ground. One partner will
be the hitter; the other, the catcher. The hitter
strikes the object so that it lands in the hoop —hits
the target. First, stay close, and then after you can
hit the target three times, move back a few steps
and try again. Your partner will keep the objects
from going all over the place. After you take six
hits, switch places with your partner for six hits
and then switch back.
C Now you’re going to make a game out of striking
into hoops. Place three hoops on the fl oor, one
about 3 feet away from you, one 6 feet away, and
one 10 feet away. One partner will try to strike so
that the object lands in each hoop; the other part-
ner will collect the object after the hits. Then the
partners switch places. You can make up any other
rules that you wish, but you both need to practice
striking into all three hoops.
Teacher or Student Observation. This task lends
itself well to a teacher or student observation
checklist of the use of the critical cues for striking
at various distances. See Chapter 14 for the develop-
ment of checklists.
To the Wall—Sideways (Sidearm Forehand Pattern)
Setting: A paddle and ball for each child; marks or
spots to defi ne self-space; large Xs placed about 3 feet
high on the wall in front of each space
Cues
Flat Paddle (Keep your paddle fl at as a
pancake.)
Stiff Wrist (Keep your wrist tight; don’t let it
fl op around.)
Side to Wall (Keep to the wall the side opposite
the arm you’re using to hit.)
Opposite Foot ( Just as in throwing, step forward
on the foot opposite the arm you
are using to strike.)
An additional cue that is sometimes needed with the side-
arm pattern is to keep the elbow away from the side. We
use that cue as necessary with individuals or groups of
children.
Tasks/Challenges:
T Until now you have used an underhand pattern to
strike the ball. Now we are going to learn a new
pattern: the sidearm pattern, similar to what is
used in tennis and racquetball. This time your
side is to the wall and your paddle is fl at. This is
called the forehand, and you will use the forehand
grip ( Figure 27.5 ). Practice striking the ball to the
wall from a mark on the fl oor using the sidearm
pattern. Remember, these are single hits — drop,
hit, and catch, and go again.
C Practice until you can hit the ball so that it travels
to the wall fi ve times.
T After you can hit the wall fi ve times, take one giant
step backward and try from that distance. When
you can hit the wall fi ve times, move backward
again.
T Return to your fi rst spot, and try to hit the X on
the wall in front of your space. When you can
make fi ve hits, move backward again.
C Pick your favorite distance. How many times can
you hit the target without missing?
With the forehand and backhand grips, we demonstrate the
grip before the task, observe the children’s grips as they
practice, and provide feedback as necessary. We do not
spend a lot of time teaching the grip.
To the Wall Again—Sideways (Sidearm
Backhand Pattern)
Setting: A paddle and a ball for each child; marks or
spots to defi ne self-space; large Xs placed about 3 feet
high on the wall in front of each space
Cues
Flat Paddle (Keep your paddle fl at toward
the wall all the time.)
Stiff Wrist (Keep your wrist tight; don’t let
it fl op around.)
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball all the
time. Watch it hit the paddle.)
Figure 27.5 Examples of forehand and backhand grips.
550 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
Same Foot/ ( Just as in throwing a fl ying
Same Shoulder disc, step forward on the same
foot. The shoulder of the arm
you are using to strike should be
toward the wall.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T This is also a sidearm pattern, but from the other
side of your body. In tennis it is called the backhand,
and you will use the backhand grip (Figure 27.5). It
is the same as the forehand, except the side of your
body with the striking arm is to the wall, and you
step forward on the same foot as your striking arm.
You reach across your body to hit. Practice striking
the ball to the wall from a mark on the fl oor using
the backhand pattern. Remember, these are single
hits — drop, hit, and catch, and go again.
C Practice until you can hit the ball so that it travels
to the wall fi ve times.
T After you can hit the wall fi ve times, take one giant
step backward and try from that distance. When you
can hit the wall fi ve times, move backward again.
T Return to your fi rst spot, and try to hit the X on
the wall in front of your space. When you can
make fi ve hits, move backward again.
C Pick your favorite distance. How many times can
you hit the target without missing?
Striking at High and Low Targets
Setting: A paddle and a ball for each child; four sta-
tions set up as in Figure 27.6 . At stations 1 and 2: spots
marked on the fl oor about 6 and 10 feet from the wall;
targets on the wall in front of each space about 3 feet
high. At station 3: spots marked on the fl oor about
10 feet from the wall; targets on the wall about 6 feet
high (see Figure 27.7 ). At station 4: hoops on the fl oor
against the wall; spots marked in various places around
the hoops about 3, 6, 10, and 15 feet away.
Cues
Paddle Face (Your paddle will be slightly
slanted or fl at depending on
which striking pattern you use.)
Stiff Wrist (Keep your wrist tight; don’t let
it fl op around.)
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball
all the time. Watch it hit the
paddle.)
Opposite Foot/ (Step forward on the
Same Foot opposite foot for the forehand;
the same foot for the backhand.)
Task/Challenges:
T You have practiced both underhand and sidearm
striking patterns. You can use them both, but one
is better for some things, and the other is better for
other things. The underhand pattern works best
when you want to send the ball to high places or
make it drop low. The sidearm pattern works when
you want the ball to go in a more straightforward
route. Now you will get a chance to mix them up.
At each station you will have to decide which strik-
ing pattern is best to use. See if you can fi gure out
each station. I will tell you that at station 2 you
have to use the backhand.
Children at the control level benefi t from striking a ball rebounding
from the wall.
Auditory Feedback
Place a metal gong, small bells, loose plastic jugs, or similar
sound-producing objects on a wall as targets. Young chil-
dren enjoy the auditory feedback when contact is made.
CHAPTER 27 Striking with Rackets and Paddles 551
Station 1: Try to hit the target as many times as
you can. When you hit the target six times,
move backward to the next mark.
Station 2: Try to hit the target with a backhand
pattern. What is the highest number of times
you can hit the wall from each spot?
Station 3: Pick out one X on the target and see
if you can hit it fi ve times; then choose another
X, and another, and fi nally the last X. When
you can hit all of them fi ve times, move back-
ward one step.
Station 4: From each of the marks on the fl oor,
see if you can drop the ball into the hoop.
Exit Slip. It would be appropriate here to use an
exit slip to assess the children’s understanding of
the various striking patterns, their cues, and their
uses. See Chapter 14 for examples.
Striking to Different Places
Setting: A paddle and a ball for each child; marks or
spots to defi ne self-space; large Xs about 3 feet high on
the wall in front of each space
Cues
Paddle Face (Your paddle will be slightly
slanted or fl at depending on
which striking pattern you use.)
Low to High (Follow through low to high.)
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball all
the time. Watch it hit the
paddle.)
Opposite Foot ( Just as in throwing, step for-
ward on the foot opposite the
arm you are using to strike.)
Station 1: Targets on walls
1 5 '3
' 6'
3 ' 6'
6 ft.
10 ft.
S ta
tio n
2 : T
a rg
e ts o
n w
a lls
6 ft.
1 0 ft.
10 ft.
1 5 '
1 5 '
15'
6' 6'
3 '
3 '
1 0 '
1 0 '
1 0 '
1 0 '
1
2
3
4
S ta
ti o n
4 : H
o o p
s o n
f lo
o r
Station 3: Targets on walls
Figure 27.6 Station setup for striking at high and low targets.
552 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
Tasks/Challenges:
T This time, instead of trying to hit the X, pretend
that the target is your opponent. Try to hit a space
about 2 feet to the right of the X. Practice until you
can hit your space six times. You can use an under-
hand or a sidearm pattern.
T Now practice trying to hit a space to the left of the X.
Again, practice until you can hit the space six times.
T This time, practice doing one hit to the right, the
next hit to the left, and the next hit to the X. See
if you can repeat your pattern fi ve times.
C Ask the person next to you to be your partner. You
will call out where you are going to hit before the
strike. Your partner gives a thumbs-up if you hit
where you called out or a thumbs-down if you
didn’t. After eight hits, trade places.
Peer Observation. The previous task is a great peer
observation assessment task. See Chapter 14 for
more information on peer assessments.
Striking through a Target
Setting: A hoop suspended at about shoulder height
for each group of two; a paddle for each child; one ball
per group
Cues
Paddle Face (Your paddle will be fl at or
slightly slanted depending on
which striking pattern you use.)
Watch Ball/ (Keep your eyes on the ball all
Watch Target the time: See it hit the paddle;
see it go to the target. Watch the
target out of the corner of your
eye.)
Opposite Foot/ (Step forward on the opposite
Same Foot foot for the forehand; the same
foot for the backhand.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T At your hoop, one of you will bounce the ball on
the fl oor and then try to strike it through the hoop.
The partner will catch the ball and return it to the
striker. After 10 strikes, change places.
T Now that you’ve practiced by fi rst letting the ball
bounce, try it without letting the ball bounce. In
other words, just drop the ball, hit it before it hits the
ground, and try to make it go through the hoop.
C Since you are so good at this, why don’t we make
it a game? How many hits in a row can you and
your partner combined get?
Striking an Object to Send It over a Net
Setting: A net (or a rope between two chairs) about 2 to
3 feet high for each group of partners; a paddle for
each child; one ball per group
When striking with a partner, children tend to for-
get their own space and often unknowingly
encroach on the space of other groups, risking col-
lisions. Therefore, for this task and all tasks that
involve striking to a partner, have children clearly
defi ne their space with lines or spots.
Cues
Paddle Face (Your paddle will be fl at or
slightly slanted depending on
which pattern you use.)
Watch Ball/ (Keep your eyes on the ball all
Watch Target the time: See it hit the paddle;
see it go to the target. Watch
the target out of the corner of
your eye.)
Opposite Foot/ (Step forward on the opposite
Same Foot foot for the forehand; the same
foot for the backhand.)
10 ft.6 ft.
Targets on walls
3
Figure 27.7 Target design for striking at high and low targets,
station 3. The Xs on the wall should be large enough to be hit easily.
CHAPTER 27 Striking with Rackets and Paddles 553
Tasks/Challenges:
T With one partner on either side of the net, partner
1 strikes the ball across the net. Partner 2, instead
of hitting the ball back, will catch it and throw it
back to partner 1. After 10 hits, change roles. It
helps to bounce the ball on the fl oor once before
you hit it across the net.
T This time, use three different striking patterns to
hit the ball across the net: forehand swing, back-
hand swing, and underhand swing. Take 10 prac-
tices with one swing, and then switch; take 10
practices with another swing, and then switch; take
10 practices with the third swing, and then switch.
Ready? Three different ways of striking, 10 prac tices
each.
T You can practice any way of striking you want this
time, but try to pick a spot on the opposite side of
the net and hit the ball to that spot, as if you were
aiming for a target. Ten practices each, then
switch.
So that children in every group have their own net to work
over, simply suspend a rope between two chairs. This way
you can set up nets of different heights and lengths at vari-
ous places around the space.
Striking a Ball Rebounding from a Wall
Setting: Wall space, with a line marked about 3 feet up
the wall and a line marked on the ground 6 to 8 feet
from the wall; a paddle and a ball for each child
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball all
the time. See it hit the paddle;
see it go to the wall.)
Bend Knees (You want to contact the ball at
about your waist. You’ll have to
bend your knees to do this.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Now you’re going to have a chance to strike the
ball against a wall. In your space, about 6 feet from
the wall, practice striking the ball against the wall
with a forehand strike and the forehand grip
(Fig ure 27.5). When you hit the ball, you should
be slightly behind and about an arm’s length
to the side of the ball.
C Here comes the challenge. See how many times
you can strike the ball against the wall and let the
ball bounce only once before hitting it again. If
you miss, just start counting over.
T Now the activity will be a little harder for you. Hit
the ball to different places on the wall, always try-
ing to be ready to hit it when it comes back to
you. In other words, you’ll have to fi gure out
where the ball is coming when it bounces off
the wall and be behind it so you can hit it
again. Remember, hit different places on the
wall.
C This time, the challenge is really hard. You need
to see how many times in a row you can hit the
ball above the line on the wall. The ball can
bounce only once on the ground between hits.
Ready? Go.
T This time, you can do what you’ve wanted to do
for a long time: Hit the ball as hard as you can. But
there are some rules. First, the ball must land be-
hind the line marked on the ground; second,
you’re allowed only one bounce to hit the ball
back. This prevents you from hitting the ball so
hard that you can’t get to it.
When allowing children to strike the ball as hard
as they can, make sure they are spread far apart
and clearly understand the rules for retrieving a
ball that has gone into another person’s space.
When do you use a forehand grip and swing? A
backhand grip and swing?
Striking Continuously Over and Through a Target
Setting: A hoop, hoop stand, two paddles, and a ball
for each set of partners
Striking Safely
To be accomplished both safely and effectively, striking
activities require a great deal of space. Unfortunately, many
indoor facilities in elementary schools don’t have such
spaces available. If this is true at your school and there
aren’t any outdoor alternatives, you can have two activities
going simultaneously in the space available. Some children
can carry out striking activities against the walls while other
children carry out activities that require less space, such as
balancing or weight transference, in the center of the space
or on a stage area.
Cues
Quick Feet (As the ball returns, you want
to be behind it and a little to
the side. You will have to move
quickly to get there.)
554 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
Cues
Quick Feet (As the ball returns, you want to
be behind it and a little to the
side. You will have to move
quickly to get there.)
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball all
the time. See it hit the paddle;
see it go over the hoop.)
Bend Knees (You want to contact the ball at
about your waist. You’ll have to
bend your knees to do this.)
Tasks/Challenges:
C Now you’ll play a game with your partner using all
that you have learned. Set up the hoop on the
hoop stand on the center line of your area. Hit the
ball back and forth over the hoop, letting the ball
bounce on your side before hitting it back. After
fi ve hits over the hoop, the receiver must hit the
ball through the hoop so that it goes to the part-
ner’s side. If the hit through the hoop is good, play
continues for another fi ve “overs” and one
“through.” If the “through” is not good, the fi ve
“overs” start over again.
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
Experiences at the utilization level enable children to
strike with an implement, not as an invariant skill, but
in dynamic environments that involve partners and
striking from different positions in relation to the body.
A note about cues: Although several cues are listed for
many of the learning experiences, it’s important to fo-
cus on only one cue at a time. That way, the children
can really concentrate on that cue. Once you provide
feedback to the children and observe that most have
learned a cue, then it’s time to focus on another one.
Hitting from Different Places
Setting: A space about 10 feet by 10 feet; partners, each
with a paddle; one ball per group
Cues
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball all
the time. See it hit the paddle;
see your partner hit it.)
Bend Knees (You want to contact the ball at
about your waist. You’ll have to
bend your knees to do this.)
Side to Target (Whether you strike forehand or
backhand, your side should face
your partner.)
Get Home (Return to a position in the
center and near the back of your
space after each hit. This is called
home. It will take quick feet to
get there.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T This time, your partner is going to throw rather
than hit to you. Partner 1 will throw the ball to
partner 2 so that it bounces once before it reaches
partner 2. Partner 2 — the hitting partner — then
tries to hit the ball straight back to partner 1— the
thrower — regardless of where the ball has been
sent. Partner 1 then catches the ball and throws to
a new place. After 10 throws, switch places. The
fi rst time, always throw the ball to your partner’s
right side. The next time, always throw it to your
partner’s left side.
T This time, don’t let your partner know to which
side you’re going to throw the ball. Hitters, as
soon as you see the ball leave the thrower’s
hand, adjust your position so that you can re-
turn the ball. Throw 10 times, and change.
In the beginning stages of striking a ball sent by a partner,
children benefi t from having the ball tossed consistently to
their preferred or nonpreferred side. This way they can pro-
gress to adjusting the preparatory stage according to the
direction of the oncoming ball.
Peer Observation. This is an excellent time for a stu-
dent observation of the critical cues practiced at the
control level. True learning occurs when children
can use the cues correctly in dynamic, unpredictable
situations. See Chapter 14 for assessment examples.
Hitting Cooperatively and Continuously
with a Partner
Setting: A space about 10 feet by 10 feet; partners, each
with a paddle and one ball
Cues
Get Home (Return to a position in the cen-
ter and near the back of your
space after each hit. This is
CHAPTER 27 Striking with Rackets and Paddles 555
called home. It will take quick
feet to get there.)
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball all
the time. See it hit the paddle;
see your partner hit it.)
Bend Knees (You want to contact the ball at
about your waist. You’ll have to
bend your knees to do this.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T With your partner, in a space by yourselves, see if
you can strike the ball back and forth to each other.
The ball should bounce in the middle, but remem-
ber to get ready to hit the ball again after each hit.
C Set a personal-best goal with your partner for the
number of hits you can get without missing. See if
you can attain your goal. Give your partner your
best hit each time.
T Make sure that you and your partner practice hit-
ting on both sides of your body.
Tip: The preceding task can be used with any of the striking
patterns or a combination of patterns. You may need to
remind children about the cue differences for sidearm and
underhand striking.
Where is home position when hitting with a
partner?
Striking to Different Places around a Partner
Setting: A space about 10 feet by 20 feet for each set of
partners; two paddles and a ball
Cues
Get Home (Return to a position in the
center and near the back of
your space after each hit. It
will take quick feet to get
there.)
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball all
the time. See it hit the paddle;
see your partner hit it.)
Low to High (Follow through low to high in
the direction you want the ball
to go.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T With your partner, strike the ball back and forth,
each time hitting to the alternate side of your part-
ner’s body. In other words, once you will hit to
your partner’s left and the next time to your part-
ner’s right. Try to keep the ball going for as long as
possible. (Have skilled students demonstrate what it
looks like to hit to alternate sides.)
C As you practice now, see how long you can keep
the ball going, but almost try to make your partner
miss.
Striking Overhead
Setting: A wall space, with a line marked on the wall
about 3 feet from the fl oor, a spot marked on the
ground about 10 feet from the wall, and a paddle and
a ball for each child
Striking activities require well-
defi ned spaces.
556 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
Cues
Toss (Toss the ball just barely
above the top of the paddle.)
Reach and Stretch (When you hit the ball,
reach and stretch as high as
possible.)
Flat and Down (Your paddle should be fl at
and facing slightly down-
ward and forward as you
strike the ball.)
Demonstrate the skill of striking overhead.
Tasks/Challenges:
T Stand on your spot, about 10 feet from the wall.
Toss the ball higher than your racket can reach in
the air and then stretch to hit the ball when it’s at
its highest point. In other words, throw the ball up,
and when it reaches the very top of the throw — the
point where it won’t go up any farther and hasn’t
started to come down —hit it so it goes against the
wall. Don’t try to hit the ball back when it bounces
off the wall; just catch it and start over.
T Now that you’ve caught on to this idea, try to
make the ball go down so that it hits the wall near
the line, about 3 feet above the fl oor. To make it
go down like that, the face of your racket must
point slightly down as you hit the ball. Give it a
try. Remember to watch the ball contact the
racket so that you can see what you’re doing.
T This time, try to strike overhead again, but have
the ball strike the wall just above the line. Watch
your racket contact the ball so that you can tell
which direction your racket face is pointed.
Exit Slip or Self-Assessment. After this task, an exit
slip or self-assessment would be an appropriate way
to see how students feel about their ability to strike
in overhead fashion. Questions on an exit slip
might include a recall of the cues or a Helping Mur-
gatroid question. A self-assessment might ask how
well they did with each of the cues. See Chapter 14
for further information on both of these techniques.
Striking Overhead over a Net
Setting: Balls, a paddle, and a net 2 to 3 feet high for
each set of partners
Cues
Toss (Toss the ball just barely
above the top of the paddle.)
Reach and Stretch (When you hit the ball,
reach and stretch as high as
possible.)
Flat and Down (Your paddle should be fl at
and facing slightly down
and forward as you strike
the ball.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T You’re going to practice hitting overhead again.
Stand at the back of your court area, with your
partner on the other side of the net. The partner
with a paddle and some balls throws a ball in the
air just above her or his reach, including the reach
of the paddle, and then hits the ball down and
over the net. This is like a tennis serve, only every-
thing is smaller. The nonhitting partner should
collect all the balls as they’re hit. After 10 times,
switch places.
T As you begin to hit more balls over the net and in
the court, start to try to hit the ball a little harder.
But don’t attempt this until you can get 10 hits in
a row over the net and into the court.
Whenever children are striking over a net, always
have them clearly defi ne the boundaries of their
striking area so that they don’t interfere with
others.
Striking Continuously Upward with a Group
Setting: Groups of three; a paddle for each player; one
ball for each group
Cues
Flat Paddle (Keep your paddle fl at as a
pancake.)
Watch Ball/ (Always watch the ball. Watch the
Watch Players other players and the space out
of the corner of your eye.)
Quick Feet (It will take quick feet to get
behind and under the ball.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T You need to clearly defi ne the boundaries of your
space; they should be approximately 8 to 10 feet
apart. Your task is to keep the ball moving by
striking it to each player without losing control.
Bounces are allowed if you want them, but you
do not have to use them. There is no set order in
which you have to hit. See how long you can keep
the ball going without losing control.
CHAPTER 27 Striking with Rackets and Paddles 557
Setting: Groups of three, each group with one ball, three
paddles, and fi ve hoops; a space set up as in Figure 27.8
Tasks/Challenges:
C This is a game that will let you practice striking in
the air. The person in the center hoop begins by
striking the ball in the air to a person in one of the
other hoops. That person receives the ball, strikes it
twice to himself or herself, and sends it back to the
middle person, who also has to strike it twice before
sending it to the other outside person. That outside
person has to strike three times to himself, before
sending it back to the middle, where it is struck
three times. This continues until the middle person
has to strike seven times to himself or herself. Just
to make it harder, the outside people, after striking
the ball, have to move to one of the empty hoops.
If anyone misses, the whole group starts over again.
We will change middle hitters after seven hits or
3 minutes.
Striking in Various Aerial Pathways in
Dynamic Situations
Setting: Different-colored pieces of yarn suspended
one above the other — at 3 feet, 6 feet, and 10 feet — for
use as nets ( Figure 27.9 ); partners, each with a paddle;
one shuttlecock or volleybird per group
Cues
Slanted Paddle (Your paddle needs to have a fl at
face that is slanted upward.)
Low to High (Follow through low to high
toward the string you are trying
to go over.)
Get Home (After each hit, move back to
your center back position to get
ready to hit again.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Using a shuttlecock (volleybird) and an underarm
swing, try to make the object go over the lowest
piece of yarn. After fi ve tries, switch with your
partner.
Figure 27.8 Setup for striking continuously upward with a group.
Red
Green
Yellow
3'
6'
10'
Figure 27.9 Setup for aerial
pathways.
558 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
T Now try the middle piece of yarn. Do this fi ve times
each, then switch.
T Now the highest piece. For this one, you’re really
going to have to use a big underarm swing to get
the object over the net.
C This task will be diffi cult. Try to keep the shuttle-
cock (volleybird) going with your partner, but this
time, on the fi rst hit, make it go over the low piece
of yarn; on the next hit, make it go over the middle
piece; on the third hit, make it go over the top
piece. Then start over and reverse the order. Prac-
tice until you can do the sequence one time all the
way through.
Striking Upward in a Dynamic Situation
Setting: Group of up to fi ve people, each with a paddle;
one ball per group
Cues
Flat Paddle (Keep your paddle fl at as a
pancake.)
Watch Ball/ (Always watch the ball; watch
Watch Players the other players and the space
out of the corner of your
eye.)
Quick Feet (It will take quick feet to get
behind and under the ball.)
Tasks/Challenges:
C You are going to strike in a gamelike situation. Here
are the rules:
1. One person stands in the middle of a circle.
2. The person in the middle hits the ball with a
paddle straight up in the air and calls out the
name of another person in the group.
3. The person whose name is called out must run
to the middle of the circle, hit the ball up in
the air before it bounces, and call out another
student’s name.
4. The caller takes the place of the person whose
name was called out.
This is an exciting task for youngsters and often
they lose track of where they are in space. Con-
stant safety reminders may be necessary.
The type of racket used can increase the complexity of any
striking situation. A light, short-handled racket is the easiest
for a child to master; a heavy, long-handled racket is the
most diffi cult. As children begin to master the skills of strik-
ing with rackets, we gradually change the type of racket
used, to make the task more diffi cult. Striking using various aerial pathways provides challenges for
utilization-level children.
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
Experiences at the profi ciency level encourage children
to enjoy the challenge of striking with short-handled
implements in gamelike situations. These experiences
involve partner or opponent relationships, spatial
strategy, and the varied use of effort qualities.
Because of the gamelike nature of the tasks, it can be
quite tricky to keep these activities developmentally ap-
propriate, especially in terms of active participation for
all children. There are several solutions here. Set up mul-
tiple courts around the gym. The courts may be odd
sizes, but they should allow for maximum participation.
Another option is to have stations, several of which offer
gamelike activities and several of which have practice
opportunities that require less setup and space. Finally,
you could have peer assessment opportunities in which
half the members of a small group will play and half will
observe; then switch. Regardless of the solution, please
remember that gamelike activities should be appropriate
for all children. See Chapter 31 for more information on
game options in physical education.
A note about cues: At the profi ciency level, tasks are
more complex, typically requiring children to coordi-
nate several movements simultaneously in a dynamic
CHAPTER 27 Striking with Rackets and Paddles 559
context. A list of cues is provided to assist the children
in being more successful in the learning experiences.
The challenge is in determining which cue will be most
benefi cial for each child . . . and when. Thus, careful
observation and critical refl ection become very impor-
tant as you watch the children move and then decide
which cue will be the most helpful to move each
learner to a higher level.
Striking to One Wall with a Partner
Setting: Two children per group, each with a paddle;
one ball per group; court set up as in Figure 27.10
Cues
Get Home (Return to a position in the
center and near the back of
your space after each hit.)
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball all
the time. See it hit the paddle;
see it hit the wall; see your
partner hit it.)
Mix ’Em Up (It’s time to use all your different
strikes: to different spots on the
wall and soft and hard strikes.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T The objective of this task is to hit the ball against a
wall so your opponent is unable to return it. Here
are the rules:
1. You may score only when you serve.
2. The ball may be returned either after one bounce
or before the bounce.
3. To make your partner miss, you must use place-
ment, not force. All shots should be of a force
that is playable.
The courts are marked on the fl oor. To start play, partner
1 serves the ball against the wall, and partner 2 tries to
return it. Each time partner 1 hits the ball, partner 2 tries
to return it. You can play cooperatively—seeing how
long you can keep the rally going— or competitively—
accumulating points when you make your opponent
miss. The choice is yours.
Striking at Angles to Two Walls with a Partner
Setting: Two people per group, each with a paddle; one
ball per court; court set up as in Figure 27.11
Cues
Get Home (Return to a position in the
center and near the back of
your space after each hit.)
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball all
the time. See it hit the paddle;
see it hit the wall; see your
partner hit it.)
Mix ’Em Up (It’s time to use all your different
strikes: to different spots on the
wall and soft and hard strikes.)
Wall 15'–20'
6'–10'
Service area4'
20'
maximum
Figure 27.10 Setup for striking to one wall with a partner.
S e rv
ic e a re
a
Figure 27.11 Setup for striking at angles to two walls with a
partner.
560 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
Tasks/Challenges:
C This activity is very much like the last one you
played, except that it’s played in a corner instead
of just fl at against the wall. The same rules apply
as when you hit against the wall: There are two
players; you can play cooperatively or competi-
tively; and the ball is hit either after one bounce or
before it bounces. And ball placement should cause
someone to miss, not force. Go ahead and get used
to playing in the corner.
For a more advanced game of striking at angles to
two walls with a partner, see Striking to the Wall—
Varying Levels, Force, and Body Position in Chapter 26
(page 515).
Striking to and from Different Places
Setting: Four square courts, each about 15 by 15 feet,
labeled A, B, C, and D; groups of four students, with
paddles and a ball
Cues
Ready Position (Keep your weight on the balls
of your feet, with your knees
slightly bent.)
Paddle in Front (To be ready, hold your paddle
in front of your body about
waist high.)
Back of Square (Stay near the back of the square
so you can move forward.)
Tasks/Challenges:
C This task is like Four Square. Here’s how it works:
1. Square A starts the game.
2. You must hit the ball to another square.
3. The ball can’t be hit to the person who hit it to
you.
4. You must hit the ball after its fi rst bounce.
5. The person who misses the ball goes to square
D, and everyone else moves up a square.
6. All strikes must be underhand.
Partner Striking across a Net
Setting: Partners; a low net on a surface that allows the
ball to bounce, with a marked-off court at each net
area for each pair
Cues
Get Home (Return to a position in the
center and near the back of
your space after each hit.)
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball all
the time. See it hit the paddle;
see your partner hit it.)
Mix ’Em Up (It’s time to use all your different
strikes: to different spots on the
court and soft and hard strikes.)
Tasks/Challenges:
C The objective of this game is to send the ball over
the net so that it bounces within the court, and
the opponent hits the ball before it bounces twice.
Here are the rules:
1. Play begins with an overhead strike behind the
end line.
2. The ball can bounce no more than once on each
side of the net.
3. You may hit the ball before it bounces.
4. The ball cannot be hit so hard that it is unre-
turnable.
You may or may not keep score; the choice is
yours. If you decide to keep score, decide before
you start to play how you’ll do so.
Aerial Striking over a Net
Setting: Solid rackets, paddles, or badminton rackets;
shuttlecocks, tennis balls, or volleybirds; one net (be-
tween children’s shoulder and head height) for each
set of partners; a marked-off court at each net with a
serving line ( Figure 27.12 )
Cues
Get Home (Return to a position in the
center and near the back of
your space after each hit.)
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball all
the time. See it hit the paddle;
see your partner hit it.)
Mix ’Em Up (It’s time to use all your different
strikes: to different spots on the
court and soft and hard strikes.)
Tasks/Challenges:
C The objective of this aerial net game is to send the
object over the net so that the opponent can re-
turn it before it touches the fl oor. Here are the
rules:
1. Play begins with an underhand strike behind
the serve line.
2. Aerial strikes continue until the object touches
the fl oor or goes out of bounds.
CHAPTER 27 Striking with Rackets and Paddles 561
3. If you like, you can make up your own way of
changing serves and keeping points.
Aerial net games using a shuttlecock can be played with
regular tambourines, with old ones that are discarded from
rhythm bands because the jingles have been lost, or with
tambourines with rubberized heads. Children enjoy the
sound made when the shuttlecock strikes the tambourine.
Team Striking across a Net
Setting: Groups of four with Nerf tennis balls, paddles,
and a net; a court of four equal squares, with a net run-
ning down the center
Cues
Get Home (Return to a position in the
center and near the back of
your space after each hit.)
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball all
the time. See it hit the paddle;
see your opponents hit it.)
Mix ’Em Up (It’s time to use all your different
strikes: to different spots on the
court and soft and hard strikes.)
Cover Space (You want to block all the space
on the court. One player usually
plays near the net, and one back.
When one moves, the other
must adjust.)
Tasks/Challenges:
C This task is like a miniversion of tennis or pickle-
ball doubles. Here’s how you play:
1. There are two people on each team.
2. Team A serves underhand and diagonally to
team B.
3. The two teams hit the ball back and forth across
the net until one team misses.
4. When the team serving misses, the other team
takes over serving.
5. When the receiving team misses, the serving
team keeps serving.
6. The serve always begins in the back right-hand
corner behind the line, alternates to the back
left-hand corner on every consecutive serve,
and then back to the right.
7. The ball may be hit before it bounces or after
one bounce.
8. The ball cannot be hit so hard that it is unre-
turnable.
Homework. At this point in learning to strike, you
might give children a homework assignment to
observe a tennis match in person or on television
and analyze how one player uses the strategies of
getting home, watching the ball, mixing up shots,
and covering space.
Group Striking across a Net
Setting: Groups of six, with badminton rackets or pad-
dles, shuttlecocks, and a net
Cues
Quick Feet (Move quickly to get behind and
under the shuttlecock.)
Close to Net (One player should be close to the
net for the last hit.)
Get Home (After each hit, move back to your
position on the court so the space is
covered.)
Tasks/Challenges:
C You’re going to strike across a net with a team.
Here are the rules:
1. There are three players on each side.
2. A player near the back of the court serves under-
hand to the other side of the net. The oppo-
nents hit the shuttlecock twice on their side of
the net and then return it over the net.
3. The shuttlecock must be hit twice by two dif-
ferent players on each side of the net before it’s
returned.
Net approximately 3'– 4' high
Serving line
Serving line
Figure 27.12 Court setup for aerial net games.
562 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
4. The shuttlecock must be hit before it touches
the ground.
5. When the serving team misses, the other team
scores.
6. Keep score any way you want or not at all.
The preceding activity is an enjoyable game, but
the use of long-handled rackets requires enough
room to allow children to strike without hitting
each other. Play the game in a space at least the
size of a regulation volleyball court.
Self-Designed Racket Games
Setting: Depends on the game; groups of six or fewer,
each child with a foam racket
Cues
Appropriate to the game
Tasks/Challenges:
C Today you’re going to combine all that you’ve
practiced into a game. You’ll make up your games
yourselves. In your groups, make up a game that
involves striking with a racket. You can have what-
ever rules you want as long as you include these
two: (1) The game must involve striking with
rackets, and (2) everyone in your group must be
playing at the same time. In other words, nobody
sits out and waits for a turn. Remember, groups
of no more than six, striking with rackets, and
everybody plays. Go.
After you’ve made up your rules and started to
play your game, make sure you know your rules so
that you can tell somebody else how to play your
game. At the end of class, I’ll ask you to write down
your game.
Event Task. An appropriate assessment task at this
point would be to have children write down how
to play their games and then share the games
with others. See Chapter 14 for more assessment
examples.
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. Why is striking with rackets or paddles one of the
last and most diffi cult skills to develop?
2. Students at the precontrol level benefi t from strik-
ing an object suspended from a string. Describe
three different ways to suspend objects.
3. What types of striking implements and objects are
recommended for students at the precontrol level?
4. How does a teacher know when a child is ready to
be challenged to strike the ball on the opposite
side of the body (i.e., backhand)?
5. Describe the position of a child’s arms and feet
when the child is striking with a racket or paddle.
6. What characterizes each of the four generic levels
of skill profi ciency of striking with rackets and
paddles?
7. What does a fl at paddle look like? What does a
slanted paddle face look like? What happens
when an object is struck with a paddle held in
each position?
8. What does it look like when children run around
the ball instead of striking the ball on the opposite
side of the body? Describe a task that would help
them learn to not run around the ball.
9. A child swings a racket so that it remains at waist
level throughout the swing. What direction does
the ball travel if the child strikes the ball too early
in the swing? Too late in the swing?
10. Design six tasks related to striking with rackets or
paddles. Rank them in order from the easiest to
the hardest. Be certain to include at least one task
from each skill level. Use a different striking imple-
ment or object for each task.
11. Name the major safety cue regarding striking.
Reference/Suggested Readings
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2004 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. 2nd ed. Reston, VA: NASPE .
Wickstrom , R. L. 1977 . Fundamental motor patterns . 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger .
Wickstrom , R. L. 1983 . Fundamental motor patterns . 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger .
563
C H A P T E R
28
Striking with Long-Handled Implements
564 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
T he skill of striking is used in many games. We have
divided striking into various categories: kicking
and punting, volleying and dribbling, striking
with rackets, and striking with long-handled imple-
ments. This division allows us to cover in some detail
the gamut of striking activities. The basic purpose in
all striking is the same — giving impetus to an object
with a hit, punch, or tap — although often the specifi c
motion and the equipment differ.
As we subdivided striking activities in a variety of
chapters, we also subdivide each profi ciency level in
this chapter into three parts to more fully cover the
striking activities that use long-handled implements.
This chapter focuses on striking using swings in hor-
izontal (batting) and vertical (hockey- and golf-type
actions) planes. The implements used to accomplish
these swings vary from bats to hockey sticks to golf
clubs to polo sticks —yet all issue the underlying
challenge of coordinating hands and eyes when strik-
ing with a long implement. Because vertical and hor-
izontal swings have distinctive characteristics, key
observation points for each are presented separately.
Both swings involve striking away from the body, but
the motor skills differ in relation to the purpose of
the task.
Generally, striking is the last fundamental motor pat-
tern learned because of the complexity of the hand– eye
coordination involved. Within this skill theme there
are also multiple levels of complexity. Actions that re-
quire striking a stationary ball (as in golf) are easier than
actions that require the striking of a moving object, as
in hockey. Both of these actions are less complex than
striking a pitched ball with a bat. In the latter action,
both objects are moving and never come to rest. In all
cases, children may possess a mature striking pattern
before they’re able to consistently make contact with
the ball.
A sidearm pattern is used when striking a ball with
a bat, to keep the bat at the same distance from the
ground and in a horizontal plane throughout the
swing. (See Box 28-1 for observation points for striking
sidearm.) In contrast, a swing with a hockey stick or a
golf club uses a more vertical arc — referred to as an
underhand swinging pattern because in many ways it
resembles the movement used to throw a ball under-
hand. (The key observation points for striking using an
underhand pattern appear in Box 28-2 .) Additionally,
dribbling (stick handling) is also included as an under-
hand pattern.
We don’t introduce children to striking with long-
handled implements so that they’ll become experts at
golf, tennis, or hockey. We provide children opportu-
nities to practice striking patterns they’re likely to use
in a variety of contexts throughout their lives. This
rationale can be fully appreciated when watching an
adult trying to strike with a long-handled implement.
If that individual has had no previous experience with
a particular striking pattern, the results can be disas-
trous. Frustration will result, and ultimately the person
may abandon the sport. Our emphasis is on giving
children a variety of movement opportunities rather
than on perfecting the technical aspects of a particular
swing. Specifi c opportunities to refi ne and perfect dif-
ferent swings are provided at the secondary level or in
private instruction.
Most long-handled implements are designed for
adults. Because children aren’t “regulation size,” they
fi nd it diffi cult to manipulate implements of offi cial
size, length, and weight, so we use lightweight plastic
implements in our programs, or we make implements
that match the sizes of the children. This prevents
the children from learning poor habits when they try
to use equipment that is too heavy or too long. The
equipment should never inhibit the mature striking
pattern.
Levels of Skill Profi ciency
Activities at the precontrol level ask children to explore
all varieties of striking with long-handled implements.
Due to the diffi culty of the skill, tasks are developed
using large and often stationary objects to be struck. Initial
striking tasks at this level explore:
• Striking a large stationary object with a hockey
stick
• Traveling slowly while striking an object with a
hockey stick
• Striking a large ball off a batting tee with a plastic
bat
When children are able to make contact with an
object, they can be challenged with tasks that require
them to include one or two other variables besides
striking. Appropriate experiences at the control level
include:
• Striking on the ground to a stationary partner
• Traveling, stopping, and controlling the ball or
puck
• Striking a ball while traveling in different pathways
• Striking a ball various distances on the ground and
in the air
• Tossing a ball to oneself and striking it
At the utilization level, children are able to control
a ball in the space around them and strike consistently
with the appropriate striking pattern. We challenge
them to use their striking skills in more dynamic
CHAPTER 28 Striking with Long-Handled Implements 565
Box 28-1
Key Observation Points: Sidearm Striking
1. Does the child swing the bat in a horizontal plane?
2. Does the child take a forward step and follow it quickly with hip, trunk, and arm rotation?
3. Do the child’s wrists uncock after contact?
NO
YES
NO YES
NO YES
566 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
Box 28-1 (continued)
Mature Stage
When children are at the mature stage of sidearm striking, do their strikes look similar to the following sequence? The child steps
forward and then quickly rotates the hips, trunk, and arms. The forward movement of the trunk stops before contact, but the whip-
ping rotation from the shoulders and arms continues. The pushing motion of the right arm (left arm, if the child is left-handed) and
uncocking of the wrists are the fi nal signifi cant forces.
Source: R.L. Wickstrom, Fundamental Motor Patterns, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1977).
CHAPTER 28 Striking with Long-Handled Implements 567
Box 28-2
Key Observation Points: Underhand Striking
1. Is the child’s left arm (for right-handed children) kept fi rm
at the top of the backswing?
2. Is the child’s weight shifted to the back foot at the top of
the backswing, with both knees remaining bent?
3. Is the child’s weight shifted to the forward foot as the
swing begins?
NO YES
NO YES
NO YES
568 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
Box 28-2 (continued)
Mature Pattern
When children are at the mature stage of underhand striking, do their swings look similar to the following sequence? The joints are
cocked—weight is shifted to the back foot, the hips and trunk rotate away from the ball, the implement is raised up and behind the
back shoulder, and the wrists are cocked. The body weight is then shifted to the forward foot. The hips and spine rotate forward, the
forearm swings downward, and the back arm and wrist uncock. The forward arm stays straight throughout the swing.
Source: R.L. Wickstrom, Fundamental Motor Patterns, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1977).
CHAPTER 28 Striking with Long-Handled Implements 569
and unpredictable situations. Appropriate experiences
might include:
• Propelling an object while traveling, using changes
of direction and speed to dodge an opponent
• Striking an object on the ground against an opponent
• Striking to open spaces, both in the air and on the
ground
• Passing to a traveling partner
When children reach the profi ciency level, many
possess mature striking patterns, and striking becomes
a skill that can be used in complex, unpredictable,
gamelike situations. At this point, children are able to
incorporate previous experiences into situations that
involve strategic and split-second decisions. Appropri-
ate tasks include:
• Striking with a golf club to targets in a strategic
situation
• Positioning the body to strike an oncoming object to
an open space while traveling and while stationary
• Passing and receiving an object while moving and
dodging other children
• Striking a pitched ball
Striking skills may be the last to develop. But once
children have developed the ability to consistently
strike objects with long-handled implements, they can
participate in fascinating activities. The tasks in this
chapter are organized according to the striking pattern
used and to their relative diffi culty within the patterns.
(Our progression spiral for developing the skill themes
of striking with long-handled implements, which is
grouped by striking pattern within each profi ciency
level, appears on page 570.) We have developed tasks
for all striking patterns. Each task is labeled with the
equipment commonly used for the pattern. Tasks in
which a sidearm pattern is called for are identifi ed as
“bats,” though you could easily substitute a tennis
racket or a badminton racket. Tasks that utilize an un-
derhand pattern are largely identifi ed as “hockey” and
occasionally “golf.” Though identifi ed by a traditional
implement, the swings are designed around movement
concepts and a largely generic swing. Therefore you
will often see them designated as full swings and short
swings. The major difference between a full golf and a
hockey swing is the length of the backswing, grip, and
follow-through, so tasks at early stages of development
could again be interchanged. We have developed most
of the tasks that utilize an underhand striking pattern
around the shortened hockey-type swing because that
is the action most often developed in elementary
physical education, in our experience. Numerous im-
plements can be substituted for hockey sticks and bats
(see the “Implements for Underhand Striking” and
“Implements for Striking with Bats” boxes). We have
separated the different types of striking patterns through-
out the chapter. However, although we like to initially
mass-practice, each idea should be revisited, thus provid-
ing children with distributed practice throughout their
development. When practice is distributed over time,
the learner is more apt to retain the skill.
Implements for Underhand Striking
Although we have associated hockey with tasks that use an
underhand striking action, other sports also use the underhand
swing pattern. Several striking implements may be substituted
for hockey sticks or golf clubs; many times, these alternatives
may be more appropriate. Pilo Polo sticks are lighter and softer
than hockey sticks. Short-handled broomball sticks provide a
wider striking surface but unfortunately are available only in
certain areas of the country. Substitution of either of these
implements not only may reduce the complexity of the task,
but also can take the focus away from a single sport.
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration
At the precontrol level, a chopping, downward swing is
typical for any striking pattern. Children struggle just to
make contact between the ball and the striking instru-
ment. Therefore we give children activities that let them
explore striking with the added length that comes with
bats and hockey sticks—and the greater demands that
length places on their hand– eye coordination. Children
explore striking stationary objects with bats, golf clubs,
and hockey sticks, and they begin to develop the ability
to control a ball with a hockey stick while traveling.
All activities at this level need to be done with balls of
various sizes. For beginners, yarn balls or large plastic
balls are easier because they’re larger and/or don’t roll as
fast as other balls. For tasks that involve traveling, plastic
pucks are easier to control initially if the lesson is being
taught on a smooth wood or tile fl oor. Until children
become skilled and responsible, we recommend using
plastic balls for batting. The fl ight of the balls won’t be as
true, but safety is an important consideration.
Working with long-handled implements involves
some unique safety aspects. Ample space should
be provided so that children can swing implements
freely and with room to move around. Children
should also learn to carry implements safely to
their working space, and not to swing them around
their bodies while walking. When moving around
the space, children should walk well behind others
so that they will not be hit by an implement or a
struck ball.
Skill Theme Development Sequence
Striking with Long-Handled Implements Profi ciency Level
One-Base Baseball—bats
Six-player striking and fi elding in a gamelike situation—bats
Directing the pathway, distance, and speed of an object—bats
Small-sided hockey invasion game—hockey
Keep-Away—hockey
Striking to dodge an opponent—hockey
Whiffl e Ball Golf—golf
Directing the pathway, distance, and speed of an object—golf
Utilization Level
Batting, combining distance and placement—bats
Striking a pitched object varying the distance—bats
Hitting to open spaces—bats
Directing the placement of an object—bats
Grounders and fl ies—bats
Two-on-one hockey—hockey
Keeping It Moving—hockey
Passing and receiving on the move—hockey
Striking from a stationary position to a moving target—hockey
One-on-one hockey—hockey
Traveling and striking for a goal—hockey
Pathways, speeds, and directions—hockey
Performing a continuous dribble and change of direction—hockey
Dribbling and changing directions backward—hockey
Playing Hockey Bowl (small targets)—hockey
Directing the air pathway of the struck object—golf
Playing Hoop Golf—golf
Striking to targets at various distances—golf
Control Level
Striking a pitched ball—bats
Striking a self-tossed ball to different distances—bats
Throwing a ball in the air and striking it—bats
Hit and Run—bats
Hitting a stationary ball from different places—bats
Striking suspended objects—bats
Striking a stationary ball for distance—bats
Level swings—bats
Striking a stationary ball—bats
Striking while dodging stationary obstacles—hockey
Striking to targets—hockey
Traveling and striking while changing pathways—hockey
Traveling and changing speeds—hockey
Traveling, stopping, and controlling the ball—hockey
Traveling slowly while striking a ball—hockey
Striking to a stationary partner—hockey
Striking to a target (Around the World)—hockey
Striking to targets—hockey
Striking to varying distances—golf
Striking in the air—golf
Striking for distance—golf and hockey
Striking a stationary ball on the ground—golf and hockey
Precontrol Level
Striking off batting tees—bats
Traveling slowly while striking a ball—hockey
Striking (dribbling) a ball in self-space—hockey
Striking to large targets—golf or hockey
Striking a stationary ball—golf or hockey
CHAPTER 28 Striking with Long-Handled Implements 571
Tasks/Challenges:
T Stand beside your ball and strike it so it travels to
the wall. Hit it hard so it goes all the way to the
wall. Make sure to stop the ball when it comes
back before you hit it again.
C Practice until you can hit the wall three times in a
row.
T Practice hitting from both sides of your body. Each
time, try to make the ball go to the wall.
T Try striking the ball so it sometimes goes along the
fl oor and sometimes in the air. What makes it go
in the air? On the ground?
T Trade in the ball for another kind of ball or a puck.
Try all the different things with your new piece of
equipment.
T Now move behind your ball. Try striking it to the
wall from that position.
C Practice until you can get the ball or puck to the
wall three times.
T If you are outside, practice striking the ball as far as
you can. Practice strikes from the back and from
the side. Which position do you like best?
Striking to Large Targets—Golf or Hockey
Setting: A plastic hockey stick and a foam or plastic ball
or puck for each child; a large target marked on the wall
within 6 inches of the fl oor for each child; children
about 6 feet from the target and at least 5 feet apart
Tasks/Challenges:
T Stand to the side of the ball. Strike the ball toward
the target, trying to hit the target.
C Your challenge is to see how many times in a row
you can hit the target in front of you. Remember
to stop the ball each time it comes back to you
before hitting it again.
T When you can hit the target three times in a row,
move back one giant step and try again.
Striking (Dribbling) a Ball in Self-Space—Hockey
Setting: Children in self-space, each with a hoop, a
hockey stick, and a foam or plastic ball or puck
Tasks/Challenges:
T In your own space inside the hoop, use the hockey
stick to gently move the ball around in as many
ways as possible. Don’t leave your self-space.
T On the signal, begin striking the ball in your own
space, and keep striking until you hear the signal
Striking a Stationary Ball—Golf or Hockey
Setting: Preferably a large outdoor space (but can be
adapted for an indoor space); golf club ( Figure 28.1 )
or plastic fi eld hockey stick (short-handled and long-
handled street hockey sticks aren’t appropriate) for each
child; a variety of foam and plastic balls and pucks; each
child in self-space, facing a wall or an object that will
block the ball
1. Dowel rod Hose
Coat hanger wire
Nail
Tape
2.
3., 4.
5.
Figure 28.1 Construction of a golf club or a hockey stick (design
by Tom Trimble, University of Georgia).
Materials
Hardwood dowel rod, 5/8⬙ by 3⬘
Garden hose or rubber tubing,
5/8⬙ (inside diameter)
Roll of electrical or adhesive tape (one roll is enough for at least
12 sticks)
Two fl at-headed nails, 5/8⬙
Coat hanger
Directions
1. Cut an 18-inch-long piece of the garden hose and slip it
approximately 3½ inches onto the dowel.
2. Insert a piece of coat hanger wire into the hose so that it butts up
against the bottom of the dowel and extends almost to the end of
the hose.
3. Bend the hose so that the ends meet on the dowel rod. Form the
hose at whatever angle you desire.
4. Use two nails to secure the hose to the dowel. One of the two
nails can be used to attach the bottom portion of the hose, bent
in half, to the top portion.
5. Use tape to further support the hose or the dowel.
572 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
by walking throughout general space tapping the
ball as you did in self-space. The ball must always
be very close to your stick.
T This time as you are walking, try to avoid running
into others. This means you will have to keep the
ball very close.
to stop. Remember to stay in your own space. Do
not travel.
C I will time you for 15 seconds. Try to keep your
strikes going for the whole time.
Traveling Slowly While Striking a Ball—Hockey
Setting: A hockey stick and a foam or plastic ball or
puck for each child
Tasks/Challenges:
T This time, instead of staying in your own space,
you are going to travel using all the space. Begin
Plastic golf club tube
Tin can
Concrete to this level
Figure 28.2 Construction of a batting tee. The easiest way to
make a batting tee is to use a large (36-inch) traffi c cone, which is
high enough for young children. Increase the height by placing the
traffi c cone on a cardboard box. A batting tee can also be made out
of a tin can and a plastic tube.
Materials
Large tin can (available from the school cafeteria)
Plastic golf club tube (obtained from a sporting goods store)
Sack of ready-mixed concrete (1/10 to 1/8)
Directions
1. Place the golf club tube into the tin can.
2. Add water to the concrete mix, and fi ll the tin can approximately
half full.
3. After a few minutes, when the concrete begins to harden, make
sure that the golf club tube is not leaning to the side. Once the
concrete dries, the batting tee is ready to use.
You can vary the heights of the batting tees by shortening the plastic
golf club tubes before inserting them into the cans. We try to have
batting tees of three different heights.
Batting tees let children at precontrol and control skill levels practice
independently.
Implements for Batting
While we refer generically to bats in this chapter, there are a
variety of “bats” that may be used and that, at times, may be
more appropriate as well as more challenging for youngsters.
These “bats” may include traditional plastic bats, large plastic
bats, fl at-sided plastic bats, and cricket bats.
Striking Off a Batting Tee—Bats
Setting: Preferably outside in a large open space; for at
least every two children (but preferably for every child)
a box containing fi ve plastic balls or beach balls, a bat,
and a batting tee ( Figure 28.2 )
Tasks/Challenges:
T This time, you’re going to hit a big ball off a tee with
a plastic bat. Stand to the side of the tee so you are
batting to the fi eld. Now line up facing the same
way, so you won’t hit one another. Hit all the balls
in your box, and then wait until I give the signal
before collecting them. Remember: Hit hard.
CHAPTER 28 Striking with Long-Handled Implements 573
C Practice hitting until you can hit the ball three
times in a row.
T Now see how far you can hit the ball.
Batting tees are helpful for children at the precontrol level
who are unable to strike a moving ball and for children at
the control level who are practicing ball placement.
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
At the control level, children begin to develop mature
striking patterns that are used in increasingly complex
contexts. Traveling while striking or tapping an object
along the ground is combined with one or two vari-
ables, such as changing direction and /or speed. The
children also practice striking a pitched ball and strik-
ing a golf ball for distance.
A note about cues: Although several cues are listed for
many of the learning experiences, it’s important to fo-
cus on only one cue at a time. That way, the children
can really concentrate on that cue. Once you provide
feedback to the children and observe that most have
learned a cue, then it’s time to focus on another one.
Striking a Stationary Ball on the
Ground—Golf and Hockey
Setting: Preferably a large outdoor space (but can be
adapted for an indoor space); a golf club or plastic fi eld
hockey stick (short-handled or long-handled street
hockey sticks aren’t appropriate) and a plastic or foam
ball for each child; each child in self-space, facing a
wall or an object that will block the ball; at least 5 feet
between children
Cues
Arms Way Back (With both hands on the stick,
bring your arms way back as
you swing.)
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball all
the time.)
Sweep Low (Swing the stick /club forward
sweeping the stick /club to make
contact with the ball.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T When we explored striking with hockey sticks, you
practiced hitting the ball to the wall by standing
beside it and behind it and having it travel on the
ground. Using a golf grip ( Figure 28.3 ), practice
striking the ball, standing beside it, so that it travels
to the wall.
Modifi ed equipment allows for swings with golf clubs to be
practiced indoors.
Figure 28.3 Golf club grip.
T As you practice, bring your backswing way back
over your shoulders like a golfer. Follow through so
that your arms end above your other shoulder—a
full swing.
T Practice the same swing, but use a hockey grip ( Fig-
ure 28.4 ) and start the backswing below your waist
and end below your waist. An easy way to help it
574 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
end below your waist is to turn your wrists over
on the follow-through.
T Using both swings — full and short — strike the ball
to the wall with enough force so that it comes back
to you. Which swing sends the ball harder?
T Practice standing behind the ball and hitting.
T From that position, try to strike the ball with enough
force so that it rebounds back to you off the wall.
C Practice striking the ball against the wall until you
can hit the wall three times in a row from each
starting position.
T Stand behind the ball. In this position, most of you
have been hitting the ball from the preferred side of
your body. That is called your forehand. This time we
are going to practice hitting the ball from the non-
preferred side of your body. You don’t change your
hands; instead you use the back side of the stick to
do it. Try to hit the ball to the wall this way.
T Practice hitting the ball hard enough so that it re-
bounds back to you.
C Again try for three hits in a row that are hard
enough so that the ball comes back to you.
Striking for Distance—Golf and Hockey
Setting: Markers of various colors (to be used for mea-
suring) or zones at various distances from where the
children are hitting; a plastic striking implement and
fi ve or six foam, plastic, or whiffl e balls for each child;
children positioned in a circle in the center of a fi eld or
playground, facing out
Cues
Arms Way Back (Bring your arms way back as
you swing.)
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball all
the time.)
Behind the Ball (Contact directly behind the
ball to make it travel on the
ground or low.)
Under the Ball (Contact the ball below its
center so it will travel upward
through the air.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Stand facing the outside of the circle, making sure
there is enough space between you and the people
next to you so that you can all swing your sticks/
clubs without hitting one another. First, we are going
to practice striking along the ground and in the air.
There’s enough room to strike as hard as you like.
Practice your fi rst strikes from behind the ball so the
ball travels along the ground. Use your forehand
strike and hockey grip. After you hit all the balls, wait
for the signal, then go get yours and quickly bring
them back to your starting place for the next hits.
T This time, try your backhand strike — along the
ground. Does the ball travel as far with your back-
hand?
T Move beside the ball. Hit the ball as far as you can
with a golf grip.
Which starting position sends the ball farther? In
“face-the-target” position, which sends it farther —
forehand or backhand?
Figure 28.4 Hockey stick grip.
Which Swing?
The underhand swings that are used in hockey and golf
situations can be confusing. There is the side-to-the-target
swing characteristic of golf strokes and hockey passes that
are intended to make the struck object travel a long distance.
This is the swing illustrated in Box 28-2. The only real differ-
ence in this swing between hockey-type situations and golf
is the length of the backswing and the follow-through. (In
interactive settings—games like hockey, broomball, and Pilo
Polo—it is unsafe for the swing to come above the waist on
either the backswing or the follow-through.) Also, to compli-
cate matters, in hockey-type situations, there is also an un-
derhand striking pattern that requires the passer to face the
target. This striking action is used for most short (10 yards or
less) passing situations using both a forehand and a back-
hand action. Given the space restrictions of physical educa-
tion classes, especially when they are taught inside, it is this
underhand swing that is most frequently used. Thus, at the
precontrol and control levels, we have children practice swings
from both the side and the back. Other than the starting
position in relation to the ball, the swings have the same critical
cues. As children learn to use each swing, they will naturally
select the one that fi ts the situation.
CHAPTER 28 Striking with Long-Handled Implements 575
T This time we are going to stand beside the ball.
Practice hitting the ball so that it travels through
the air.
C Practice striking both on the ground and through
the air. Before each strike call out loud “air” or
“ground.” Challenge yourself to be able to do the
strike you called out.
What is the key for sending the ball through the
air? On the ground?
T Now see with each of your strikes if you can hit the
ball farther each time. The markers on the fi eld
will help you remember how far you hit the ball
each time. Each time, see if you can hit the ball a
little farther than the last time. Practice air and
ground strikes — all from the side.
C Can you hit the ball so that it lands in the same
zone three times?
Striking in the Air—Golf
Setting: A striking implement (plastic golf club, broom-
ball stick) and foam balls for striking placed about 10
feet from the wall; marks on the wall about 3 feet off
the fl oor
Cues
Arms Way Back (Bring your arms way back as
you swing.)
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball all
the time.)
Under the Ball (Contact the ball below its
center so it will travel upward
through the air.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T When we explored different ways to strike, you
tried to make the ball go in the air. From a position
beside the ball, with your shoulder to the wall, try
to do that now. Practice striking the ball so that it
travels in the air to the wall.
T Practice striking the ball so that it travels through
the air and hits the wall above the mark.
C Try to send the ball in the air so that it hits above
the mark three times in a row.
Striking to Varying Distances—Golf
Setting: Preferably a large outdoor space; a golf club
and a bucket of plastic balls for each child; all children
facing the same direction, with at least 6 feet between
them; the fi eld marked at various intervals
Cues
Setup (Legs form an A, arms form a Y,
club starts against the ball.)
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball.)
Full Swing (Circle back, sweep low, circle
high.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Use the golf grip (Figure 28.3). You’re going to be
practicing a golf swing — or a full swing —by your-
self in a place that is facing away from everyone
else. This is like the shortened swings that you
have been using with the hockey sticks, except
now you’ll have a full backswing and follow-
through. Let’s practice fi rst without the ball. Stand
to the side of the make-believe ball, side to the
Passing to a partner is a task
appropriate at the control level.
576 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
target (fi eld), and take a full backswing, bend
your knees, swing, and follow through. Practice
fi ve times on your own.
T With your golf club, practice hitting the ball on
your own.
T Practice hitting the ball as far as you can.
T There are markers on the fi eld to help you judge
the length of your hits. Hit the ball, and then try
to hit the next ball farther. Try to fi nd your maxi-
mum distance.
Note: Some of the golf type swing cues are adapted
from the curriculum manual of the First Tee©—
National School Program, a World Golf Foundation
initiative. www.thefi rsttee.org.
Striking to Targets—Hockey
Setting: Plastic hockey stick or other implement and a
foam or plastic ball for each child; in front of each
child, a target on the fl oor next to the wall marked
with cones or spots about 4 feet apart and tape marks
on the fl oor in front of each target at about 6 feet,
10 feet, and 12 feet
Cues
Step (Step forward on the opposite
[front] foot.)
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball
until it leaves your stick.)
Follow Through (Follow through toward the
target with your stick.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Starting from behind the ball at the closest mark, try
to strike the ball so it goes between the two cones.
T Practice sending the ball between the cones from
your forehand and backhand sides.
C Practice striking until you can hit the ball between
the cones fi ve times from each side. Remember to
stop the ball each time it comes back to you
before hitting it again.
T When you can hit the target fi ve times in a row
without missing from the closest mark, move back
to the next mark. When you can hit the target
from that spot fi ve times without missing, move
back again. If you hit the target four times and
then miss, start your counting over. Practice from
both the forehand and backhand sides.
T Now start back at your closest spot and strike to
the target from a starting position standing beside
your ball.
With this task, make sure that students are spread
well apart, that they stop the ball completely on its
return, and that they move in front of others only
when no one is striking.
Striking to a Target (Around the World)—Hockey
Setting: Targets, with fi ve tape marks in a semicircle on
the fl oor in front of each; three or fewer students per
target; a hockey stick or other striking implement and
ball or puck for each child.
Note: This task is also appropriate as one of a series
of stations .
Cues
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball
until it leaves your stick.)
Step (Step forward on the opposite
[front] foot.)
Follow Through (Follow through toward the
target with your stick.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T This time, the striking is going to be a game. Have
you ever played Around the World in basketball?
This game is going to be Around the World in strik-
ing. As you see, there are fi ve tape marks on the
fl oor in front of you. You must hit the ball to
the target from each tape mark. Strike from behind
the ball. You can start on either side.
T When you make it through once, go back and hit
from each mark using the backhand strike.
T Start over, striking from beside the ball.
Safety with Hockey Sticks
There is much concern over the use of hockey sticks and
the teaching of related skills in the elementary school. With
the increased popularity of street and ice hockey, hockey
sticks are being raised above the shoulders on both the
backswing and the follow-through. Because elementary
school physical education classes are usually crowded,
raised hockey sticks can cause injuries. We’ve successfully
reduced the chance of such injuries by not letting youngsters
raise their hockey sticks higher than their waists on any
stroke. This restriction doesn’t signifi cantly alter the striking
action; in fact, it encourages the correct fi eld hockey striking
action while providing a much safer environment for learning
skills involving striking with hockey sticks.
CHAPTER 28 Striking with Long-Handled Implements 577
Teacher Observation. This task lends itself easily
to a teacher observation of the critical cues of strik-
ing with hockey sticks: Watch the Ball, Step, and
Follow Through. See Chapter 14 for the development
of a teacher observation checklist.
Striking to a Stationary Partner—Hockey
Setting: Partners about 6 to 7 feet apart, each with a
hockey stick; one ball or puck per group
Cues
Sending
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball at
all times.)
Step (Step forward on the opposite
foot.)
Follow Through (Follow through toward your
partner with your stick.)
Receiving
Give (Relax your grip and move your
stick back a little just as the ball
hits your stick, to absorb the
force.)
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball all
the time.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Strike the ball (puck) back and forth to your part-
ner. Hit straight to your partner so that she or he
doesn’t have to move. You hit the ball to your part-
ner; your partner stops the ball completely still
and then hits it back. Remember to strike easily so
that your partner is able to stop the ball.
T Before you worked with a partner, you practiced hit-
ting the ball (puck) to different places. Now you’re
going to do that with your partner, and your partner
is going to be a target for you to aim at. The partner
who is to receive the ball will put his or her hockey
stick out in one place and hold it still; the partner
hitting the ball will use the stick as a target and try
to hit it without the receiving partner’s having to
move the stick. Remember to stop the ball every
time before returning it. Change roles each time.
C With your partner, see how many times you can
hit the ball (puck) back and forth without a miss.
Remember, you must stop the ball before you re-
turn it to your partner. If you miss, just start count-
ing all over. If you get to 10, let me know.
T After you hit the ball (puck) successfully to your
partner 10 times and your partner is able to stop
the ball, move back two steps each and start again.
When you’re successful 10 times in a row, move
back again.
T This will make it a little harder: Move back to your
close position. After you pass the ball this time,
move to a new space and stand still. The receiver
must control the ball (puck), look to see where
you are, and then pass. Each time after someone
passes, move to a new space, stop, and then re-
ceive the ball.
C Now see how many times you can keep this up
without missing.
We must have seen at least 26 ways children can curve the
blades of hockey sticks. Having the children keep the blade
straight ensures two things: (1) The puck (ball) has a greater
chance of staying on the fl oor, and (2) your hockey sticks
last a lot longer.
Traveling Slowly While Striking a Ball—Hockey
Setting: A hockey stick and a tennis ball or puck for
each child
Cues
Light Taps (Use light taps to keep the ball
close to your stick.)
Striking a pitched ball is much more complex than striking off a tee;
regression in the execution is to be expected.
578 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
Hands Apart (Move your hands 8 to 10 inches
apart to control the ball better.)
Ball in Front (Keep the ball slightly in front of
your body on the same side on
which you are dribbling.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Before, we practiced moving around the entire
space while striking a ball with the hockey stick.
Let’s practice again — this is called dribbling or
stick-handling. To begin, go slowly. Your task is to
travel around the entire space while striking the
ball and not touching anyone else.
T This time as you move around the room, I’m going
to hold up different numbers of fi ngers. Tell me
how many fi ngers I’m holding up. You’ll have to
look often, because I’ll change the number of fi n-
gers often and try to trick you.
C You have 50 points. Your task is to keep all your
points. Move around the room dribbling the ball.
Every time you lose the ball, subtract 5 points. See
how many points you have at the stop signal.
Traveling, Stopping, and Controlling
the Ball—Hockey
Setting: A plastic hockey stick and a ball for each child
Cues
Give (Relax your grip and bring your
stick back a little to absorb the
force when trying to stop the ball.)
A demonstration is helpful here.
Light Taps (Use light taps to keep the ball
close to your stick.)
Hands Apart (Move your hands 8 to 10 inches
apart to control the ball better.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Before, you practiced traveling around the room
keeping the ball close to you. This time, you’re go-
ing to do the same thing, but with something
added. Whenever you hear the signal, stop the
ball, using only your stick, and wait for the signal
to go again.
T This time, try going a little faster and doing the
same thing. Move around the space, striking the
ball with your hockey stick. On the signal, stop
the ball and wait for the “Go” signal. I’ll know
you can really do this if I always see the ball close
to the stick and all the balls stopped on the
signal, without your having to chase them all
over the room.
T Now I am going to change the task a little. Again,
you should move around the entire space striking
the ball. But this time, on the signal, instead of
stopping the ball, stand still and keep moving the
ball in your self-space until you hear the signal to
travel again. This is called controlling the ball.
You’ll know you’re really good at this when, as
soon as you hear the signal, you can stop and start
moving the ball in your self-space without fi rst
having to chase the ball across the room.
C This time, the stopping will be like a game. When
I say “Stop,” I’ll start counting backward from 10.
When all the balls have stopped, I’ll stop count-
ing. Your goal is to get me to stop counting before
I get to zero.
T You’re going to play a little game with the stopping
this time. Every time you come near another per-
son, stop or control the ball and then start again.
It’s as if you don’t want anyone to come near your
ball, so you are going to protect it — and the only
way you can protect it is by controlling it in your
self-space or stopping it.
Why should you control the ball or puck before
you send it back? What do you have to do to
control it?
Traveling and Changing Speeds—Hockey
Setting: A striking implement and a ball or puck for
each child
Cues
Light Taps (Use light taps to keep the ball
close to your stick.)
Hands Apart (Move your hands 8 to 10 inches
apart to control the ball better.)
Ball in Front (Keep the ball slightly in front of
your body on the same side on
which you are dribbling.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T One of the important things in games that use
dribbling or stick-handling is the ability to change
the speed at which you are traveling while you
dribble. Travel in general space, and change your
speed as you go. It should be easy for me to tell
which speed you are using.
T This time I will call out speeds as you travel. See if
you can match every speed I call out.
CHAPTER 28 Striking with Long-Handled Implements 579
T Now you will practice using different speeds with a
partner. It is like follow the leader. You will follow a
partner, dribbling in general space. The fi rst partner
starts and travels, changing the speed of the travel
often. The second partner follows, always trying to
travel at the same speed as the fi rst partner. On the
signal, switch places.
Traveling and Striking While Changing
Pathways—Hockey
Setting: A hockey stick and ball or puck for each child;
various pathways (the more, the better) taped or
marked on the fl oor
Cues
Light Taps (Use light taps to keep the ball
close to your stick.)
Hands Apart (Move your hands 8 to 10 inches
apart to control the ball better.)
Ball in Front (Keep the ball slightly in front of
your body on the same side on
which you are dribbling.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T You’re going to practice something new this time:
changes in pathways. Do you remember path-
ways: straight, curved, and zigzag? Again, you’re
going to move around the entire space, but when-
ever you come to a pathway on the fl oor, try to
follow it exactly. Once you fi nish one pathway,
travel to another and follow it. As you follow the
pathways, be sure you’re striking the ball, not
pushing it along.
T Something very different happens when you fol-
low a zigzag pathway. What is it? That’s right —you
have to move your stick from one side of the ball
to the other, like moving the ball in self-space to
keep control of it. Practice zigzag pathways on
your own. Remember, every time you come to a
zig or a zag, you have to move your stick to the
other side of the ball.
T This time, we are going to practice striking while
traveling in different pathways with a partner.
You’re going to play follow the leader. The leader
travels in different pathways — curved, straight,
and zigzag — as the follower tries to stay close be-
hind, copying the exact pathways the leader
makes. Leaders: As you begin, make easy path-
ways. The object is not to lose your partner but to
practice striking while traveling in different path-
ways. On the signal, change positions as leaders
and followers.
T This time, the following is going to be a little
harder. Instead of staying right behind the leader,
the follower is going to watch while the leader
moves in a short pathway sequence. When the
leader stops and freezes, the follower moves, copy-
ing the pathway of the leader until she or he
catches up with the leader. When the follower
catches up, the leader takes off again. This is a bit
like a game of cat and mouse: just as soon as you
think you’ve caught someone, the person slips
away again. As you move, remember that the pur-
pose of this task is to practice different pathways,
so include them in your movements. After fi ve
turns as a leader, switch places.
C This is the real pathway test. By yourself, make
up a sequence of traveling and striking that in-
volves four changes of pathways. Practice your
sequence until you can do it from memory three
times without stopping. Each time the sequence
should look the same. Then we’ll all share the
sequences.
Student Drawing. This task lends itself to a perfect
opportunity for student drawing. Have youngsters
draw the pathway sequence and label the path-
ways used.
Striking to Targets—Hockey
Setting: A hockey stick, a ball, and three targets (plastic
milk bottles, 2-liter soda bottles, or tennis ball cans)
placed against a wall or fence for each child Traveling, stopping, and controlling an object with a hockey stick
takes an acute awareness of others.
580 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
Cues
Face Target (Always face your upper body
to the target.)
Step (Step forward on the opposite
foot toward the target.)
Follow Through (Follow through with your stick
toward the target.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T This time you’ll practice striking from the same
place each time, but trying to hit one of three dif-
ferent targets. Take a minute and practice striking
at the three targets in front of you.
C This time, you’re going to see how many points
you can score in 2 minutes. You get one point if
you hit a target and three points if you hit the par-
ticular target you call out ahead of time.
Student Display. Have students either draw or col-
lect pictures of people striking to different targets
that indicate the use of the cues of facing the tar-
get, stepping into the hit, and following through.
The pictures could then be displayed on a bulletin
board to indicate the diverse targets that exist and
how the cues are the same.
Striking While Dodging Stationary
Obstacles—Hockey
Setting: An obstacle course of cones and hoops or
other equipment; a hockey stick and a ball for each
child
Cues
Light Taps (Use light taps to keep the
ball close to your stick.)
Both Sides of Stick (Use both sides of the stick
to dribble around the
obstacle.)
Look Up (Look up as you travel so you
can see the obstacles.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T You’ve traveled while dodging objects. This time,
you’re going to travel and dodge objects while
striking a ball with a hockey stick. Your task is to
travel throughout the space, striking the ball with
the hockey stick. Try not to let the ball get away
from you. Don’t touch any of the obstacles or
other people. Freeze on the signal, and have the
ball with you.
T As practice for looking up, we’re going to play the
counting game again. I’ll keep holding up a different
number of fi ngers, and you tell me how many I’m
holding up while you’re striking the ball around the
space.
T Dribble or stick-handle in general space. Each time
you come to an obstacle, control the ball, execute
a quarter turn to the right or left, and continue
dribbling.
T You’ve all been going at fairly slow speeds. This
isn’t always good in game situations, so you’re go-
ing to practice going at different speeds. Sometimes
approach an obstacle very quickly, sometimes
slowly. Make the change clear. The rules are still
the same: No touching, and you must be able to
stop on the signal and have the ball with you.
T Dribble in general space. As you near an obstacle,
use both sides of your stick to dribble past the obsta-
cle; then quickly continue regular dribbling. Some-
times go to the right and sometimes to the left.
C What you have just learned are called dodges.
This time as you practice dodging, pretend you
have 100 points. If the ball you are dribbling
touches a cone, subtract 10 points from your
score. If you have a collision with another per-
son, subtract 25 points. Try to complete your
practice with 100 points!
Striking a Stationary Ball—Bats
Setting: Preferably a large, open, outdoor space, one
big enough for every child to hit against a backstop or
a wall; children about 15 feet from the backstop or wall
with suffi cient space to swing freely without hitting
others (or place a line on the ground about 15 feet
from the batting positions for children to hit over); a
box of about fi ve balls (large, light plastic or beach
balls, and whiffl e balls), bats, and batting tees for each
child or pair of children
Cues
Side to the Field (Turn your side to the target or
fi eld.)
Bat Back (Bring the bat way back over
your shoulder so that it sticks
up like a toothpick.)
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball all
the time.)
Level (Extend your arms to swing fl at
as a pancake.)
Rotate and Shift (Roll over the shoelaces of your
back foot.)
CHAPTER 28 Striking with Long-Handled Implements 581
Tasks/Challenges:
T When we explored striking, you practiced hitting
a ball off a tee. We’re going to practice that again.
Stand about a bat’s length away and to the side of
your batting tee. Take a batting grip ( Figure 28.5 ).
(If you are having a hard time remembering which
hand to put where on the bat, an easy way to remem-
ber is that the bottom hand on the bat is the same side
as facing the fi eld — so if your left side faces the fi eld,
your left hand is the bottom hand on the bat.) Bring
your bat back over your shoulder so that it sticks
up like a toothpick, extend your arms all the
way so you have a level swing, shift your weight
forward, rotate your hips, and hit. Let’s practice
fi ve times without hitting the ball. Just swing and
say the cues out loud.
T Now practice striking off the tee. Use a plastic ball
or a beach ball. If you are batting the ball cor-
rectly, your swing will follow through over your
other shoulder.
T Practice until you can hit the plastic ball 10 times
in a row off the tee.
T When you can hit the plastic ball 10 times in a
row, trade it in for a whiffl e ball. Now practice with
that ball.
T Hit the ball so hard that it goes in the air to the
wall (over the line).
C Practice hitting with the bat until you can hit fi ve
times in a row so the ball hits the wall (lands over
the line).
Increasing the size of the ball reduces the complexity
of the task. Increasing the size of the bat does the same
thing. Some teachers also use soap bubbles for children
to practice striking. One partner blows bubbles; the
other gets to swing away trying to pop them as they
fall. It works!
What is the most important cue for making con-
tact with the ball? What is one hint that will help
you do this?
Level Swings—Bats
Setting: Ropes suspended from the ceiling or a line hung
across the room to about children’s shoulder height
( Figure 28.6 ); batting tees and bats for each child
Cues
Side to the Field (Turn your side to the target or
fi eld.)
Bat Back (Bring the bat way back over
your shoulder so your back el-
bow is level with your shoulder.)
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball all
the time.)
Level (Extend your arms to swing fl at
as a pancake.)
Rotate and Shift (Roll over the shoelaces of your
back foot.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Place your batting tee directly under your rope.
The tee should come up to your knees. The area
between the end of the rope and the top of your
tee is your strike zone. Step up to the tee and swing.
There is no ball for this task. Your swing should go
through the strike zone without touching the rope
or the tee.
T Practice until you can get three strikes in a row
through the strike zone without touching the rope
or the tee.
T Now both raise the tee and lower the rope 1 inch.
Take swings through this strike zone. Again, practice
until you can get three. Then make the strike zone
smaller again.
A New Cue
The idea of shifting weight forward on a batting swing has
long been accepted. Recently an accomplished softball
coach told us a new (and probably more effective) cue for
this. Instead of telling children to step forward or shift their
weight, tell them, “Picture a shoe with the laces tied, facing
upward as usual. As the hips rotate and the weight shifts
during the swing, the back foot should roll so that the laces
almost face the ground.” This not only forces the rotation of
the hips, but automatically causes the weight shift.
Figure 28.5 Batting grip.
582 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
Teacher Observation. At this point it is appropri-
ate to conduct a teacher observation of the use of
the critical cues for batting before proceeding to a
more complex use of the skill.
Striking a Stationary Ball for Distance—Bats
Setting: Partners, each pair with a batting tee, three
whiffl e balls, and a bat; batters in a circle in the middle
of the playground facing out ( Figure 28.7 ); fi elders
about 30 feet (or whatever is appropriate) in front of
their partner; marker cones or zones at 10-foot inter-
vals around the center circle
Cues
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball all
the time.)
Bat Back (Bring the bat way back over
your shoulder so your back el-
bow is level with your shoulder.)
Side to the Field (Turn your side to the target or
fi eld.)
Suspended ropes
Rope hanging over
Batting tee
Strike zone
Figure 28.6 Setup for level
swings.
10 fee
t
20 fee
t
30 fee
tBatters
Fielders
Figure 28.7 Setup for striking a stationary
ball for distance.
CHAPTER 28 Striking with Long-Handled Implements 583
Level (Extend your arms to swing fl at
as a pancake.)
Rotate and Shift (Roll over the shoelaces of your
back foot.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Stand inside the circle about a bat’s length away
from your tee with your side to the fi eld. You are
going to practice batting the ball in the air. There’s
enough room to hit as hard as you like. Your part-
ner will collect the balls. After three hits, trade
places. Remember to watch the ball.
T This time, have your partner stand where your ball
landed. Try to hit the next ball farther. The partner
moves to that spot. Try again to hit farther than
the previous hit. After three hits, trade places with
your partner.
T Bat the ball as far as possible. Remember the zone
in which the ball fi rst lands. Bat three times, each
time trying to improve your distance. Trade
places.
C Try to bat the ball so that it lands in the same zone
three times.
Striking Suspended Objects—Bats
Setting: Whiffl e balls suspended about waist height
from strings (see Figure 27.2) around the practice area;
a bat for each child
Cues
Side to the Field (Turn your side to the target or
fi eld.)
Bat Back (Bring the bat way back over
your shoulder so that it sticks
up like a toothpick.)
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball all
the time.)
Level (Extend your arms to swing fl at
as a pancake.)
Rotate and Shift (Roll over the shoelaces of your
back foot.)
How does rolling over your shoelaces help you bat?
Tasks/Challenges:
T This task is a little harder than the last one. Instead
of hitting balls that don’t move from batting tees,
you’re going to hit balls that are hanging from
strings. Stand to the side of the ball about a bat’s
length away. Practice hitting the ball. Remember
to stop the ball still before you hit it again.
C Practice batting until you can hit fi ve balls in a row
without missing.
C Now the game changes a little. See how many times
you can strike the ball in a row without missing.
Hitting a Stationary Ball from Different
Places—Bats
Setting: A batting tee, ball, and bat for each child or
pair of children; place the tee so that the balls are
batted into a fence or wall, or have the partner fi eld
balls; mark a home plate in the batting area
Cues
Bat Back (Bring the bat way back over
your shoulder so that it sticks
up like a toothpick.)
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball all
the time.)
Side to the Field (Turn your side to the target or
fi eld.)
Level (Extend your arms to swing flat
as a pancake.)
Rotate and Shift (Roll over the shoelaces of your
back foot.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Place the batting tee so the ball is on the inside
corner of home plate at your knees. Hit fi ve balls
as hard as you can from this position. Switch
places.
T Move the tee to the inside corner with the ball chest
high. Make fi ve hits as hard as you can. Switch.
Balls suspended on strings give youngsters the opportunity to
practice swinging level.
584 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
T Move the tee to the outside corner, knee high. Go
again.
T Now try the outside corner, chest high. Five and
switch.
Hit and Run—Bats
Setting: Partners; ball, bat, batting tee, and spot set up
as in Figure 28.8
Cues
Bat Back (Bring the bat way back over
your shoulder so that it sticks
up like a toothpick.)
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball all
the time.)
Side to the Field (Turn your side to the target or
fi eld.)
Level (Extend your arms to swing fl at
as a pancake.)
Rotate and Shift (Roll over the shoelaces of your
back foot.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Partner A stands at the batting tee; partner B, on
the spot about 15 feet away. Partner A strikes the
ball off the tee, hitting it as far as possible. Then
partner A runs to the carpet square and back to the
batting tee. Partner B collects the ball and runs and
replaces it on the tee. Switch places after each hit.
Be careful: Both of you are running.
Throwing a Ball in the Air and Striking It—Bats
Setting: Preferably a large outdoor space, where chil-
dren can bat against a wall or fence; large round targets
on the wall; a plastic bat and a ball for each child
For this task and beginning tasks that involve hitting a
pitched ball, sock balls work quite well. They won’t travel
too far, allowing children to focus on the swing. To make a
sock ball, stuff an old sock with other socks and tie off. Cut
off the tail.
Cues
Bat Back (Bring the bat way back over
your shoulder so that it sticks
up like a toothpick.)
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball all
the time.)
Side to the Field (Turn your side to the target or
fi eld.)
Level (Extend your arms to swing fl at
as a pancake.)
Rotate and Shift (Roll over the shoelaces of your
back foot.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T You’re going to practice hitting a ball you throw
into the air yourself. In your own space facing the
wall (fence) and about 10 feet from it, toss a ball
up into the air and then hit it with the bat. You
must have both your hands on the bat when you
hit the ball, so you’ll have to work quickly.
(Demonstrate.)
T Practice, now, trying to hit the large circle on the
wall.
C Score 5 points for every ball that hits the target;
3 points for every ball that hits the wall, but misses
the target; and 1 point for every ball you hit that
doesn’t hit the wall. Try to get to 21 points.
Striking a Self-Tossed Ball to Different
Distances—Bats
Setting: Lines marked on a fi eld for distance measure-
ment; a number of whiffl e (or tennis) balls and a plas-
tic bat for each child
Cues
Bat Back (Bring the bat way back over
your shoulder so that it sticks
up like a toothpick.)
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball all
the time.)
Side to the Field (Turn your side to the target or
fi eld.)
Level (Extend your arms to swing fl at
as a pancake.)
Rotate and Shift (Roll over the shoelaces of your
back foot.)
Figure 28.8 Setup for Hit and Run.
Source: S. Holt/Hale, On the Move: Lesson Plans to accompany
Children Moving. 8th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2010).
CHAPTER 28 Striking with Long-Handled Implements 585
Tasks/Challenges:
T Now we’re going to add something that you
worked on before: striking to different distances.
This involves using different amounts of force to
hit the ball. There are a lot of lines on the fi eld;
you can use them to judge how far you hit the ball.
Each time you hit a ball, see how far you can make
it go. If you hit it over one line one time, try to hit
it over the next line the next time you hit.
C Pick out a line you know you can hit the ball past.
Try to hit the ball past that line fi ve times in a row.
After you’ve practiced at one line, pick another
line and try again.
Striking a Pitched Ball—Bats
Setting: A large outdoor space, marked as follows: a
pitcher’s square and a batting box for each group of
two, each batter’s box marked with “neat feet” in the
correct batting position ( Figure 28.9 ); a skilled thrower
(older student, classroom teacher, parent, or grandpar-
ent) as a partner for each child; one plastic or sock ball
and a bat for each pair
Cues
Bat Back (Bring the bat way back over
your shoulder so that it sticks
up like a toothpick.)
Watch the Ball (Keep your eyes on the ball all
the time.)
Side to the Field (Turn your side to the target or
fi eld.)
Level (Extend your arms to swing fl at
as a pancake.)
Rotate and Shift (Roll over the shoelaces of your
back foot.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Before, you hit a ball off a batting tee or from a
self-toss. This time you’re going to practice batting
a ball that’s pitched by a “big” partner. Your big
partner will be the pitcher, and you will get to bat
all the time. Your partner stands on the pitcher’s
square and pitches the ball to you. You stand on
the batter’s square and try to hit the ball. The
batter’s square has a secret help in it: pictures of
feet that show you exactly where to stand so you
have the best chance of hitting the ball. Just try to
hit the ball; it doesn’t have to go far.
T Each time you bat, your big partner will give you a
thumbs-up if you do everything correctly. If you
miss a cue, he or she will tell you so you can use it
for the next swing. Note to teachers: Pitches from
skilled throwers enhance the learning of batting skills.
C Try to hit fi ve balls in a row.
Homework. The same task of striking pitched balls
could be done as a homework assignment. The as-
signment could be in the form of a task card that
includes the cues and asks a parent, grandparent,
or older brother or sister to pitch 20 balls to the
child. The parent would check on every fi fth throw
whether the cues were used.
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
At the utilization level, we give the children situations
in which they learn to consistently strike objects with
long-handled implements. Many contexts involve
Figure 28.9 “Neat feet” for a right-handed striking action. You can
easily make “neat feet” by painting them in the correct position on a
rubber mat. Challenge the children to move the left foot to the posi-
tion of the dotted foot as they swing.
This youngster has clearly rotated his hips forward by “rolling over his
back shoelaces.”
586 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
more than one variable in an unpredictable or chang-
ing environment.
A note about cues: Although several cues are listed
for many of the learning experiences, it’s important to
focus on only one cue at a time. That way, the chil-
dren can really concentrate on that cue. Once you
provide feedback to the children and observe that
most have learned a cue, then it’s time to focus on
another one.
Striking to Targets at Various Distances—Golf
Setting: Targets of various sizes at different distances
apart; a plastic golf club and a bucket of balls for each
child
Unless “regular” golf clubs are available, children will need
to use the following cues to vary the distance the ball trav-
els. With regular clubs, they would change clubs, and the
Under the Ball cue would not be applicable.
Cues
Under the Ball (Hit under the ball to make it
travel a short distance.)
Behind the Ball (Hit behind the ball to make it
travel a long distance.)
Full Swing (Circle back, sweep low, circle
high.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T This task is like target practice. There are a lot of
targets set up on the fi eld, and you have a number
of balls. See if you can hit the targets from where
you’re standing. After you hit all the balls, wait
until the signal before collecting them.
C Now see how many times in a row you can hit the
target for which you are trying.
Playing Hoop Golf—Golf
Setting: Hoops and other targets of various sizes placed
around a fi eld at various distances apart; a plastic golf
club and a ball for each child
Cues
Under the Ball (Hit under the ball to make it
travel a short distance.)
Behind the Ball (Hit behind the ball to make it
travel a long distance.)
Full Swing (Circle back, sweep low, circle
high)
Tasks/Challenges:
T This is like a golf course, but there’s no order to it.
Strike the ball from hoop to hoop, using as few
strokes as possible. You may want to go back and
do the same hoop over again, to see if you can
make it in fewer strokes. Be careful not to get in
anyone’s way.
Directing the Air Pathway of the Struck
Object—Golf
Setting: A plastic golf club and ball for each child; a
space with obstacles (blocks and canes, cones, boxes,
cones on top of boxes) of varying heights; carpet
squares mark the starting point
Cues
Under the Ball (Hit under the ball to make it
travel over the obstacle.)
Short Swing (Make an L with your arms as
you swing back, swing low, and
hold the Y in your arms on the
follow-through.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T When I say “Go,” fi nd an obstacle at which to
practice. Two of you may be at one obstacle. Your
task at the obstacle is to see if you can gently lift
the ball off the ground with the golf club so it trav-
els in the air over the obstacle. You may want to
start at some of the lower obstacles and then move
on to the higher ones. You can change obstacles
whenever you like, but there can never be more
than two people at an obstacle.
Playing Hockey Bowl (Small Targets)—Hockey
Setting: Pins (2-liter soft-drink bottles or lightweight
plastic bowling pins), a ball, and a hockey stick for
every two children; a marked lane leading away from
the pins, as for a bowling alley
Cues
Eyes on Target (Watch the target at all times.)
Step (Step forward on the opposite
foot.)
Follow Through (Follow through toward the
target with your stick.)
Tasks/Challenges:
C This game is called Hockey Bowl. Your task is to
strike the ball from behind the line and see how
CHAPTER 28 Striking with Long-Handled Implements 587
many pins you can knock down. After three hits,
or when all the pins have been knocked down
(whichever happens fi rst), trade places.
T The fi rst time you can knock down all the pins
three times in a row, move back three steps and
try it again. If you still want to make the task
harder, take away some of the pins so you have a
smaller target.
Dribbling and Changing Directions
Backward—Hockey
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space,
each with a hockey stick and ball
Cues
Light Taps (Use light taps to keep the ball
close to your stick.)
Back of Stick (Use the back side of the stick to
bring the ball backward.)
Pull Back (Quickly pull the ball toward you.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Travel in general space, dribbling the ball 2 to 3 feet
in front of you as you go. When you are comfort-
able with your control of the dribble, dribble
the ball ahead of you; quickly put your stick in
front of the ball; tap the ball lightly with the
back of your stick, pulling it toward you; quickly
turn; and continue the dribble.
As hard as we try, somehow, at some time, hockey
sticks and balls/pucks seem to get raised higher
than they should, especially in dynamic situations.
In fact, the most serious accident I’ve ever had
while teaching involved a hockey stick and an eye.
Therefore, we advocate the wearing of eye guards,
especially in dynamic hockey situations.
Performing a Continuous Dribble and Change
of Direction—Hockey
Setting: Children scattered throughout general space,
each with a hockey stick and ball
Cues
Light Taps (Use light taps to keep the
ball close to your stick.)
Both Sides of Stick (Use both sides of the stick
to dribble when you go
around an obstacle.)
Heads Up (Look up to avoid collisions.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T You learned to change the direction of the ball by
dribbling it to your right and left with both sides of
the stick. You have just learned one method of
changing direction from front to back. Travel within
the space, using changes of direction to avoid colli-
sions with others. Your task is continuous dribbling.
T Approach a line quickly; use the “pull back” with
the stick to change the direction of the dribble at
the last moment, to keep from crossing the line.
T Dribble as close as you can to another person with-
out touching him or her and quickly use a move to
the right or left to dodge him or her.
T Gradually increase the speed of your travel to deter-
mine the maximum rate you can travel with a con-
trolled dribble and frequent changes of direction.
A while ago I was at a party where the hosts set up
a croquet game. Adults and children alike were in-
trigued, and, bingo, I realized: this is a striking game!
Do you remember it? Croquet is a fun activity to add
to physical education class as a special treat and ties
together the ideas of striking at targets and varying
force and distance really well. No croquet sets, you
say? You’ll be amazed how many families have cro-
quet sets at home that they’re willing to let you use (or
sometimes even give to you). I just acquired an an-
tique croquet set that was on its way to Goodwill.
Give croquet a try sometime!
Pathways, Speeds, and Directions—Hockey
Setting: A hockey stick and ball for each child
Cues
Light Taps (Use light taps to keep the
ball close to your stick.)
Both Sides of Stick (Use both sides of the stick
to dribble when you go
around an obstacle.)
Heads Up (Look up to avoid collisions.)
Tasks/Challenges:
C This is a self-testing task. The task sheet ( Fig-
ure 28.10 ) lets you assess your traveling and strik-
ing in different directions, pathways, and speeds.
Practice the tasks one by one. When you think you
can do a task well, have a partner watch you. If
your partner thinks you did the task successfully,
the partner signs the sheet. I’ll check to see how
you’re progressing.
588 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
Peer Observation. The preceding challenge is a
wonderful peer observation assessment. With the
date recorded, it provides an indication of when
students accomplished the skill.
Traveling and Striking for a Goal—Hockey
Setting: Cones scattered throughout general space;
markers for goals around the outside boundary; a
hockey stick and ball for each child
Cues
Face Goal (Your upper body must
face the goal as you hit
to it.)
Light Taps/Hard Strikes (Light taps to dribble
the ball; strike hard at
the goal.)
Follow Through (Follow through toward
the goal with your stick.)
Name Class
Task Sheet for Striking
Observer’s Name Task
I can strike a ball with a hockey stick in a straight
pathway, keeping the ball close to the stick.
I can strike a ball with a hockey stick in a
curved pathway, keeping the ball close to the stick.
I can strike a ball with a hockey stick in a
zigzag pathway, keeping the ball close to the stick.
I can strike a ball with a hockey stick around
four cones set up about four feet apart, keeping the
ball close to the stick.
I can strike a ball with a hockey stick through
the cones while running, keeping the ball close to
the stick.
I can strike a ball with a hockey stick while
traveling sideways.
I can make up a sequence including two path-
ways, two changes in speed, and two different
directions. I have written my sequence below.
Sequence:
Figure 28.10 Task sheet for
striking.
CHAPTER 28 Striking with Long-Handled Implements 589
Tasks/Challenges:
T Travel at your own speed and dribble or stick-
handle the ball while avoiding the obstacles and
other people. On the signal, travel quickly toward
an open space, and strike for the goal. Retrieve
your ball; begin dribbling again, listening for the
signal to strike for the goal.
T Practice dribbling around the obstacles and strik-
ing for the goal on your own; I won’t give the
signal.
One-on-One Hockey—Hockey
Setting: Partners in general space, each with hockey
sticks, a ball, and markers for a goal
Cues
Light Taps/Hard Strikes (Light taps to dribble
the ball; strike hard at
the goal.)
Heads Up (Look up to avoid
collisions.)
Dodges (Use stopping /starting,
both sides of the stick,
and turns to avoid your
partner.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Select a partner whose dribbling or stick-handling
skills are about the same as yours. Cooperatively
decide the boundaries for your area; a small area
provides more practice. One of you begins to drib-
ble the ball within the area; the other one tries to
gain possession of the ball by using the stick to
steal the ball. Follow these rules:
1. You can only contact the ball, not the person.
2. Be sure to gain possession of the ball; don’t slap
it away.
3. If you gain possession, begin dribbling as the
offensive player; your partner is now defense.
If partners are unmatched in skill, provide a signal to
change from offense to defense. Players stay on offense or
defense until they hear the signal.
T Within your area, set up two markers as a goal. The
fi rst partner will dribble until within scoring range
(10 to 12 feet) and then shoot for a goal. The sec-
ond partner will attempt to gain possession of the
ball, using only the stick. After each strike for goal,
switch positions.
C Design your own game using the skills of stick-
handling and shooting for the goal. Work with
your partner to decide the rules of the game,
scoring, and boundaries. Can you think of a name
for your game?
Peer Observation. After students have a chance to
play their one-on-one games for a while, a peer
observation would be appropriate. Have another
pair of partners observe for the use of the cues of
Light Taps/Hard Strikes, Heads Up, and Dodges.
After a designated time, the observers and players
switch roles.
When playing one-on-one hockey, how can you
steal the ball and not hit the other player’s legs
with the hockey stick?
Striking from a Stationary Position to a Moving
Target—Hockey
Setting: Partners, each pair with two hockey sticks and
a ball; a large enough space (about 10 feet by 10 yards)
to send and receive the ball on the run
Cues
Lead Receiver (Pass the ball to an open space in
front of the receiver.)
Angles (Your receiver should always be to
the side and in front of you.)
Heads Up (Always look up so you can see
where your receiver is.)
It’s a challenge to try to keep the puck away from a partner while
dribbling it.
590 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
Tasks/Challenges:
T You practiced striking the ball to a partner before,
but then you were always standing still. When
you’re in a real game, how often are you able to
pass to a partner who is standing still? Not very
often. You’re going to practice striking to a partner
who is moving. One of you will be the passer, and
the other the receiver. The passer stands still and
the receiver starts to run downfi eld, away from
the passer at an angle. When the receiver is
about 5 yards away, the passer sends the ball.
The receiver should collect the ball on the run
and then keep going for a few more steps. Take
fi ve turns, and then switch positions.
T You’ve been passing to the same side so far. Now
try passing to the other side so the receiver has to
receive with the backhand. This will seem awk-
ward at fi rst, but stick with it. Pass 10 times, and
then switch.
Passing and Receiving on the Move—Hockey
Setting: A large, grassy outdoor area; children in pairs,
with one ball for each pair and a hockey stick for each
child
Cues
Lead Receiver (Pass the ball to an open space in
front of the receiver.)
Angles (Your receiver should always be to
the side and in front of you.)
Heads Up (Always look up so you can see
where your receiver is.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Travel in the same direction as your partner, side
by side, about 20 feet apart. As you’re traveling,
pass the ball back and forth using the hockey stick.
The key is that you both must always be moving
forward. When you get to the end of your area,
turn around and come back.
T Now travel with your partner in general space,
dribbling and passing. All the other players will
be doing the same thing, so it’s important that
you are aware of others and of passing to open
spaces. Go.
C Challenge yourself to always pass the ball ahead of
your partner — to the open space. If you are suc-
cessful, your partner will never have to stop to re-
ceive the pass. Try for fi ve successful completions:
open space, no stopping.
Keeping It Moving—Hockey
Setting: Four cones marking a space 5 yards by 5 yards;
four children per group, each group with four hockey
sticks and a ball or puck
Cues
Lead Receiver (Pass the ball to an open space in
front of the receiver.)
Angles (Your receiver should always be
to the side of and in front of
you.)
Heads Up (Always look up so you can see
where your receiver is.)
Tasks/Challenges:
C This time you’re going to play a game called Keep-
ing It Moving. One person begins by passing the
ball to another player. That player passes it to some-
one else, and so on. The object is to never let the
ball stop moving and never let it go out of bounds.
Two-on-One Hockey—Hockey
Setting: Children in groups of three, each group with
sticks, a ball, and cones to use as goals
Cues
Offense
Lead Receiver (Strike the ball to an open space
ahead of your receiver.)
Light Taps/ (Light taps to dribble the ball;
Hard Strikes strike hard at the goal.)
Angles (The receiver should be in an
open space at an angle to and in
front of the passer.)
Defense
Play the Ball (Make your fi rst move to the
player with the ball.)
Tasks/Challenges:
C In your group, two of you will be the offensive
players, and one will be the defensive player. The
two offensive players will pass and dribble to
each other within the boundaries of your area.
The defensive player will attempt to gain posses-
sion of the ball by intercepting passes or tapping
the ball away on the dribble.
Each team will have possession of the ball for
2 minutes. See how many goals you can score in
that time. The offensive team must execute at
least two passes before attempting a goal.
CHAPTER 28 Striking with Long-Handled Implements 591
Grounders and Flies—Bats
Setting: Groups of three or four: one batter and one
pitcher per group, the rest are fi elders; a space large
enough for all groups to bat without interfering with
the others
Cues
Under the Ball (Hit the ball slightly below its
center for a fl y ball.)
Behind the Ball (Hit directly behind the ball for
a line drive.)
Over the Ball (Hit near the top of the ball for
a grounder.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T So far you have practiced hitting from behind the
ball. This usually makes the ball travel in a straight
aerial pathway — a line drive. Yet, there are times
when you will need to hit balls high, and other
times when you will need to hit grounders. That is
what we will practice fi rst — grounders. Hit the
pitches so they hit the ground about 6 to 10 yards
away. After fi ve hits, switch places.
T The next practice will be for fl y balls. Practice hit-
ting these pitches so they don’t hit the ground un-
til past the baseline. They should go higher in the
air than a line drive.
T Do you remember the game where the pitcher
told the batter which fi eld the batter was to hit
the ball to? This game is similar, but here the
pitcher calls out line drive, pop fl y, or grounder,
and the batter has to hit that kind of ball. After
fi ve hits, switch places.
C This time the batter calls out the type of hit before
the ball is pitched. The batter gets one point for
each hit that goes the way it was called. Try for
four points — out of fi ve pitches.
Assessment Example
From the National Standards for Physical Education
Event Task
Students are placed in groups of fi ve or six members
and are asked to role-play the following scenario: The
city Little League coach has asked your group to serve
as assistant coaches this season. Specifi cally, the coach
wants you to do a presentation of either (a) throwing
and catching or (b) striking with a bat for a bunt versus
a home run. Within each group, students should pre-
pare a demonstration to include an oral presentation
of the various skills, explaining the variation of each
and demonstrate the skills. Each person within the
group must be part of the presentation. Each group
will present their minidemonstrations to the class.
Criteria for Assessment
a. Demonstrates the skill correctly.
b. Compares and /or contrasts variations within the
skills.
c. Presentation is organized and interesting.
NASPE (1995, p. 47)
Directing the Placement of an Object—Bats
Setting: Partners, each pair with a batting tee, a bat, a
cone, a hoop, and a ball; each pair with enough space
to bat for distance. See Figure 28.11 for setup.
Cue
Front Foot to Target (Change your stance so
your front foot points
toward your target.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T Before, you practiced hitting the ball different dis-
tances; this time, you’re going to practice hitting
the ball to different places. To start, one person
will be at bat, and the partner will be in left fi eld.
The batter fi rst tries to hit fi ve balls to left fi eld,
aiming for her or his partner. If everything works
correctly, the partner shouldn’t have to move very
far to catch the balls. After the fi rst fi ve hits, the
partner moves to center fi eld, and the batter tries
to hit the next fi ve balls to right fi eld. Then switch
places. You’ll know you’re really good when your
partner doesn’t have to move to catch the balls.
T This time, the fi elder is going to make it harder.
After every hit, the fi elder moves to a new posi-
tion, and the batter tries to hit the ball exactly to
the fi elder. The fi elder can choose any place to go.
After 10 hits, trade places.
Batter
FielderHoop
Running
Figure 28.11 Setup for directing the placement of an object.
592 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
T Now that you’ve gotten the hang of placing the
ball, you’re going to try to hit where the fi elder
isn’t. In softball, you want to be able to hit to open
spaces, so you can get on base. Hit three balls off
the tee, trying to send them to different places in
the fi eld. The fi elder will collect them. After three
hits, trade places.
C As you hit the three balls this time, call out where
the hit will go. You get one point for every hit that
goes where you indicated. Try for a perfect three.
T Now, you get to run as well. Bat the ball. As soon
as you bat the ball, run around the cone and try to
get home before the fi elder has the ball in the
hoop. After three hits, trade places.
Note: Either through teaching by invitation or intertask
variation (Chapter 11), the diffi culty of this task could be
increased by striking a pitched ball.
Hitting to Open Spaces—Bats
Setting: A large outdoor area; children in groups of
three or four, each group with a bat and a ball
Cue
Front Foot to Target (Change your stance so
your front foot points
toward your target.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T You’re going to practice hitting a pitched ball and
try to make it go to open spaces. One of the fi elders
will become the pitcher. All pitches must be easy so
they can be hit. The batter will try to hit the out-
fi eld and have the ball hit the ground before the
fi elder can touch it. After 10 hits, switch places.
C You get one point for every ball that hits the
ground untouched. Try for six points. Every 10
hits, trade places.
Striking a Pitched Object Varying the
Distance—Bats
Setting: A large outdoor space; groups of three or four
with a bat and fi ve balls
Cues
Full Swing (Swing quickly all the way
through to send the ball a long
way.)
Medium Swing (Swing at a medium speed all
the way through to send the ball
a shorter distance.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T This time, you’re going to practice hitting a pitched
ball different distances. To begin, one of you will
pitch, one will hit, and others are fi elders. Batter,
your task is sometimes to hit the ball short so it
lands near the pitcher and at other times to hit it
long so it goes to the outfi eld. Try to decide ahead
of time where you want the ball to go, and then
hit it there.
C Now, to show how good you are, call out where
the ball is going — a short or a long distance —
before you hit it. Do this 10 times, and then switch
places.
T This task is a little different from the last one. In-
stead of the batter calling out where the ball is to
go, the pitcher calls out where the ball is to be hit.
Change places after fi ve hits.
Batting, Combining Distance and Placement—Bats
Setting: A large open space where children can bat
balls safely; bases marked in a diamond pattern; chil-
dren in groups of four or fi ve
Cues
Front Foot to Target (Your front foot should be
pointed to your target.)
Full Swing (Swing quickly all the way
through for hits that go a
long way.)
Medium Swing (Swing at a medium speed
for shorter hits.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T In your group, one of you will be the pitcher, one of
you the batter, and the rest fi elders. You’re now go-
ing to combine hitting for distances and hitting to
open spaces. The pitcher will pitch 10 balls to the
batter, who tries to hit the balls to where no one is
standing. Some hits need to be short and others
long, but all hits should be to empty spaces.
T This is a pretend baseball game. You are at bat; you
get fi ve swings. You will try to place each of the
hits to advance the make-believe base runners.
Your fi rst two hits should be short, near the pitcher
or third base. Your third swing is for a hit and
run — try to place a ground ball between second
and third so a runner could advance to second.
Your fourth hit should move the runner to third —
so hit a grounder between fi rst and second. Your
last swing is to score the run —hit a long fl y ball to
the outfi eld.
CHAPTER 28 Striking with Long-Handled Implements 593
Homework. Students at this point can profi t from
watching skilled players. An appropriate home-
work assignment would be to watch a baseball
game (live or on television) and record all the
places to which two selected players hit the ball
(e.g., left fi eld, bunt down third-base line).
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
At the profi ciency level, children are given situations
that facilitate development of the ability to strike with
implements while focusing on the strategy and out-
come of the action and on their skill. The focus at this
level is the attainment of consistency and accuracy
while standing still or moving. Cues are focused on the
use of the skill rather than on the skill itself.
As with other skill themes, at the profi ciency level,
many appropriate activities call for the use of striking
skills in a gamelike situation. It can be quite tricky to
keep these activities developmentally appropriate, es-
pecially in terms of active participation for all chil-
dren. There are several solutions here. One is to set up
multiple playing areas around the space. Another op-
tion is to have stations, several of which offer gamelike
activities, and several of which have practice opportu-
nities that require less space and setup. Finally, you
could have peer assessment opportunities; within
small groups, half will play and half observe and then
they switch. Regardless of the solution, all game-type
activities should be appropriate for all children. See
Chapter 31 for more information on game options in
physical education.
Note about cues: At the profi ciency level, tasks are
more complex, typically requiring children to coordi-
nate several movements simultaneously in a dynamic
context. A list of cues is provided to assist the children
in being more successful in the learning experiences.
The challenge is in determining which cue will be most
benefi cial for each child . . . and when. Thus careful
observation and critical refl ection become very impor-
tant as you watch the children move and then decide
which cue will be the most helpful to move each
learner to a higher level.
Directing the Pathway, Distance, and Speed of an
Object—Golf
Setting: Boxes of various heights set up throughout
the entire space; a hoop on the fl oor on the back side
of each box; a golf club and a ball for each child; this is
an appropriate station task (see Chapter 13)
Cues
Under the Ball (Hit under the ball to make it
travel a short distance.)
Short Swing (Make an L with your arms as
you swing back, swing low, and
hold the Y in your arms on the
follow through.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T The task is to hit the ball with the golf club so that
the ball travels over the box and into the hoop.
Once you’re able to do this fi ve times in a row
standing close to the box, back up three steps and
try it again.
T When you succeed, move to a new place and try
again.
C Design your own golf game. You may have up to
three players in a group. When you are fi nished,
write down the rules for the game. Include in your
write-up what skills you need to master to be able
to play your game successfully. (See Chapter 31
for details about how to help children design their own
games.)
Event Task. The written self-designed game is an
appropriate assessment task to be included in a
child’s portfolio.
Whiffl e Ball Golf—Golf
Setting: A Whiffl e Ball Golf course ( Figure 28.12 ); a
golf club and whiffl e ball for each child
Cues
Under the Ball/ (Under the ball = short
Behind the Ball distances; behind the ball =
long distances.)
Short Swing / (Short swing = short distances;
Full Swing full swing = long distances.)
Tasks/Challenges:
C The game you’re going to play is called Whiffl e Ball
Golf. It’s played just as regular golf is played. The
objective of the game is to get the ball to land in
the hoop with as few strokes as possible. Each of
you will start at the hole I assign you and then go
to the next higher numbered hole. Each hole has a
tee area from which to start: This area is marked
with big rubber balls, to guarantee that everyone
starts from the same place. When you get to hole
9, go to hole 1. Keep score by counting the shots it
takes you to go around the entire course.
594 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
One of our students made the sensible suggestion that we
use old tires for the holes of the golf course, so the ball
wouldn’t roll out so easily. Old tires are easy to obtain.
Important points for the following activities: Before
beginning tasks that involve offense and defense, students
should be skilled in the space awareness and dodging tasks
that ask them to master the offensive and defensive skills
of moving into open space; avoiding other persons; and
using fakes, stops and starts, pivots, and other avoidance
skills without manipulating equipment. (See Chapter 16,
“Space Awareness,” and Chapter 20, “Chasing, Fleeing,
and Dodging.”) Children need to have mastered these skills
before they are asked to use them while manipulating
equipment.
One key to these tasks — and to other initial tasks in-
volving offense and defense — is to clearly defi ne the bound-
aries of the space the students are to use. A small space
gives an advantage to the defense; a large space provides an
offensive advantage. Similarly, a long, narrow space gives
the advantage to the defense; a wider space helps the of-
fense. Initial tasks generally favor the offense.
Striking to Dodge an Opponent—Hockey
Setting: A group of 10 or fewer children, several with
hockey sticks and balls; the others positioned as ob-
stacles, holding hockey sticks in their hands and
wearing blue armbands or other identifying clothing
( Figure 28.13 )
Cues
Heads Up (Always look up to avoid
collisions.)
Dodges (Use stopping /starting, both sides
of the stick, changes of speed, and
turns to avoid obstacles.)
Lead Receiver (Pass to an open space ahead of
the receiver.)
Angles (The receiver should be in an
open space to the side and in
front of the passer.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T This is a dodging game. We’ve played games like
this before, but without equipment. To begin,
those of you wearing blue will be the obstacles; the
rest of you will be dodgers. Obstacles, fi nd a self-
space and stand there. Dodgers, try to cross the
room without coming near an obstacle. The ob-
stacles have the right to steal the ball if it comes
within their area. Their area is that space they can
reach while keeping one foot glued to the fl oor.
The goal of the dodgers is to get to the other end
of the space without having the ball stolen. The
group gets fi ve tries and then switches places.
C We’re going to change the game a little this time.
Instead of all the dodgers having their own balls,
they’re going to have only one ball. Their job is
then to get the ball to the other end, as a team. The
START HERE
Large rubber ball tee markers
Trap
Trap
Folding chairs or hurdles
Dowel rod or broom handle
Hoop
Child’s wading pool
Trap
Base path
Trap made by ropes or chalk for marking field
1
2
4
6
7
9
8
5
3 1 2
3
4
5
9
6
8
7
Figure 28.12 Whiffl e Ball Golf
course.
CHAPTER 28 Striking with Long-Handled Implements 595
obstacles still have the same rule: They can take
the ball only when it comes into their area. After
four tries, switch places.
T Now that you have the idea, let’s form groups of
six. Two people are dodgers; four are obstacles.
Switch every time so you all get a turn.
Teacher Observation. At this point children should
be demonstrating their ability to use skills and
strategies to avoid other players. A teacher obser-
vation of the use of the cues of Heads Up, Dodges,
Lead Receiver, and Angles would be appropriate
before advancing to more complex tasks.
Keep-Away—Hockey
Setting: Groups of four: three players on the outside
standing about 20 feet apart and one in the middle; each
player with a hockey stick; one ball or puck per group
Cues
Offense
Don’t Pass until (Hold on to the ball
the Defense Commits until the defense makes
you pass by coming
close to you.)
Receivers to Open Space (Receivers should move
to an open space at an
angle from the passer.)
Stay Away from Passer (Receivers shouldn’t go
close to the passer.)
Defense
Play the Ball (Play defense on the
person with the ball.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T This is like Keep-Away, except that it’s played with
hockey sticks. There will be four in a group: three
on the outside standing about 20 feet apart, and
one in the middle. The three on the outside pass
the ball back and forth; the one in the middle
tries to intercept the pass. After eight successful
passes or four interceptions, trade places. You must
stay in the boundaries of your space. There is no
contact.
Video/Digital Analysis. As children learn to play
in dynamic situations, it helps them immensely to
watch their own performance and analyze the use
of the offensive and defensive cues.
Small-Sided Hockey Invasion Game—Hockey
Setting: Groups of four or six, two or three players on
each team; hockey sticks for every player; one ball or
puck per group; milk crates, cones, or boxes for goals;
a space at least 20 feet by 15 feet
Cues
Offense
Don’t Pass until the (Hold on to the ball
Defense Commits until the defense
makes you pass by
coming close to you.)
Receivers to Open Space (Receivers should move
to an open space at an
angle from the passer.)
Stay Away from Passer (Receivers shouldn’t go
close to the passer.)
Children dribbling
Children as obstacles Pathways made by children dribbling
Figure 28.13 Arrangement for dribbling
and dodging activity.
596 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
Defense
Ball First; Player Second (First play defense on
the person with the
ball; then cover the
receivers.)
Hustle Back (When you lose the
ball to the offense,
hurry back on defense.)
Tasks/Challenges:
C This game is called Mini Hockey. The objective is
to strike the ball into the opponent’s goal. Here are
the rules:
1. The players on the teams decide the boundaries
and width of the goal. There should be one goal
on each end of the space. Use milk crates, cones,
or boxes for the goals.
2. One team gets the ball fi rst.
3. The ball can be stolen only on the pass.
4. No contact.
5. Everyone must be playing — no standing
around.
6. Make up your own form of scoring (if you want
to keep score).
7. Make up any more rules you need.
T We’re going to change the game a little this time.
Instead of one goal on each end of the fi eld, there
will be two.
Directing the Pathway, Distance, and Speed of an
Object—Bats
Setting: Groups of fi ve: one batter, one pitcher, and
three fi elders; one plastic bat and ball per group; a space
large enough for groups to bat without interfering with
other groups
Cues
Quick Swing / (Quick swing = long hit;
Medium Swing medium swing = shorter
hit.)
Below, over, behind (Below = fl y ball; over =
the Ball ground ball; behind =
line drive.)
Tasks/Challenges:
C For this task you will use a plastic bat and ball.
Here are the rules:
1. There are fi ve people in a group: one batter, one
pitcher, and three fi elders.
2. Before the pitcher pitches the ball, she calls out
the type of hit and the placement. The batter
has to hit the ball the way the pitcher calls it.
3. Change batters after fi ve hits.
4. Each player keeps his or her own score — one
point for every ball that was hit as the pitcher
called it.
Six-Player Striking and Fielding in a Gamelike
Situation—Bats
Setting: Groups of six players, three-person teams;
bases as in softball, but with the distance between each
reduced to make the game challenging for the group;
one bat, ball, and tee per group; suffi cient space so that
children can bat without interfering with one another
Cues
Batters
Hit to Open Spaces (Always hit to open spaces.)
Fielders
Throw Quickly (Throw the ball as soon as
you get it.)
Have a Plan (Know where the runners are;
plan where to throw the ball.)
Tasks/Challenges:
C This game involves the skills of striking, throwing,
and catching. The objective is to place a batted ball,
catch and throw, and run bases. Here are the rules:
1. There are three players on each team.
2. The batter strikes the ball from the tee and tries
to run the bases.
3. The fi elders try to catch or collect the ball and
throw it to one another so that all three players
catch the ball before the batter fi nishes running
the bases.
4. Each player on a team bats, and then the teams
switch places.
During the class, we focus on each child’s individual im-
provements rather than on class or individual competition.
Many children (and faculty!) enjoy voluntary tournaments,
after school or at lunch.
Assessment Example
From the National Standards for Physical Education
Student Report
Partners videotape each other while striking a ball
resting on a batting tee (fi ve times) and while striking
a ball thrown by a pitcher (fi ve times). They review the
tape with their partner and self-assess according to
CHAPTER 28 Striking with Long-Handled Implements 597
criteria presented to them in class. Based on this infor-
mation they write a description of one or more of the
following: the critical elements of batting; the consis-
tency of their movement patterns; the differences in
cues available when striking from a tee (closed skill)
versus striking a pitched ball (open skill); and practice
suggestions for improvement in each skill.
Criteria for Assessment
a. Accurately describes the criteria for good batting.
b. Accurately assesses their own consistency of per-
formance.
c. Accurately identifi es cues available in open or closed
skills.
d. Selects appropriate practice options based on the
difference between the two skills.
NASPE (1995, pp. 48 – 49)
One-Base Baseball—Bats
Setting: Groups of six or eight, three- or four-person
teams; one base, one bat, and one ball per group; a
fi eld set up as in Figure 28.14
Cues
Batters
Hit to Open Spaces (Always hit to open spaces.)
Fielders
Throw Quickly (Throw the ball as soon as
you get it.)
Have a Plan (Know where the runners
are; plan where to throw
the ball.)
Tasks/Challenges:
T You’re going to play One-Base Baseball. The objec-
tive is to get to the base and back before the pitcher
gets the ball. Here are the rules:
1. Each team has three or four people.
2. The batter bats and then tries to run to the base
and back to home plate before the pitcher gets
the ball again.
3. Each person on a team bats, and then the teams
trade places.
Batter
Pitcher
Ball
Base
Figure 28.14 Setup for One-Base Baseball.
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. What basic action is used in striking with any
long-handled implement?
2. What is a sidearm pattern? What is an underhand
swinging pattern? Which swings are used with
which implements?
3. What is the purpose of introducing children to
striking with long-handled implements?
4. What can be the long-term result when children
try to swing implements that are too heavy or
too long?
5. What are the observable characteristics of individ-
uals at each level of skill profi ciency in striking
with long-handled implements?
6. Describe a mature striking pattern for striking a ball
with a bat and with a golf club or a hockey stick.
7. How does the idea of “roll over shoelaces” to en-
hance the cue of “rotate and shift” promote a
mature striking pattern?
8. Why do we recommend that children initially
practice striking using yarn or plastic balls?
9. What does a level swing look like when the player
is attempting to strike a ball with a bat?
10. Describe two examples, one for bats and one for
hockey sticks, of contexts that are unpredictable or
changing.
11. In using a hockey stick to handle a ball, what do
the terms give and control mean?
12. List three safety cues for striking with long-handled
implements.
598 PART 4 Skill Theme Development www.mhhe.com/graham8e
References Suggested Readings
Holt/Hale , S. 2010 . On the move: Lesson plans to accompany Children Moving. 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Education. 1995 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. St. Louis, MO: Mosby .
Wickstrom , R.L. 1970 . Fundamental motor patterns. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger .
Wickstrom , R.L. 1983 . Fundamental motor patterns. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger .
World Golf Association. 2008. The First Tee National School Program curriculum manual. 2nd ed. See www.thefi rsttee. org for The First Tee National School Program trainings.
P A R T
599
The four chapters in this section depict how skill themes are integrated
into the content areas of physical education and the larger elementary
classroom. Chapters 29, 30, and 31 are discussions of how, respectively,
dance, gymnastics, and games are incorporated into the skill theme ap-
proach. However, you will not fi nd a series of rules for games, steps for
dance, or specifi c gymnastics stunts in these chapters. To do so would
violate the very premise on which Children Moving is based — children
have different needs and interests! If we were to provide a series of games
organized by grade level, for example, we would be assuming that all chil-
dren had the ability to play those games successfully. And we know that
is not true.
Thus the three chapters on dance, games, and gymnastics are designed
so that the skill themes and movement concepts most associated with
games, dance, and gymnastics content are combined and developed within
a context that typically uses those movement forms. For example, Chapter 30,
“Skill Themes in Gymnastics,” links the skill themes of jumping and land-
ing, balancing, and transferring weight and such movement concepts as
bending, stretching, and twisting into gymnastics-type situations. This, we
hope, will enable you to see how skill themes are taught in gymnastics-
type lessons. In fact, children often refer to lessons that involve rolling and
transferring weight as gymnastics. That is fi ne with us as long as they are learning the skills that
will eventually lead to success and participation not only in gymnastics, but also in games and
dance.
The fi nal chapter in this section —Chapter 32, “Integrating the Skill Theme Approach across
the Curriculum”— offers valuable insights into the reasons that classroom teachers and physical
education teachers are encouraged to work together to develop integrated, or interdisciplinary,
learning experiences for children. The chapter also provides a number of practical examples of
integration and helpful references.
5
Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas
601
C H A P T E R
29
Skill Themes in Dance
One of the great values in the education of children comes from the experience of making their own
forms to express, to communicate, to enjoy. Each child is unique in his individualism and in his environ-
ment. He needs a chance to say what he is, how he feels, what his world means to him.
— RUTH L. MURRAY
602 PART 5 Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas www.mhhe.com /graham8e
M ovement skills and concepts form the curricular
base for elementary physical education. Dance,
educational gymnastics, and games/sports skills
are the content areas through which these skills and
concepts are explored, mastered, and applied. The
development of the curricular content for the move-
ment skills and concepts — that is, the skill themes — is
found in Part 4, Chapters 19 –28 of this text. Guidance
on teaching these skill themes within the content ar-
eas of dance, gymnastics, and games/sports is found in
Chapters 29 – 31.
Movement skills and concepts would be of little
value to the mover without the applications that chal-
lenge the learner. Skill themes would lose their richness
without their infusion into games, gymnastics, and
dance. We have chosen to place the three chapters ad-
dressing skill themes in dance, gymnastics, and games/
sports following the concept chapters and the chapters
containing the tasks and challenges of the skill themes.
Chapters with direct linkage to dance include the
concept chapters of “Space Awareness,” “Effort,” and
“Rela tionships” (Chapters 16 –18) and the skill theme
chapters of “Traveling,” “Chasing, Fleeing, and Dodg-
ing,” and “Jumping and Landing” (Chapters 19 –21).
Skill theme chapters with less direct linkages to dance
include “Balancing” and “Transferring Weight and
Rolling” (Chapters 22 –23).
Dance is probably the most diffi cult teaching area,
for the same reason that games teaching is the easiest.
Most teachers have an extensive background in games
playing, but few teachers have experience as dancers.
And most of us do teach best what we know best. Many
teachers, because of their limited background in dance,
omit dance or have only a few dance experiences in
their programs. Others shy away from teaching dance,
unsure of children’s reactions and fearing a negative
re sponse from the class. Yet one need only teach
Theresa Cone’s “Spaghetti Dance” (2005, pp. 103 –106)
to realize that the dance is as much fun for the teacher
as for the children actively involved in spaghetti that
“moves in a box, jumps in boiling water, and slithers
down a wall.”
None of the authors of this book is a dancer, yet each
of us has learned to give children exciting, interesting,
and educational dance experiences. In fact, dance has
become one of the most enjoyable areas for most of us
to teach because of the children’s enthusiasm and ex-
citement about dance. We’re convinced that individuals
who’ve had a minimum of formal training in dance can
learn to teach it successfully.
The Purpose of Dance in Elementary School
One key to providing children with successful dance
experiences is to develop an understanding of dance
and its purpose in an educational program. When we
teach games, our purpose isn’t to produce varsity ath-
letes. Similarly, when we teach dance, our purpose isn’t
to train children to become professional dancers. Few,
if any, physical education teachers have the expertise
to train professional dancers, and not all children want
to dance professionally. Dance experiences in physical
education classes should give children:
• The ability to use their bodies to express feelings
and attitudes about themselves and others
• A sense of self-satisfaction that can be derived from
effectively using one’s body as an instrument of
expression
• Enjoyment and appreciation of dance as a worth-
while experience for all, not for just a few
• An appreciation of dance as an art medium that
can have value for both the participant and the
spectator
• The ability to interpret and move to different
rhythms
When children begin school, many are still in
tune with their bodies as instruments of expression
( Box 29-1 ). The task of the teacher of young children
• Dance experiences should give children freedom in
movement, confi dence in their movement, and most
importantly, an enjoyment of dance.
• Dance experiences for children include rhythmic experi-
ences; folk /cultural, ethnic, and square dances; and
creative dance.
• Rhythmic experiences for children are designed to assist
them in becoming competent and confi dent in recogniz-
ing and moving to internal and external rhythms.
• Folk, ethnic, and square dances can be studied in their
authentic form as the cultural dances of a society, or they
can be studied for their composition /component parts
leading to children’s creation of new dances.
• The focus of creative /expressive dance is performing
movements to communicate a message, to express feel-
ings and emotions through movement.
• Props and imagery can be helpful to the youngster insecure
in dance, redirecting the child’s attention and reducing self-
consciousness; however, the focus of the dance should
progress quickly to the child and his or her movement.
Key Concepts
CHAPTER 29 Skill Themes in Dance 603
Box 29-1
The Movement Movement
When we are children, most of us can run and tumble and roll
in the grass. We can yell and laugh and cry. We can sing our
inner songs and dance our personal dances. Our feelings are
visible in our actions. When we’re unhappy, we stomp and
mope. When we’re happy, we turn cartwheels and splash in
puddles. Our imaginations have a direct line to our arms and
legs. We can take giant steps and be giants. We can fl ap our
arms and they will fl y us away over houses and mountains. We
can do all of this and more, for a while.
And then, somewhere between 5 and 20, we stop.
We stop running just for the fun of it. We stop letting out
the shouts and belly laughs. We stop looking at the treetops
and start walking the city sidewalks staring at the pavement.
We begin, somewhere along the line, to “keep a stiff upper
lip,” to put “starch” in our spines, to speak softly and when
spoken to. Our behavior becomes “acceptable” and, in the
process, we are cut off bit by bit from ourselves and therefore
from each other. If my impulses can’t get through to me, how
can I possibly share them with you? As we lose touch with our
bodies, our heads take over and begin to monitor our actions,
to restrict our responses until the simple interaction of children
becomes an elaborate and inaccurate communication system
between brain A and brain B.
Jules Feiffer pictures one of these disconnected, clever
heads fl oating around complaining about its headless,
funny-looking, malfunctioning body. “It’s lucky,” Feiffer’s head
says, “that I need my body to carry my head around . . .
otherwise . . . out it would go.”
Too drastic.
We can fi t our heads back onto our bodies. We can redis-
cover the links between the headbone and the toebones. We
can regain the freedom to spread our arms out wide; to run
and shout without feeling awkward or embarrassed. We can
learn to fall down, jump up, and bend over without breaking.
We can unlock the sounds of our sadness and our joy. We
can tune in to the beat of our pulse and stamp our feet to our
inborn sense of rhythm. We can explore the sounds and the
gestures of our feelings and our dreams. We can reclaim our
bodies and our voices; free them to rediscover our inherent
sense of balance and design, and use them to show each
other who we are and what we hope to be.
Source: Ken Jenkins, “The Movement Movement,” in California
Living: The Magazine of the San Francisco Sunday Examiner and
Chronicle, January 25, 1976, p. 19. Used with permission.
The teacher challenges a class to
rhythmic movement at a high level.
604 PART 5 Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas www.mhhe.com /graham8e
is not so much to teach them how to use their bodies
as instruments of expression as to enhance the expres-
sive abilities that the bodies of young children already
possess. Sue Stinson (1988) refers to it as rediscovering
the magic deep inside and using the magic to trans-
form movement into dance. By helping children at an
early age to become aware of how they use their bodies
for expressive purposes, we can help each child avoid a
mind–body dichotomy. We’re able to help children
develop an increasing awareness of their bodies as
instruments for the expression of feelings and ideas.
See Box 29-2 for information on dance in the National
Standards for Physical Education.
Dance Experiences
Dance experiences for children can be classifi ed into
three types: rhythmic experiences; folk/cultural, ethnic,
or square dances; and creative dance. In rhythmic expe-
riences, children learn about different rhythms; they
develop an awareness of rhythm and the ability to move
in relation to various beats. In folk /cultural dances,
children are taught dances that are part of a society’s
heritage. The teaching of these dances is often coordi-
nated with classroom studies — for example, the culture
of Greece or the pioneer period of Ameri can history. In
creative /expressive dance, children express feelings
and ideas through movement. Whereas traditional folk
dance and group rhythmic experiences often call for a
correct response, there are no right or wrong answers
in creative dance. Children are asked to provide inter-
pretations or responses to a particular problem or situa-
tion. Individual responses are encouraged; diversity is
valued.
Before learning structured dance forms, children
need experiences in locomotor movements and re-
sponse to rhythm. They need to move about in free
space before they are asked to move within the set
formations of circles, squares, and such. They need to
move freely in response to their own internal rhythm
before moving to music. For these reasons, our focus in
dance for young children is on rhythmic experiences
and creative dance.
Box 29-2
Dance and the National Standards for Physical Education
The National Association for Sport and Physical Education’s
National Standards for Physical Education (NASPE 2004) links
to dance in the content statement “physical activity for
health, enjoyment, challenge, self-expression, and /or social in-
teraction,” as well as with “competency in motor skills and
movement patterns” and the “understanding of movement
concepts as they apply to the learning and performance of
physical activities.”
Sample performance outcomes from the National Stan-
dards include:
• Performs a simple dance step in keeping with a specifi c
tempo (K– 2)*
• Demonstrates clear contrasts between slow and fast move-
ment when skipping, hopping, galloping, sliding, etc. (K– 2)*
• Demonstrates a smooth transition between locomotor skills
in time to music (K– 2)*
• Performs a basic tinikling step to 3/4 time (3 – 5)*
• Develops and refi nes a creative dance sequence demon-
strating smooth transitions (3 – 5)*
• Demonstrates correct pattern for the polka step (3 – 5)*
• Performs a variety of simple folk and square dances
(6 – 8)*
• Designs and performs gymnastics (or dance) sequences
that combine traveling, rolling, balancing, and weight trans-
fer into smooth, fl owing sequences with intentional changes
in direction, speed, and fl ow (6 – 8)*
*Grade-level guidelines for expected student learning.
Rapping
One of the earliest forms of rhythmic accompaniment for
young children is their own voices. Observe preschool ers
at play, and you will hear them talking and singing as they
move. The popular pastime of “rapping” is a rhythmic ex-
pression of voice and actions. Children should be encour-
aged to use the human voice to accompany their rhythmic
and creative dance experiences as appropriate.
Rhythmic Experiences
Rhythmic experiences for children are designed to as-
sist them in becoming competent and confi dent in
recognizing and moving to rhythm. Children respond
CHAPTER 29 Skill Themes in Dance 605
to the beat and the tempo of an external rhythm; they
walk, skip, and gallop to their internal rhythm and to
external rhythms. At the precontrol level, the rhyth-
mic experiences are chosen to reinforce the movement
concepts and themes the children are already study-
ing. They may move body parts (head, feet, knees) to a
simple beat played on a drum, tambourine, or wood
block. After experiencing the locomotor movements
freely at their own tempo, children may be asked to
walk three beats in one direction and change direc-
tions on the fourth beat. In this combination of skill
(walking) and movement concept (direction), children
are now matching the tempo of their movements to
that imposed by the external beat. Figure 29.1 illus-
trates several rhythmic instruments that can be used to
provide the beat. Children may echo the beat by mov-
ing body parts or swinging the total body at fast or
slow tempo to match a verbal rhythm. Moving body
parts in self-space in accompaniment to a beat en-
hances children’s body awareness.
Once the children are able to move (1) to their in-
ternal tempo and (2) to an external beat imposed by
the teacher’s voice or a simple instrument (e.g., a drum,
shaker, clacker), music is introduced. The music should
have a steady beat; although it provides the beat for
the movements, it should accompany, not dominate,
the children’s movements.
Once children have grasped the basic concepts of
rhythm and are able to respond correctly to different
beats, they enjoy the addition of a manipulative to the
rhythmic experiences. Streamers, scarves, cardboard
pizza circles, Lummi sticks, and playground balls are
examples of equipment that we have discovered
enhance rhythmic experiences for children. Initial
activities focus on individual responses to rhythm.
Following this exploration phase, teacher-designed
routines are used to elicit a group response to a given
rhythm. These control-level experiences are designed
to involve the children in working together as a group,
responding correctly to the rhythm, and remember-
ing a sequence of movements and /or actions to be
performed. Appendix 29A at the end of this chapter
includes group routines for Lummi sticks, Chinese rib-
bons, jump ropes, and parachutes; a group routine for
ball gymnastics can be found in On the Move: Lesson
Plans to Accompany Children Moving (Holt/Hale 2010),
within the skill theme of Dribbling. Most of the ideas
for our teacher-designed routines come from observing
children during their exploration of the manipulative,
listening to the music, and matching action to tempo
and beat. Rhythmic group routines are excellent for
promoting physical education at assemblies, parent –
teacher association /organization (PTA /PTO) programs,
and community functions (see Chapter 33).
The amount of time a teacher can spend on rhyth-
mic group routines depends to a great extent on how
often physical education is scheduled. When physical
education classes meet only twice a week, for example,
more time is spent on mastery of the basic skills
involved in the rhythmic experiences — rope jumping,
ball handling, and such.
Children at the utilization and profi ciency levels fo-
cus on creating new Lummi stick routines, designing
individual and partner jump rope routines, and using
ball-handling skills in routines to music, like the activity
Making Up Fancy Dribbling/Passing Routines in Chap-
ter 26 (page 534). Children at these levels of rhythmic
experiences combine various movement quali ties and
patterns with their manipulative skills— for example,
fl oor patterns, directions, levels, phrases, and variations
in rhythm: double time, half time, and so on.
It isn’t suffi cient for the teacher to say, “Today we’re
going to design a jump rope routine. Find a partner
and get started.” As teachers, we provide guidelines for
the routine. We tell the children the limitations we’re
imposing, such as the number of persons in a group,
the length of the routine, the minimum number of
skills to be included, and the music to be used (if this
is a teacher decision). Children also need to know
the necessary inclusions in the routine that are to be
group decisions — for example, directions, pathways,
fl oor patterns, and levels, as well as basic skills to be
performed. If the teacher selects the music, there is
These youngsters enjoy matching rhythms.
606 PART 5 Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas www.mhhe.com /graham8e
maximum participation by the children during class,
because all can practice to the same music. If each
group of children selects the music, the variety of mu-
sic is greater, but practice time is limited.
One of the most diffi cult parts of child-designed
rhythmic or folk dance experiences is the time factor —
that is, the matching of the length of the routine to the
length of the music. Children often need guidance in
choosing whether to add skills, repeat phrases, or re-
peat the entire routine.
Folk /Cultural and Ethnic Dances
Folk/cultural, ethnic, and square dances (line and coun-
try) are the cultural dances of a society, the cultural
heritage of a people. Cultural dances range from simple
to very complex; some are designed for partner and
group formation, while others have a focus on individ-
ual creativity. Folk and square dances involve a series of
actions with one or more of the following: a stated pro-
gression, verses and a chorus, locomotor and nonloco-
motor actions, formations, changes in directions, right
and left discrimination, and designated music. Ethnic
dances have a combination of locomotor and nonloco-
motor actions, often with a focus on individual creativ-
ity and a range of rhythmic and musical selection.
When children are fi rst introduced to dance, it is
important that they feel free to move, that they are
confi dent in their movement, and, most important,
that they enjoy the dance. This is especially true for
Bleach (or milk) jug drum
Screw top of jug and
secure with tape or
glue. Hit with dowel
rod. The children can
decorate the jug with
paint or colored tape.
CLACKER
Cut two pieces of board to
the same size. Drill holes
in one end of each
board and join
the boards with
nylon cord or wire.
The children can
decorate the boards.
Tube shaker
Cover one end of an empty
paper towel tube with heavy
paper or aluminum foil. Fill with small
round stones or dried beans. Then cover the
other end. The children can decorate the shaker.
Pie pan shaker
Place small round stones
or dried beans in an aluminum pie pan.
Staple another pie pan of the same diameter
onto the top of the first pan.
Balloon shaker
Pour sand, rice,
beans, or a
combination of
these ingredients
into a balloon.
Partially inflate the
balloon and tie
the end.
Cup shaker
Partially fill a paper or
plastic cup with small
stones, beans, or bot-
tle caps. Tape another
cup on top of the filled
cup.
DRUMS SHAKERS
Tin can drum
Remove the top and
bottom on any size tin
can. Cut two circles,
about an inch larger in
diameter than the tin
can, from an inner
tube. Punch about six
small holes around the
edge of each rubber circle. Place one circle
over each end of the can. Tighten by lacing
strong string or nylon cord through the
holes. Bells or bottle caps may be added for
additional sound.
Figure 29.1 Easy-to-make
rhythm instruments.
CHAPTER 29 Skill Themes in Dance 607
folk /cultural dance, with its defi nite formations and
progressions. With these goals in mind, the following
guidelines will be benefi cial when introducing chil-
dren to structured dance forms (Weikart 1997, 2006):
• Start with free-space movement; allow students to
move about the room with no set formation. Then
proceed to simple circle and line dances with no
changes in direction.
• Provide multiple opportunities for students to practice
locomotor and nonlocomotor sequences in different
combinations to a variety of music.
• Begin with dances that require neither partners nor
holding hands.
• Choose dances that do not specify the use of the
right or left foot.
• Choose dances that do not require complex footwork,
rhythms, or changes in direction.
• Select music with a strong underlying beat; the mu-
sical phrases should be distinct and in groupings of
8 or 16 beats, with no resting beats.
• Select dances with a repetition of sequences; se-
quences should be short and uncomplicated.
• Choose dances that can be easily modifi ed for begin-
ners. For example, Kinderpolka and Jump Jim Joe
( Box 29-3 ) are dances with partners that can easily
be modifi ed for introduction with no partners.
When children participate in the folk /cultural,
ethnic, and square dance as an integrated study of a
culture, the dances are performed in their traditional
form with attention to maintaining the authenticity of
the dance. This is also true when cultural dances are
performed for a PTA /PTO program or school assembly
for parents and community. The dance is representative
of the culture, and as such is often demonstrated with
children in the costumes of that culture. The focus is a
demonstration of the enjoyment of dance from differ-
ent cultures and dance as part of the heritage of the
people.
For these partners, jumping
rope becomes a rhythmic dance
experience.
Traditional Folk /Cultural Dances
Here are some examples of beginning and intermediate folk
dances appropriate for elementary-school-age children with
no previous dance experience:
Beginning Dances
Seven Jumps (Denmark)
Jump Jim Joe (United States)
Kinderpolka (Germany)
Cshebogar (Hungary)
Scattered Square Dance (United States)
Intermediate Dances
Greensleeves (England)
Teton Mountain Stomp (United States)
Virginia Reel (United States)
Gustav’s Skol (Sweden)
Kavelis (Lithuania)
LaRaspa (Mexico)
Troika (Russia)
Mayim! Mayim! (Israel)
Box 29-3
608 PART 5 Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas www.mhhe.com /graham8e
When we have children participate in folk /cultural
or ethnic dances as a study in dance, we often approach
them differently. We may change the formation of the
dance from circle to line or scattered. We may change
the way partners are selected or do the dance without
partners. We may change the travel patterns or actions
of the dance. We may combine components of differ-
ent dances or combine types of dances. These dances,
usually teacher designed, still have set travel patterns
and actions, repetition of sequences, and correct re-
sponses to rhythm. The focus is the study of dance, the
enjoyment of participation in dance, and the freedom
of movement and confi dence in that movement.
When older children, who have acquired compe-
tence in rhythm and movement, study dances from
different countries, they carry out a variety of locomo-
tor and nonlocomotor actions to music. They learn
formations for dances, moving to musical phrases,
repetition of pattern, and so on. They’re able to analyze
the dances according to spatial awareness, effort quali-
ties, and relationships. Based on the patterns of move-
ment, formations, and specifi c steps they have learned,
upper elementary and middle school students use the
dance skills and concepts to create new dances.
With the richness of diversity increasing in our
schools (Chapter 6), it is important that we as teachers
recognize the diversity within our classes, the wealth of
ethnic and cultural dances that the children bring to us,
and the appreciation for dance and cultures that can be
gained by learning from each other. Dance provides the
platform to learn about one’s own culture, maintain a
cultural connection, or learn about different cultures
(Ward 2007).
Box 29-4 provides additional information about
folk /cultural dances.
Creative Experiences
Creative and rhythmic experiences in dance aren’t sepa-
rated in our programs; many of the creative experiences
are performed to rhythm. In fact, it isn’t uncommon for
us to switch the focus several times during a lesson,
sometimes focusing on the rhy thm of the movement,
other times focusing on the expressive qualities of the
movement. When concentrating on rhythmic experi-
ences, the primary focus is on the children’s ability to
move to the rhythm. In contrast, creative experiences
are intended to provoke creativity and expression.
Creative experiences for children are designed to evoke
the expressiveness and lack of body inhibition so char-
acteristic of the young child.
At the precontrol level, experiences are designed to
help children develop sensitivity and awareness to
movement by focusing on fundamental body actions
and traveling skills. Stretching, curling, bending and
skipping, galloping, and leaping are movements fre-
quently used with precontrol children. Initially it’s a
good idea to focus on giving children opportunities to
explore a wide range of movement possibilities. Once
this has been accomplished, shift the emphasis to the
spatial quality of the movements. For example, have the
children do a complete, full stretch or a very tight curl,
and use the movement concepts to enhance the chil-
dren’s sensitivity to the potential of movement. The pri-
mary emphasis, however, is still on the movement
rather than on than the body’s expressive or communi-
cative possibilities.
Books are excellent “prompts” for creative dance
for young children at the precontrol level, providing
the story to be read or told by the teacher as the chil-
dren respond with their individual interpretations
via movements and movement concepts. The listing
of appropriate books is endless. See Box 29-5 for ex-
amples. We have found the book fair at elementary
schools to be a rich source of developmentally
appropriate, inexpensive books for children. If you
are fortunate the PTA /PTO will post a “wish list” for
teachers, and most books you request will be donated
to the physical education program.
At the control level, we begin to clarify for children
the expressive and communicative aspects of movement.
Folk Dance Information Sources
Additional information on folk /cultural dances can be ob-
tained from the following sources:
Bennett, J.P., and P.C. Riemer. 2006. Rhythmic activities and
dance. 2nd ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
The Carper, Bailey, Steele Travelers. Appalachian clogging
and hoedown. Available from Bill Carper, 1537 4th Ave.,
Charleston, WV 25312.
Clogging, folk /cultural, and square dances. Folk Circle
Association, P.O. Box 488, Berea, KY 40403.
Harris, J.A., A.M. Pittman, and M.S. Waller. 1988. Dance
awhile: Handbook of folk, square, contra and social dance.
New York: Macmillan.
Hipps, R.H., and W.E. Chappell. World of fun folk dances.
Melody House, 819 NW 92nd, Oklahoma City, OK 73114.
Powell, S. 1983. The clogger’s book of Appalachian square
dance fi gures. Huron, OH: Burdick Enterprises.
Weikart, P.S. 2006. Teaching movement and dance. 6th ed.
Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope.
Box 29-4
CHAPTER 29 Skill Themes in Dance 609
It’s usually a good idea to narrow the focus of a se-
quence or phrase to one, two, or at most three skills and
concepts. When youngsters at this level are given too
many possibilities, they’re often unable to decide where
to begin. The ability to move, however, combined with
a working knowledge of movement concepts, enables
pupils to elicit varying and qualitative responses to a
single challenge.
Dance making — structuring several sequences or
phrases into a whole — is the focus at the profi ciency
level. The idea behind a dance can be stimulated by an
infi nite variety of sources, such as machines, natural
phenomena (fl owers, snowfl akes), sculpture, music,
poetry, or painting. Dance making involves both de-
sign and evaluation.
Design of Dance
We’ve found it valuable to have children at the utiliza-
tion and profi ciency levels of creative dance view the
dance-making process as composed of the following
procedures:
1. Selection of the purpose, idea, or theme of a dance
2. Identifi cation of appropriate movements and move-
ment concepts to express the intended idea, feeling,
or theme
Dance experiences provide movement and joy for children.
Books as Prompts for Creative Dance
The following serve as excellent examples of the many
books available as prompts for young children’s experiences
in creative dance:
Andreae, G. Giraffes can’t dance. 2001. New York: Orchard Books.
Appelt, K. Bats around the clock. 2000. New York: Scholastic. Appelt, K. Bat jamboree. 1997. New York: Scholastic. Bond, F. Tumble bumble. 1997. Cambridge, MA: Barefoot
Books.
Carle, E. From head to toe. 1997. New York: HarperCollins. Marzollo, J. Pretend you’re a cat. 1990. New York:
Scholastic.
Pandell, K. Animal action. 1996. New York: Scholastic. Ryder, J. Night gliders. 1996. Mahwah, N.J.: Bridgewater
Books/Troll Communications.
Steinberg, D. The turkey ball. 2005. New York: Penguin Young Readers Group.
Tankard, J. Grumpy bird. 2007. New York: Scholastic. Walsh, E.S. Hop jump. 1993. San Diego: Harcourt Brace.
Box 29-5
The focus now centers more on the effort and rela-
tionship concepts (Chapter 3). Box 29-6 describes the
effort and relationship concepts used for expressive
dance. Through these concepts, movement is ex-
plored as a tool for expressing an idea, attitude, or
feeling. Movement is no longer studied primarily as
an entity in and of itself; it’s viewed as a medium of
expression. Challenge the children to structure their
movements to an imposed beat or rhythmic pattern,
or have them verbalize how their movements feel
and describe their emotional reactions to classmates’
expres sive movements.
The following creative dance experiences and ideas
for creative dance development are some of the ex-
amples to be found in On the Move: Lesson Plans to
Accompany Children Moving (Holt /Hale 2010): The
Amoebae; Colors, Shapes and Actions; Dance of
Locomotors; Karate Dancing; Matching Jumps and
Shapes; Shadow Dancing; Partner Statues; and People
in Motion.
Children at the utilization level have learned to
effi ciently perform the movements studied at the
precontrol level and to modify the movements in-
tentionally by focusing on different movement con-
cepts. At this level, children can begin to structure
their communicative movements into organized
forms. This structuring is often termed sequencing or
phrasing.
610 PART 5 Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Expressive and Communicative Activities
Time
• Travel or gesture in slow motion.
• Travel to an externally imposed beat or rhythmic pattern,
such as a handclap or drumbeat.
• Rise and sink suddenly or slowly.
Flow
• Combine two travel skills, such as running and leaping, al-
ways moving smoothly.
• Display hesitant, jerky, mechanical fl ow to create the
illusion of being a robot.
• Feel and observe the differences in combining a step with a
turn, fi rst with smooth, continuous fl ow, then with pauses
(stillnesses) interspersed between each step and turn.
Force
• Travel or perform nonlocomotor actions to a strong beat.
• Travel or perform nonlocomotor actions to light, gentle, deli-
cate music.
• Freeze in a strong, dramatic pose.
Relationships
• Experience the sensation of matching, mirroring, or shad-
owing the movements of a partner.
• Explore the expressive possibilities of group formations —
for example, sculpture for the city park, or a mountain range.
• Experience the feeling of contrasting the movements of a
partner — for example, as one partner rises the other sinks,
or one partner travels in a geometric path (square) while the
other travels in a random path.
Box 29-6
Youngsters explore the expressive posssibilities of partner formation.A child freezes in a strong pose.
CHAPTER 29 Skill Themes in Dance 611
3. Design of a powerful opening statement for the
dance
4. Design of a series of actions rising to a climax
5. Design of the portion of the dance that is to be the
climax or peak of the action
6. Design of the concluding statement of the dance
The possibilities for dance making are infi nite.
Dances can center around contrasting movement
concepts, telling a story, interpreting a theme, refl ect-
ing a poem, or portraying emotions and ideas. The
activity Traveling to Show Tradition versus Change
in Chapter 19 (page 328), is an example of a creative
dance designed to portray emotions. It is an abstract
dance contrasting tradition with the forces of change.
One group arranges itself as a solid square facing in
one direction. Symmetrical movements prevail; ac-
tions are fi rm, sustained. The other group is scattered
widely, facing in random directions. Nonsymmetrical
movements, free use of space, and variety are used.
The story of Rosa Parks and her refusal to ride in
the “back of the bus” led children to create a dance
portraying the struggles of African Americans during
slavery, their freedom from slavery, the struggles after
emancipation, and their strengths as individuals and
as a people united. An earlier creative dance based
on the theme of freedom and the journey of a people
to freedom centered around a study of Alex Haley’s
historical novel Roots. A detailed description of chil-
dren’s design of this dance and a teacher’s working
with children in the process of dance making can be
found in Appendix 29B at the end of this chapter.
Hailstones and Halibut Bones: Adventures in Color
(O’Neill 1961) was the inspiration for the creative dance
“Colors, Shapes, and Actions” in On the Move . In O’Neill’s
book of poetry, colors are portrayed as objects, feelings,
space, relationships, and abstract entities. As is true with
many prompts for creative dance, this one is suitable for
children of all ages, the complexity of the dance design
determined by past experiences in creative dance. For
example, red to young children is playground balls,
paint that splatters when spilled, fi re, and rubber bands.
Red to older children is anger, fi erce battle scenes, and
courage. For children at the precontrol and control lev-
els, we found it best to discuss the colors, their shapes
and actions, and then select one color for the class to
use as the prompt for their dances. For the older chil-
dren, after reading a selection of the poetry, the chil-
dren were free within their groups to determine the
color that would be the focus of their dance. Creative
dances ranged from simple combinations of actions and
shapes for younger children to group interpretations for
older children that included all six steps of the design
process.
Evaluation of Dance Making
The process of dance making, from simple sequences
to complex choreography, is one of exploration and
refi nement. The evaluation of dance making is a con-
tinual process. Children need to be satisfi ed with the
process and the product. Evaluation examines all
movement skills and concepts the teacher and chil-
dren have incorporated into the dance. Considerations
include the following:
• Beginning location and pathway of each youngster —
how the children choose to locate themselves at the
beginning of the dance and the pathway they
choose to express various feelings
• Selection of traveling skills (leaping, skipping) and
the quality with which they’re performed —whether
the children are using a variety of traveling skills and
executing them clearly and precisely as intended,
with the desired impact
• Flow of the dance —how the parts of the dance are
connected to give a unity of expression
• Relationship of the children to one another —
whether the children are reacting to one another
with sensitivity and whether the timing, strength,
and speed of their responses are appropriate
Dance and rhythmic activities provide a rich envi-
ronment for the fostering of positive social interac-
tion and respect for differences among people. As
youngsters actively participate in dances from differ-
ent cultures, they expand their understanding of
others and broaden their cultural world. As they co-
operate in dance making and the creation of rhyth-
mic routines, they develop cooperative skills and
respect for others. Responsible social behavior,
understanding and respect for others, and positive
social interaction are important for all children
(NASPE 2004).
The Content of Expressive Dance
The movement framework, depicting the interaction of
skill themes and movement concepts (Chapter 3), is
used as the foundation for expressive dance experiences
for children. The majority of skill themes categorized
under locomotor skills (walking, running, hopping, skip-
ping, and galloping) and nonmanipulative skills (turn-
ing, twisting, rolling, balancing, transferring weight,
jumping and landing, and stretching and curling) are
used in expressive dance. Virtually all the movement
concepts (Chapter 3) are used to heighten and expand
the child’s ability to express feeling and emotion
through movement (see Table 29.1 ).
612 PART 5 Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Table 29.1 Overview of the Content and Rationale of Teaching Expressive Dance to Children
That Can Be Used to
We Want Children By Learning a Movement Express Emotions and Stimulated by Catalysts
to Acquire: Vocabulary of: Thoughts Such As: Such As:
An ability to use their bodies as Movement concepts Friendship Sounds
a means of expression Space awareness Warmth Music
The sense of self-satisfaction Effort Anger Poetry
that can be derived through Relationships Unhappiness Art
expressive movement Skill themes Peace History
An enjoyment and appreciation Locomotor Hostility Motion pictures
of dance Nonmanipulative Joy Personal experiences
An ability to interpret and move Satisfaction
to different rhythms Harmony
Source: Adapted from K.R. Barrett, “Educational Dance,” in Physical Education for Children; A Focus on the Teaching Process, ed. B. Logsdon, K. Barrett, M. Ammons,
M. Broer, L. Halverson, R. McGee, and M. Roberton (Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1984).
The focus in expressive dance is not simply on exe-
cuting a particular movement — a turn or a balance —
but on performing the movement so that it communi-
cates the message the child intends it to. Once children
are able to perform turns effi ciently, they can begin to
experiment with different qualities of turning. Slow,
hesitant turns or fast, sudden turns are two possibili-
ties. Eventually these qualities of turning can be used
to express inner feelings. For example, slow, hesitant
turns might be used to depict sadness or uncertainty;
sudden, quick turns could be used to express anger, frus-
tration, or perhaps joy. Turning, by itself, communicates
little. It’s the quality of the turn that commu nicates a
message, just as it’s the quality of any movement that
is expressive. This is the reason it’s so important to give
children a movement vocabulary if they’re to become
expressive movers.
The Process of Teaching Dance
Teaching creative dance is different from teaching
functional movements. A functional movement is per-
formed correctly or incorrectly, and the teacher’s task
is to guide the child toward an appropriate execution.
Dance movements, performed to express an idea or
emotion, are more diffi cult to defi ne clearly, and so the
teacher’s task is different.
Because the child is trying to express a feeling or an
idea, observation and feedback are also more complex.
In games and gymnastics, the purpose of a movement is
obvious; this isn’t true in creative dance. When teach-
ing dance, the teacher initially encourages, expands,
and embellishes rather than correcting or refi ning.
As the teacher comes to know the children and under-
stand them as individuals, and as the children begin to
trust the teacher, the children will seek sensitive and
supportive feedback from the teacher. Remember,
though, that human expression is very fragile and easily
misinterpreted. Nothing stifl es expression more quickly
than insensitivity or lack of understanding. The teacher
of creative dance needs to be constantly aware of how
easily creativity is threatened. The incident described in
Box 29-7 illustrates how fragile a child’s creativity is.
You don’t have to be a dancer to be a successful
teacher of children’s dance. The following ideas may
be helpful for those teachers unsure of their ability to
teach dance, unsure of their students’ reactions, yet
searching for ways to develop effective programs of
creative dance.
Don’t Call It Dance!
Children who’ve had little exposure to creative dance
experiences often react negatively to the prospect of
studying dance. Children in the upper grades have
been known to express their hostility to the idea with
groans, frowns, sighs, and even emphatic refusals to
participate. This resistance can be understood when you
realize that too often children in the upper- elementary
grades have had few opportunities to move creatively.
Too often even those few opportunities have been
poorly presented. Children have been forced, for ex-
ample, to participate in uninteresting, unstructured
forms of dance that had no purpose or reason for
involvement that was apparent to the children.
When that happens, children turn away from the joy
of dance instead of becoming excited about creative
movement. For this reason, we recommend that you
involve the children in enjoyable, challenging move-
ment experiences without labeling the lesson as dance.
People in Motion—an integrated project of art, music,
and physical education with a focus on sport and physi-
cal activity—is one example of this type of movement
CHAPTER 29 Skill Themes in Dance 613
Box 29-7
The Awful Beginning: A True Story, Unfortunately
I looked across the desk at my big girl. She’d come for help in
planning her semester schedule.
“Look,” I said, “you have some electives. Why don’t
you take a course or two for fun? You’ve worked hard and
really should take something outside your major that will be
pleasurable.”
“Like what?” she asked.
My eyes scanned the college schedule of courses.
“Like Dr. Mann’s Creative Writing or Dr. Camp’s Painting for
Beginners or something like that.”
She threw back her head and laughed. “Who me? Paint or
write? Good grief, Dad, you ought to know better than that!”
“And this,” I thought, “is the awful ending.”
It was not always like this. I remembered an early golden
September day when I went to my garage studio and gathered
together my easel, paintbrushes, and watercolors. I sensed
someone was watching me and looked up from my activity to
see her framed in silhouette in the doorway. The breeze and
the sun tiptoed in the gold of her curls. Her wide blue eyes
asked the question, “Whatcha doin’?”
“I’m going to the meadow to paint,” I said. “Want to come
along?”
“Oh, yes.” She bounced on her toes in anticipation.
“Well, go tell Mommy and get your paints.” She was off but
returned in no time carrying the caddy I had made to hold her
jars of paint and her assortment of brushes.
“Paper?” she asked.
“Yes, I have plenty of paper. Let’s go.”
She ran down the hill before me, pushing aside the long
soft grasses of the meadow. I watched closely for fear of losing
her golden top in the tops of the goldenrod. She found a de-
serted meadowlark’s nest and we stopped to wonder at it. A
rabbit scurried from under our feet. Around us yellow daisies
and goldenrod nodded in friendly greeting. Above, the sky was
in infi nite blue. Beyond the meadow, the lake slapped itself to
match the blue of the sky.
On the lake, a single white sailboat tipped joyously in the
breeze. My daughter looked up and saw it. “Here!” she said.
Trusting her wisdom as I always did, I set up our easels.
While I deliberated over choice of subject and color, she had
no such problem. She painted with abandonment and concen-
tration and I left her alone, asking no questions, making no
suggestions, simply recognizing uncontaminated creative drive
at work.
Before I had really begun, she pulled a painting off her
easel.
“There!” she said. “Want to see?” I nodded.
I cannot describe the sense of wonder that fl ooded over me
as I viewed her work. It was all there — that golden September
day. She had captured the sunlight in her spilled yellows, the
lake in her choppy, uneven strokes of blue, the trees in her
long, fresh strokes of green. And through it all, there was a
sense of scudding ships and the joyousness of wind that I ex-
perience when I sail, the tilting and swaying of the deck, the
pitching of the mast. It was a beautiful and wondrous thing and
I envied her ability to interpret so honestly, so uninhibitedly, so
freshly.
“Are you going to give it a name?” I suggested.
“Yep! Sailboats!” she responded, as she taped another
sheet of paper to the easel.
There wasn’t a single sailboat in the picture.
She began school the following week. One dreary Novem-
ber day she came into my study with a sheet of paper in her
hand.
“Daddy,” she asked, “will you help me draw a sailboat?”
“Me? Help you draw a sailboat?”
My eyes turned to the wall where her golden September
painting hung in a frame I had made for it.
“Me? Help you draw a picture of a sailboat? Why, sweet-
heart, I could never paint a picture like the one over there. Why
don’t you paint one of your own?”
Her blue eyes looked troubled.
“But, Daddy, Miss Ellis doesn’t like my kind of painting.”
She held up her sheet of paper in the middle of which was
a dittoed triangle.
“Miss Ellis wants us to make a sailboat out of this.”
And that was the awful beginning!
— James A. Smith
Source: James A. Smith, “The Awful Beginning,” Today’s Education, April 1972. Used with permission.
614 PART 5 Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas www.mhhe.com /graham8e
experience/dance (see on the move, Holt/Hale 2010 for
details). As the youngsters become comfortable with
dance and their awareness of dance as exciting and
stimulat ing grows, the stigma attached to the word
dance will disappear.
Begin Gradually
The class’s fi rst experiences with creative dance need
not last for an entire class session. A few minutes at the
beginning or end of a class are often suffi cient to intro-
duce creative movement concepts — and simultane-
ously build your confi dence as a teacher of creative
dance. A short creative dance activity at the beginning
of class can serve as a review of a concept related to the
skill theme for the day — for example, twisting and
turning actions in Karate Dancing (dance) before their
use in the skill theme of balance (gymnastics). A short
creative dance activity at the conclusion of an active
lesson can also be effective. While the children lie on
the fl oor, eyes closed, ask them to move only their fi n-
gers (or toes, arms, legs, elbows) to the music. Short
segments of lively music are most effective. The chil-
dren, whose eyes are closed, are less inhibited; the
teacher, whose eyes are open, sees the creative dance
potential that seems to be an inborn characteristic of
the young child. At Linden Elementary School in Oak
Ridge, Tennessee, almost all lessons designed for pri-
mary children include “A Moment of Dance”— a few
minutes, usually at the beginning of the lesson, for
self- and /or general space dance activity.
Start with a Cooperative Class
Some classes are more agreeable to work with than
others. Select a class that is generally cooperative as the
fi rst one to which you’ll teach creative dance. You
don’t need to start dance programs with all your classes
at the same time. Instead, pick one class that you feel
comfortable with. As your confi dence builds, start
dance programs in other classes. Use the fi rst class as a
testing ground for your ideas.
Use Props
Creative dancers derive great pleasure and satisfaction
from focusing on how they can move their bodies. In
contrast, immature dancers often feel insecure when
asked to focus on how they’re moving. Props can serve
as catalysts, redirecting the child’s attention and so re-
ducing self-consciousness. The use of such props as
scarves, newspapers, balloons, dowel rods, stretch nylon,
and even shadows can effectively divert the attention of
uncertain children from their bodies. For example, when
attempting to duplicate the light, airy movements made
by a fl oating sheet of newspaper, the child focuses atten-
tion on moving as the newspaper does, rather than on
trying to travel lightly. As confi dence builds, the chil-
dren gradually focus their attention on their own
movements.
Imagery
Imagery is the use of a creative stimulus as a catalyst for
movement. Many people believe, inaccurately, that im-
agery provides the content of dance. The content of ex-
pressive dance is movement; imagery is a helper. Asking
children to use imagery as the content of expressive
dance is similar to asking children to write a story when
they have a vocabulary of only 50 words. One or two
extraordinarily intelligent pupils might do well. Most,
however, would fail miserably because they hadn’t yet
acquired the tools needed for successful story writing.
The same principle can be applied to expressive dance.
Children must be provided with the tools of dance, the
ability to use a variety of movements effectively. Only
when children have developed these skills can they suc-
cessfully combine the movements into dances that
express what they want to communicate. Movement
vocabularies, however, aren’t acquired through imagery,
as the following example illustrates.
A teacher focusing on the concept of slow, heavy
movement may ask children to travel as if the fl oor
were coated with 6 inches of peanut butter. But using
the peanut butter image without fi rst teaching the
concept of slow and heavy travel is of little value.
Children who are adept at such movements at the
beginning of the class will remain adept. Those indi-
viduals who were unable to travel slowly and heavily
might move in the desired manner when stimulated
by the image of a peanut butter fl oor, but they won’t
have acquired a functional understanding of slow,
heavy movement as a concept that can be transferred
to other movement situations. In short, imagery can
be useful as a reinforcer for certain movements, but
imagery by itself doesn’t enhance the quality of chil-
dren’s expressive movement.
Start with Exciting Movement Experiences
Fast, vigorous, large movements are attractive and ap-
pealing to young children. A lesson that focuses on
running, leaping into the air, landing, and rolling
evokes the exuberance associated with speed and
fl ight. Gradually the teacher can begin to focus on the
quality of the leaps, the effectiveness of the landings,
and the use of gestures while in fl ight.
CHAPTER 29 Skill Themes in Dance 615
Dance to the Music
One of the most devastating experiences for poorly
skilled or less confi dent children occurs when a teacher
plays some music and simply says, “Today is a dance
lesson. Go ahead and dance to the music.” This can be
a terrifying task for youngsters with no background or
confi dence in creative movement and no vocabulary
of functional movements. The challenge “Move to the
music” may be appropriate later, when children put
together the movements they have acquired, but it is
not appropriate in the early stages of teaching creative
dance to children.
A Final Thought
One instructor’s initial attempts at teaching creative
dance are still vivid. She recalled teaching to a second-
grade class an entire lesson that focused on running,
jumping, and turning to different rhythms. Afterward
she remarked to a friend that it was the best workout
the children had experienced the entire year and added
that she was going to teach another lesson because of
the physical fi tness benefi ts. After another lesson was
received as enthusiastically as the fi rst, she was struck
with the realization that the reason the children had
been so actively involved was that they were totally
immersed in the exciting atmosphere that was gener-
ated by exploring fast and slow turns, acceleration and
deceleration leading into jumps. The children loved
creative dance.
The physical education instructor who doesn’t offer
creative movement experiences is being profession-
ally irresponsible. You may be more qualifi ed to teach
gymnastics or games, but you’ll always be teaching
some children who might eventually choose creative
dance as their primary form of participation in the
motor domain. Depriving children of opportunities to
experience creative movement is no more acceptable
than eliminating all opportunities to practice throw-
ing and catching. You may have to devote much time
and work to developing a successful program. But any
teacher, even one who has little background in creative
dance, can provide children with effective creative
movement experiences. Dance ideas within themes
are found throughout the skill theme chapters, with
a concentration in the locomotors of Chapter 19,
“Traveling.”
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. What should dance in the elementary school pro-
vide for children?
2. Identify three dance forms. Where does each form
fi t into a curriculum, and why?
Summary
Teachers who lack experience and educational back-
ground in dance fi nd it diffi cult to teach dance to
children. But any teacher who’s willing to try new
and possibly unfamiliar ideas can learn to success-
fully teach children’s dance. Children look forward
to and enjoy dance experiences that are presented
appropriately.
Because of the ages and abilities of children in ele-
mentary schools, we’ve found creative or expressive
dance to be the most successful. Creative dance is also
consistent with the nature and characteristics of
young children, who are already adept at fantasizing
and expressing their thoughts and feelings through
movement.
The content of expressive dance is derived from the
movement concepts and the majority of locomotor
and nonmanipulative skill themes. The initial empha-
sis is on executing particular movements. As children
learn to perform these skills effi ciently, the emphasis
shifts to varying the quality with which the movement
is executed.
Children should have both rhythmic and expres-
sive dance experiences. In rhythmic experiences, the
focus is on moving in relation to different rhythmic
beats. In contrast, creative dance experiences focus on
expressive interpretation by children as they expand
their movement vocabulary for communicating feel-
ings and moods.
Through a process of trial and error, we’ve discov-
ered numerous techniques that help make dance les-
sons for children both interesting and educational. For
example, we suggest that teachers initially avoid the
word dance because it has negative connotations for
some children. Inexperienced dance teachers may fi nd
it helps to begin by teaching dance to one cooperative
class. Using props and designing lessons that are vigor-
ous and action packed are also strategies that help ex-
cite children about dance.
616 PART 5 Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas www.mhhe.com /graham8e
3. What skill themes and movement concepts gener-
ally appear in dance content?
4. Name three settings for cultural dance in the ele-
mentary school. Choose a folk, ethnic, square, or
country dance and describe its development in
each of the three settings.
5. What is the focus of expressive dance?
6. What is the role of imagery in dance? What must
children possess before they can effectively use
imagery?
7. Expressive dance can be classifi ed into what two
types of experiences? What is the primary focus of
each experience, and how does the purpose differ
at each profi ciency level?
8. What is sequencing?
9. What is dance making? What procedures must be
included in dance making?
10. How can you evaluate dance making?
11. Choose a theme for a creative dance for children.
Outline the dance to show beginning and ending
shapes, locomotor movements, travel pathways,
and concepts that express the theme.
12. What cues do the authors give for starting to teach
creative dance?
References /Suggested Readings
Barlin , A. L. 1979 . Teaching your wings to fl y. Santa Monica, CA: Goodyear .
Bennett , J. P. , and P. C. Riemer . 2006 . Rhythmic activities and dance. 2nd ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Benzwie , T. 1988 . A moving experience. Tucson, AZ: Zephyr Press .
Boorman , J. 1969 . Creative dance in the fi rst three grades. New York: McKay .
Carroll , J. , and P. Lofthouse . 1969 . Creative dance for boys. London: MacDonald & Evans .
Cone , T. , and S. Cone . 2005 . Teaching children dance. 2nd ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Davis , J. 1995 . Laban movement analysis: A key to indi- vidualizing children’s dance. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 66(2): 31– 33 .
Fleming , G. A. 1976 . Creative rhythmic movement. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall .
Fleming , G. A. , ed. 1981 . Children’s dance. Reston, VA: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recre- ation and Dance .
Holt/Hale , S. 2010 . On the move: Lesson plans to accompany Children Moving. 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill .
Joyce , M. 1993 . Dance technique for children. New York: McGraw-Hill .
Joyce , M. 1993 . First steps in teaching creative dance. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill .
McGreevy-Nichols , S. , H. Scheff , and M. Sprague . Building dances: A guide to putting movements together. 2nd ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Murray , R. L. 1975 . Dance in elementary education. 3rd ed. New York: Harper & Row .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 1992 . Outcomes of quality physical education programs. Reston, VA: NASPE .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2004 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. 2nd ed. Reston, VA: NASPE .
O’Neill , M. 1961 . Hailstones and halibut bones . New York: Doubleday .
Russell , J. 1975 . Creative movement and dance for children. Boston: Plays .
Slater , W. 1974 . Teaching modern educational dance. London: MacDonald & Evans .
Smith , J. A. 1972 . The awful beginning. Today’s Education 61(4): 56 .
Stinson , S. 1988 . Dance for young children: Finding the magic in movement. Reston, VA: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance .
Stinson , S. W. 1993 . Voices from schools: The signifi cance of relationship to public school dance students. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 64(5): 52 –56 .
Ward , S. A. 2007 . Why we all should learn to dance: Re- fl ecting on the African cultural heritage. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 78(5): 3 –5, 47 .
Weikart , P. S. 2006 . Teaching movement and dance. 6th ed. Ypsilanti, MI: High Scope Press .
Weikart , P. S. 1997 . Teaching folk dance: Successful steps. Ypsilanti, MI: High Scope Press .
Willis , C. M. 1995a . Creative dance education: Establish- ing a positive learning environment. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 66(4): 16 –20 .
Willis , C. M. 1995b . Creative dance: How to increase par- ent and teacher awareness. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 66(5): 48 –53 .
CHAPTER 29 Skill Themes in Dance 617
Lummi Sticks
Lummi sticks for elementary-age children are usually
12 inches long and 1 inch in diameter. They may be
made from rolled newspaper sealed with tape or cut
from broom and mop handles or dowel rods. We have
found it best to have children practice with the paper
sticks until they master the basic patterns. Each child
needs two sticks. The routine that follows is designed
in two parts. First, children learn the basic patterns
without tossing the sticks; then they work with a part-
ner to add tossing and catching the sticks in the rhythm
of the pattern.
Basic Patterns
Pattern 1: Hold sticks together vertically, one in each
hand. Tap sticks down, tap sticks together, extend
right hand forward. Tap down, tap sticks together,
extend left hand forward. Repeat entire pattern two
times.
Pattern 2: Hold sticks vertically, one in each hand. Tap
both sticks down, tap them together, extend right
hand, extend left hand. Repeat pattern four times.
Pattern 3: Hold sticks horizontally, with front tips
extending toward the fl oor. Touch the edge of the
sticks to the fl oor, and then half-fl ip the sticks,
catching the sticks in your hands. Hold sticks verti-
cally for one count. Repeat pattern 2. Touch edge of
sticks to fl oor; half-fl ip the sticks, hold sticks one
count. Then repeat pattern 2: Tap down, tap sticks
together, extend right hand, extend left hand. Re-
peat entire pattern four times.
Pattern 4: Hold sticks horizontally on each side of
your body. Touch the edge of each stick on the fl oor,
and then half-fl ip the sticks. Bring sticks in front of
you and perform pattern 3: Side touch, fl ip; front
touch, fl ip; tap down, tap together, extend right hand,
extend left hand. Repeat entire pattern four times.
Pattern 5: Hold sticks horizontally on each side of
your body. Touch side front, side back, side front.
Bring the sticks in front of your body; touch front,
cross your arms over, touch on opposite side, un-
cross arms and touch. Repeat pattern 2: Side, touch
front, back, front; front, side, cross, side. Tap down,
tap together, extend right hand, extend left hand.
Repeat entire pattern four times.
Tossing to a Partner Children sit facing a part- ner, approximately 3 feet from the partner. Patterns
are the same basic patterns, except that instead of an
extension of the arm, the stick is tossed to the partner,
who catches it.
Chinese Ribbons
Chinese ribbons or streamers for elementary school
students are 8 to 12 feet long and made of plastic.
Crepe paper can be used, but it doesn’t withstand chil-
dren’s practice or rough handling. Streamers can be
made by attaching the plastic to a 12-inch dowel rod
with either an eyelet and screw or a swivel hook and
nylon fi shing line.
In time with the music, the streamers are twirled in
front of the body, to the side, or over the head. The
following patterns represent a combination of skills
suited for control level. Routines become more ad-
vanced as locomotor skills are added.
Pattern 1: Side circles — right side, left side
Pattern 2: Front circles
Pattern 3: Figure 8s — in front of the body
Pattern 4: Helicopter — circles overhead
Pattern 5: Lasso — front circles near the fl oor
Appendix 29A Teacher-Designed Group Routines
.
Student-designed Lummi stick routine, to be performed with a
partner.
618 PART 5 Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Pattern 6: Walk the Dog —waist-high vertical move-
ments in front, to the sides
Pattern 7: Snake — forward, backward movements
near the fl oor, in front, to the sides
Pattern 8: Mountain Peaks — slow vertical move-
ments, high to low levels
The ribbon routines of rhythmic gymnastics in the
Olympics are examples of this skill at the profi ciency
level. Visuals and educational materials relating to
rhythmic gymnastics are available from the U.S. Olym-
pic Committee, One Olympic Plaza, Colorado Springs,
CO 80909.
Musical Parachute
Parachute routines are combinations of locomotor
and nonlocomotor actions. Sample skills include:
Waves: Shaking the parachute up and down
Umbrella: Raising the parachute high overhead
Mountain: Bringing the umbrella down to touch
the edges on the fl oor
Merry-go-round: Locomotor actions moving the
parachute clockwise and counterclockwise
Floating cloud: Umbrella with release of the
parachute
Chinese ribbon patterns.
CHAPTER 29 Skill Themes in Dance 619
Mushroom: Infl ating the umbrella and moving for-
ward to a mushroom shape
Music that is fl owing, smooth, and expressive with
a strong underlying beat is good for parachute rou-
tines. The best music is a song with meaningful lyrics
and expressive movements in the format of the music.
Routines should be easy to understand and to perform,
with creative movements and shapes that fl ow and
change with the music. We have found it best to begin
with instrumental music; words can be a distraction to
the routine directions. After the students have mas-
tered the routine, the music can be either instrumental
or vocal.
The following routine is designed for students whose
skills are at the control level and is done to the music
“Pop Goes the Weasel”:
Children sit around the parachute and face clock-
wise. They hold the parachute in their right hands.
The children are numbered 1 and 2, with 2 being be-
hind 1, who is the partner.
Start the introductory music (“Pop Goes the Weasel”).
The children stand up on the fi rst “pop,” still holding
the parachute with their right hands only.
The children march clockwise in time with the mu-
sic until they hear “ Pop goes the weasel,” at which point
the 1s let go of the parachute and walk under the chute
and behind their partners. Now the 2s are in front.
Students march clockwise. On the next “pop,” the 2s
let go of the chute and go under the chute and behind
their partners. Now the 1s are in front again.
Children now skip clockwise. On the “pop,” the 1s go
under the chute and behind their partners.
The children continue skipping. On the “pop,” the 2s
go under the chute and behind their partners.
Students now face the center of the circle, holding
the parachute with both their hands. Using the
slidestep, they travel clockwise. On the “pop,” children
stop, then repeat the slidestep counterclockwise. They
stop again, raise the parachute high in the air, and
bring it back to the tuck position; they don’t let go of
the chute.
Youngsters wait for the next “pop,” at which point
they raise the parachute high in the air, walk forward
three steps, and then pull the parachute down behind
them so they’re “in the cave.”
Students wait quietly in the cave. When they hear
the fi nal “pop,” they come out of the cave.
Jump Rope
Jump rope routines at the control level should be rel-
atively short and include only the basic jumps that
everyone in class can do. As a rhythmic experience,
a group jump rope routine involves executing the
jump rope skills correctly, staying in rhythm with the
music, and staying in time with others in the group.
Music that has a strong beat and generates energy
is best for jump rope routines. The following is an ex-
ample of a group jump rope routine for children at
the control level; it is designed for 4/4 rhythm.
The children place their ropes in a V shape on the
fl oor, so they can stand inside the V and jump outside
the V.
Start with a 6-count introductory phrase. Then have
the children execute six double jumping jacks. Starting
inside the V, they clap thighs twice and clap hands
above head twice. They jump outside the V as they
clap overhead, inside the V as they clap thighs: out,
out, in, in.
The children then pick up their ropes and step over
the rope so it is behind them, ready for the fi rst skill
(4 counts).
They jump the rope using two-foot jumps eight
times.
Next, they hold both handles of the rope in their
right hands and execute eight double side swings. They
turn the ropes in a forward circle on each side of their
bodies.
Then they open the ropes and jump 12 times, using
the step-jump skill.
Children again hold handles in their right hands.
This time, they twirl the rope overhead like a helicop-
ter (16 counts).
Finally, they quickly place the ropes in a V on the
fl oor and stand inside (4 counts). Then they execute
six double jumping jacks.
620 PART 5 Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Appendix 29B
One goal in teaching dance is to work with children so that
they learn to design dances to express feelings or thoughts
that are important to them. This description of the process of
creating a dance tells how one teacher worked with a group
of upper-grade children, assisting them to create their own
dance. The description is intended to reveal the process of
creating dances; it isn’t presented as a predesigned dance to
be taught to other children.
Background
The population of the community in which the children in this
class lived was predominantly black. The eight children in
this group wished to create a dance that expressed pride
and respect for their African American heritage.
We began by using several methods to develop an outline
for the dance:
• One student wrote a short paper describing what he
considered the most important events in the television
miniseries Roots.
• The school librarian provided several sources of information.
Individual students read and outlined these sources for the
remainder of the group.
• Several students interviewed teachers and classmates
about their family backgrounds. They also asked people to
describe what emotions they had about their heritage.
Without question, Roots had the biggest infl uence in determin-
ing the students’ conception of black history. The pride and
courage of Kunta Kinte and his descendants were the qualities
the children wanted most to exhibit in their dance.
An Outline of the Dance
After gathering and reviewing this information, we discussed a
sequential outline for the dance. It was agreed that:
1. We’d begin by depicting, in some way, the period of slavery.
2. The arrival of freedom would be expressed. Interestingly,
the children didn’t want this portion of the dance to be
happy or exhilarating, for several reasons. They felt that
blacks were always free, despite slavery, that many free-
doms were long in coming, and that the struggle for
equality continues today.
3. Upon arrival of freedom, it was important to display the
pride and courage of African Americans in overcoming
many injustices, both as individuals and as a people.
4. The conclusion of the dance would be spiritual, exhibiting
respect and thankfulness to God for blessing a cherished
people.
Creation of the Dance
Children focused on each section of the dance before putting it
all together. For each portion the youngsters needed to decide
upon and write down the following:
1. Beginning location of each dancer
2. Sequential travel pathway of each dancer or of the entire
group
Travel Pattern for “Freedom”
Travel pathways
Random: dancers weaving in, out, and around
one another
Qualities
Smooth, wavy, uncertain, looking to others
for help
Actions
Wavy gesturing of arms, held upward for pro-
tection or reaching out
Slow stepping, with changes in direction and
levels
Children Designing Their Own Dance: A Description of a Process
D
RL
N
Ki
Ke
C J
S
CHAPTER 29 Skill Themes in Dance 621
Appendix 29B (continued )
3. Expressive qualities they intended to exhibit in their
movements
4. Sequence of specifi c gestures and travel skills incorporated
to express desired qualities
Once the group could perform one section to the teacher’s
and their own satisfaction, work began on the next phase of
the dance.
Slavery
After discussing the accumulated information, the children
agreed to begin the dance by exhibiting the qualities and
actions of fi eld slaves laboring under a hot sun.
Freedom
This phase of the dance was the most diffi cult for the chil-
dren. After experimenting with several ideas, the youngsters
asked if they could select music to serve as background for
the dance. They thought that if they had appropriate music as
a stimulus, they’d be able to solve their dilemmas. After lis-
tening to several cuts from the Roots soundtrack, the children
unanimously agreed that the words and slow pulse of the
song “Many Rains Ago (Oluwa)” was perfect for their
purposes.
They decided to express freedom by simply putting down
their tools and slowly and smoothly beginning to interweave
with one another, making eye contact with others for the fi rst
time. This was intended to express changed circumstances, in
which they were free and proud but still struggling. During this
phase, the youngsters’ facial features exhibited fear and uncer-
tainty about the future. The travel pattern was random.
Gathering Together: Strength as a People
To express their solidarity and pride as a people, the children’s
random travel began to be directed toward the center of the
room where they gathered one by one, grasped one another’s
hands tightly, and formed a strong, unifi ed statue.
From this point the youngsters were able to complete their
dance with little teacher suggestion or intervention.
Dispersing: Strength as Individuals
Youngsters dispersed from center stage with new vigor and
traveled along defi nite travel patterns.
Gathering Again: Strength, Pride, Confi dence
Children leaped to the center of the room, where suddenly and
simultaneously they clasped hands with one another overhead
and formed a statue.
Respect and Thankfulness to God
From the statue position, youngsters slowly bowed and trav-
eled to semicircle formation. Slowly they dropped to their
knees, and then slowly they raised their hands and heads
upward.
Conclusion: We Are Strong and Proud
Youngsters slowly bent to curled position. . . . Suddenly and si-
multaneously they rose on knees to grasp one another’s hands
to form a statue as a fi nal statement of strength and pride.
Travel Pattern for “Gathering Again: Strength, Pride,
Confi dence”
Travel pathways
All dancers suddenly and simultaneously gather in the middle
with a run, leap, and turn
Qualities
Strong, confi dent, proud, smooth, and fl uent
Actions
Smooth, fl uent leap and landing when dancers grasp each
other’s hands overhead and freeze into a stillness N
J
D
K
E
C
R
S
622 PART 5 Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas www.mhhe.com /graham8e
622
C H A P T E R
30
Skill Themes in Gymnastics If gymnastics is to be for everyone, including the handicapped child, then all children cannot be
asked to do the same gymnastic movement at the same time, in exactly the same way, for clearly
some children are going to be underchallenged and some are going to be overchallenged.
—ANDREA BOUCHER
CHAPTER 30 Skill Themes in Gymnastics 623
T he skill themes of balancing and transferring
weight, coupled with jumping and landing and
traveling, form the foundation of educational
gymnastics. As stated earlier in the text, movement skills
and concepts form the curricular base for elementary
physical education, with dance, educational gymnastics,
and games/sports skills as the content areas through
which these skills and concepts are explored, mastered,
and applied. The development and mastery of skills
would be of little value if left in isolation, without infu-
sion into games, gymnastics, and dance. This chapter
integrates the skills of traveling, jumping and landing,
balancing, and transferring weight, as well as the con-
cepts of space awareness, effort, and relationships, into
the content area of educational gymnastics.
The Nature of Gymnastics
The self-testing nature of gymnastics is challenging to
children. They constantly ask themselves, “Can I bal-
ance in this position without falling? Can I walk this
curb? Can I stand on my head? Can I climb this tree
and hang by my arms?” These self-testing challenges
meet the criteria of effective teaching /learning in sev-
eral ways.
First, children receive immediate feedback regarding
the skill: “Yes, I can do a headstand, ” or “No, I am still
losing my balance.” Second, the feedback is personal
and not dependent on others; children do not have
to rely on others to determine whether they are suc-
cessful at the task. Third, the self-challenging tasks of
gymnastics are a natural part of children’s world; their
environment, coupled with their curiosity and love of
movement, creates multiple opportunities for climbing,
hanging, supporting weight on different body parts,
balancing, rolling, and so on. Finally, the self-testing
nature of gymnastics permits younger children who are
still in the egocentric stage of development to participate
fully and successfully in a personal challenge without the
necessity of team play or cooperative work with other
children.
Children are exposed to advanced, competitive gym-
nastics through television coverage of the Olympics, as
well as by watching local club gymnasts on the play-
grounds and in their neighborhoods. Children with out
a background of gymnastics experiences often enter our
gymnasiums saying, “I can’t do those things” or asking
“Will we do back handsprings today?” Our task is to
present gymnastics for children in a way that is both
challenging and appropriate for all students in our
classes. The skills covered in the earlier chapters on
balancing and transferring weight and rolling, along
with those of jumping, landing, and locomotion, are
the skills in educational gymnastics that are appropri-
ate for elementary physical education.
To children, the self-testing, risk-taking nature of
gymnastics brings excitement; to the teacher, it brings
the challenge of creating a safe environment. We as
teachers must always be sure the equipment arrange-
ment, class organization, and selection of tasks maxi-
mize safety for our students. There must be a match
between student and task, with intratask variation to
allow for individual differences. The skills must progress
from simple to complex, and the students must master
each task before moving to the more complex. The
teacher must never require that all students perform the
same task. Performance of a certain skill must never be
linked to a “grade” in physical education. The gymnas-
tics tasks presented must be challenging to the less
skilled, yet not boring to the highly skilled; tasks that are
too easy or too diffi cult can lead to boredom and frustra-
tion. As a result, children may create their own agenda
and an unsafe environment for learn ing in gymnastics.
Finally, the mastery of gymnastics skills is a slow process
and must not be rushed by us as teachers or by our stu-
dents. These considerations are critically important to creat-
ing a safe learning environment for all children.
• Educational gymnastics focuses on children challenging
themselves to maneuver their bodies effectively against
the force of gravity, with challenges appropriate for each
child and his or her skill level.
• Olympic-style gymnastics centers on specialized skills,
performed the same way by all children with a goal of
formal competition.
• The content of educational gymnastics derives from the
skill themes of balance, transferring weight, and rolling
in combination with jumping /landing, traveling, and
movement concepts.
• Educational gymnastics includes fl oor experiences and
apparatus experiences.
• Educational gymnastics apparatus includes tables,
benches, beams, bars, vaulting boxes, and playground
apparatus.
• Children should never be forced into attempting a
gymnastics skill or activity; the teacher’s knowledge of
individual students and selection of developmentally ap-
propriate activities are critical for positive learning experi-
ences and safety.
Key Concepts
624 PART 5 Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas www.mhhe.com/graham8e
The Purpose of Gymnastics
Educational gymnastics as taught in physical educa-
tion is not the same as Olympic gymnastics; the two
have related but different purposes. Olympic-style
gym nastics centers on specialized skills, with all stu-
dents performing the same way, and on training for
formal gymnastics competition. In educational gym-
nastics, we don’t train children to become competitive
gymnasts; rather, we provide experiences to teach chil-
dren to maneuver their bodies effectively against the
force of gravity with balance and transferring weight
challenges in appropriate environments on both the
fl oor and apparatus. We attempt to provide our stu-
dents with a foundation of gymnastics experiences
that increase their skills and introduce them to the
types of activities characteristic of gymnastics.
The National Standards for Physical Education (NASPE
2004) supports the inclusion of educational gymnas-
tics in elementary physical education. See Box 30-1 for
the sample outcomes specifi c to gymnastics in the ele-
mentary school curriculum contained in the National
Standards.
The specialization of skills for competitive, Olympic-
style gymnastics is reserved for club gymnastics and
after-school programs with trained gymnastics special-
ists and coaches. These programs provide the training
Moving in relation to apparatus is part of educational gymnastics.
Educational Gymnastics and the National Standards for Physical Education
The National Association for Sport and Physical Education’s
National Standards for Physical Education (NASPE 2004)
cites the following performance outcomes for educational
gymnastics in elementary physical education:
• Discovers how to balance on different body parts, at
different levels, becoming “like” a statue while making
symmetrical and nonsymmetrical shapes (K–2)*
• Balances with control on a variety of objects, such as
large apparatus (3–5)*
• Develops and refi nes a gymnastics sequence demon-
strating smooth transitions (3–5)*
• Designs and performs gymnastics sequences that com-
bine traveling, rolling, balancing, and weight transfer into
smooth, fl owing sequences with intentional changes in
direction, speed, and fl ow (6–8)*
*Grade-level guidelines for expected student learning.
Box 30-1
Young children enjoy balancing on different body parts.
CHAPTER 30 Skill Themes in Gymnastics 625
given. We decide whether the response is appropriate
for physical education class or best reserved for club
gymnastics; for example, we consider whether the
stunt requires a spotter and whether the other children
will be tempted to imitate a stunt beyond their capa-
bilities that could result in injury.
Other children in class may ask for help in learning
a specifi c stunt or in perfecting one they’ve seen and
are practicing on their own. The teacher’s guidance is
very important in these instances. As teachers, we can
assess the child’s skill level and the diffi culty of the
stunt. If these match, we can give the verbal cues and /
or assistance to enable the child to learn the skill cor-
rectly and safely.
The Content of Educational Gymnastics
The content of educational gymnastics derives from the
skill themes of balancing, transferring weight, and roll-
ing in combination with jumping, landing, and travel-
ing. The specifi cs of these themes, as well as appropriate
challenges for children, are found in Chapters 19, 21,
22, and 23. The content also includes such movement
concepts as directions, levels, pathways, time, shapes,
and the actions of stretching, curling, and twisting
(Chapters 16, 17, 18). These movement concepts and
actions are incorporated into the gymnastics themes
only after children have experienced them in isola-
tion and /or in games and dance. For example, chil-
dren do not study twisting into and out of balances
before they have an understanding of the action of
twisting.
Before studying a skill theme in educational gymnas-
tics, children need an understanding of the concept of
balance in gymnastics—maintaining stillness in a posi-
tion and holding that position for 3 to 5 seconds. Many
children can take weight on their hands momentarily
or balance in a headstand for 1 to 2 seconds but cannot
hold the position stationary for 5 seconds. Children
need early experiences in aligning body parts for bal-
ance and in tightening the muscles to maintain balance
as prerequisites to skill themes in educational gymnas-
tics. Children often fall out of inverted balances because
the body parts are not properly aligned over the base of
support and muscular tension is not suffi cient to hold
the proper alignment. Introductory and review lessons
focusing on these fundamental skills will contribute
to a safer environment in which students experience
balance and weight transference activities and will also
enhance mastery in gymnastics learning experiences.
Educational gymnastics is divided into fl oor experi-
ences and apparatus experiences. Floor experiences are
movements executed on grass, mats, or carpeting that
needed for specialization in specifi c stunts, required rou-
tines, and advanced aerial skills. Children interested in
Olympic-style gymnastics or advanced work beyond the
level of educational gymnastics can enroll in programs
sponsored by youth agencies or private clubs. Some
schools offer after-school programs for students who
want additional practice in gymnastics.
Specializing in and teaching Olympic-style gym-
nastics in physical education class can educate a few
students, but the majority will be left behind, and the
risk of injury for the less skilled students will increase.
Educational gymnastics programs are designed to as-
sist all children, regardless of ability, to improve their
gymnastics skills — to become better able to control
their bodies in the variety of planned and unplanned
encounters they will have, as children and as adults,
with the force of gravity ( Box 30-2 ).
Do we exclude Olympic stunts from our curriculum?
Not at all. Children at the utilization and profi ciency
levels who have a background in gymnastics experiences
and the proper body control often use Olympic stunts
as a response to a gymnastics task. When children use
a handstand, walkover, or cartwheel, for example, the
maneuver should be identifi ed as such. With children
who do have a background in gymnastics, we discuss
the stunts they have chosen in response to the task
Appropriate and Inappropriate Physical Education Practices
Educational Gymnastics
Appropriate Practice
• Educational gymnastic lessons develop skills appropriate
to the children’s abilities and confi dence in balancing, rolling,
jumping, landing, climbing and transferring weight.
• Children practice on apparatus designed to match their
gymnastic abilities and confi dence.
Inappropriate Practice
• Teachers require all students to perform the same prede-
termined stunts and routines while the remainder of the
class sits and watches.
• Predetermined stunts require extensive teacher direction
and spotting because they are too diffi cult for many of
the children.
Source: National Association for Sport and Physical Education,
Appropriate Practices for Elementary School Physical Education,
3rd ed. (Reston, VA: NASPE, 2009).
Box 30-2
626 PART 5 Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas www.mhhe.com /graham8e
doesn’t require equipment to enhance the challenge.
Apparatus experiences involve moving in relation to
one or several pieces of equipment (tables, benches,
beam, bars, vaulting boxes, and playground apparatus).
Although apparatus adds excitement to gymnastics,
children can experience challenging, rewarding work
in educational gymnastics with fl oor experiences only.
Even in a program rich in gymnastics apparatus,
children should spend a large amount of time on fl oor/
mat experiences before they begin work on apparatus.
Balancing, transferring weight, and rolling activities
should be mastered on mats and carpet squares before
they are attempted on low or high gymnastics appara-
tus. Many of the movements performed on the fl oor
will be replicated on apparatus, but the height and
narrowness of the surfaces will increase the diffi-
culty of the task. Students begin apparatus work on low,
larger surfaces—that is, crates/boxes, low beams, and
benches—before they work on higher, more narrow
pieces of apparatus.
Floor Experiences
Children at the precontrol level in educational gym-
nastics explore balancing on different body parts as
bases of support, balancing on wide bases, and balanc-
ing in different shapes. They learn to curve their bod-
ies into rounded shapes and to maintain the rounded
shape for rocking /rolling. They also learn to transfer
weight safely on and off equipment and apparatus.
Control-level experiences include rolling from dif-
ferent positions and in different directions. Inverted
balances are introduced, with a strong emphasis on
alignment of body parts and muscular tension to main-
tain balance. The concept of stillness is studied in com-
bination with weight-transfer actions and as a contrast
to rolling. Beginning at the control level, children are
challenged with combinations of skills and the combi-
nation of skills and concepts — for example, moving
from a two-part balance into a three-part balance on
new bases of support or balancing in a wide body shape
at different levels.
Floor experiences for children are designed to lead
children from exploration of balances and transferring
weight to control of their bodies in these self-imposed
challenges to application of the skills in gymnastics
sequences. Children are introduced to sequences at the
control level. Beginning-level sequences may be as
simple as a beginning shape, followed by three balances
on different bases of support and an ending shape. As
children become more competent in gymnastics and
more confi dent in the process, sequences become in-
creasingly complex, with combinations of transfer ac-
tions and stillness, movement concepts, and transitions.
These sequences still include a beginning and an ending
shape.
Exploring basic shapes on
apparatus follows balances on
the floor /mats.
CHAPTER 30 Skill Themes in Gymnastics 627
More advanced and increasingly complex sequences
of movements are enjoyable and challenging to chil-
dren at the utilization level who have developed control
over movements executed singularly. Gymnastics se-
quences for these children include stretching, curling,
twisting, and/or rolling actions as transitions between
balances, as well as combinations of balances, weight-
transfer actions, and traveling. Movement concepts and
variations of a concept (e.g., changes in levels, varia-
tions in speed) are incorporated in the sequences.
Maintaining weight on hands, exploring the state
of being “almost off” balance, and taking part or all of
a partner’s weight are appropriate profi ciency-level
tasks for children in educational gymnastics. Students
at this level enjoy focusing on the quality of move-
ment execution in gymnastics. The concepts of accel-
eration and deceleration, strong and light, bound and
free are added to sequences. Matching or mirroring the
movements of a partner, repeating sequences of several
gymnastics movements, and experiences that involve
several students supporting one another’s weight are
all profi ciency-level gymnastics fl oor experiences.
Apparatus Experiences
Once children demonstrate control of their bodies in
educational gymnastics fl oor experiences, have an un-
derstanding of safety in gymnastics, and understand
the concept of sequences, we introduce them to experi-
ences on apparatus. Balance beams, parallel bars, side
horses, vaulting boxes, and still rings are Olympic gym-
nastics equipment. Some elementary schools have this
offi cial gymnastics apparatus, but many elementary
school programs use benches, tables, chairs, hoops, the
edge of a stage, climbing ropes, and climbing frames to
provide gymnastics experiences on apparatus. Unoffi -
cial equipment is often more compatible with the chil-
dren’s abilities, and children have fewer preconceived
notions about what is expected when they practice
movements on an unfamiliar or nontraditional piece
of equipment.
You can introduce the children to a piece of appara-
tus by encouraging them to explore the equipment and
to discover safe ways to get on and off it. Children at
the precontrol level can start by walking along a low
beam or bench, jumping from a chair or low table,
hanging from a climbing rope at a low height, or travel-
ing along a climbing frame. Obstacle courses designed
from available equipment — tables, benches, chairs,
hoops, ropes — are also challenging to children at this
level as they learn the concepts of under, over, along,
and through. Some children will immediately begin to
explore the apparatus; other children will be more cau-
tious. Never force any child onto a piece of apparatus.
Children at the control level, while continuing to
explore apparatus, can begin to focus on different ways
to move in relation to the equipment. They can try
different ways of traveling along a beam, hanging from
a bar or rope, jumping from a table or chair, or traveling
from side to side on a climbing frame. They can balance
on different bases of support and combine traveling
with stationary balances on apparatus. Sequence work
at the control level might include transferring weight
onto the apparatus, balancing and traveling on the
apparatus, and traveling off the apparatus. Skills that
were mastered during the fl oor experiences present a
Weight on hands is a challenge on apparatus.
628 PART 5 Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas www.mhhe.com/graham8e
new challenge to children as they attempt them on
various pieces of gymnastics apparatus.
Children at the utilization level can try different
ways to get onto equipment, vaulting over equipment,
and forming shapes in fl ight while moving from ap-
paratus to the fl oor. Apparatus experiences that involve
supporting weight on different body parts, transferring
weight on equipment, nonsymmetrical balances, and
inverted balances are also appropriate for children at
this level.
When children reach the profi ciency level, they
should continue to focus on increasingly demanding
balances, shapes, ways of traveling, and ways of sup-
porting body weight. As with gymnastics experiences
on the fl oor that lead from exploration to mastery to
application, children on gymnastics apparatus pro-
gress from exploration and safety on apparatus to con-
trol of their bodies and mastery of skills to application
in sequences. Educational gymnastics sequences at the
utilization and profi ciency levels demonstrate mastery
of advanced skills, complex combinations of skills and
concepts, and individual and /or partner creativity.
From the beginning, children should be encour-
aged to focus on the quality of their movements and
to be creative and versatile in their sequence composi-
tion. The educational gymnastic sequence is the child’s
expression of self — a portrayal of self in gymnastics
showing skills and concepts that fl ow together smoothly
and fl uently.
Series of lessons that demonstrate the progression of
educational gymnastics from fl oor/mat experiences to
low apparatus to higher, more narrow apparatus can
be found in On the Move: Lesson Plans to Accompany
Children Moving (Holt/Hale 2010) under the skill
themes of Jumping and Landing, Balancing, and Trans-
ferring Weight.
Recording Sequences
A sequence in gymnastics can be compared to a recital
piece in music. Once the children have learned the
skills, they are to memorize and then repeat them in
exactly the same order with exactly the same balances
and actions. This is one of the most diffi cult parts of
sequencing for children. They enjoy creating, but not
memorizing for repetition. Recording the sequences
with paper and pencil helps children retain them. The
children may record their gymnastics sequences with
drawings and stick fi gures. We call them stick fi gures;
the art teacher calls them pictographs. We have found
several approaches to the recording of gymnastic se-
quences: You as a teacher may develop a method of
recording sequences that will be used in all your gym-
nastics classes. The children may create their individual
notation systems, or each class may devise a system of
notation for balances and actions. With a strong em-
phasis on the creativity and the individual uniqueness
of children, we enjoy the children each creating their
individual notation systems.
Outdoor Play Equipment as Gymnastics
Apparatus
Outdoor playground equipment can serve as gymnastics
apparatus in schools that have no indoor equipment or
indoor physical education facility and as an additional
avenue of exploration for children who’ve experienced
indoor gymnastics. Children at the precontrol and con-
trol levels can focus on body control on various pieces of
equipment. Children at the utilization and profi ciency
levels will be challenged by the complexity of structure,
the number of bars, the distance between bars, and the
variety of levels on playground equipment. Horizontal
ladders, parallel bars, jungle gyms, monkey bars, and
telephone pole balance beams can be used for rolling,
balancing, and transferring weight on apparatus. (See
Chapters 22 and 23 for these activities.)
Very often the key to successfully teaching gym-
nastics on the playground is the positioning of the
playground equipment: grouping versus isolated
pieces of equipment. If the playground equipment is
grouped, several pieces can easily accommodate a class
of 25 to 30 children. But if the playground arrange-
ment is such that instruction of the group on various
apparatus as well as of individuals isn’t possible, cable
spools and milk crates can be added to supplement
large apparatus.
Children’s work on playground apparatus should begin
with a study of the proper use of the equipment— the ac-
ceptable and unacceptable activities on the apparatus—
and correct ways of getting on and off the apparatus. Early
in the school year, let the children explore the various
pieces of apparatus; this will lead to questions from the
children and class discussions about what is permitted
during both physical education class and recess. Any safety
rules needed should be developed cooperatively by teacher
and students; the rules may vary for younger and older
children.
The use of playground equipment in physical educa-
tion class will lead to increased use of that equipment
during recess, which may make classroom teachers
uncomfortable with children on the equipment. How-
ever, a booklet of the rules established for physical educa-
tion class and for recess will help the classroom teacher
be more at ease. The use of apparatus during physical
education can be very different from the use of apparatus
during recess; it’s our responsibility to be sure children
understand the difference.
CHAPTER 30 Skill Themes in Gymnastics 629
Rolling on a bench is a
challenge for this utilization-level
student.
These youngsters enjoy creating matching balances.
The Process of Teaching Educational Gymnastics
Teaching gymnastics is different from teaching either
dance or games because of the self-testing nature of
gymnastics and because apparatus is used. Successful
educational gymnastics teachers are able to match in-
teresting and challenging tasks to the children’s ability
levels. This is a teaching skill learned only with time
and practice.
Some teachers avoid gymnastics because they are
concerned about the safety of the children and are afraid
that children might be injured; some administrators are
hesitant to include gymnastics in the curriculum for the
same reasons. Injury is always a possibility in physical
education classes. When the focus is on educational
gymnastics (as opposed to Olympic-style stunts) and
when the experiences are presented sequentially and in
an appropriate environment, gymnastics is no more
dangerous than other physical education activities. The
following ideas relating to the learning environment
and the teaching of educational gymnastics help create
successful and safe experiences for children. Taken toge-
ther, these suggestions, along with the safety emphasis
icon ( ), will help establish a safe learning environ-
ment for the teaching of educational gymnastics.
The Learning Environment
From the initial lessons, children learn spatial awareness
of their movements and the movements of others. They
are taught not to interfere with others attempting their
gymnastics work, either by touching or talking to them.
Concentration on the task is essential in gymnastics.
An appropriate learning environment in gymnas-
tics emphasizes safety throughout. Encourage the chil-
dren to be responsible for their own safety. Stress that
if they don’t think they can do something, they should
either not do it or ask you for help. Games of I Dare
You and Follow the Leader are inappropriate in gym-
nastics classes. Remember, following the progression
outlined in the spirals for gymnastics skills, and mas-
tering a skill before attempting the next, are critical for
630 PART 5 Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas www.mhhe.com /graham8e
safety. Gymnastics classes are not the place for off-task
behavior; being off task in games and /or dance may
result in behavior that is inappropriate, but off-task
behavior in gymnastics can lead to injury. When we
encourage children to be responsible for themselves,
they will rely less on us and more on themselves to
determine what is appropriate. Acceptance of responsi-
bility and self-reliance are goals of physical education;
they are major goals in teaching gymnastics.
Gymnastics Equipment
Gymnastics apparatus is heavy, cumbersome, and diffi -
cult for one person to move. In some situations, gym-
nastics would never be taught if the teacher had to move
the gymnastics equipment alone. Children can be taught
to move gymnastics equipment correctly during the fi rst
few lessons in which the apparatus is used. Once they
learn to maneuver the apparatus safely and effi ciently,
the children can set up or take down a gymnastics envi-
ronment in a short time. The following guidelines should
be followed when children move gymnastics apparatus:
• An adequate number of children (as determined by
the teacher) must be present before equipment can
be moved.
• Children are to lift the equipment together and
lower it together, being careful of toes and fi ngers.
• Each piece of apparatus has its own storage space to
which it is to be returned.
Moving gymnastics apparatus correctly is as impor-
tant a part of the children’s learning in educational
gymnastics as working safely on the apparatus. Taking
the time during the initial lessons to teach them the
proper procedure will help create a safe environment
for gymnastics and increase valuable instructional time
in subsequent lessons.
Stations
Initial gymnastics lessons for children at the precon-
trol level focus on fl oor experiences with large-group
instruction. During this time, the children learn how to
control their bodies when balancing, transferring
weight, and rolling; they also learn about safety in gym-
nastics and working independently. After children
demonstrate the ability to work safely and indepen-
dently, allowing the class to work at stations (learning
centers) can be a most effi cient method of providing
maximum participation on gymnastics apparatus. The
stations are set up in different parts of the teaching
area (see Chapter 13), with groups working on the
same or different skills on the various pieces of equip-
ment. Sample tasks include jumping from a low table
or chair onto a mat, landing, and rolling; traveling dif-
ferent ways along a bench or beam; climbing a rope;
practicing taking weight on hands; and traveling onto
and off a table.
This method of organization allows the use of vari-
ous pieces of equipment and eliminates long lines.
Children are encouraged to be
responsible for themselves and
their own safety.
CHAPTER 30 Skill Themes in Gymnastics 631
Tasks for the stations can be written on poster boards
and taped to the wall near each station. This increases
practice time: The children can read the directions and
begin work immediately. The number of stations and
complexity of the setup are guided by the following
considerations:
• How many stations will the total available space
accommodate?
• Are there enough mats to place under and around
each piece of equipment?
• Is the space surrounding the station adequate for the
children to practice getting off the equipment — for
example, jumping, landing, and rolling — safely?
• Is the space between the stations suffi cient to allow
the children to work without interfering with those
at the adjoining station?
• Does the setup provide the teacher the freedom to
move throughout the learning environment, giving
individual assistance as needed?
is too diffi cult for them, and they know it. When you
offer children some choices about how they’ll perform a
task, each child can select an appropriate level of activ-
ity. For example, it’s unlikely that all the children in a
particular class will be able to do a handstand. Some
children may not be strong enough to support all their
body weight on their hands; some won’t be able to land
safely if they lose their balance. Instead of telling the
entire class to do a handstand, you could tell the chil-
dren to fi nd a way to place some or all of their weight
on their hands. An instruction that allows for individual
differences in ability affords all children an opportunity
for success.
Safety Check
Teach children very early in gymnastics to do a “Safety
Check” before they begin work at any station: mats correctly
placed under equipment, adequate space surrounding the
equipment. In the beginning, stop the class frequently and
ask the children to do a “Safety Check,” visually scanning
the working area for space and equipment safety.
Transferring weight from feet to
hands is a control-level activity that
can later be used in gymnastics
routines.
Safety Rules
Rules for working safely on mats and apparatus should be
explained, demonstrated, and enforced very carefully. We
suggest posting the rules where the children can see them
as they work. (See Chapter 9, “Establishing an Environment
for Learning,” for additional suggestions.)
Club Gymnasts
Some of the children in your classes may be studying
gymnastics independently, perhaps in a club or recre-
ation program. Most of the club gymnasts are more
skilled than the other children — many are at the pro-
fi ciency level in many skills. Their skills in gymnastics
may exceed your teaching knowledge and ability in
this area. Because you’re responsible for the safety of
all the children, the activities of these club gymnasts
may cause you some uneasiness.
If you explain your concern to these children,
you’ll fi nd that they appreciate your candor. Tell
these young gymnasts that you’re working to learn
Varying the Task
When all the children in a class are expected to perform
the same skill the same way, two things are likely to
happen. Many of the children in the class will be bored
because they can already perform the task successfully.
Some of the children will be frightened because the task
632 PART 5 Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas www.mhhe.com /graham8e
about the movements they’re practicing. Assure them
that once you’re skilled enough to help them prac-
tice appropriately and safely, you’ll be delighted to
have them resume practice in class.
This approach makes it clear that you aren’t criticiz-
ing but instead are respecting their profi ciency. Stu-
dents will, in turn, respect you for acknowledging your
limitations and seeking their cooperation, and teacher –
student rapport will be enhanced.
The other children will look to the club gymnasts as
models and sources for new ideas. The presence of club
gymnasts in a gymnastics class results in an interesting
blend of child-created gymnastics skills and Olympic
gymnastics skills, providing an interesting dimension
to gymnastics lessons.
Demonstrating
Some teachers feel that because they aren’t skilled gym-
nasts themselves, they won’t be able to teach gymnas-
tics effectively. Certainly a thorough background in a
teaching area is an asset in teaching. But even teachers
who aren’t skilled gymnasts can provide children with
appropriate gymnastics experiences. In educational
gymnastics, the instructor doesn’t need to be able to
demonstrate a skill correctly, because the children are
never expected to perform the same skill the same way.
If you want to give children additional ideas or to em-
phasize a particular movement quality or concept, you
can invite some of the more profi cient children to dem-
onstrate for the rest of the class. This technique has the
added advantage of reinforcing those children who are
working especially well.
Spotting
Spotting — the practice of physically assisting children as
they perform a movement — isn’t commonly used in edu-
cational gymnastics classes. Children who depend on
such help are likely to be unsure and even afraid unless a
teacher is nearby. And, conversely, spotting encourages
children to attempt movements they may not be ready for.
We’ve observed a number of programs, including our
own, in which children have progressed to a relatively high
level of skill profi ciency without any spotting. To say we
do not “spot” children when they are performing skills in
educational gymnastics is not to say we do not strongly
believe in safety for all children in the gymnastics setting.
Throughout the skill themes for gymnastics (Chapters 19,
21– 23), you will have noted the safety icon ( ) emphasiz-
ing safety tips for the teacher.
The Little Gymnast
Come with us, now, to a very nice place where little children
swing on rings.
Where laughter is king — and happiness queen — and
everyone likes who they are.
On a little green island called Mercer, in a big blue
Washington lake surrounded by trees, is a wonderful build-
ing assembled by people who think it’s important for children
to play. And learn. And fi nd out what they can do.
The building is called the Jewish Community Center, and
children come from miles around to follow a Pied Piper of a
man named Robin West.
Robin grew up in South Africa and then went to college
at the University of Saskatchewan in Canada. Now he
teaches movement, tumbling, and gymnastics to hundreds
of boys and girls in the United States. One of his favorite
classes is “kiddie gymnastics,” for little gymnasts, four to six.
Most four-year-olds already know how to run, jump, and
play when they come to their very fi rst day of kiddie gymnas-
tics. But in no time at all, Robin can open their eyes to hun-
dreds of new ways to move, swing, roll, bend, and balance
their bodies with success.
“Success for everyone” is the motto in kiddie gymnastics.
It’s such a simple motto — so easy to follow — that some-
times even Robin and the children’s parents must stop to re-
mind themselves of its magic.
A child is a butterfl y in the wind. Some can fl y higher than
others; but each one fl ies the best way it can. Why compare
one against the other? Each one is different. Each one is
special. Each one is beautiful.
In kiddie gymnastics, everyone fl ies and nobody fails.
There’s plenty of praise for the attempt well-tried. To balance
on a beam for the very fi rst time is discovery. To be praised
and applauded for the very same motion is joy.
In just a few short weeks the children in Robin’s class have
learned to move with a confi dence, poise, and imagination
that surprises and pleases both themselves and their parents.
But they’ve also learned something else along the way.
You can see it in their eyes when they tug so gently on Robin’s
bushy black beard. You can see it in the way they lie on their
backsides and stare at the ceiling and giggle. It’s as if they’ve
learned something deep and exciting about themselves.
“I’m me . . . I’m special . . . I can try.”
“If I make a mistake, it’s all right. I’ll start over . . . I’ll
learn . . . I’ll get better.”
“Look at my friend. I’m helping him stand on his head.
He’s special, too.”
“We’re good. We’re children. We’re okay.”
—Dan Zadra
Source: Dan Zadra, “The Little Gymnast,” Young Athlete
Magazine (June 1976), p. 8. Reprinted with permission.
CHAPTER 30 Skill Themes in Gymnastics 633
A Final Thought
Teaching educational gymnastics is, in the beginning,
perhaps more diffi cult than teaching Olympic-style
gymnastics. In Olympic gymnastics, the desired out-
comes are clear — the teacher wants the children to
learn to execute predetermined skills in specifi c ways.
In educational gymnastics, the skills to be learned
aren’t predetermined, nor are they to be executed in
one correct way. Instead, the teacher helps the children
to improve their abilities to move in relation to the
force of gravity, to learn self-confi dence and self-reliance
in interpreting tasks and determining the best ways
to execute skills. Often it’s more diffi cult for a teacher
to share decisions with children than it is for the
teacher to make the decisions. You’ll fi nd, however,
that the process of sharing decisions in educational
gymnastics can be exciting for you, the teacher, and
rewarding for the children, regardless of their gym-
nastics abilities.
References /Suggested Readings
Boucher , A. 1978 . Educational gymnastics is for everyone. Journal of Physical Education and Recreation 49(7): 48 –50 .
Cameron , W. McD. , and P. Pleasance . 1971 . Education in movement — gymnastics. Oxford, England: Basil Blackwell .
Carroll , M. E. , and D. R. Garner. 1984 . Gymnastics 7–11: A lesson-by-lesson approach. London: Falmer Press .
Holbrook , J. 1974 . Movement activity in gymnastics. Boston: Plays .
Holt/Hale , S. 2010 . On the move: Lesson plans to accompany Children Moving. 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill .
Mauldon , E. , and J. Layson . 1965 , 1979 . Teaching gymnastics. London: MacDonald & Evans .
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. Why do children fi nd balancing, transferring weight,
and supporting weight on different body parts fasci-
nating skills?
2. What are the purposes of Olympic gymnastics and
educational gymnastics?
3. What are the two types of experiences in educa-
tional gymnastics? Describe each type.
4. What activities are taught at the different levels of
skill profi ciency for both types of educational gym-
nastics experiences?
5. How are children introduced to equipment?
6. Why are equipment arrangement, class organiza-
tion, and selection of tasks extremely important in
the teaching of educational gymnastics? Explain the
signifi cance of each in establishing the learning
environment.
7. Why is it important to vary the task in gymnastics?
8. Why is teaching Olympic gymnastics somewhat
easier than teaching educational gymnastics?
Summary
Because of the self-testing nature of gymnastics, most
children are fascinated by the challenge of attempting
to defy the force of gravity. It’s important to distin-
guish educational gymnastics from Olympic gymnas-
tics. Educational gymnastics focuses on enhancing
each child’s ability to maneuver the body more effec-
tively against the force of gravity. Olympic gymnastics
emphasizes the learning of specifi c gymnastics stunts,
usually for the purpose of entering individual or team
competition.
Many gymnastics movements are learned on the fl oor
(mats) fi rst and then practiced on apparatus. Gymnastics
apparatus can be purchased, or equipment available in
schools—such as tables, chairs, and benches— can be
adapted to serve the same purposes.
Because of the increased likelihood of injury in
gymnastics, it’s important to establish an appropriate
learning environment so that children avoid games
like Follow the Leader or I Dare You. Gymnastics
tasks can be presented in ways that allow for indi-
vidual differences, and this should be done so that
children aren’t tempted to try movements they aren’t
ready for.
634 PART 5 Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Morison , R. 1969 . A movement approach to educational gym- nastics. London: Dent .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2004 . Moving in the future: National standards for physical education. 2nd ed. Reston, VA: NASPE .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2009 . Appropriate practices for elementary school physical education. 3rd ed. Reston, VA: NASPE .
Nilges , L. M. 1997 . Stages of content development in educational gymnastics. Journal of Physical Education, Re- creation and Dance 68(3): 50 –55 .
Nilges , L. M. 1999 . Refi ning skill in educational gym- nastics: Seeing quality through variety. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 70(3): 43 – 48 .
Trevor , M. D. 1985 . The development of gymnastics skills. Oxford, England: Basil Blackwell .
Werner , P. H. 2004 . Teaching children gymnastics: A develop- mentally appropriate approach. 2nd ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Zadra , D. 1976 . The little gymnast. Young Athlete Magazine ( June): 8 .
635
C H A P T E R
31
Skill Themes in Games
The game is not sacred; children are.
— JIM STIEHL
636 PART 5 Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas www.mhhe.com /graham8e
A s content is developed, the manipulative skill
themes coupled with the locomotor skill themes
of traveling, chasing, fl eeing, and dodging are
largely applied in the context of games. As such, it is
not the game that is important, but the use of skills in
game settings. The “game” allows children to apply
the skills they have learned in a dynamic environment.
Thus our task is to provide games experiences for chil-
dren in a way that is both challenging and appropriate
for all students in our classes.
You might ask at this point, Why include this chap-
ter here, since invariant game skill, game, and gamelike
experiences are included in the skill theme chapters? At
some point, all three types of experiences appear in skill
theme activities as the challenges that allow children to
use the skills they have learned. The notion that children
must do boring “practice” tasks before “playing the
game” is exactly what skill themes is not about. Our
contention is that children should apply their newly
acquired skills in developmentally appropriate activi-
ties throughout their learning. This chapter is designed
to let you see how game and gamelike experiences are
developed and the richness of game possibilities.
The Nature of Games
Games always seem to take us back. They take us back
to our own childhood, when we played for hours on
the school playground, in the streets, and in the back-
yards of our neighborhoods. We played our made-up
games, we played games with names like Red Rover
and dodgeball that we had learned somewhere, and we
played games that were called by “real” names such as
baseball and football. Our games playing is steeped in
tradition. And tradition can be good or bad. It is good
when it enables us to pass on the best of what games
have to offer — friendship, skill practice, teamwork,
camaraderie, and the sheer excitement of playing.
Yet all too often, games playing seems to be the
content area that traps us in the negative aspects of our
tradition. We are trapped by the same tradition that
brought us joy, trapped into thinking that what gave
us excitement and satisfaction will also bring excite-
ment and satisfaction to all of today’s children. That
entrapment lets us forget how we were usually the
highly skilled players and how even we changed those
games. We become so ingrained in the tradition that
we forget how we made constant adjustments to all
our games to make them “our own” and to meet our
needs and the needs of others.
We made the games fi t us, rather than fi tting our-
selves to the games. Rarely, if ever, did we play on
regulation fi elds with regulation equipment with the
“right” number of players or by any rules other than
our own. We had bricks for bases, four players on a
baseball team, imaginary runners, and no gloves, and
we played with whatever bat and ball we could fi nd.
We didn’t have people sit out, as they were all our
friends. Yet somehow when we teach games to chil-
dren, we tend to get caught in the rules that we learned
later in life, rules that we played by as teenagers and
adults. Our challenge is to help all children enjoy play-
ing games that are theirs, not ours, and to help prepare
them to want to play games forever —whatever those
games may be. Our challenge is to make the games-
playing experience fi t the child. Thus you will not fi nd
“games” in this chapter or in the skill theme chapters,
but you will fi nd experiences that allow children to
apply their skills in a variety of developmentally appro-
priate games-playing situations.
• The purpose of educational games in the elementary
curriculum is for youngsters to become versatile, adapt-
able, and skillful games players in meaningful game
situations.
• Games and sports are different; sports (in their institu-
tionalized form) are inappropriate for children in physical
education classes — games are appropriate.
• The content of games is largely based on the manipula -
tive skills themes.
• There are three types of games experiences in the ele-
mentary school: invariant game skill experiences, dynamic
gamelike experiences, and games-playing experiences.
• Invariant experiences focus on self-testing or challenge
activities as the “game.”
• Dynamic gamelike experiences include using skills in
a changing (open) environment, combining skills, and
developing tactics.
• Games-playing experiences involve playing games that
conform to all that is known about appropriate practices
in physical education.
• In teaching games, there are fi ve types of game designs
to choose from: predesigned games, modifi ed prede-
signed games, teacher-designed games, teacher/child-
designed games, and child-designed games.
• Other factors to be considered when teaching games in-
clude whether the teacher should offi ciate or not, what to
call the game, whether the game should be cooperative
or competitive, what size and variety of equipment should
be used, and what size the groups should be.
Key Concepts
CHAPTER 31 Skill Themes in Games 637
Games experiences should help children apply the cog-
nitive, affective, and psychomotor skills they have
acquired in an effort to become competent and knowl-
edgeable games players. Our task is to provide experiences
that allow this to happen and that are appropriate for all chil-
dren. As a result of participating in physical education
games experiences, children should be excited about
participating in games-playing activities on their own.
Our purpose is not to develop elite athletes.
The concept of a game holds a very different connota-
tion for children than it does for adults. Children tend
to view games as playlike, challenging, vigorous, skillful,
and having rules. These activities may or may not look
like adult versions of sports. Sports are designed primar-
ily for adults, have standardized rules and procedures,
and require a level of technical expertise to which
children will never aspire. Games use the same basic
skills as many sports but lack the standardized rules and
procedures. Quite often, children call their game activi-
ties by names similar to those of standardized sports, and
their games may use equipment similar to that of stan-
dardized sports; however, the “game” is quite different.
Games content occupies a large percentage of what
is taught in many elementary physical education pro-
grams. Sport content should not. Sports happen after
school. Games happen in school. Games may look like
sports at times, but they are not. At no point in the
elementary school curriculum should we see games
being played with full-fl edged sports rules. Never
should there be full-sided teams, regulation rules, regu-
lation fi elds, and children waiting their turns. We
should see small-sided teams, modifi ed fi elds, rules
that don’t stop the fl ow of the activity, and all children
playing all the time. Never should the teacher be the
pitcher. Understanding the difference between games
and sports is critical to the refl ective elementary school
teacher: Games are appropriate elementary school
content; sports in their common form are not. So what
purpose should games serve?
The Purpose of Games in the Elementary School
Our view of games is what some (Rink 2008) would de-
fi ne as educational games. The main aspects of games in
this sense are the development of skill and the match-
ing of it against an opponent (Department of Exercise
and Science 1972). Educational games can be conceptu-
alized in a variety of thematic ways—by the skill used,
or by the conditions, goals, and tactics involved. If
grouped by conditions, goals, and tactics, games are
most often classifi ed as invasion, net, target, striking/
fi elding, and individual games (Almond 1986; Mauldon
and Redfern 1969; Mitchell, Oslin, and Griffi n 2003;
Rink 2008). We develop games around the skill used,
with the intent that those skills are then tailored for use
as more specialized skills in each game classifi cation.
The purpose of games in the elementary school is not to
have youngsters’ games participation confi ned to a few
adult inventions with restricted, highly specialized skills,
but to have children become versatile, adaptable, and
skillful games players in meaningful game situations.
So What’s Wrong with Playing the Game?
This question invariably arises. And yes, there are multiple
answers. Here are just a few:
• The actual time a child is involved in activity is minimal.
• The game is not appropriate for all children in the class —
in terms of physical, psychological, or skill readiness.
• The equipment is not appropriate for all children.
• Children are eliminated from play (and these are the
children who need to play the most).
• Children are spotlighted for their lack of skill (or their
skillfulness).
• Winners and losers rate one child or group of children
better than the others.
• When teams are chosen some children are publicly
humiliated.
• The game is often just played to play a game; it is not
linked to skill development.
The list can go on. For a more extensive discussion of the
inappropriateness of playing “the game” see Neil Williams’s
“Hall of Shame” articles in Journal of Physical Education,
Recreation and Dance (1992; 1994; 1996).
The National Association for Sport and Physical Ed-
ucation’s National Standards for Physical Education
(NASPE 2004) support the inclusion of games in ele-
mentary physical education. Box 31-1 lists the sample
performance indicators specifi c to games in the elemen-
tary school curriculum. Additionally, Appropriate Practices
for Elementary School Physical Education (NASPE 2009)
provides a useful analysis of the appropriateness of games
in different situations. It is our responsibility as physical
educators to teach developmentally appropriate games
( Box 31-2 ).
So how do we teach games appropriate to the ele-
mentary school child? Essentially, there are two pieces
to the elementary games puzzle: what is taught (the
content) and how it is taught (the process). The two
are inextricably linked, but for clarity they are devel-
oped separately here.
638 PART 5 Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas www.mhhe.com /graham8e
The Content of Elementary School Games
The primary content of elementary school games is
derived largely from the manipulative skill themes,
combined with traveling, chasing, fl eeing, and dodg-
ing. The content is integrated with almost every pos-
sible movement concept. For example, a player is asked
to run while dribbling a ball, using changes in speed
and direction to dodge an opponent, all the while be-
ing aware of where two other teammates and oppo-
nents are. Dance takes isolated movement skills and
concepts and reconfi gures them into expressive move-
ments; gymnastics uses skills to defy gravity; but games
situations require players both to combine skills and to
use those skills tactically to outsmart and outplay an
opponent. This requirement assumes ongoing tactical
decision making. Additionally, games playing is the
content area in which responsible personal and social
behavior is most visible (and teachable). It is precisely
these constructs that make it the most diffi cult to teach
well. Thus, although many of us are most comfortable
and familiar with games content, and although a game
tends to be self-propelling once students grasp the basic
concepts, games content is complex and takes the same
care in planning as gymnastics and dance.
Historically, our teaching has largely been limited to
the fi rst aspect — the teaching of skills. The second and
third pieces (tactics and social skills) have been assumed
as by-products. We have done little to help children
learn how to combine skills or learn tactics, let alone
helped them to learn how to make decisions or to en-
gage in responsible behavior. ( Just as we have done
little to teach the expressive skills necessary to make
motor skills become dance, or to make gymnastics-
oriented motor skills anything other than isolated
skills.) The bottom line is that, just because a skill is
linked to a content area (games, dance, or gymnastics),
that doesn’t mean that by acquiring the skill one can
use it appropriately in games, dance, or gymnastics set-
tings. Teaching throwing and catching is one thing;
teaching how to throw and catch in a game situation is
another. And although we talk about tactics and appro-
priate behavior, we haven’t taught them. We have now
realized that we need to teach all three as an integrated
whole (Griffi n, Mitchell, and Olson 2006; Rink 2006).
But fi rst things fi rst — children need to acquire some
basic skills before moving to skills in changing environ-
ments and to using combinations of skill and strategy.
This does not mean, however, that all basic skills are
taught before any combinations and tactics are used.
Games and the National Standards for Physical Education
The diverse and personally meaningful nature of games is
referenced in the National Association for Sport and Physical
Education’s National Standards for Physical Education
(NASPE 2004) as sample performance outcomes under
Standards 2, 3, 4, and 6.
The performance outcomes for Standard 2 —“Demon-
strates understanding of movement concepts, principles,
strategies, and tactics as they apply to the learning and
performance of physical activities”— state:
• Designs a new game incorporating at least two motor
skills, rules, and strategies (3 – 5)*
The performance outcomes for Standard 3 —“Participates
regularly in physical activity”— state:
• Participates in organized sport activities provided through
local community programs (3 – 5)*
• Participates in an intramural sports program provided by
the school (3 – 5)*
The performance outcome for Standard 4 —“Achieves
and maintains a health-enhancing level of physical fi tness”—
states:
• Participates in a variety of games that increase breathing
and heart rate (K– 2)*
The performance outcome for Standard 5 —“Exhibits
responsible personal and social behavior that respects self
and others in physical activity settings”— states:
• Takes seriously the role of teaching an activity or skill to
his or her team (3 – 5)*
The performance outcome for Standard 6 —”Values
physical activity for health, enjoyment, challenge, self-
expression, and /or social interaction”— states:
• Develops a dance (or game) that is personally interesting
(3 – 5)*
*Grade-level guidelines for expected student learning.
Box 31-1
Tactic or Strategy —What Is the Difference?
Tactics can be defi ned as an understanding of what to do
during game play situations or the problems players need to
solve to be successful in game play (Mitchell, Oslin, and Griffi n
2003). Tactics generally involve how to score and how to pre-
vent scoring from occurring. Strategy, on the other hand, is an
overall game plan and would include the use of a variety of
tactics.
CHAPTER 31 Skill Themes in Games 639
The instructor who teaches children to play games
successfully and effectively creates a variety of learning
opportunities and situations in which children com-
bine skills into gamelike situations, as well as situa-
tions in which children play games and in which they
practice skills.
The children in such programs acquire a foundation
of movement skills that enables them to participate
successfully in a broad variety of games and sports.
Once children have acquired the prerequisite game
skills, sport becomes an attractive leisure-time alterna-
tive for them throughout their lives.
Games Experiences
We have divided games content into a progression of
three types of games experiences: invariant game skill
experiences, dynamic gamelike skill experiences, and
games-playing experiences. Invariant experiences es-
sentially involve the practice of the isolated skills used
in games in closed or unchanging situations. Dynamic
gamelike experiences involve the use of skills in a chang-
ing environment; the use of combinations of skills in
progressively more complex, open environments simi-
lar to those found in traditional sport activities; and
the development of tactics. Games- playing experiences
allow children to focus on gaining knowledge and en-
thusiasm for playing a developmentally appropriate
game while using the skills and tactics previously
learned.
Unlike dance, in which the types of experiences
are unrelated, and gymnastics, in which the experi-
ences are hierarchical, games-playing experiences are
developmental but not static. Children should have
games-playing experiences on a continuous basis, and
instruction in skill and tactics should grow out of that
play (Griffi n, Mitchell, and Olson 2006; Rink 2006).
Isolating skill development and keeping children in
invariant games-playing experiences over a long pe-
riod of time is just as inappropriate as teaching games
playing before children possess the skills that are pre-
requisite. There is no clear line of demarcation for
moving from one type of experience to the other — it
Box 31-2
Appropriate and Inappropriate Physical Education Practices
Component: Productive Learning Experiences
Appropriate Practice
• Teachers select, design, sequence, and modify games to
maximize the attainment of specifi c learning, fi tness /skill
enhancement, and enjoyment.
• Teachers modify the rules, regulations, equipment, and
playing space to facilitate learning by children of varying
abilities or to focus learning on particular games or skills
components.
Inappropriate Practice
• Teachers use games with no obvious learning purpose or
goal other than to keep children “busy, happy, and good.”
Component: Maximizing Participation
Appropriate Practice
• Physical educators use small-sided games (1 v. 1; 2 v. 2;
etc.) or mini-activities that allow students ample opportunity
to participate.
Inappropriate Practice
• The teacher consistently uses only one ball for most activi-
ties that involve playing with a ball (e.g., soccer, softball). In
game situations, most players rarely touch the ball.
Component: Competition and Cooperation
Appropriate Practice
• Physical educators develop learning experiences that assist
students to understand the nature and the different kinds of
competition. For example, the students may elect to keep
score or play for skill practice in selected situations.
• Physical educators create a mastery learning environment
that encourages students to compete against previous
personal performances or against a criterion score. Children
are given the opportunity to choose their competitive
environment.
Inappropriate Practice
• Students are required to always keep score and participate
in activities that publically identify students as winners or
losers (e.g., relay races, elimination tag).
• Teachers focus on the production of full-scale competition
and limited skill instruction (e.g., teachers play 11 v. 11 soc-
cer instead of modifying the game to 2 v. 2).
Source: National Association for Sport and Physical Education,
Appropriate Practices for Elementary School Physical Education,
3rd ed. (Reston, VA: NASPE, 2009).
640 PART 5 Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Such experiences are appropriate for a child who is at
the precontrol or control level of skill profi ciency and
who would have diffi culty executing a skill in a dynamic
or open situation. As a child’s profi ciency in a skill in-
creases, you can increase the diffi culty of the tasks while
retaining the relative predictability of the skill. For ex-
ample, when a child is learning to throw a ball to hit a
stationary target, you can increase the distance to the
target. If the child is learning to run and leap over a low
obstacle, increase the height of the obstacle.
When a child who isn’t able to perform a basic skill
consistently (precontrol level) is placed in a game that
requires that skill and the ability to perform it in a
dynamic or changing situation, the results are often
counterproductive. A child in that situation often fails
and becomes frustrated because of continuing inability
to execute the prerequisite movements of the game. The
child may then become a self-proclaimed, permanently
terminated games player or a teenager or adult who
vows to never again play in a game situation. And the
other children are frustrated when an unskilled player
interrupts the fl ow and their enjoyment of the game.
Dynamic Gamelike Skill Experiences
Games in dynamic gamelike experiences may look
and feel like games to children, but they are designed
to teach the use of basic skills in a changing envi-
ronment, combinations of skills, and simple offensive
and defen sive strategies. During these experiences,
“games” are almost always small sided with restricted
rules (two passes before a shot; no more than three
dribbles before a pass) and limited space. They have
clear learning goals and are permeated by stops and
trying never to place an entire class in a competitive
situation. Instead, we let children choose between two
or more games or ask them to make up their own games.
The teachers heighten or lessen the degree of competition.
Teachers who constantly shout out the score, post team
win-and-loss records, and reward the winners (thereby pun-
ishing the losers) place an emphasis on competition for which
some children aren’t ready. If you don’t believe us, talk to the
thousands of adults who were unskilled as children and yet
were placed in highly competitive situations. They can de-
scribe, in vivid detail, the feelings of being picked last, shouted
at for dropping a ball, and ridiculed for “letting the team
down.” Such distasteful experiences usually have lasting and
negative infl uences on the individual’s willingness to partici-
pate in sports.
depends on the level of development of the students.
Players cannot reach high levels of skill (utilization
or profi ciency) without also being able to use that
skill tactically. Similarly, players can only advance so
far in the use of tactics before their skill level limits
what they can choose to do (Rink 2006). Thus the
type of games-playing experience offered is con-
stantly changing, depending on what is to be taught
and the level of the students.
A broad rule might be that children at the precon-
trol and early control levels of development should
be involved in invariant games-playing experiences
(remember, youngsters will most often think of these
experiences as games) because they are trying to master
a skill. Players at control and utilization levels would be
involved in dynamic gamelike activities. Utilization- and
profi ciency-level players will fi nd games-playing experi-
ences challenging. This does not mean that you never
return to invariant game skill experiences (think of how
many Olympic-caliber athletes practice basic skills for
hours daily); it means that you can gradually make the
invariant skills more complex so that they approach an
increasingly open situation. As with the dynamic game-
like experiences, as students become more profi cient
players, you gradually extend the games-playing experi-
ence to make it more complex while ensuring that it
remains developmentally appropriate.
Invariant Game Skill Experiences
The fi rst experiences we give children involve basic
skills in a closed or unchanging situation. Invariant
game skill experiences really don’t look like games at
all to adults — they look like skill development, which
is what they are. The “games” focus is the potential use
of the skill in games-playing environments that will
emerge later. The “game” experience here is that of a
self-testing or challenge activity.
Such experiences allow the students to gain con-
trol of an object using a specifi c motor pattern (Rink
2006). The experience is structured so that the task is
as identical as possible each time — the experience is
invariant in that the child isn’t required to predict the
fl ight of a ball or the movement of an opponent, for
example. At this point, refi nement is the major em-
phasis (Belka 2000).
Competition/Cooperation
Some children love to compete; others prefer (and seem to
learn better in) games that encourage cooperation. We at-
tempt to respect each child’s preference by giving choic es,
CHAPTER 31 Skill Themes in Games 641
starts to refi ne skill and provide cues. In the beginning
they are often cooperative; they develop into competi-
tive games when children no longer fi nd cooperative
experiences challenging.
For example, within dynamic gamelike skill experi-
ences, a child fi rst practices dribbling and shooting a
basketball along with passing off to a partner. Then
the child practices the same skill with one person
acting as a defensive player. The implication of this
progression is that as the child slowly becomes more
adept at using a motor skill or combination of motor
skills, the child is simultaneously learning games-
playing tactics to accompany the skill.
These three different and equally important aspects —
the use of skills in a changing environment, the use of
combinations of skills, and the development of game
tactics—like games experiences themselves, are devel-
opmental but not hierarchical. In actual practice they
intermingle greatly. Teaching skills in an open environ-
ment and teaching combinations of skills, as well as
tactics, are critical to children learning to be competent
games players. Yet it is precisely these experiences that
are usually omitted.
Skills in an Open Environment Research sug- gests that a child has little chance of actually being able
to use basic skills in a changing or dynamic (game)
environment unless he or she has fi rst practiced them
in an open, changing, and dynamic situation (Rovegno
et al. 1995; Schmidt 1977). The skill acquired by a child
who throws and catches a yarn ball may transfer mini-
mally to the skill of throwing and catching used in, for
example, baseball or basketball. For this reason, as soon
as a child displays a minimum level of mastery in an
invariant situation, it is necessary to create open situa-
tions that are progressively and increasingly complex
and in which skills are used in combination as they
occur in games-playing situations. For example, shoot-
ing a basket with no opposition is a skill different from
shooting a basket after stopping a dribble or while being
guarded by an opponent.
Combinations of Skills When children are in- volved in dynamic gamelike experiences, they need to
be exposed to many experiences that relate to a variety
of types of games. The infi nite combinations of and
linkages between skills has to be taught (Belka 2004a).
Skill combinations might include dribbling and pass-
ing, shooting off a pass, receiving a pass and dribbling,
receiving a pass and passing, and the like. Practicing
skills in combinations is a critical and often neglected
aspect of learning how to play games. It is critical be-
cause it is the transition between the two skills that
makes the combination skillful and effective. To make
the transition well, preparation for performing the
second skill must occur while the fi rst skill is being
performed. For example, when young players are learn-
ing receiving and passing with the feet, commonly
they receive the ball, stop, move into position to pass,
and then pass. The skilled player moves the ball into
position to pass as he or she is receiving it and passes
without stopping. The difference is the transition. For
players to be successful in games situations, they have
to learn the transitions after they learn the skills. The
focus at this point is on the transition, not on the two
isolated skills. Tasks and cues can be developed that
Young children’s games rarely
have game-playing qualities.
642 PART 5 Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas www.mhhe.com /graham8e
focus on the transition. For example, in the dribbling
and passing scenario below, the task might be to pass in
a moving triangle. Cues might be step into the pass as
the ball is received and not to stop.
Tactics The third critical and often neglected aspect that occurs in dynamic games skill experiences is learn-
ing offensive and defensive tactics that allow players to
use the skills they have learned to outwit others. At
this point, children shouldn’t have to devote their at-
tention to controlling objects. They should already
know to how to do a skill; their focus is now on when
to use that skill. Thus, it is wise to teach tactics when
children’s skills are at the utilization level. Tactics, like
basic skills, can be taught and cued. One example
might be learning to create space in an invasion-type
activity using dribbling with the feet. In a two-on-two
situation students can play a gamelike activity that
asks them to provide a 45-degree passing angle for
their partner. The focus is on the angle for passing and
when to pass rather than the pass itself. As with skills,
it is best to learn these activities in less complex situa-
tions fi rst, then gradually increase the complexity. For
example, the idea of passing angles can fi rst be learned
with no defense, then with a passive defense or in a
two- on-one situation, and then with an aggressive
defense. Complexity can be increased by adding play-
ers, boundaries, or scoring. The key aspect here is to
add complexity very gradually. The utilization- and
profi ciency-level activities described in the manipula-
tive skill theme chapters contain cues for simple offen-
sive and defensive tactics.
During these experiences, many teachers use inquiry
teaching to teach tactics (Doolittle and Girard 1991;
Griffi n et al. 2006; Mitchell, Oslin, and Griffi n 2003).
For example, in a one-on-one situation of striking over
a net, you are trying to teach the idea of hitting to open
spaces and covering space. Children already can keep
the ball going back and forth to each other. A teacher
may stop the lesson and ask, “Where do you have to hit
to make your opponent miss?” Answer: “Open space”
(most often phrased as “where they are not”). “Where
do you have to be to prevent your partner from having
a lot of open space to which to hit?” Answer: “Home”
(middle of court just behind center). Then the teacher
sends them back to practice doing those things, even
giving them points for doing those things. Tactics can
also be taught through direct instruction, but it lends
itself well to the inquiry approach, as it is a cognitive
concept as well as a physical ability.
Games-Playing Experiences
Unlike the two previous experiences, in which games
were characterized by starts and stops, games-playing
experiences are somewhat different. The enjoyment
Trying to roll a ball through a
target is an example of invariant
game experience.
Dribbling a ball past a defender into a goal is a dynamic gamelike skill
experience.
CHAPTER 31 Skill Themes in Games 643
and satisfaction derived from playing games frequently
are products of playing a game without interruption.
Yet in the limited time most of us have to teach our
classes, there’s hardly enough time for skill practice
and game playing in a single lesson.
This does not mean that the teacher does nothing
during games-playing experiences. Observe the types
of skill work that children need as they’re playing
games, and focus on those needs during later classes.
Remember, games-playing experiences don’t occur in
every lesson; they are only a part of the total physical
education program.
Take your cue from the children in determining
when to provide feedback. A lull in the game, a water
break, the end of class, or other natural interruption
provides an opportunity to check with the children
and offer guidance if needed. Try not to stop or inter-
fere in the children’s games to teach skills, unless the
game has become unsatisfying and boring because of
lack of ability. Adults prefer not to be interrupted dur-
ing a game, even by someone who wants to provide
feedback. Children share this feeling, and teachers
must respect it if they want to create positive attitudes
toward games.
Some skill development results from playing games,
but game playing isn’t the most effi cient way for all
children to improve the motor skills used in games.
Thus it’s useful to distinguish lessons in which the pri-
mary purpose is to improve skills (invariant and dy-
namic gamelike skill experiences) from lessons in
which the primary purpose is to develop enthusiasm
for and a playing knowledge of a variety of games
(games-playing experiences).
One implication teachers often draw from the progres-
sion of invariant, dynamic, gamelike, and games- playing
experiences is that until children become exceedingly
profi cient with dynamic gamelike skills and approach
the profi ciency level of skill development, they shouldn’t
play games. This contention is only partially true. Al-
though we don’t advocate that children at the precon-
trol and control levels be involved in games-playing
experiences, we encourage challenges, self-testing, and
dynamic gamelike skill experiences. Children conceive
of many of these types of experiences as games. In other
words, children are playing games in their own minds;
what is different is our adult conception of what a game
is. Thus, all children can play “games,” depending on
who is calling the activity a game. We try to acquaint
children with many different types of games-playing ex-
periences. These activities can help children experience
the enjoyment, satisfaction, excitement, and sense of ac-
com plishment that a developmentally appropriate game
can bring about.
I would like to contrast the richness of children’s natural
play with the stultifying rigidity of play that is organized
by adults. No better example can be found than that
of the Little League, for what boys, left to their own de-
vices, would ever invent such a thing? How could they
make such a boneheaded error as to equate competi-
tion with play? Think of the ordinary games of boys — in
sandlots, fi elds, parks, even stickball in the street. They
are expansive and diverse, alternately intense and gay,
and are fi lled with events of all kinds.
Between innings the boys throw themselves on
the grass. They’ll wrestle, do handstands, turn som-
ersaults. They hurl twigs and stones at nearby trees,
and yell at the birds that sail by. A confi dent player will
make up dance steps as he stops a slow grounder. If
an outfi elder is bored, he does not stand there pulling
Children enjoy playing a self-
designed game.
644 PART 5 Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas www.mhhe.com /graham8e
up his pants and thumping his glove, but plays with
the bugs in the grass, looks at the clouds. . . . There
is almost always a dog on the fi eld, and no part of the
competition is gayer or more intense than that between
the boys and the dog, who when he succeeds in
snapping up their ball, leads them off in a serpentine
line that is all laughter and shouts, the dog looking
back over his shoulder and trotting with stiff legs, until
fi nally he is captured and fl attens his ears as they take
back their ball. No one has forgotten the score or who
was at bat. The game goes on. The game goes on
until darkness ends it, and the winners can hardly be
distinguished from the losers, for by then everyone
is fumbling the ball and giggling and fl opping on the
grass.
— GEORGE DENNISON , The Lives of Children, 1969
The Process of Teaching Games-Playing Experiences
It is hard to modify the content without modifying
the instruction, yet we have seen it done. It is our
thought that for the content to be effective, instruc-
tion has to be modifi ed as well. Teaching games-
playing experiences that meet the developmental
needs of children is not as simple as it initially ap-
pears. For many of us, game playing is so intertwined
with deeply imbedded sport experiences that it is
diffi cult to “see differently.” To see differently we must
focus on the type of games-playing experience we
choose, the equipment used, what we call the game,
the number of players involved, our role as an offi cial
or teacher, and the learning environment. It is only
then that we truly start to look at the child fi rst and
the game second.
Selecting a Games-Playing Experience
There are at least fi ve types of game play designs a
teacher can use to structure games-playing experiences
for the children’s variety of skill levels: predesigned,
modifi ed predesigned, teacher-designed, teacher/child-
designed, and child-designed. Each has its own inher-
ent strengths and weaknesses.
Predesigned Games Predesigned games are those described in textbooks or learned in methods classes
and taught to children without modifi cation. The text-
books imply that such games will be appropriate, as
well as interesting, for children. Brownies and Fairies;
Duck, Duck, Goose; Red Rover; Four Square; and Steal
the Bacon are well-known predesigned games.
Predesigned games are easy to teach because they
require little preparation or teaching skill. The teacher
selects a game and explains it to the children. When
the children understand the game, they start to play,
and the game continues until the lesson ends or the
teacher changes the activity.
It has been our experience that few predesigned
games are appropriate for all the children in a class.
A few skilled children often dominate such games,
whereas others are minimally involved, both physi-
cally and emotionally. Some (Belka 2004b) say that
these games should be discarded. However, you may
occasionally encounter a situation in which a particu-
lar predesigned game is appropriate for a class or group
of children. Usually, though, you’ll fi nd that although
many of the ideas in a predesigned game are worth-
while, you have to extensively modify the structure of
the game to the abilities and interests of different chil-
dren (Belka 2004b).
Nettie Wilson (1976) conducted a study to determine
the number of throwing, catching, and kicking oppor-
tunities in the game of kickball as played by third- and
fourth-grade children under the direction of a class-
room teacher. Her fi ndings include the following:
• Less than half of the game was actually spent using the
criterion skills.
• The average number of catches attempted in the kickball
games was slightly more than two —35 percent of the
children never caught the ball. Of the children who didn’t
catch the ball, 83 percent were girls.
• The average number of throws made in the kickball games,
excluding those made by the pitcher and catcher, was
slightly more than one—52 percent of the children never
threw the ball at all during the entire game, and 67 per -
cent of those who never threw the ball were girls.
Modifi ed Predesigned Games Modifying prede- signed games requires greater planning and organizing
ability. Yet by modifying a predesigned game, you can
do much to make the game more appropriate for a
particular class.
Both Rink (2006) and Stiehl, Morris, and Sinclair
(2008) provide useful ideas for modifying predesigned
games. The teacher can change the rules (e.g., allow
two tries instead of only one); the equipment used
(e.g., larger and lighter); the number of players in-
volved (generally, it’s best to decrease the number); the
CHAPTER 31 Skill Themes in Games 645
Table 31.1 Game Aspects That Can Be Modifi ed
Aspect Possible Changes
Players Reduce the number Increase the number Mix skill levels Combine like skill
of players of players levels
Purpose To practice skill To practice combined To practice To play games
skills strategy
Player Restrict the movement Allow some players
Movement of some players to move
Equipment Use smaller equipment Use larger equipment Use lighter Use heavier Use more
equipment equipment (or less)
equipment
Organization Defi ne the organization — Let the organization
circle, etc. be random
Space Increase the space Decrease the space Make the space Make the space
long and narrow short and wide
Rules Omit rules that restrict Add rules to enhance
the fl ow opportunities
Skills Reduce the number of
skills involved
playing area (e.g., larger or smaller); or the skills
involved (e.g., throwing instead of striking). Many
teachers modify one aspect of the game at a time until
it provides an experience appropriate for the skill level
of the children (see Table 31.1 ). The task of Playing
Modifi ed Volleyball in Chapter 26 (page 520) is an ex-
ample of a modifi ed predesigned game. A good rule to
follow is to change or eliminate anything that impedes
or slows the fl ow of a game.
During the lesson, you may use the same teach-
ing skills required to teach a predesigned game —
explaining the game and intervening only when
that’s necessary to keep the game going. Evaluating
the game is more complex. You’ll have to decide,
after observing the children, whether the game
should be modified further or is satisfactory as cur-
rently structured.
Teacher-Designed Games Sometimes a teacher can’t fi nd a game appropriate for a particular class, and
modifi cations of predesigned games don’t seem effec-
tive. In such a situation, the teacher may design a game
that satisfi es a specifi c goal. Designing a game places a
greater demand on a teacher’s creative abilities than do
either of the game lesson structures already discussed.
The teacher needs to understand the children’s skill
abilities and interests and be able to use this knowledge
to design a game form that the children will fi nd inter-
esting and enjoyable. For example, a teacher could de-
sign a game to focus on striking a ball with a bat. The
object would be to strike a pitched ball and then run
around a cone and back before the other players catch or
collect the ball and touch the home base with the ball. If
the children used rather narrow boundaries and played
in small groups, they would get more striking, throwing,
and catching opportunities than the standardized nine-
per-side version of softball provides. The teacher could
design the game to be played by two teams or design it
so that each child goes back “to the fi eld” once she or he
hits the ball and runs around the cone. Playing Punt-
Over (see Chapter 24, page 468) is an example of a
teacher-designed game. Once you’ve created the game,
the teaching skills used are virtually identical to the skills
needed to teach a modifi cation of a predesigned game.
Each of these three game lesson structures places the
responsibility for selecting or designing a game on the
teacher. One advantage of these games structures is
that the children spend most of the time — once the
game has been explained and organized — playing the
game. But the children don’t contribute to the design
of the game, nor do they have anything to say about
whether they would like to continue playing the game
as is or change the game to make it better. The previous
three game designs are direct instructional approaches;
the following two game structures, by contrast, involve
the children in the design of the game. They would be
classifi ed as inquiry or child-designed approaches and
require more advanced teaching skills. (See Chapter 13
for a discussion of instructional approaches and the
skills necessary to use each.)
646 PART 5 Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Teacher/Child-Designed Games When the chil- dren and the teacher design a game together, the teacher
presents the purpose of the game and the restrictions.
The children and the teacher then work cooperatively to
decide the rules, scoring, and equipment to be used. The
whole class plays in small groups.
You’ll fi nd that it’s wise to stipulate that once the
game has begun, only the team with the ball (or the
advantage) can stop play to suggest a change. (Unless
the children are restrained by this rule, they’re likely to
stop the game and suggest a change every time the
other team gains an advantage.) After a brief discus-
sion of the proposed change, the class votes, with the
majority decision prevailing. If a rule needs to be made
to ensure safety, offer solutions to be voted on or ask
the children to propose a solution.
One example of a teacher/child-designed game is
Magladry Ball, which the children named after their
school. The teacher was concerned about the children’s
inability to travel and pass a ball or other object to a
teammate who was also traveling, particularly when
an opponent attempted to intercept or prevent the
pass from being made. After describing the purpose of
the game, the teacher imposed two restrictions: Chil-
dren couldn’t touch each other; and once the ball (ob-
ject) touched the ground, it was automatically in the
possession of the team that didn’t touch it immedi-
ately before the object hit the ground. The object of
the game was to throw the ball (beanbag, fl ying disc)
through a hoop suspended from a goal post by a rope
at either end of a fi eld. Once the game began, children
made decisions about how long one child could re-
main in possession of the ball (object); what type of
ball (object) to play the game with; boundaries, viola-
tions, and penalties; and scoring.
Teacher/child-designed games evolve slowly, and
you may spend several lessons creating games that chil-
dren are excited about and enjoy playing. Once the
time and effort to create a game have been spent, the
children will want to have opportunities to play it.
The instructor in a teacher/child-designed game
serves as a facilitator, enhancing and expanding ideas
rather than imposing personal ideas on the children.
The teacher helps the children modify the games, of-
fers suggestions, and manages a group of charged-up
children who are eager to get the game going again.
This isn’t an easy task, and it often takes some time to
master this approach.
Child-Designed Games The underlying assump- tion of the fi rst four game structures is that the entire
class is playing the same game, in small groups. With
child-designed games, however, we assume that many
games are being played simultaneously and that few, if
any, are identical. Such an environment is a far more com-
plex one in which to teach (Rovegno and Bandhauer
1994). The teacher is assisting groups of children to
develop different games and is also responsible for
observing a number of different games and assisting
or staying away when appropriate.
When I fi rst started teaching, I was looking for games
that were recommended for fi rst-grade children and
did not require a great deal of game skill. Brownies
and Fairies, a simple running and chasing game, was
prescribed in one text as appropriate for six-year-olds.
The fi rst time the game was played, two children fell
down and bloodied their knees when they tried to run
in a crowd of children. They could run by themselves
without falling. But when they were placed in a dy-
namic situation that involved both running and dodg-
ing, they were unsuccessful. They probably forgot that
experience many years ago — once their knees healed.
I haven’t.
Child-designed games have some defi nite advan-
tages. Children in groups of similar skill ability (given
a choice, children typically choose to be with others of
similar ability) are allowed to design games that are
interesting and exciting to them. These may be coop-
erative or competitive, active or passive, depending on
the children’s intent.
Initially, children need help in designing their own
games. Teachers who’ve met with success in using
child-designed games have found that in the begin-
ning it’s helpful to suggest a structure for the game —
that is, the purposes, boundaries, and rules (Rovegno
and Bandhauer 1994). For example, the teacher may
say, “Make up your own striking game. There may be
up to four people in the group. All of you must play at
once; there’s to be no waiting in line. And the space
can be no larger than 15 feet by 15 feet.” The teacher
can also help the children organize the game by ask-
ing them to identify their rules, either verbally or in
writing ( Fig ure 31.1 ). Three child-designed games for
volleying and dribbling are illustrated in Figure 26.6
(page 513).
As children learn to make decisions about their
games, you can decrease the amount of imposed struc-
ture. If children are to make signifi cant and worth-
while decisions about their game, you must stay out of
as many decisions as possible; this is just as important
as providing proper initial guidance. Even if you’re cer-
tain some idea won’t work, it’s no longer your role to
tell them so (except in the case of safety). They’ll fi nd
out soon enough.
CHAPTER 31 Skill Themes in Games 647
You may consider it a disadvantage that some chil-
dren take a great deal of time to design games. Children
who’ve had little experience in designing their own
games may spend as much as half of a lesson seriously
working out the way they want a game to be played, per-
haps without ever actually playing the game. But you’ll
fi nd that as students gradually become more adept at
designing games, playing time increases substantially.
Most children enjoy participating in the design of
their own games. But the children must be ready — they
must be able to function successfully in a small group
(two or three is an appropriate number) when playing
a game they know before they can begin to design
games (see Chapter 13 for more detail on the skills a
teacher and the children need in order to implement
child-designed activities). Some teachers, even of
younger children, can use child-designed games from
the time they begin teaching and have exciting, suc-
cessful lessons. But when a teacher — even one who be-
lieves in the philosophy represented by child-designed
games — tries to have children design their own games
before the children (and the teacher) are ready, the out-
come can be a disaster. Start with the design that you
think is most appropriate to a class and situation, and
proceed from there. See Box 31-3 for suggestions on
helping children create their own games.
The ecology of the particular teaching situation de-
termines which game design is best. When selecting a
games-playing lesson design for a class, consider the
purpose for playing the game, the skills required, the
children’s interests and abilities, the playing area and
equipment available, and your skills as a teacher. We try
very carefully to match the skills required in games-
playing experiences to the children’s skills. Nothing is as
counterproductive as having children participate in
games for which they don’t possess the prerequisite
skills. The teacher who has closely assessed the children’s
skill level can discover and /or design well-matched
games-playing situations to ensure the children’s success
and pleasure.
Other Considerations
The type of game selected for a class is the fi rst critical
aspect with respect to the process of teaching games.
However, the fundamental instructional pieces discussed
in the following paragraphs are paramount to making the
type of game selected “work” for a group. If your choice of
game is perfect for a class and then the instructional
aspects contradict your game choice, the class climate
negates the content.
Figure 31.1 Example of a child-designed game — sixth grade.
Helping Children Create Their Own Games
1. Limit group size to six or less.
2. Provide structure:
• Identify the equipment that can be used.
• Identify the skills and movements to be included.
• Identify the space each group may use and have them
mark the space.
3. Allow adequate time:
• Provide time for thinking and creativity, but then
indicate a time needed to start play.
• Provide time for “sorting out” the game as they play.
• Provide time for playing.
4. Create accountability:
• Have children name their game.
• Have children identify the rules.
• Have children teach others.
• See if children are able to and want to play the game
another day.
• Have children write their game down.
Box 31-3
648 PART 5 Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Games Equipment The equipment used to play games most certainly affects the quality and diffi culty of
the game (Graham 2008). Large, regulation-size sports
equipment slows the play and promotes the use of
incorrect skills. In recent years, equipment manufac-
turers have begun to design equipment for children:
foam paddles, balls, and hockey sticks are three ex-
amples. Smaller, lighter, more colorful balls that don’t
hurt reduce the fear of catching. Basketball goals that
can be adjusted to multiple heights (not just one or
two) allow all children to be able to shoot at an appro-
priate basket. The bottom line is this: Adult equip-
ment is almost always inappropriate for elementary
school children. Make sure the equipment matches
the child.
A true game is one that frees the spirit — the true game
is the one that arises from the players themselves.
— PETER OPIE AND IONA OPIE , Children’s Games in
Street and Playground
The Name of the Game By calling a game by the name of the sport its skills are usually associated with,
we effectively limit children’s options. The skilled chil-
dren think they have to play by the rules of the sport,
and the unskilled unconsciously evaluate themselves
against some external standard, whether they really
know much about the sport or not. As a result, some
children are disenfranchised and others are frustrated.
We have found that children are much more creative
and open in their games playing if we refer to the ex-
perience by a new name or by the name of the skill.
This is why in the index you will fi nd games linked to
the skill theme they are used to develop, but not listed
separately by their name.
Group Size To many, there is a “right” number of players for a game. Because of our conscious or uncon-
scious sport orientation, the “right” number of players is
often the number of players associated with the sport in
which the skill is most commonly used. And because pre-
designed games are usually designed for entire classes, they
often call for 15, 20, or more players. Rarely does either of
the preced ing scenarios contain the “right” number of
players for games appropriate to the elementary school
setting. Games experiences should never involve more
players than can be active at any one time, or so many that
the fl ow of the game is slowed. We have found this usually
means four to six (and maybe eight) players as a maximum
in any games experience. Choose the “right” number of
players for the children’s experience.
To Ref or Not to Ref ? We do not believe in offi - ciating children’s games. Offi ciating does several
things that detract from the ultimate value of the
games-playing experience. First, offi ciating places the
responsibility for coming to decisions about the pro-
cess of the game on the teacher, taking away all
responsibility and decision making from the chil-
dren. The end result is that they can “blame the
teacher” for what happened and avoid learning to
cooperate and decide for themselves. Second, offi ci-
ating takes the teacher out of the teaching role and
limits the teacher’s ability to provide feedback and
instruction — our primary goal. Third, a teacher can
only be in one place. If we officiate, only one game
can be occurring; this means that all the children
aren’t active and that more than likely we have
created an inappropriate games environment.
We have been very successful in letting children
“call” their own games. They not only adapt the rules to
fi t their situation but also develop decision-making and
cooperation skills. The fl ow of the game is also generally
more continuous; they stop only when they need to.
Cooperative or Competitive? Much has been written about cooperative games versus competitive
games. Competition is not inherently bad for children;
inappropriate competition is. Children should never be
forced to compete against another child until they are
CHAPTER 31 Skill Themes in Games 649
ready, and all children are not ready at the same time.
Therefore to have an entire class playing by the same
rules of competition disenfranchises many children.
We have found two guidelines that work for us. First,
let children choose if they want to be in a competitive
situation or not. If there are multiple small-sided games
occurring simultaneously, then some could be compet-
itive and some cooperative. Second, cooperative experi-
ences always precede competitive experiences. It is only
when cooperative experiences are no longer challeng-
ing that competitive experiences are appropriate (Rink
2006). Children, when left to their own devices, almost
always follow this maxim.
Cooperation and competition also impact several
other aspects of physical education classes. Research
clearly indicates that children learn best in a mastery
climate focusing on cooperation, hard work, learning,
and task mastery (Biddle 1999; Standage, Duda, and
Ntoumanis 2003). On the other hand, learning is di-
minished in classes where children are compared to
each other, where there is a focus on competition
between children, and where mistakes are punished.
Additionally, there is recent evidence that during
cooperative, nonelimination games, children accrue
more moderate and vigorous physical activity than
in elimination games (Bruggeman, Dzewaltowski,
Behrens, and Jager 2008).
The Learning Environment
The small group size we recommend implies that more
than one game will be played simultaneously. Having
several games going on at one time, however, can be
uncomfortable for many of us. If this is true for you, we
suggest you begin slowly. Start with a class you are con-
fi dent with, and have only two games play concurrently.
As you feel more confi dent, gradually add more games.
Amazingly, more games actually decreases many poten-
tial management problems. Because more children are
actively and appropriately involved in playing and are
spending less time waiting or otherwise unengaged, the
amount of off-task behavior is substantially reduced.
Judy Rink (2006) suggests four criteria for a physical
education experience designed for learning outcomes:
(1) the experience has the potential to improve motor
skills; (2) there is maximum participation for all chil-
dren; (3) the experience is at the appropriate experien-
tial level of all children; and (4) there is the possibility of
integrating cognitive, psychomotor, and affective learn-
ing. We suggest that these criteria are good ones to use in
assessing the games-playing experiences designed and
implemented in our programs. If our games- playing
experiences do not meet these criteria, they should prob-
ably be modifi ed.
After-School Sport Programs
Many children in your classes may be participating in
various sport programs. Often these children are very
skilled — many are at the profi ciency level of the skills
involved in their sport — and so provide an interesting
dimension to games lessons. We have found that by
using small groups for games experiences and varying
the task, these students can be challenged in our classes
just as any other student can be.
Child Development and Games
The research on child development (Piaget 1962) and
the development of reasoning (Kohlberg and Mayer
1972) further supports placing children in game situa-
tions designed to accommodate their skills, interests,
and abilities. In order for moral and social development
and growth to occur, a motivation to change must exist.
This motivation requires both developmental readiness
and opportunity (Brustad and Parker 2005). Game situ-
ations provide an attractive opportunity for children to
develop their social skills and reasoning when the situ-
ations are developmentally appropriate. Before the age
of 8, children are in the egocentric stage. They have a
personal conception of reality; the world centers around
self. There’s no sense of obligation to rules, no desire to
check for accuracy. “I” am right at all times. Whatever
meets the needs at the present time is what is true. Fol-
lowing rules is fi ne if it serves the purpose at the time.
The concept of cheating doesn’t exist, because rules
constantly change to fi t the child’s needs. At this stage,
the child feels that everyone completely understands
him or her and is in agreement with what the child
wants. Imagine placing 25 youngsters in a traditional
group game when each child thinks he or she is com-
pletely understood and in agreement with all!
Piaget (1962) described the game play of the young
child (from the child’s viewpoint) as a situation in
which everyone plays the game as each understands it,
with no concern for “checking” on others. Nobody
loses and everybody wins at the same time, because the
purpose is to have fun (Piaget and Inhelder 1969).
Children between 8 and 11 have a strong social
need. To be a part of the group, to belong, is extremely
important to children in the upper elementary years. In
the early phases of this stage, however, children still
have strong egocentric tendencies. Group interaction is
desired, but they also desire to cling to the comfortable
self-centered view. The earlier “absolute” view is now
confronted with the viewpoints of others, viewpoints
perhaps not in agreement with one’s own. How many
650 PART 5 Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas www.mhhe.com /graham8e
children do we see get upset and leave the game when
things don’t go their way or they’re asked to sacrifi ce
themselves for the good of the team? Cooperative game
situations with small groups of children can facilitate
establishing the child as a member of the group and
foster acceptance of differing points of view.
Students entering the higher level of cognitive devel-
opment, ages 11 and above, begin to create strategies
and mentally test their abilities. They enjoy group activ-
ity and respect the physical and mental skills of others
in the game situation. The game no longer rules the
group; the game is made for the use of the group — to
be adapted as needed.
A Final Thought
Much has been written about the inappropriateness
of adult versions of sports for children (Orlick and
Zitzelsberger 1996; Smoll and Smith 1996). The child
who seeks sport experiences can fi nd them outside
the school. Most communities in the United States
offer adequate sports at the middle and high school
levels, in after-school programs, and in programs
sponsored by youth agencies.
Tyson-Martin (1999) has challenged us to refocus,
recycle, reorganize, and restructure games for children. It
seems an appropriate challenge to take. Physical
educators have a responsibility to provide instruction for
all children, to help them become skillful games players
who enjoy participating in games and are eager to play
games on their own time. We must do more than
produce a few good athletes. In a successful physical
education program, all the children improve their
games- playing skills and are eager and excited about
playing games. The purpose of this chapter has been to
provide an overview of the teaching of games in the
elementary school. See Box 31-4 for more resources on
children’s games.
Resources for the Teaching of Children’s Games
Belka, D. 1994. Teaching games: Becoming a master
teacher. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Belka, D. 2000. Developing competent games players. Teaching
Elementary Physical Education 11(3): 6 –7.
Belka, D. 2004a. Combining and sequencing games skills.
Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance
75(4): 23 – 27.
Belka, D. 2004b. Substituting developmental for traditional
games in elementary physical education. Teaching
Elementary Physical Education 15(4): 21– 24.
Doolittle, S., and K. Girard. 1991. A dynamic approach to
teaching games in elementary physical education.
Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance
62(4): 57– 62.
Mauldon, E., and H. Redfern. 1969. Games teaching.
London: MacDonald and Evans.
Mitchell, S., J. Oslin, and L. Griffi n. 2003. Sport foundations
for elementary physical education: A tactical games
approach. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Stiehl, J., G.S. Morris, and C. Sinclair. 2008. Teaching physi-
cal activity: Change, challenge, choice. Champaign, IL:
Human Kinetics.
Box 31-4
Summary
Because games playing is the content area we are com-
fortable with, we fi nd games easier to teach than dance
or gymnastics. This deceptive ease, however, is an edu-
cationally unacceptable rationale for curricular decision
making. Games in the elementary school allow children
to become versatile, adaptable, and skillful games play-
ers in meaningful game situations. Thus teachers need
to provide children with developmentally appropriate
experiences that lead to the acquisition of games-
playing skills. We give children experiences that involve
invariant games skills, dynamic gamelike skills, and
games- playing skills.
Invariant games experiences focus on skill acquisi-
tion in a predictable, closed environment in which the
movement is essentially the same each time. Dynamic
gamelike experiences require children to use skills in a
changing environment and to use combinations of skills
and tactics in situations that resemble those found in
games-playing experiences. Games-playing experiences
are designed to expose children to the joy and satisfac-
tion that can be found in games. In these experiences
children use skill and tactics in an attempt to outwit
an opponent.
Several variables affect the process of teaching games
to children. The type of game selected can infl uence the
success of the experience. Other factors to be considered
when teaching games to children are the equipment
used, the number of children in the game, the role of
CHAPTER 31 Skill Themes in Games 651
the teacher as an offi cial, the learning environment,
and what the game is called.
The role of games in elementary physical education
is to provide all children the chance to be successful in
playing in dynamic, unpredictable situations that chal-
lenge them to outwit their opponents. It is the teacher’s
responsibility to design game experiences that meet
the needs of all students.
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. What is meant by the statement “It is not the game
that is important, but the use of skills in game set-
tings”?
2. What is the purpose of educational games in the
elementary school? How does that differ from
more traditional approaches to games?
3. How can games be classifi ed, and what classifi ca-
tion is used here?
4. What are the characteristics of developmentally
appropriate and inappropriate games for children?
Identify one activity that you know is appropriate
and one that is inappropriate.
5. Games are organized into what three types of ex-
periences? Defi ne the purpose of each experience.
6. What happens when we place children in dynamic
situations before they’re ready?
7. When is it appropriate to move children from an
invariant to a dynamic gamelike situation? Why is
such movement necessary?
8. How are situations that require children to use
games skills different from actual games?
9. What is one difference between a games-playing
lesson and a skill development lesson? What role
should a teacher take in each lesson?
10. What factors should be taken into account when
teaching games?
11. What are the differences between the fi ve game
designs presented? What is the ultimate criterion
for using any game in physical education?
12. Why do we recommend small group sizes and
multiple games in physical education class?
References /Suggested Readings
Almond , L. 1986 . Refl ecting on themes: A games classifi ca- tion. In Rethinking games teaching, ed. R. Thorpe, D. Bunker, and L. Almond, pp. 71–72 . Loughborough, England: Uni- versity of Technology .
Belka , D. 1994 . Teaching games: Becoming a master teacher. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Belka , D. 2000 . Developing competent games players. Teaching Elementary Physical Education 11(3): 6 –7 .
Belka , D. 2004a . Combining and sequencing games skills. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 75(4): 23 –27 .
Belka , D. 2004b . Substituting developmental for tradi- tional games in elementary physical education. Teaching Elementary Physical Education 15(4): 21–24 .
Biddle , S. 1999 . The motivation of pupils in physical edu cation. In Learning and teaching in physical educa- tion, ed. C. Hardy, M. Mawer, and M. Mawer, pp. 105 –25 . Philadelphia: Falmer Press .
Bruggeman , K. , D. Dzewaltowski , T. Behrens , and A. Jager . 2008 . The effects of elimination and non-elimination games on physical activity and psychosocial responses in children. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American College of Sports Medicine. Indianapolis, IN.
Brustad , R. , and M. Parker . 2005 . Enhancing positive youth development through sport and physical activity. Psychologia 39: 75 – 93 .
Dennison , G. 1969 . The lives of children. New York: Random House .
Department of Education and Science. 1972 . Movement: Physical education in the primary years. London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Offi ce .
Doolittle , S. , and K. Girard . 1991 . A dynamic approach to teaching games in elementary physical education. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 62(4): 57– 62 .
Graham , G. 2008 . Teaching children physical education: Be- coming a master teacher. 3rd ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Griffi n , L. , S. Mitchell , and J. Olson . 2006 . Teaching sports concepts and skills: A tactical games approach. 2nd ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Kolhberg , L. , and R. Mayer . 1972 . Development as the aim of education. Harvard Educational Review 42(4): 449 – 96 .
Mauldon , E. , and H. Redfern . 1969 . Games teaching . London: MacDonald and Evans .
Mitchell , S. , J. Oslin , and L. Griffi n . 2003 . Sport founda- tions for elementary physical education: A tactical games approach. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2004 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. 2nd ed. Reston, VA: NASPE .
652 PART 5 Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas www.mhhe.com /graham8e
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2009 . Appropriate practices for elementary physical education. 3rd ed. Reston, VA: NASPE .
Opie , P. , and I. Opie . 1969 . Children’s games in street and playground. New York: Oxford University Press .
Orlick , T. D. , and L. Zitzelsberger. 1996 . Enhancing chil- dren’s sport experiences. In Children and youth in sport: A biopsychosocial perspective, ed. R.E. Smith and F.L. Smoll, pp. 330 – 37 . New York: McGraw-Hill .
Piaget , J. 1962 . Play, dreams, and imitation in childhood. New York: Norton .
Piaget , J. , and B. Inhelder . 1969 . The psychology of the child. New York: Basic Books .
Rink , J. 2006 . Teaching physical education for learning. 5th ed. St. Louis, MO: Mosby .
Rink , J. 2008 . Designing the physical education curriculum . New York: McGraw-Hill .
Rovegno , I. , and D. Bandhauer . 1994 . Child-designed games: Experience changes teachers’ conceptions. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 65(6): 60 – 63 .
Rovegno , I. , R. Skonie , T. Charpenel , and J. Sieving . 1995 . Learning to teach critical thinking through child- designed games. Teaching Elementary Physical Education 6(1): 6 –7, 15 .
Schmidt , R. 1977 . Schema theory: Implications for move- ment education. Motor Skills: Theory into Practice 2: 36 – 48 .
Smoll , F. L. , and R. E. Smith . 1996 . Competitive anxiety: Sources, consequences, and intervention strategies. In
Children and youth in sport: A biopsychosocial perspective, ed. R.E. Smith and F.L. Smoll, pp. 359 – 80 . New York: Mc- Graw-Hill .
Standage , M. , J. Duda , and N. Ntoumanis . 2003 . A model of contextual motivation in physical education: Using constructs from self-determination and achievement goal theories to predict physical activity intentions. Journal of Educational Psychology 95(1): 97–110 .
Stiehl , J. , G. S. Morris , and C. Sinclair . 2008 . Teaching physical activity: Change, challenge, choice. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Tyson-Martin , L. 1999 . The four “Rs” of enhancing ele- mentary games instruction. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 70(7): 36 – 40 .
Williams , N. 1992 . The physical education hall of shame. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 63(6): 57– 60 .
Williams , N. 1994 . The physical education hall of shame: Part II. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 65(2): 17–20 .
Williams , N. 1996 . The physical education hall of shame: Part III: Inappropriate teaching practices. Jour- nal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 67(8): 45 – 48 .
Wilson , N. 1976 . The frequency and patterns of selected motor skills by third- and fourth-grade girls and boys in the game of kickball. Unpublished master’s project, Uni- versity of Georgia, Athens.
653
C H A P T E R
32
Integrating the Skill Theme Approach across the Curriculum When asked what I teach, I like to respond “children.”
— JOHN HICHWA
654 PART 5 Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas www.mhhe.com /graham8e
B y now you have a thorough understanding of
the skill theme approach, why it is important,
and how teachers are implementing it in their
programs. One advantage of the skill theme approach
is that it provides numerous opportunities for teachers
to focus on concepts being taught in the classroom
while students also work to improve their motor skills
and physical fi tness. This concept of integrated learn-
ing experiences, or interdisciplinary learning , has gained
impetus in the past few years, and we believe it will
continue to be recognized as a powerful way to help
children make connections and learn.
This chapter will help you better understand how to
integrate physical education concepts and skills with
those from other subject areas throughout the elemen-
tary curriculum. Three approaches to integrating skills
and concepts are discussed — the content linkage ap-
proach, the shared integration approach, and the the-
matic unit approach. Examples from different content
areas are used to illustrate how these approaches work.
The chapter ends with a review of recent literature
that makes the connection between physical activity
and successful performance in the classroom, includ-
ing research suggesting an important link between
movement and brain function. Both the connection
between physical education and other areas of school
curriculum and the connection between physical acti-
vity and academic performance reinforce the importance
of an effective physical education program in all ele-
mentary schools.
Connecting Physical Education and the Classroom Curriculum through Interdisciplinary Learning
Any time we can make learning more relevant and per-
sonally meaningful to the child’s life, it has a more
profound effect and will be remembered longer (Roberts
and Kellough 2006). For some children, especially those
that are “kinesthetic” learners (Gardner 1983), the con-
nections are best made through movement.
Defi ning Interdisciplinary Learning
A major thrust in curriculum development in schools
today is the integration of subject content across the cur-
riculum (Wood 2004). “Interdisciplinary learning is an
educational process in which two or more subject areas
are integrated with the goal of fostering enhanced
learning in each subject area” (Cone et al. 1998). Integra-
tion helps kids make sense of what they know as it per-
tains to them and their world. The terms interdisciplinary
and integration are usually considered synonymous and
will be used interchangeably in this chapter.
Integration enhances learning by:
• Reinforcing curriculum content in a variety of edu-
cational settings
• Encouraging children to transfer what is learned in
one setting or situation to new settings and situa-
tions, adding meaning to what is being learned
• Providing children with multiple opportunities to
practice particular skills and concepts
• Encouraging children to better understand and to
see the connectedness of what they are learning and
how it relates to their own world
Interdisciplinary Learning and Quality
Physical Education
The National Association for Sport and Physical Educa-
tion (NASPE) and the Council of Physical Education
for Children (COPEC) have developed a document
outlining criteria for schools to follow to ensure a
quality learning environment for students in physi cal
education. This document, entitled Opportunity to Learn:
Standards for Elementary Physical Education (COPEC
2000), was written to complement the content-focused
National Standards in Physical Education (NASPE 1995),
• Interdisciplinary learning connects content from at least
two subject areas in an attempt to promote learning in
both subjects.
• Making connections between the cognitive and psycho-
motor domains and between content areas, such as
mathematics and reading, is motivating to children and
helps them see connections in what they are learning.
• When integrating lessons, we cannot lose sight of the
educational goals we want to accomplish in our physi-
cal education programs, but we can effectively reinforce
important concepts taught in other subject areas across
the curriculum.
• Three approaches — content linkage, shared integration,
and the thematic unit — all connect curricular content from
at least two subject areas.
• For successful integration, we need knowledge of and an
appreciation for other subject area content and an under-
standing of the scope and sequence of the subjects being
integrated.
• Recent research suggests there is a connection between
physical activity and academic performance.
Key Concepts
CHAPTER 32 Integrating the Skill Theme Approach across the Curriculum 655
As part of health class, students
are learning about nutrition and
exercise.
and it directly addresses the importance of interdis-
cip linary learning experiences. The criteria for provid-
ing an adequate learning environment for children
related to physical education are listed in Box 32-1 . The
criteria clearly focus on a combined effort by both the
physical education teacher and the classroom teacher
to provide physical activity opportunities throughout
the school day and to foster cognitive development
through movement experiences.
Integrating Physical Education
Physical education as part of an integrated curriculum
can work in two ways — integrating core subject-matter
content into the physical education lesson, or integrat-
ing physical education skills and concepts into other
curriculum areas in the classroom. (See Table 32.1 .) Any
type of integrative curriculum most likely will encour-
age a new sense of respect and increased interest be-
tween teachers about their subject areas. One physical
education (PE) teacher who integrated an orienteering
unit into the math and science core curriculum in an
elementary classroom said that he felt rewarded by
gaining respect from the other teachers in the school
who then saw him as a more signifi cant contributor to
the overall school curriculum (Placek 1992).
As a result of the connections among learning
domains and between subject-specifi c information
sets that integration allows, children often see the
knowledge gained as having more importance in the
real-life context. For example, students who are nor-
mally unenthusiastic about physical education may
Opportunity to Learn: Standards for Elementary Physical Education
• The efforts of the physical education teacher are comple-
mented by those of classroom teachers who have the
unique opportunity to make physical activity a part of the
daily life of the student. (p. 7)
• Because it is crucial to interdisciplinary work and pro-
gram development, planning time is provided by physical
education teachers to meet with other classroom teachers
or specialists in other disciplines. (p. 9)
• The curriculum integrates kinesthetic experiences that
reinforce math concepts, language arts, social studies,
science, and health. (p. 12)
• The students have opportunities to develop critical thinking
skills. (p. 12)
Source: Council on Physical Education for Children, Opportuni-
ties to Learn: Standards for Elementary Physical Education: A
Position Statement of the National Association for Sport and
Physical Education (Reston, VA: NASPE, 2000).
Box 32-1
656 PART 5 Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Table 32.1 Example of Two-Directional Integration between Physical
Education and Science
Physical integrated Science Plan a hike through a nearby
Education ➞ park to identify trees, fl owers,
into and other plants
Science integrated Physical Education Children use different locomotor
➞ movements to travel through a
into large replica of the heart on the
gym fl oor to show the pathway
of blood fl ow
be motivated by the integrative activities that allow
them success in both the cognitive and psychomotor
domains, such as learning to swim while studying
water in science. By the same token, students who
excel in physical activities but are less interested in
other subject areas may fi nd an interesting connec-
tion that motivates them to learn other subject-
specifi c content. One example might be the student
who is struggling with reading but is excited to com-
plete a reading assignment about a famous hockey
player while learning the skill of striking with a hockey
stick in physical education class. In either case, the
integrative approach increases the potential for moti-
vating children to learn.
Benefi ts of Integration
It is important to understand why integrating subject
areas is worthwhile and to refl ect on the benefi ts of in-
tegration for both physical education and other subject
content areas. Following are some of the most notable
benefi ts — from both the PE class and the classroom
perspectives.
Benefi ts of Integrating Other Subject Skills / Concepts into the PE Class
• Children learn best by seeing connections in what
they are learning. PE for most children is fun! A qual-
ity physical education program helps them to be-
come profi cient in many skills and most elementary
children are innately inclined to be physically active
at every given opportunity. Kinesthetic learning of
other subject content often helps children grasp
concepts in language arts, science, and math that
they might otherwise struggle with in a more inert
classroom environment.
• Some children who are not as profi cient in motor
skills and movement but who excel academically
will fi nd the connection between the cognitive and
psychomotor domains and between the two con-
tent areas to be motivating and enjoyable.
• When the physical education environment is used
to reinforce other academic skills and concepts,
physical education has a newfound importance to
other teachers and administrators in the school.
Even though the importance of the physical educa-
tion program goals should be recognized foremost
by the school, when teachers work together to help
students succeed on standardized tests their efforts
are applauded.
Web Sites for Integrated Lesson Ideas
The following Web sites are excellent resources for specifi c
examples of lesson ideas that integrate physical activity in
core academic areas in the elementary curriculum.
Active Academics Over 150 active learning ideas designed
to incorporate movement with grade-appropriate standards
in reading, language arts, math, science, and health; includes
ideas for short activity breaks in the regular K-5 classroom;
www.activeacademics.org.
Healthy Hearts 4 Kids A Web-based instructional module
for intermediate-age children; designed to be used as part
of the classroom curriculum to provide content, interactive
tasks, and engaging activities in physical activity, good nutri-
tion, and tobacco avoidance; healthyhearts4kids.org.
North Carolina Energizers A collection of short activities
integrating physical activity with academic concepts; devel-
oped by East Carolina University in conjunction with the
North Carolina Department of Public Instruction; designed
for elementary school classroom teachers; ncpe4me.com /
energizers.html.
PE Central Over 180 integrated lesson ideas submitted by
teachers that connect physical activity and academic content;
for use in the classroom or on a large play area; pecentral.org.
CHAPTER 32 Integrating the Skill Theme Approach across the Curriculum 657
Benefi ts of Integrating Physical Activity in the Regular Classroom
• It is recommended that children be physically active
at least 60 minutes a day (IOM 2005; NASPE 2004).
Some of this recommendation can be met during
the school day. In additional to physical education
time, classroom teachers should provide multiple
opportunities for physical activity for children
throughout the day (NASPE 2009).
• By integrating physical education skills and con-
cepts with other subject areas, children are able to
simultaneously practice motor, language arts, and
math skills, for example, while also gaining the ben-
efi ts of being physically active. Additionally, short
activity breaks every 20 to 30 minutes help children
to concentrate more and be ready to learn.
• Children love to move! For children, movement is a
critical means of communication, expression, and
learning. The “active” rather than “passive” involve-
ment in learning that movement allows often makes
children more excited and motivated to learn. (See
Box 32-2 .)
Important Considerations
Before deciding to use the interdisciplinary approach
in your program, there are some important consider-
ations to ponder. For successful integration, you should
have a knowledge of and an appreciation for other sub-
ject area content, be prepared to put forth more effort,
and always keep your goals in mind.
Reciprocal Respect for Subject Content Inte- grating physical education and other subject content
is not always easy. Physical educators will have to
alter the way they think about physical education.
They will have to become familiar with developmen-
tally appropriate content in other subject areas in
order to promote real learning. The classroom teachers
and administrators will have to see physical activity
and physical education skills as important compo-
nents of a child’s education, and see physical educa-
tors as viable contributors to the overall education of
the child.
Standards-Based Instruction Before planning interdisciplinary learning activities for your children,
you (and any other collaborating teacher) should iden-
tify standards for each discipline, determine the assess-
ment to be used to show what students know or can
do at the end of the lesson(s), and then plan the appro-
priate activities and tasks. As with all standards-based
curricula, the learning goals, activities, and assessments
should align with each other.
Extra Effort Developing effective interdisciplinary learning experiences, as with any curricular innovation,
requires effort and time. You may have to rearrange the
order of your teaching to coincide with the lesson con-
cept or theme that the classroom teacher is teaching,
and vice versa. Some will be successful; others may not.
Be prepared to refl ect on the learning experience, make
changes, and try again.
Your Goals One challenge of interdisciplinary teaching is not to lose sight of the educational goals
and objectives you want to accomplish as you plan
integration activities with other subject areas. Always
assess the potential benefi ts of the proposed integra-
tive activity or unit, and if educational goals and ob-
jectives are not met, then it should not be considered
a worthwhile endeavor. Remember, it is through the
physical education program that children learn to
perform locomotor, nonmanipulative, and manipula-
tive movements profi ciently, which will enhance
their interdisciplinary learning.
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences
According to Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelli-
gences, we have seven types of intelligences — linguistic,
logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical,
interpersonal, and intrapersonal. His premise is that humans
possess all of these intelligences to some degree, but we
are gifted more in some than others. We learn best when
given opportunities for them to interact and work to solve
problems in a naturalistic setting.
Gardner’s view of intelligence supports the interdisciplinary
approach to learning. He encourages educators to look at dif-
ferent learning styles of children, and to help connect learning
while focusing on the particular intelligences that individuals
possess. Many children are kinesthetic learners — they learn
best through movement —however, they all too often are
expected to sit passively for hours in desks in classrooms.
Classroom teachers should strive to focus on all of the seven
intelligences, including bodily-kinesthetic, while physical edu-
cation teachers can take the opportunity to help children ex-
pand as many intelligences as possible through integrated
learning experiences in the physical education setting.
Source: Howard Gardner, Frames of Mind, the Theory of Mul-
tiple Intelligence (New York: Basic Books, 1983); T. Armstrong,
Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom (Alexandria, VA: Associa-
tion for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1994).
Box 32-2
658 PART 5 Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas www.mhhe.com /graham8e
The Process of Teaching Using an Interdisciplinary Learning Approach
A variety of interdisciplinary models have been intro-
duced over the years. As we gain experience in inte-
grating lessons, we typically develop and name our
own “models” that guide us. We have chosen three ap-
proaches to discuss in this book that we hope will give
you a general understanding of subject integration
from simple to more complex. Other models and a
more detailed breakdown of the approaches we are dis-
cussing here can be found in the related literature rec-
ommendations.
The three approaches — content linkage, shared inte-
gration, and thematic unit — all combine the teaching
of skills and concepts from at least two subject areas.
The content linkage approach can be used by one
teacher independently, while the shared integration
approach and the thematic unit approach both require
a collaborative effort between at least two teachers
from different subject areas in the school curriculum.
Content Linkage Approach
The content linkage approach is used by one teacher to
connect content from at least two subject areas. One
content area may be the primary focus of the lesson, but
skills/concepts from another subject area enhance the
learning experience and provide practice opportunities
for learning the skills/concepts in the other subject area.
Physical education teachers can fi nd ways to reinforce
classroom content without jeopardizing their primary
focus of teaching skill themes, movement concepts, and
fi tness concepts using the content linkage approach.
For example, the physical education teacher teaching a
kindergarten class might reinforce the math concept of
counting from 1 to 30 while focusing on traveling to
pick up beanbags to transport across the gym.
Other examples are depicted in Figure 32.1 , which
shows how content-specifi c skills for fourth graders
might be integrated in the physical education curricu-
lum while focusing on practicing the skill theme of
dribbling with hands.
Likewise, classroom teachers can use movement to
teach specifi c concepts in subject areas throughout the
curriculum. For example, a classroom teacher who is
teaching a language arts spelling lesson might have her
fourth graders throwing and catching a ball with a part-
ner while spelling a specifi c word or group of words. A
more detailed example is shown in Figure 32.2 , illus-
trating how math content for second graders might be
taught through movement and the reinforcement of
physical education concepts.
Language Arts
Standard: Sentence structure and spelling
Activity: Dribble and Spell—When a word or sentence is called, students dribble to find letters and punctuation marks scattered around the play area to cooperatively spell the word or sentence correctly as a team.
Science
Standard: Properties of objects and materials
Activity: Practice dribbling with four different objects (playground ball, yarn ball, balloon, basketball). Compare/contrast object properties and differences in bouncing ability.
Social Studies
Standard: Geography—Understand the physical and human characteristics of places
Activity: Continent Dribble—When a specific fact is given related to one of the 7 continents, students dribble to the appropriate continent (6–10 large world maps are scattered on the floor), dribble to spell the name of the continent, and return to the center of the floor.
Math
Standard: Develop fluency in adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing whole numbers
Activity: On large number lines on the floor (⫺50 to ⫹50), students will respond to answer a reading problem given by their partners by dribbling to the correct answer on the number line. Partners will verify the answer, and become the dribbler for the next problem (problems are written on cards by the teacher).
Skill Theme of Dribbling with Hands
Grade 4
Figure 32.1 Examples of other subject content integrated with the skill theme of dribbling.
CHAPTER 32 Integrating the Skill Theme Approach across the Curriculum 659
Figure 32.2 Examples of reinforcing math concepts through skill themes and movement concepts.
Skill Theme: Jumping and landing
Activity: Students jump rope while counting the number that answers the specific math problem (addition, subtraction) given by the teacher.
Movement Concept: Relationship with objects
Activity: Hoop Fractions — Tape masking tape twice across hoops to form four equal sections. Each child will perform various movements with the hoop while using 1/4, 1/2, 3/4, and the whole (i.e., jump in 1/2 of your hoop, put body parts in 3/4 of your hoop, etc.).
Skill Themes: Traveling, chasing, fleeing, and dodging
Activity: Number Line Tag — All students are assigned a number 1–20 (# of students) and given a card with that number. One-fourth of students are taggers. If tagged, student holds his number card over his head and repeatedly says his number – must be untagged by someone with the number immediately above or below.
Fitness Concept: Muscular strength
Movement Concept: Relationship with others
Activity: High 5 Push Ups — Facing a partner, both in push up position, partners alternate High 5's while counting. Goals should be set, such as counting to 100 by 10's, 5's, and 1's.
Math Grade 2
Shared Integration Approach
Another strategy for connecting more than one subject-
specifi c content area is the shared integration model. In
this approach, two teachers work together to provide a
lesson or multiple lessons that focus on shared concepts
from the two distinct disciplines. (For a comparison be-
tween this approach and the content linkage approach,
see Table 32.2 .) This type of lesson integration can be
used readily in both the classroom and the physical edu-
cation setting to reinforce skills and concepts. When
teachers work together to teach and reinforce related
skills from two or more subject areas, it helps integrate
the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains of
learning.
An example of shared integration is a lesson activity
in Box 32-3 called “Stepping across the U.S.,” for fourth
through sixth grades. This activity reinforces three phy-
sical education goals — teaching children about (1) the
importance of physical activity, (2) what activities pro-
mote more movement and therefore more pedometer
steps, and (3) the amount of physical activity needed to
reach a set goal during each day. In addition, the learn-
ing experiences reinforce the social studies concepts
of geography — location, distance, and facts about the
Table 32.2 Comparing Integrated Approaches
Comparison of Content Linkage and Shared Integration
Number of Number of
Subject Teachers
Approach Areas Needed Time Focus
Content linkage 2 or more 1 Usually during 1 lesson Primary focus on 1 content
area, with another subject
area used to enhance
Shared integration 2 or more 2 or more Could be for 1 lesson, Equal focus on shared
but often extends over a concepts from two
longer period distinct disciplines
660 PART 5 Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas www.mhhe.com /graham8e
states across the country. It could also be used to prac-
tice the math skills of estimation and comparison. This
lesson would require both the physical education
teacher and the classroom teacher to work together to
equally reinforce these concepts.
Developing an Integrated Learning Experience
Once you have chosen a class or grade level with which
you wish to teach an integrated lesson(s) using the
content linkage approach, you will fi rst need to review
the grade-specifi c content scope and sequence and the
state standards for the integrated subject and compare
those with your own. Then choose the concepts/skills
for each subject you wish to integrate, and you are
ready to design an appropriate learning experience
that focuses on the chosen concepts. (Use the format
applied to the “Stepping across the U.S.” lesson as a
guide.) Before implementing your lesson, share it with
a teacher(s) of the other content area for awareness
and feedback. After teaching the lesson, assess the suc-
cess of the learning experience.
For the shared integration approach, both teachers
should share program scope and sequence and standards
and identify targeted standards, discuss possible integra-
tion experiences and assessment strategies, and decide
which skills/concepts will be targeted. Together, write
an appropriate lesson experience(s) that equally focuses
on at least one skill/concept from each of the subject
areas being integrated. Decide on the implementation
date so that lessons can be adjusted, if necessary.
Criteria for Integrated Lesson Development When preparing and implementing learning experi-
ences using either the content linkage approach or the
shared integration approach, ask yourself the following
questions. Does the integrated lesson:
• Provide developmentally and instructionally appro-
priate tasks (for grade, for individual children)?
• Focus on a skill theme, movement concept, and /or
fi tness concept that is consistent with the program
scope and sequence?
• Reinforce specifi c content standard(s) in one or more
other subject area(s) for, and is it consistent with, the
specifi c program scope and sequence for that grade?
• Include assessment strategies for assessing student
learning in both subject areas?
Thematic Unit Approach
In the third approach to content integration, the the-
matic unit approach, teachers overlap the content across
the curriculum over a set period, while focusing on
one theme. Many educators believe that integrating
Example of a Shared Integration Learning Experience
Stepping across the U.S.
Grade level: 4 – 5
PE skill/concept focus: Fitness and wellness concepts
PE content standard: Exhibits a physically active lifestyle
Social studies skill/concept focus: Geography —U.S. states
Social studies content standard: Understands the physical
and human characteristics of places
Math skill/concept focus: Convert steps to miles, estimate,
compare stats, add class miles /steps
Math content standard: Computes fl uently and makes
reasonable estimates
Materials needed: Pedometers for each child, paper logs or
daily access to the Web site Log It (peclogit.org), maps for class-
room and gym to track class progress, state facts, fl ags, etc.
Description of activity: Children are given a pedometer by
the physical education teacher to be worn on weekdays for
3 consecutive weeks. The classroom teacher has the stu-
dents log their steps each day on paper logs, or at the Log It
Web site (peclogit.org). Students convert steps to miles
using the conversion of 2,000 steps ⫽ 1 mile. Total class
miles are calculated each day, and the class moves across
the U.S. map according to the miles accumulated. When a
new state capital is reached, both the classroom teacher and
the physical education teacher will reinforce state facts such
as the state seal, fl ag, bird, fl ower, animal, and the location,
area, and population of the state, etc. Daily or weekly goals
can be set, and estimation and comparisons can be taught.
The physical education teacher should instruct students to
set daily goals, to identify activities that promote the most
physical movement by monitoring steps after specifi c activi-
ties, and to participate in physical activity outside of school.
Note: Using PE Central Log It to record pedometer steps
allows students to record their steps daily, compare their stats
with others, and to take a “virtual hike” around the United
States. When a new state is reached, students are able to see
state information online, as well as see how many miles their
class must log to travel to the next state. Individual goal setting
is built into the Web site, and students earn certifi cates for
reaching daily goals. Teachers must register their classes online.
Assessments:
• Check written logs for math accuracy in converting steps
to miles, calculating total steps /mile, totaling and averag-
ing group steps /mile, setting reasonable daily goals, and
meeting them.
• Student worksheets should identify states traveled and
list their state capitals.
Box 32-3
CHAPTER 32 Integrating the Skill Theme Approach across the Curriculum 661
Box 32-4
Examples of Integrating Language Arts /Literacy and Physical Education
Making connections between books and movement can help enhance reading comprehension and promote physical activity. Here
are some examples:
Grade: K
Book: The Silly Tail Book (Marc Brown)
Lesson Idea: Read the story and discuss the different kinds of tails that jungle animals have. As the teacher pulls different tails from the
bag, the children identify the animal to which it belongs, and then move through the jungle (classroom or cones on the gym fl oor) as that
animal would move (e.g., elephant, giraffe, snake, panther, monkey, etc.). Source: Debra Williamson, Concord University, Athens, WV.
Grade: 1
Book: Stellaluna (Janell Cannon)
Lesson Idea: Have children recollect the beginning of the story when the baby bat, Stellaluna, is knocked from her mother’s safe
grasp by an angry owl one night while looking for food. In Stellaluna Steal Tag, four taggers (owls) try to tag mother bats carrying their
young (a beanbag). If tagged, owls take the baby bats to the “baby bat bin,” and they are rescued by their mother as she travels in
various pathways to the bin. Source: www.activeacademics.org —Dorothy Reynolds, creator.
Grade: 1– 2
Book: Going on a Bear Hunt (Rosen and Oxenbury)
Lesson Idea: After reading the book to the students, read again, this time allowing children to “act out” the story as the children and
their father go through the tall grass, over the river, through the mud, etc. Source: www.activeacademics.org.
Grade: 2 – 3
Book: Brand New Kid (Katie Couric)
Lesson Idea: After reading the book about a boy who comes to a new school and is not readily accepted by his classmates, the
children can discuss how his soccer skills impressed one of his classmates and helped her encourage others to accept him. Children
can practice soccer dribbling skills like Lazlo and discuss ways to make others feel less lonely and less scared in any kind of “scary”
situation. Source: www.activeacademics.org.
Grade: 4 – 5
Book: Backyard Birding for Kids (Fran Lee)
Lesson Idea: This book will help teach children to appreciate birds and will help them to identify birds through sight and song. It
identifi es birds common to the city, the woodlands, the country, the wetlands, the seashore, and the desert. Helping children learn
to appreciate birds can lead to an outdoor hobby of birdwatching. If appropriate at your school, take your class on a “mini fi eld trip”
around campus to look for birds, and to begin a birdwatching journal. Assign children birdwatching walks outside of school (with a
family member) to add more birds to their journals. Source: www.activeacademics.org.
subjects such as physical education, art, and music
with the core subject areas of math, science, social
studies, and language arts using a thematic approach
should be considered in school curriculums (Roberts
and Kellough 2006; Wood 2004).
The thematic approach in physical education was
recommended by Evaul (1980) and others years ago by
suggesting that developmental themes such as coop-
eration, courage, independence, and responsibility be
used as themes for organizing the physical education
curriculum. Now, the interdisciplinary thematic unit
approach is being incorporated in many elementary
school curriculums to help connect student learning
across a number of subject areas, including physical
education. Thematic units can be planned and imple-
mented by one teacher with his or her students, but to
include subject areas across the curriculum, most
teachers work together as a team to plan and imple-
ment learning experiences centered around a theme or
topic over a specifi c period. A thematic unit of instruc-
tion might be a one-week study, or it might focus on a
theme on an ongoing basis over many weeks. An exam-
ple of a theme that might be used to connect different
sub ject content in a kindergarten class is “The Jungle.”
Young children are interested in and intrigued by ani-
mals. This theme could easily incorporate lessons re-
lated to jungle animals, including characteristics of
different types of animals, the jungle habitat, math
662 PART 5 Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Table 32.3 Thematic Unit: Recreation in (Your State) (Grade 6)
Overview: This thematic unit focuses on the study of recreational areas in your state. Learning activities include students working in groups to
study and report on a specifi c recreational area, preparing a budget associated with participating in the recreational opportunity, and practicing
motor and fi tness skills necessary for successful participation in the physical activities of that area.
Social Studies Math Science Language Arts Physical Education Health
Locate recreation Choose a Decide what Prepare a group Choose one Determine
opportunities recreational area muscles report and recreational sport benefi ts of the
throughout the that the class need to be poster about (e.g., snow skiing) physical activity;
state on the map; will visit; developed one recreational and discuss and determine
research each park prepare a budget to prepare to area in the practice the preferences;
or recreational for a trip to the participate state; use the motor skills and set personal
area; determine area, including in the Internet to fi tness levels goals — proper
distance from cost of the trip physical read specifi c necessary diet and activity;
home area to (transportation, activity. information to enjoy learn and
each recreational lodging, meals, about the participating practice basic
area; study fees), equipment, recreational in the sport. fi rst aid.
economy of the clothing, and area you will
area; in a group, any other costs visit.
prepare a PSA associated with
or commercial participating in
to promote the the physical
area and its activity.
recreational
opportunities.
Culminating event: Plan a fi eld trip to one of the recreational areas in the state, and participate in recreational opportunities in that area;
utilize prepared budget, and apply the knowledge of the area and the physical activity.
Parental and community involvement: Parents join in on the trip, help organize and make arrangements for the trip; community resources
that will be utilized are local recreation agencies, which will provide informational pamphlets, and clothing /equipment catalogs or retailers.
Source: B. McCracken, It’s Not Just Gym Anymore (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2001).
concepts such as measuring and comparing (i.e., ele-
phant foot to human foot), and many of the movement
concepts (space awareness, relationships, and effort).
Included in this chapter are two examples of how
thematic units can be developed to include a variety of
subject areas, including physical education, connected
through a theme. The thematic unit “Recreation in
(Your State)” in Table 32.3 focuses on the study of recre-
ational areas in a state and incorporates six subject areas
that revolve around the theme. The “Wild Wild West”
thematic unit in Table 32.4 is based on the westward
expansion of America and incorporates four content
areas. These examples illustrate only an overview of the
partial unit but will help you see how learning across
subject areas can be interconnected and how children
might better “connect” their learning in ways that are
more meaningful to their everyday experiences.
Tips for Developing an Interdisciplinary Thematic Unit
1. Choose a theme, together with your students, that
is motivating to them and that can incorporate
skills/concepts from a variety of subject areas. If you
are working with another teacher, include him or
her in the theme selection process.
2. Inform school administrators and other teachers of
your intent, and ask for their support and assis-
tance. (Team teaching may require special planning
time; outside speakers may be asked to come into
the classroom; fi eld trips may be planned; etc.)
3. Form a teaching team of interested teachers from
other content areas. The team will:
• Share content materials and brainstorm ideas for
the unit.
• Develop an overview of the unit, goals, instruc-
tional objectives, and fi nal assessment.
• Develop the theme-based learning experiences
that meet subject areas content standards and
those of the thematic unit, including a culminat-
ing event, assessment strategies, and timelines.
4. Inform parents and seek parental involvement. For
example, parents may be asked to assist their chil-
dren with special projects, bring expertise on a
particular topic to the class, join the students for a
special presentation, and so forth.
CHAPTER 32 Integrating the Skill Theme Approach across the Curriculum 663
Table 32.4 Thematic Unit: The Wild Wild West (Grade 4)
Overview: This thematic unit focuses on the westward expansion of America during the 19th century. The unit connects content in social studies,
language arts, fi ne arts, and physical education.
Social Studies Language Arts Physical Education Fine Arts
Map making of the “Wild West” theme Introduction to orienteering — Art: Begin to create
U.S., locating folders to include a map reading, compass a quilt and discuss the
landmarks and vocabulary list, daily reading history of quilt making
cities that travelers journal entries as a
would see traveling frontiersperson, and
west other related activities
Identify famous How the Settlers Lived, Complete an orienteering Art: Incorporate The
people involved in by George and activity, using landmarks Quilt Story, by Tony
the settlement of Ellen Laycock that represent the Old West Johnston
the Old West;
hardships of the
early settlers
The Oregon Trail Prepare and rehearse oral Participate in simple folk and Music: Video musical
computer software presentations on various square dances representative Oklahoma— socializing
(The Learning Co. aspects of the Wild West of that period aspects and time period
Inc.) takes you on comparisons
an educational
adventure
Culminating event: The Wild Wild West Celebration will conclude the thematic unit, with demonstrations of quilting, square dancing, story-
telling, and oral presentations by the students. Displays of student work will be shown. Parents will be invited and all will be invited to wear
period clothes and bring period items to share, such as old hats, pictures, lanterns, and other unique items.
Parental and community involvement: Parents are invited to be guest storytellers, observers, and participants in the fi nal celebration. They
are asked to help with their child’s period costume. Local media are invited to attend the culminating event.
Source: Developed by Brenda Cannon, Kevin Hutchinson, Rick Spreeder, and Shannon Owen, Concord University, Athens, WV.
Pedometers can be used to teach important concepts in
mathematics.
5. Locate instructional resources for the unit, includ-
ing community resources. For example, if you are
planning a unit around the theme of “Heart Health,”
you might have a pediatric cardiologist speak to the
class, take children to a local park to explore physi-
cal activity possibilities, organize a fi eld trip to the
grocery store to analyze food selections, and have
local “athletes” come to talk with the children about
tobacco avoidance.
6. Implement the interdisciplinary thematic unit and
assess the success of the unit (student learning).
What Is a Culminating Event?
An effective thematic unit includes a culminating event or
fi nale that will bring closure to the unit. The culminating event
should provide an opportunity for students to demonstrate
their “connected” knowledge, through written, oral, and /or
movement presentations. It allows students to share what
they have learned in different and individual ways. Examples
are individual /class presentations to parents or other students
in the school, fi eld trips, and class projects.
664 PART 5 Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Understanding the Scope and Sequence of Subject Area Content
For teachers to effectively integrate subject area con-
tent, they must be knowledgeable in the scope and
sequence of the subjects being integrated. Cone et al.
(1998) in their text Interdisciplinary Teaching through
Physical Education have reviewed textbooks and proj-
ects in the content areas of math, language arts, social
studies, science, and the arts and have compiled a
scope and sequence for each area in grades kindergar-
ten through six. They have given us permission to
reprint their work in Table 32.5 to help you better
understand the skills/concepts taught at each grade
level in math. Interdisciplinary Teaching through Physical
Education also offers many suggestions in each subject
area for active learning experiences that would be
helpful to any physical education teacher planning
interdisciplinary learning experiences.
Integrating physical education concepts with learn-
ing in other subjects in the school curriculum can be
considered a viable approach to help physical educa-
tion teachers enhance what is being learned in other
subject areas and to help classroom teachers promote
healthy lifestyles and physical activity. But clearly, it is
the teachers that make integration work. If teachers
recognize the contributions each fi eld of study can
make to the others, and strive to make connections
between the subject areas, then student learning can
be enhanced in new ways. Children benefi t from
seeing teachers working together to focus different
subject areas on a common theme and reinforce what
they are learning across the curriculum.
The Connection between Physical Activity and Academic Performance
Current education reform movements, such as the No
Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001, placed increased
emphasis on math and reading for all grades, and
schools and teachers are being held more accountable
Table 32.5 Example of Scope and Sequence of Mathematical Concepts Taught in
Elementary Schools
Concept Grade
K 1 2 3 4 5 6
Numbers x x x x x x x
Meaning of numbers 1–12 x
Meaning of numbers through 99 x
Meaning of numbers through 999 x
Meaning of addition and subtraction x
Addition and subtraction computation x
Meaning of numbers through 100,000 x
Meaning of multiplication and division x
Meaning of numbers through 1,000,000 x
Multiplication and division computation x
Meaning of decimals through hundredths x
Meaning of decimals through thousandths x
Meaning of addition and subtraction of x
fractions and decimals
Number theory x
Meaning of multiplication and division x
of fractions and decimals
Integers and ratios x
Percents x
Measuring and graphing x x x x x x x
Geometry x x x x x x x
Patterns and functions x x x x x x x
Probability and statistics x x x x x x x
Logic x x x x x x
Algebra x x x x x
Source: Reprinted, by permission from T.P. Cone, P. Werner, S.L. Cone, and A.M. Woods, Interdisciplinary teaching through
physical education (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1998), p. 70.
CHAPTER 32 Integrating the Skill Theme Approach across the Curriculum 665
for adequate student progress toward achievement of
state standards in the core subjects (NCLB 2002). With
high-stakes testing programs taking precedence across
the nation, some administrators are tempted to reduce,
or even eliminate, physical education as a solution to
improve test scores. Recent evidence suggests this is ill
advised. In fact, students who have regular physical
education, are more physically fi t, and have more op-
portunities to be physically active may do better in
school than those who are deprived of these valuable
experiences.
supports the relationship between physical activity and
enhanced learning in the classroom, including:
• Children in the third and fi fth grades who scored
better on the aerobic fi tness and the BMI (body mass
index) components of a fi tness test tended to have
higher stardardized test scores in reading and math
(Castelli et al. 2007) .
• Children who participated in four times as much
physical activity per day as previously reported,
through exposure to a designated 14-week physical
education program, showed improvements in fi t-
ness, classroom behavior, and academic performance
(IOM 2005).
• Allocating less time for physical education, art, and
music did not relate to higher standardized test
scores (Graham et al. 2002).
• Allocating twice as many minutes per week to phys-
ical education for a control group did not show it
interfered with standardized reading or math scores
(Sallis et al. 1999) .
• Increased physical activity time during the school day
led to higher test scores in math (Shephard 1997).
• An intense school physical activity program had a
positive effect on math, reading, and writing test
scores (Symons et al. 1997).
• Canadian children who spent an extra hour a day in
physical education class performed higher on exams
than their less active counterparts (Hannaford 1995).
Finding State and National Content
Standards
An excellent source for locating national and state content
standards in all subject areas is www.education-world.com /
standards.
What the Research Suggests: Physical Activity,
Fitness, and Physical Education
In recent studies, researchers have focused on the con-
nection between physical activity, physical fi tness, and/
or physical education and academic performance. One
of the fi rst studies to get national attention related to a
positive relationship between academic performance
and fi tness levels was conducted by the California De-
partment of Education (CDE 2002) (Figure 33.1). The
study matched scores on the Fitnessgram test with
reading and math scores on the Stanford Achievement
Test (SAT-9) of 353,000 students in fi fth grade. Although
this study did not show evidence that improving phys-
ical fi tness causes academic achievement to improve,
or vice versa, it did provide support for the assump-
tion, held by many, that there is a positive relationship
between students’ level of fi tness and their academic
achievement. A meta-analysis by Sibley and Etnier in
2003 examined the results of 44 studies related to phys-
ical activity and cognition in children. The results of
their study found that there is, indeed, a signifi cant
positive relationship between children’s physical activity
level and their cognitive functioning and support the
argument that physical education could affect students’
academic performance. A recent study by the Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention examined the as-
sociation between time spent in physical education
and academic achievement. The longitudinal study of
K–5 students showed a signifi cant correlation between
academic achievement and higher amounts of physical
education for girls (Carlson et al. 2008). Other re-
searchers have also found compelling evidence that
Physical Education and Social Studies:
Integrated Activity Example for Grades 3 – 4
Have a large map of the United States painted on the play
area, or use four to six large maps taped to the fl oor. Activi-
ties that incorporate traveling, space awareness, and /or
other manipulative skills can be used to identify states by
names, facts, relationships, etc.
Task Example: On each state, place tokens with the state
names. Students on teams of three will answer questions
posed by the teacher by sending a team member to the cor-
rect state to get a token (i.e., state bordering West Virginia
that begins with a “P”). After 10 questions, check for correct
number of tokens for each group.
The obesity epidemic currently plaguing our nation
focuses increased interest on the physical activity lev-
els of children. As school administrators begin to be
held accountable for the amount of physical activity
time provided for children during the school day, this
body of research will become increasingly important
to support daily physical education.
666 PART 5 Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Another compelling body of evidence is being com-
piled by neuroscientists and brain researchers related
to the importance of movement and optimal brain
function.
What the Research Suggests:
Brain-Based Learning
Brain researchers believe that exercise contributes to
optimal brain functioning and optimal learning, and
the evidence is mounting to make their case. In 1995,
Carla Hannaford in her book Smart Moves cited a meta-
analysis of 13 studies that found exercise to be a stimu-
lant for brain development. In Learning with the Body in
Mind (2000), author Eric Jensen reports:
• Vigorous daily physical exercise can promote new
brain cell growth.
• Exercise and aerobic conditioning may help im-
prove memory and strengthen other areas of the
brain.
• Downtime, such as recess, is necessary for children
to learn. It allows for the “strengthening of synaptic
connections in the brain that solidify prior learning”
(p. 66).
• Exercise of longer durations creates more cognitive
boosts.
Dr. John Ratey, author of Spark: The Revolutionary
New Science of Exercise and the Brain (2007) is the latest
to draw together emerging fi ndings from science and
educational research that correlates physical activity
and brain functioning. Dr. Ratey connects physical
activity to improving attention (including attention
defi cit/hyperactivity disorder [ADHD]), reducing anxi-
ety and depression, and in general, optimizing the brain
for learning.
Hannaford, Jensen, and Ratey all support the need
for quality physical education programs in all schools,
and additional physical activity time throughout the
day for all children, to promote learning and therefore
increase student achievement. Integrating physical
activities with the core subjects helps students engage
both their bodies and their brains in learning, as sug-
gested in the brain research. The skill theme approach
readily lends itself to “brain activities” and to promot-
ing both cognitive and psychomotor learning.
The skill theme approach emphasizes many of the
concepts that brain researchers say are so important to
brain development and learning. Skills such as balanc-
ing, tracking, moving cross-laterally, and moving
rhythmically are all included within the movement
concepts and skill themes. (Some examples of brain-
enhancing activities are included in Box 32-5 .) In addi-
tion, Prigge (2002) suggests other ways that we can
increase “brain power” through physical education
programs. These ideas include:
• Using music. Research on music and learning has
shown that music improves learning and memory
and increases optimum functioning.
• Teaching personal goal setting. Goal-setting skills
help students to “think smart.”
• Reinforcing good eating habits. To “eat smart,” stu-
dents should always eat breakfast, consume sugar
and carbohydrates in moderation, and increase fruit
and vegetable intake.
• Reinforcing water consumption. Children should
drink plenty of water throughout the day to avoid
dehydration and less-than-optimal learning.
• Remembering the importance of fi rst and last. We
remember most what is presented fi rst and last.
Have powerful beginnings, present new informa-
tion early, and always review during lesson closure.
• Having fun. Laughter lowers stress and contributes
to a relaxed learning environment.
A Final Thought
In concluding this chapter, we would like to reem-
phasize that the goals of physical education, as
expressed in national and state standards, must take
top priority because they make such an important
contribution to the overall health and well-being of
youngsters. It is possible, however, to accomplish
Examples of Brain-Enhancing Activities
Tracking activities help prepare the eye muscles for read-
ing. An example is following the fl ow of a scarf, a bubble,
or a feather as it falls to the ground, or tracking a balloon
as it is struck with a racket from one side of the body to the
other.
Cross-lateral movements enable the brain to cross the
midsection from the right side across the center to the left
side, which is important for allowing the brain to be ready to
read and write. Examples of cross-lateral activities include
basic scarf juggling, elephant walks, windmills, and rhythm
ribbons.
Rhythmic movements such as tapping rhythms, moving body parts to the beat, moving equipment to the beat, and
marching are all ways to stimulate the frontal lobes and can
potentially enrich language development.
Box 32-5
CHAPTER 32 Integrating the Skill Theme Approach across the Curriculum 667
these goals and simultaneously reinforce the concepts
that are being taught in the classroom and included
on the high-stakes tests that have become so impor-
tant in recent years. It also makes sense for us to ensure
that we include “brain activities” that neuroscientists
are telling us help with learning.
Striving to meet the National Standards for Physical
Education, which focus on physical activity and the
development of a healthy lifestyle, is certainly a re-
sponsibility that should be considered by all those in-
volved in educating children in the school setting, not
only the physical education teachers. Because most
children love to move and often learn best through
kinesthetic experiences, physical education readily lends
itself to interdisciplinary learning.
References /Suggested Readings
Armstrong , T. 1994 . Multiple intelligences in the classroom. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curricu- lum Development .
Blaydes , J. 2002 . Advocacy: A case for daily quality physi- cal education. www.actionbasedlearning.com .
[CDE] California Department of Education. 2004 . A study of the relationship between physical fi tness and academic achievement in California using 2004 test results. www.cde. ca.gov/ta/tg /pf/documents/2004pftresults.doc .
Carlson , S. , J. Fulton , S. Lee , L. Maynard , D. Brown , H. Kohl , and W. Dietz . 2008 . Physical education and aca- demic achievement in elementary school: Data from the
Early Childhood Longitudinal Study. American Journal of Public Health 98(4): 721–27 .
Castelli , D. , C. Hillman , S. Buck , and H. Erwin . 2007. Physical fi tness and academic achievement in third- and fi fth-grade students. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychol- ogy 29: 287– 88 .
Clancy , M. 2006 . Active bodies, active brains. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Cone , T. , P. Werner , S. Cone , and A. Woods . 1998 . Interdisci- plinary teaching through physical education. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishing .
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. Defi ne interdisciplinary learning . What are some
advantages of using this approach to teaching /
learning?
2. How does integration enhance learning?
3. How does the skill theme approach support inter-
disciplinary learning?
4. Describe and discuss three unique benefi ts for both
classroom teachers and physical educators for inte-
grating physical education with other subject areas.
5. Identify three approaches to integration discussed
in this chapter. What are the characteristics of each?
How are they alike /different?
6. What are some examples of two-directional integra-
tion between physical education and math? Lan-
guage arts? Social studies? Science?
7. Briefl y describe an integrated learning experience
using both the content linkage approach and the
shared integration approach.
8. Briefl y describe a thematic unit overview that in-
cludes at least three subject areas for a primary or
intermediate grade.
9. Briefl y summarize key points made in the recent
literature about the connection between physical
education and academic performance.
Summary
Interdisciplinary or integrated teaching are terms used to
describe teaching subject matter from two different dis-
ciplines within the same lesson, thereby promoting
learning in both subjects simultaneously and, when
physical education is involved, making connections be-
tween the psychomotor and cognitive domains. Three
approaches to interdisciplinary learning are described
in the chapter — content linkage, shared integration,
and thematic units. It is important that the teacher have
a mastery of the subjects to be taught if the lessons
(units) are going to be effective and maximize learning.
The chapter also includes overviews of research related
to the relationships beween academic performance, op-
timal brain functioning, and human movement and
physical fi tness.
668 PART 5 Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas www.mhhe.com /graham8e
[COPEC] Council on Physical Education for Children. 2000 . Opportunities to learn: Standards for elementary physical education: A position statement of the National Association for Sport and Physical Education. Reston, VA: NASPE, 2000 .
Elliott , E. , and S. Sanders. 2002 . Keeping children moving: Promoting physical activity throughout the curriculum . Teacher Source, PBS. www.pbs.org/teachersource/prek2/ issues/202issue.shtm .
Evaul , T. 1980 . Organizing centers for the 1980s. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 51(7): 51–54 .
Gardner , H. 1983 . Frames of mind, the theory of multiple intelligence. New York: Basic Books .
Graham , G. , J. M. Wilkins , S. Westfall , S. Parker , R. Fraser , and M. Tembo . 2002 . The effects of high-stakes testing on elementary school art, music and physical education. Journal of Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 73(8): 51–54 .
Hannaford , C. 1995 . Smart moves. Alexander, NC: Great Ocean Publishers .
Hichwa , J. 1998 . Right fi elders are people too. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
[IOM] Institute of Medicine. 2005 . Preventing childhood obesity: Health in the balance. Washington, DC: National Academies Press .
Jensen , E. 2000 . Learning with the body in mind. San Diego, CA: The Brain Store .
McCracken , B. 2001 . It’s not just gym anymore. Cham- paign, IL: Human Kinetics .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 1995 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education . Reston, VA: NASPE .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2004 . Physical activity for children: A statement of guidelines for children ages 5 –12 . Reston, VA: NASPE .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2009 . Comprehensive school physical activity programs . Reston, VA: NASPE .
[NCLB] No Child Left Behind. 2002 . U.S. Department of Education. www.nclb.gov .
Placek , J. 1992 . Rethinking middle school physical educa- tion curriculum: An integrated, thematic approach. Quest 44: 330 – 41 .
Prigge , D. 2002 . 20 ways to promote brain-based teach- ing and learning. Intervention in School and Clinic 37(4): 237– 41 .
Ratey , J. 2008 . Spark: The revolutionary new science of exercise and the brain . With E. Hagerman. New York: Little, Brown .
Rauschenbach , J. 1996 . Tying it all together: Integrating physical education and other subject areas. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 67(2): 49 –51 .
Roberts , P. , and R. Kellough . 2006 . A guide for developing interdisciplinary thematic units. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall .
Sallis , J. , T. McKenzie , B. Kolody , M. Lewis , S. Marshall , and P. Rosengard. 1999 . Effects of health-related physical education on academic achievement: Project SPARK. Res Q Exerc Sport 70(2): 127– 34 .
Shephard , R. 1997 . Curricular physical activity and aca- demic performance. Pediatric Exercise Science 9: 113 –26 .
Sibley , B. , and J. Etnier . 2003 . The relationship between physical activity and cognition in children: A meta- analysis. Pediatric Exercise Science 15(3): 243 – 56 .
Symons , C. , B. Cinelli , T. James , and P. Groff. 1997 . Bridging student health risks and academic achievement through comprehensive school health programs. Journal of School Health 67(6): 220 –27 .
Wood , K. E. 2004 . Interdisciplinary instruction: A practical guide for elementary and middle school teachers. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall .
P A R T
669
Our last two chapters emphasize future directions in physical education.
Chapter 33, “Building Support for Your Program,” describes how teachers
can work with seven different populations to gain support for their physical
education programs. We offer practical ideas for working with other teach-
ers in the school, the principal, parents, the school board, legislators, the
children themselves, and the community at large.
Chapter 34, “Physical Education for Tomorrow’s Children,” is in many
ways our favorite. We end the book by focusing on the future, presenting
some of our thoughts. We hope our ideas will encourage you to dream too.
6
The Future
671
C H A P T E R
33
Building Support for Your Program Many parents, students, teachers, and administrators do not know how physical education
contributes to an individual’s growth. The lack of a public relations plan can result in an absence
of communication between the physical educator and the public, thereby hampering the growth
of the physical education program.
— MICHAEL TENOSCHOK AND STEVE SANDERS
Physical education has undergone major changes in the past decade. So have its consumers. In
order for physical education to be viewed as an integral part of the educational process, more
attention must be paid to the marketing of tangible and intangible benefi ts.
— ALLISON MCFARLAND
672 PART 6 The Future www.mhhe.com /graham8e
W hen the fi rst edition of Children Moving was
published in 1980, there was a need to con-
vince parents that regular physical activity
was important for their children. Since the publication
of the Surgeon General’s report in 1996 (USDHHS 1996)
documenting the scientifi c evidence of the value of
physical activity, there is an increasing understanding
of the benefi ts that accrue to those who are physically
active ( www.americanheart.org ). Thus the role of the
physical educator today is to convince the seven popu-
lations described below that quality physical educa-
tion programs can lead to a lifetime of enjoyable
participation in physical activity (Stodden et al. 2008).
Most teachers need support from a variety of sources
to develop the type of programs they want for their
children. This is especially true in physical education,
for two reasons. First, even with the scientifi c evidence
about the value of physical activity for children and
adults ( www.cdc.gov ), many continue to regard physi-
cal education as less important than other subjects,
such as reading and math. Second, physical education
is a relatively expensive program to conduct because
of the necessary equipment involved. (It’s important,
however, that we continually remind others that phys-
ical education is for every child in the school— for the
entire fi ve or six years.) Thus, it’s necessary to cultivate
support from the various segments of a school com-
munity who have the potential to be allies in our quest
for improved programs. We’ve identifi ed seven related
populations who need to be aware of and supportive of
our program: the school administration, especially the
principal; other teachers in the school; parents; the
school board; the community at large; legislators, in
some instances; and the children.
This chapter discusses ideas for building support
within each of these seven populations. However, note
that it’s important that a teacher fi rst build as good a
physical education program as possible with the sup-
port that is currently available. Even with limited re-
sources, it’s possible to begin a good program, and this
is a necessary fi rst step because much of the work that
will go toward building more support involves open-
ing the program to administrators, parents, and the
community in general. Obviously, if the program
doesn’t get off to a good start, you don’t want visitors.
Once the program is off to a reasonable start, how-
ever, the teacher can invite observers to visit the classes.
It may take months before the teacher is ready, but the
learning environment has to be established, with the
children and teacher working together comfortably,
before visitors are welcome. Once the teacher is ready,
the principal and other teachers in the school will
probably be the fi rst visitors. You might want to con-
sider your answers to the questions in Box 33-1 as you
begin to build support for your program.
The Principal
Many principals, through no fault of their own, know
very little about physical education — especially the
approach we’re advocating in Children Moving. Thus,
it’s important to not take for granted that the principal
knows and understands the program you’re trying to
develop (Schneider 1992). We believe part of our job is
to educate our principal and administrators about our
physical education programs. This is probably our
most important task for gaining support for our pro-
grams. Principals are extremely important. In fact, if a
principal is not “on our side,” the opportunity to de-
velop our desired program is reduced considerably
(Giles-Brown 1993). We suggest the following ideas for
working with your principal. The ideas aren’t arranged
in order of implementation, and we don’t suggest that
they all need to be done. We’ve simply listed ideas you
may fi nd helpful in your particular situation.
• Invite the principal of your school to observe the
skill theme approach at a nearby school with you.
Sit with your principal, and be certain that he or she
focuses on the aspects of the program that are criti-
cal to the growth of your own program. Be certain
to schedule a visit with the principal at the school
you’re observing so that the two administrators can
discuss their programs and your principal can ask
questions.
• Invite your principal to your classes that are begin-
ning to work the way you intend. Be certain to
follow up this visit so that you can answer any
questions that may have arisen. Some administra-
tors, for example, are unaccustomed to seeing every
• Successful teachers, in addition to everything else they
are asked to do, must also successfully market or build
support for their programs.
• Physical education programs need to be marketed to
several populations — school and district administrators,
other teachers in a school, parents, the school board, the
community at large, and legislators.
• Teachers who create positive, enjoyable, and productive
programs are building support with their most important
population — the children they teach.
Key Concepts
CHAPTER 33 Building Support for Your Program 673
lessons on PE Central ( www.pecentral.org ) that will
provide an insight into quality teaching, and the
equipment that is needed.
• Occasionally give your principal a copy of an article
or book you think is particularly well done and rel-
evant to your program. Be certain to discuss the doc-
ument after your principal has had a chance to read
it. This is especially important if, for example, you’re
teaching 12 classes a day and you’re able to locate a
publication that recommends 9 classes a day as a
com plete load for a physical education specialist. We
recommend the publication by the National Asso-
ciation for Physical Education and Sport, Appropri-
ate Practices for Elementary School Physical Education
(NASPE 2009). It provides important guidelines
written in an easy-to-understand format. It can be
obtai ned from the Web site for the National Asso-
ciation for Sport and Physical Education ( www.
naspeinfo.org ). Also be sure to share overviews of
the 1996 Surgeon General’s report (USDHHS 1996),
the National Standards for Physical Education (NASPE
2004), and your state standards ( www.pecentral.org/
professional/statestandards.html ) with your princi-
pal. Another good source of information for you, and
your principal, is PE Links 4U ( www.pelinks4u.org ).
• Be on the lookout for research that you can use to
support the importance of physical education, espe-
cially if your principal is feeling pressure to increase
test scores in reading, math, and science. For exam-
ple, one study that surveyed Virginia elementary
school principals found that allocating less time for
art, music, and physical education did not correlate
with higher reading and math scores in elementary
Why Should My Child Take Physical Education?
As you consider ways to build support for your program, it
helps to formulate answers to the questions that a parent
(administrator, board member) might ask:
• Why should my children take physical education?
• What benefi ts is he or she gaining from participating in
your program?
Today we are able to suggest that quality physical educa-
tion has the potential to lead youngsters to a lifetime of
physical activity. Every parent wants these benefi ts, outlined
by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), for
their children. There is scientifi c evidence suggesting that
regular participation in physical activity
• Reduces the risk of dying prematurely
• Reduces the risk of dying from heart disease
• Reduces the risk of developing diabetes
• Reduces the risk of developing high blood pressure
• Helps reduce blood pressure in people who already have
high blood pressure
• Reduces the risk of developing colon cancer
• Reduces feelings of depression and anxiety
• Helps control weight
• Helps build and maintain healthy bones, muscles, and
joints
• Helps older adults become stronger and better able to
move about without falling
• Promotes psychological well-being ( www.cdc.gov )
Other good resources are the National Association for
Sport and Physical Education ( www.naspeinfo.org ) and
the American Heart Association ( www.americanheart.org ).
The CDC Web site ( www.cdc.gov ) is especially good if you
are searching for PowerPoint slides about the obesity
epidemic to share with parents.
Box 33-1
child with a ball and may be concerned about the
“chaotic” appearance of a class that differs from
their experiences in which there was only one ball
for an entire class.
• If you’re able to obtain videotapes of other teachers,
invite your principal to view one of the tapes with
you. Be sure to comment on the critical aspects of
the program and relate them to your needs. Remem-
ber that the principal is busy, so you may want him
or her to watch only certain key features, not the
entire videotape. There are also videos of parts of
The principal is an important component of a physical education
program.
674 PART 6 The Future www.mhhe.com /graham8e
schools (Graham et al. 2002). Another study of
353,000 fi fth graders discovered a positive rela-
tionship between physical fi tness and reading and
math scores ( www.cahperd.org ) ( Figure 33.1 ). You
may also want to share a copy of the book Spark ,
by a Harvard professor about the important rela-
tionship between exercise and the brain (Ratey
2008).
Try to avoid falling into the trap of thinking that
your principal really doesn’t like your program, or
physical education in general, if she isn’t initially en-
thusiastic. It takes some principals several years to be-
come active supporters of this program. In fact, we’ve
worked with principals who took several months to
fi nd time to come view our programs. Eventually, how-
ever, they did support our program and came to view
it as an asset to the school.
Teachers in the School
As you build your program, it’s important that other
teachers in the school understand and support your
efforts. You’ll certainly want to invite these teachers to
observe your classes. Some of the ideas you use with
your principal can also be used with your colleagues.
Physical education specialists also fi nd the following
ideas helpful:
• Develop a thematic approach (Ward 1999) to an
integrated curriculum in which the entire school
or a certain grade level focuses on an idea or theme
as suggested in the last chapter. With this approach,
content in all disciplines is centered around the
same selected theme. This is quite a natural fi t for
music, art, and physical education, but it can also
be used in a total-school or grade-level approach.
(See Holt /Hale 2010 and Cone et al. 1998 for more
information on integrated curriculum.) Remem-
ber, when developing an integrated curriculum,
that content should be integrated in a manner
that does not compromise physical education con-
tent, force integration, or sacrifi ce the existing
curriculum.
• On a smaller scale, work in conjunction with a class-
room teacher on certain projects (Chapter 32).
Child-designed games, for example, provide mar-
velous opportunities for writing, math, and art proj-
ects. Expressive dance is an excellent catalyst for
creative writing.
• If you require your students to keep student logs or
do written assignments (Chapter 14), some class-
room teachers will provide class time for students to
do the writing immediately after physical education
class (Stevens 1994).
• Arrange for several of the primary grades to view the
last 10 minutes of an intermediate grade’s lesson, to
show the younger children the progress that the
older children have made. This motivates the youn-
ger children, encourages the older children, and pro-
vides some extra physical education the younger
children who attend the minishow.
• When a class has done a particularly good job on a
physical education project, it’s a treat for the class-
room teacher to share in the children’s efforts. Invite
him or her to observe the last 10 minutes of a class
2001 Grade 5 SAT 9 and Physical Fitness
Number of Fitness Standards Achieved
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Reading
Mathematics
S A
T 9
P e rc
e n
ti le
29
36 40
32
36
45
50
40
58
46
55
71
Figure 33.1 Fitnessgram scores and SAT 9
reading and math scores for 353,000 fi fth-grade
California children.
Source: California Department of Education, 2002.
CHAPTER 33 Building Support for Your Program 675
while the children demonstrate their progress — for
example, in child-designed games or gymnastics
sequences. This also has the added incentive of en-
couraging the classroom teacher to observe your
physical education program.
• When feasible, try to eat with other teachers in the
lunchroom. This not only helps to fi ght isolation,
but also develops rapport and helps them see you as
a caring person and professional.
The classroom teacher’s support of the physical ed-
ucation specialist is important. Classroom teachers
who understand that physical education is educa-
tional, not simply recess, will be less likely to keep
children “in” to complete math or reading assign-
ments. They also respect the fact that the physical
education program has certain time limits and so
make sure that their children arrive on time and are
ready to return to the classroom on schedule. This
may seem to be a minor point, but it can be a source
of considerable friction when all the teachers in a
school aren’t working together to provide the best
possible program for children. When teachers under-
stand the value and quality of a physical education
program, their support is easier to obtain.
Parents
The physical education teacher must be sure to establish
administrator and colleague support before beginning a
major program to cultivate enthusiasm among parents.
Parent support is important, but it’s not enough with-
out the assistance of the principal and the other teach-
ers. If “internal” support doesn’t exist, a principal might
feel that you’re going “over her head” by appealing to
parents, which can be disastrous for a new program.
Once the administration understands your program
and its needs, in many instances the principal will en-
courage you to generate parent support. And parent
support can be especially helpful in obtaining funds
that aren’t available in the school’s budget. There are
many ideas for generating support among parents. Try a
few of the following one year, a few the next year. Be
sure to adapt the ideas to match the needs and interests
of parents in your community.
• Attend PTA /PTO meetings regularly, even if you
aren’t required to. Try not to sit in the back corner
with the other teachers; take the time to meet some
of the parents — introduce yourself, tell them what
you teach, and invite them to observe your classes.
This isn’t necessarily the most enjoyable part of
building a program, but it certainly can be a major
factor in creating support.
• If you’re invited to do a presentation for the parents’
group, try to involve as many children as possible,
to ensure a large turnout for your program. Be certain
to include children at all skill levels, not only the
utilization- and profi ciency-level youngsters — and
if possible, relate your program to the 1996 Surgeon
General’s report (USDHHS 1996) and your state
standards. (Most state physical education standards
can be located at www.pecentral.org /professional/
statestandards.html .) You will also fi nd short videos
on PE Central ( www.pecentral.org ) that illustrate
quality programs of physical education that would
be appropriate for parents and administrators and
school board members.
• Send a letter home at the beginning of the year. Tell
parents about your program and the general rules
the children will be expected to follow (for example,
shoes for physical education class). Invite parents to
visit. Include an e-mail address so that parents can
contact you if they have questions about the pro-
gram or your policies.
• A one-page monthly or quarterly newsletter is very
helpful for informing parents and creating enthusi-
asm ( Figure 33.2 ). Include items such as community
programs of interest, books and articles to read, spe-
cial accomplishments of the children, upcoming
television programs of interest, and future programs
that you’ve scheduled. Also include a brief sketch of
what you’ve been working on in physical education
and suggest activities for the parents and the chil-
dren to do together — for example, include the direc-
tions from this text for making a nylon-hose racket
or golf club, and suggest several activities for the par-
ents to do with their children. Be sure to have the
newsletter proofread so there aren’t any spelling or
grammatical errors.
• Bulletin boards are a great way to let parents know
about your program. If you don’t have the skills to
make attractive bulletin boards, try trading with
another teacher — for example, one week of bus
duty for one bulletin board. In many communities
there are retail stores for teachers that have very at-
tractive bulletin board letters, pictures, backgrounds,
and so on, that even the least skilled person can
use to make an appealing bulletin board. Written
student assessments, illustrated with their draw-
ings, make appealing bulletin boards. PE Central
features ideas for bulletin boards and links to other
Web sites that contain tips for creating interesting
and appealing bulletin boards at www.pecentral.
org /websites/ bulletinboardsites.html .
• Many elementary schools today have a Web site for
the school. If your school has one, be sure to take
advantage of the opportunity and keep it up to date.
676 PART 6 The Future www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Figure 33.2 Example of a
physical education newsletter.
Source: S. Diller, Newsletters
make parents and professionals
take note, Strategies 6(8): 23 – 25. While some schools view physical education merely as a good break
time for teachers or a time for
students to blow off a little steam,
this is not true for us at Davis.
Physical Education is a necessary and
integral part of the total curricu-
lum and is viewed with the same
seriousness as any other subject
matter. One of my primary goals is to
provide each student with specific
instruction to enable them to become
more skillful movers. As students
become more proficient in the
various motor skills taught in class, I
hope that they will enjoy using these
skills on a regular basis. Medical and
exercise science research indicates
that regular physical activity
contributes to a healthier and more
enjoyable lifestyle while decreasing
the incidence and seriousness of
various illnesses and diseases. This
report will help you know more
about the activities in which your
child has been instructed this last
quarter of the school year.
Space The second grade students began the
school year by reviewing the spatial
awareness concepts related to safe,
efficient movement. Some of these
concepts included moving in
personal and general space where
students attempt to move either
alone or among others without
interfering with the others' move-
ments. Additional space concepts
included movement at different levels
(low, medium, and high), in dif-
ferent directions (forward, backward,
sideways, up, and down), and in
pathways (straight, curved, and
zigzag). A proper understanding and
use of these movement concepts
permit children to move more safely
and effectively in all settings. Games
like "Bridges & Boulders," "High-Five
Freeze Tag," and "Octopus" made this
learning a lot of fun for everyone. Ask
your second grader how to play these
games and which one they enjoyed
the most.
Throwing and Catching The students also worked on tossing,
the underhand throw, the overhand
throw, and catching. To help students
learn these skills, we use learning
cues, key words that help students
remember how to perform a skill.
Learning cues can also be used to
prompt students when they are
practicing these skills. The learning
cues for the underhand throw are:
• arm back
• step (on opposite foot)
• swing, and
• throw (the ball toward target)
The cues for the overhand throw are:
• cock (arm back in ready position,
elbow out)
• step (on opposite foot)
• twist (upper body in direction of
throw), and
• throw (the ball toward target)
To put these steps together into a
smooth progressive action was not
easy, but a lot of practice helped!
The learning cues for catching are:
• watch (the ball)
• reach (for the ball)
• grab, and
• give (with the ball to absorb the
ball's force and slow it down)
Students participated in various
activities to further develop throwing
and catching for accuracy, distance,
and with partners. "Throw and Go"
and "Bombs Away" were two of the
most popular games. Play these
games with your students; you will
have fun.
Jump Rope & Kicking We are currently refining and
extending jump rope skills during the
warm-up portion of class. We work
on kicking skills for the remainder of
the lesson. The kicking skills students
are learning are most related to
soccer, such as dribbling (with the
feet) trapping, juggling (thigh and
foot), and kicking with various
amounts of force using the instep.
The Best As teachers and parents, we want the
very best for our students. One thing
we desire most is for our students to
be healthy, to enjoy the benefits of
good health throughout their entire
lives. You can help them establish
healthy levels of physical activity and
support the physical education
program by encouraging your
children to view physical education as
a place to learn, to have a serious
learning aptitude, to always try their
best, and to practice at home to
facilitate the learning process and
insure success.
Our own example is one of the most
important influencing factors in the
lifestyle habits passed on to our
children. We must take care of
ourselves. Take time to go outside
and play with your children — play
ball or tag, jump rope, go roller
skating. These are all fun ways to stay
fit and show your children that good
health is in many ways a matter of
what you do, as well as what you do
not do.
Feel free to contact me if you would
like to know more about our pro-
gram. Thanks for your support!
Scott Diller, Physical Educator
Davis Elementary School
The Physical Education Quarterly Report
• Send home with the children a “good news” note,
which informs the parents of their children’s ac-
complishments in physical education class. Design
and print a supply of notes at the beginning of the
year, so it won’t take long to send several every
week ( Figure 33.3 ). These notes are particularly
effective for the children who work hard but rarely
get noticed.
• Some teachers use positive phone calls to communi-
cate with parents about the program. A positive
phone call is just a brief phone call to tell a parent
how pleased the teacher is about the child’s progress
(attitude, effort) in physical education. It doesn’t
take long, but the fact that the teacher takes the time
to make the call means much to the parent. In many
instances it’s also unexpected because most phone
calls from the school tend to be negative. Challenge
yourself to make two good phone calls a week.
• Pete Tamm, a physical education teacher at Michael
McCoy Elementary School in Orlando, Florida,
writes letters to his students (Tamm 1993). During a
three-year period he has averaged more than 1,000
letters a year to his children. Figure 33.4 contains
several examples of his letters.
CHAPTER 33 Building Support for Your Program 677
Figure 33.3 Examples of “good news” notes. Reprinted with permission.
Figure 33.4 Letters to students.
Source: P. Tamm, “Dear Physical Educator: Writing Letters Makes a Difference,” Strategies 6, no. 8 (1993).
January 14, 1996
Chris,
You designed an interes ting kicking game.
The goal was to kick the ball across the other
person's line. Thanks fo r sharing
your idea.
It's a game other studen ts will want
to try.
Mr. Tamm
September 23, 1997
Jodie,
You and Lee had a very interesting idea. The two of you combined your rubber band strands with the tininkling poles. That made the tininkling pole dance even more interesting.
Thanks for sharing your idea.
Mr. Tamm
March 3, 1997
Kim,
I could tell by the expression on your
face that you were proud of y our new
jump rope record. You increa sed your
record from 20 jumps to 107 jumps.
Terrific !
Mr. T amm
June 9, 1997
Tracy,
When you met your goal of 30 sit-ups I could tell you were pleased with your effort. You should be.
Keep up the good work.
Mr. Tamm
• Several nights a year hold an open house for par- ents and the children. The children must have
adults with them to gain admittance. At the open
house, equipment is available, and the children
show the adults what they’ve been practicing in
physical education. Other ideas include mother –
daughter, father – son, mother – son, and so forth,
open houses. Some teachers hold these open houses
on Saturday mornings because many of the parents
work nights. If you schedule the open houses infor-
mally, parents are free to spend a few minutes or an
hour, depending upon their schedule. The PE Central
Challenge ( www.pecentral.org ) is another popular
event for a parents’ night.
678 PART 6 The Future www.mhhe.com /graham8e
• Once a year schedule a parent work night — evening
in which parents can help build, repair, and paint
equipment for the physical education program. The
advantage of such an evening is that it gives parents
an understanding of the need for physical education
equipment. Make sure the evening is well organized;
two hours is adequate.
• Walking is so popular today that parents may en-
joy a family walk once the children have built up
their ability to walk (or run) a limited distance.
It’s important to explain that it isn’t a race, but
just a chance to get together and run. A local ce-
lebrity walker makes an appropriate guest for such
an event.
• Schedule a speaker for parents only. For example,
you might invite a child psychologist, a medical
doctor, a former athlete. Be certain that you’ve heard
the speaker personally — don’t trust someone else’s
opinion. The speaker has to be worthwhile if the
parents are going to enjoy and benefi t from the
talk. The entire program should run a maximum of
60 minutes.
• Invite parents with special skills — for example, a
moun tain climber, self-defense expert, or triathlete—
to visit your physical education classes and discuss
their sport.
The School Board
Another obviously important factor in building sup-
port for your program is the school board. Although
the board may seem far removed, the members play an
extremely important role in physical education. In fact,
they’re the ones who ultimately determine whether a
school district will employ physical education special-
ists for their elementary schools. The time to gain the
board’s support is not when it’s considering eliminat-
ing the physical education program at the elementary
schools — that’s often too late. Get to know the mem-
bers, and let them get to know you and your program
long before then.
• Attend several school board meetings each year.
They won’t be your most entertaining evenings, but
you’ll learn much about how decisions are made in
school districts. If there’s an opportunity, try to
speak to one or more of the board members so that
you get to know them. Don’t ask for anything; just
introduce yourself and talk about the current busi-
ness before the board. If you ever have an occasion
to speak to the board, the fact that you understand
how the meetings are conducted and know a few
members of the board will make things substantially
easier for you.
• Whenever you’re offering a special program at your
school, send the board a written invitation. Be sure
you’ve attended enough board meetings so you can
recognize the members and call them by name if
they come to your program. If you know in advance
that the members will attend, try to have someone,
such as the principal or another teacher, available
to serve as a host.
• If you come across an article you think the school
board members should read, send them a copy with
a brief note. The article should be short, well writ-
ten, and important to the board members.
• NASPE’s Web site contains “advocacy resources” if
you need up-to-date facts and fi gures for a presenta-
tion to the school board or a legislative group ( www.
naspeinfo.org ).
Your relationship with the school board will be
somewhat distant. It’s important, however, to cultivate
a relationship if your program of physical education is
going to thrive within a school district.
The Community at Large
Realistically, the community at large is less impor-
tant than the populations discussed so far. You can
potentially enhance your program, however, by con-
ducting a program with community appeal. Typi-
cally, these are major undertakings that require
substantial time and effort. The workload can be light-
ened by conducting programs with other schools in
the community.
• If your community has a shopping mall, check with
the managers; the managers of malls are often look-
ing for demonstrations. Such a presentation will
give your program a great deal of public visibility.
It’s a good idea to have handouts available so that
people who stop by for a few minutes to watch the
program know exactly what they’re watching. These
leafl ets can be distributed by the children who aren’t
currently in action.
• The halftime of basketball games is a good opportu-
nity for displaying some of the highlights of your
program. For the program to be effective, the an-
nouncer’s script needs to be well done and rehearsed.
Many children from different grades will make the
program more appealing for the spectators. Con-
temporary loud music is also stimulating. Be sure to
include the younger children because they have
enormous crowd appeal to help get your message
across. Also, the children really enjoy performing,
and their parents, grandparents, friends, and neigh-
bors enjoy watching them.
CHAPTER 33 Building Support for Your Program 679
Legislators
One of the eternal truths about teaching physical edu-
cation is the seemingly endless need to convince oth-
ers that physical education is important in the lives of
children. There are times when, in addition to parents,
administrators, and school boards, it is important to
contact a legislator about an impending bill that will
have an impact on physical education programming.
In recent years, for example, some states have consid-
ered legislation to substitute activities such as march-
ing band, athletics, and /or Reserve Offi cers’ Training
Corps (ROTC) for physical education. If this happens
in your state, you will want to contact your legislator(s)
to explain why you do not support a particular piece of
legislation. There are a number of Web sites that list
the con tact information for both state and national
legislators. When you do, there are several guidelines
to follow.
• Mention the legislation specifi cally by its title — for
example, House Bill 402.
• Be certain that the letter or e-mail is well written. Be
especially careful that all words are correctly spelled
and that the grammar and format follow recom-
mended guidelines.
• Be concise and straightforward. Legislators may re-
ceive hundreds of letters about a piece of legislation,
and long rambling letters are not as effective as ones
that stick to the facts.
• Often a form letter is circulated by a professional
association to be sent to legislators. Although it is
acceptable to use the form letter, it is probably less
effective than modifying the letter to make it more
personal and unique.
• A handwritten letter may attract more attention than
a typed letter. It will stand out from the computer-
generated letters.
• Finally, if it can be arranged, a personal visit is also
an effective way to advocate for legislation. Again, it
is best to be concise and straightforward, as the visit
will be limited in length and you will need to know
your facts.
Children as Advocates
We’ve saved the most important component until the
end: the children. Obviously, if you hope to build sup-
port from the six populations just described, the chil-
dren will have to benefi t from and enjoy the program.
If the children aren’t avid supporters of your program,
you’ll have diffi culty gaining support from others in
the immediate community.
Children become advocates and talk positively about
teachers who help them learn and improve in any sub-
ject, not only physical education. In any school, the
best teachers are both known and respected by the chil-
dren, other teachers, and the principal. The word gets
out when a teacher and a program are good.
Unfortunately, building a quality program of physi-
cal education requires more than being a successful
teacher. To cultivate all the other populations that con-
tribute to the success of a program, a teacher also needs
to be part politician, part public relations director, and
part fund-raiser. Some teachers fi nd that part of the job
distasteful, but it is necessary, especially when one is
beginning a program of physical education.
Proposed Legislation for More and Better
Physical Education
According to the Physical Activity Policy Research
Network (PAPRN; http://prc.slu.paprn.htm ), from 2001 to
2007 there were more than 700 bills introduced at the
state and national levels related to the improvement of
physical education in the schools. Over 120 bills were
introduced in 2005, 2006, and 2007. Almost a quarter of
the bills proposed increasing the number of minutes for
physical education to meet the recommendation by
NASPE (150 minutes a week for elementary schools;
220 minutes for secondary schools). This is a pro mising
trend that refl ects the increasing recognition of the important
role quality physical education can make in assisting young-
sters to become physically active for a lifetime.
Summary
One role that teachers of successful physical education
programs play is that of generating support. Seven dif-
ferent populations need to be aware and supportive of
physical education if the programs are to be successful:
school administration, other teachers in the school,
parents, the school board, the community at large, leg-
islators, and the children. Children are the most im-
portant advocates of a program, so a program must be
of high quality if support from the other six groups is
to be developed.
680 PART 6 The Future www.mhhe.com /graham8e
References /Suggested Readings
California Department of Education. 2002 . The relation- ship of reading, math and physical fi tness scores in 5th, 7th, and 9th grade children. Available at: www.cahperd.org .
Cone , T. P. , P. Werner , S. L. Cone , and A. M. Woods. 1998 . Interdisciplinary teaching through physical education. Cham- paign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Council on Physical Education for Children. 1992 . Deve- lop mentally appropriate physical education practices for children. Reston, VA: National Association for Sport and Physical Education .
Council on Physical Education for Children. 2000 . Appro- priate practices for elementary physical education: A position statement of the National Association for Sport and Physical Education. Reston, VA: National Association for Sport and Physical Education .
Diller , S. 1994 . Newsletters make parents and profession- als take note. Strategies 8(1): 18 –20 .
Giles-Brown , E. 1993 . Teach administrators why physical education is important. Strategies 6(8): 23 –25 .
Graham , G. , J. M. Wilkins , S. Westfall , S. Parker , R. Fraser , and M. Tembo . 2002 . The effects of high-stakes testing on elementary school art, music and physical education. Jour- nal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 73(8): 51–54 .
Holt/Hale , S. 2010 . On the move: Lesson plans to accompany Children Moving. 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill .
McFarland , A. 2001 . Developing a marketing plan for physical education. The Physical Educator (December) .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2004 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. 2nd ed. Reston, VA: NASPE .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2009 . Appropriate practices for elementary school physical education . 3rd ed. Reston, VA: NASPE .
Ratey , J. and 2008 . Spark: The revolutionary new science of exercise and the brain . With E. Hagerman. New York: Little, Brown .
Schneider , R. E. 1992 . Don’t just promote your profession— market it. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 63(5): 70 –71 .
Stevens , D. 1994 . Movement concepts: Stimulating cogni- tive development in elementary students. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 65(8): 16 –23 .
Stodden , D. F., J. D. Goodway , S. J. Langendorfer , M. Roberton , M. E. Rudisill , C. Garcia , and L. G. Garcia . 2008 . A develop- mental perspective on the role of motor skill competence in physical activity. Quest 60(2): 290 – 306 .
Tamm , P. 1993 . Dear physical educator: Writing letters makes a difference. Strategies 6(8): 13 –15 .
Tenoschok , M. , and S. Sanders . 1984 . Planning an effective public relations program. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 55: 48 – 49 .
[USDHHS] U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 1996 . Physical activity and health: A report of the Surgeon Gen- eral . Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Preven- tion, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion .
Ward , P. 1999 . The saber-tooth project [monograph]. Journal of Teaching Physical Education 18(4).
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. Why are seven different populations identifi ed for
building support for a program? Can’t the same
ideas be used for all seven groups?
2. What’s the fi rst step a teacher must take to develop
a program with widespread support?
3. What does the phrase principal education mean?
4. Locate three elementary school Web sites from your
state. Write a brief review of the physical education
section. Was it helpful? Comprehensive? Did it an-
swer questions parents might ask?
5. Why is the school board so important to the success
of a physical education program?
6. Why are the children the most important factor in
developing support for a program?
CHAPTER 34 Physical Education for Tomorrow’s Children 681
681
C H A P T E R
34
Physical Education for Tomorrow’s Children Some see things as they are and say why. I dream things that never were and say why not.
— ROBERT F. KENNEDY
682 PART 6 The Future www.mhhe.com /graham8e
T his last chapter in Children Moving is different
from what you will fi nd in most books. We are
dreamers. We want the best for children and their
teachers and so we continue to dream about how things
might be. Since 1980, when the fi rst edition of Children
Moving was published, the profession of physical edu-
cation has made great progress. Today, as never before,
the important benefi ts of becoming and remaining
physically active for a lifetime are widely understood.
There is also an increasing recognition that the skill
theme approach, as described in Children Moving , has
the potential to provide the movement foundation
that is critical for enjoyable and ongoing participation
in sports and physical activity. We are delighted with
the progress that has been made. We are not satisfi ed,
however. We will continue to dream about ideal physi-
cal education programs and want to share those dreams
with you as the last chapter in the book. Some will call
our dreams unrealistic, perhaps even unnecessary. We
hope you will understand, however, the feeling that
exists so strongly in us to never be satisfi ed with any-
thing but the best. Some of our dreams may never
become reality.
We believe, however, that it is as important to con-
tinue to dream as it is to see our dreams realized. Perhaps
our hopes for the future will stimulate you to think and
dream about the way things could be. The following
dreams describe the world of children’s physical educa-
tion as we would like it to be—for every child and every
teacher.
• Every physical education program would be de-
signed to lead children to develop the knowledge,
skills, and attitudes that provide the foundation for
a lifetime of enjoyable physical activity.
• Every physical education program would be de-
signed for all children, not only the athletes and
physically fi t youngsters.
• The public would continue to understand and value
the important role regular physical activity can play
in the prevention of cardiovascular disease, dia betes,
certain types of cancer, alcohol and drug addiction,
and obesity and demand quality daily physical edu-
cation for their children
• K–12 physical education would be designed to assist
children to discover their personal tendencies, in-
terests, and joys related to physical activity and then
guide them to develop the competence that leads to
confi dence and regular participation in a sport or
physical activity.
• Parents would limit “screen time” (television viewing
and computer usage) to a maximum of two hours a
day, thereby encouraging youngsters to increase their
physical activity at home.
• Negative physical education programs that discour-
age and humiliate youngsters would be banned from
schools, along with their teachers.
• Every child would have positive instruction in phys-
ical education every day.
• All physical education programs, recreation programs,
and youth-serving agencies would collaborate to
provide interesting, enjoyable, and easily accessible
opportunities for children to be physically active
outside of the school day.
• All parents would become involved in their children’s
physical education. The concepts and skills intro-
duced at school would be valued, enhanced, and
embellished at home, through parent – child activity
nights, after-school programs for parents, and parent
volunteer programs.
• Children would be grouped —by interest in a spe-
cifi c activity, by ability, by experience — to accom-
plish the specifi c goals of a series of lessons, then
regrouped when the teacher decides to move to a
new skill theme. For example, some upper-grade
children might be interested in putting on a dance
performance for lower-grade children. Those upper-
grade children could be grouped to meet together
for two weeks to prepare their dance and perform it.
When they accomplish that goal, they could be re-
grouped as appropriate for another activity.
• There would be time during the day for teachers to
cooperatively plan a personalized curriculum with
each child. This would help children learn to make
signifi cant decisions about what they want to learn
and how they want to learn it.
• Physically challenged children would benefi t from
programs and activities designed specifi cally for
them to help them lead fuller lives. These activities
may, or may not be, traditional sports.
• Assistance would be readily available for those chil-
dren who require special remedial attention. This
program would include instruction for parents so
they could help their children at home.
• Successful children’s teachers are by nature optimists
and innovative thinkers who dream about the future.
• This chapter provides a series of dreams with the hope
that it will stimulate readers to develop their own dreams
about the future of physical education for children.
• Since the fi rst edition of Children Moving was published
in 1980, some of these dreams have become realities for
some teachers and children.
Key Concepts
CHAPTER 34 Physical Education for Tomorrow’s Children 683
• Discrimination of any type would no longer exist in
physical education.
• There would be times during each school day, beyond
scheduled physical education classes, when children
could choose to come to the gymnasium to practice
skills or activities in which they were interested.
• Classes would be scheduled to facilitate cross-age
teaching —fi fth graders working with fi rst graders,
or children at the profi ciency level working with
those at the precontrol level, for example.
• Classes would be scheduled so that beginnings and
endings were determined by the children’s interest
and involvement in a lesson rather than by an im-
personal and insensitive time schedule.
• Teachers would have adequate time between lessons
to jot down a few notes about the progress the last
class made, rearrange equipment, review lesson plans,
and shift their thoughts to the next class.
• Administrators and others who schedule classes
would understand that physical education is intended
to be an instructional experience, not a loosely orga-
nized recess. This understanding would be refl ected by
scheduling only one class rather than two or three
classes with 60 or even 90 children at a time.
• Teachers would be able to arrange frequent visits to
other schools and teachers to gain new ideas about
their programs.
• Teachers would be able to make arrangements to
switch teaching assignments with other teachers for
a day or a week. This would provide more experi-
ences working in different environments and with
children from various ethnic and socioeconomic
backgrounds.
• Teachers would collaborate and organize their curric-
ulum into organic, natural contexts (consistent with
the way children view the world), rather than artifi -
cially separating learning into compartmentalized
subjects like reading, mathematics, art, and phy sical
education. For example, building a house involves
reading, mathematics, climbing, balancing, and co-
operating with others.
• All classroom teachers would understand that a
quality program of physical education can signifi -
cantly contribute to children’s total development,
especially cognitive functioning. They wouldn’t
prevent children from going to physical education
class because they hadn’t fi nished their work or be-
cause they misbehaved.
• All colleagues, parents, and administrators would
be vitally interested in our teaching and physical
education programs. They would demonstrate this
interest by visiting our classes regularly, not only at
the fi rst PTA meeting of the year or during school
lunch week.
• It would be common practice for individuals from the
community to share their expertise and experiences
with children. Children would learn about mountain
climbing, hang gliding, Wii Fit, Dance Dance Revolu-
tion (DDR), hiking, human spatial ecology, and
weightless gymnastics, for example.
• Schools would become community centers that in-
volve parents and children in educational projects
of mutual interest and benefi t. These would include
child /parent-designed and -constructed playscapes,
child /parent-designed and -implemented fi eld days
for preschool children or underserved children,
and child – parent programs designed for senior
citizens.
• Physical education, in both elementary and second-
ary schools, would receive as much emphasis as high
school athletics. Communities would understand that
an appropriate program of physical education for ev-
ery child is at least as important as athletic programs
for the gifted. And so all schools would have appro-
priate equipment, facilities, and budgets for physical
education programs.
• All school districts would understand the differences
between teaching children and teaching adolescents
and would refuse to hire individuals whose primary
interest and expertise is in coaching or teaching at a
high school. Instead, school districts would hire, as
elementary instructors, only teachers who are pro-
fessionally qualifi ed and dedicated to a career of
teaching physical education to children.
• Preservice teachers would work in elementary
schools for several years before going to college so
they learn the right questions to ask about children
and teaching as undergraduates.
• Teacher-education institutions would offer profes-
sional preparation programs for elementary school
physical education specialists; these programs would
be different from those for secondary school physi-
cal education teachers.
• College teachers would regularly trade teaching
assignments with elementary school teachers, al-
lowing the teachers to study current theories and
practices at a college and giving the professors re-
alistic opportunities to translate their theories into
practice and gain experience about teaching to-
day’s children.
• Teachers and professors would collaborate to dis-
cover better ways to enhance the learning experi-
ences of children, preservice teachers, and in-service
teachers.
• Teachers would be involved in conceptualizing and
conducting action research. The resulting studies
would have the potential for fi nding answers to the
questions that teachers want answered.
684 PART 6 The Future www.mhhe.com /graham8e
• Research results would be disseminated in forms that
teachers of children would fi nd useful, practical, and
interesting, for example, in weekly pamphlets, news-
letters, or podcasts that would use the language of the
layperson, not professional jargon or advanced con-
cepts related to experimental design or statistics.
• Every school would have a gymnasium designed
specifi cally for children’s physical education that
would not have to be vacated for lunch, school as-
semblies, or plays.
• Every school would have the quantity and variety of
equipment that would allow every child maximum
practice at his or her level of physical development.
• Portable environments would be made available to
schools throughout the year. Children would have
opportunities to use portable swimming pools for
swimming lessons, portable ski slopes for skiing
lessons, and portable antigravity chambers to expe-
rience moving in a weightless atmosphere.
• A national association designed specifi cally for teach-
ers of children’s physical education would be started.
The conferences, newsletter, research, and other func-
tions would be designed to specifi cally address and
answer the questions teachers in the schools are
asking.
• Mentors would be available to teachers who want to
improve their teaching effectiveness and be sup-
ported in their early years of teaching.
• Adequate funds would be made available for re-
source centers operated by teachers for teachers.
Such centers would offer assistance in making mate-
rials or equipment, opportunities to hear visiting
lecturers, in-service courses, discussion and sharing
sessions, and up-to-date professional libraries.
• Computers would be readily available in gyms for
children to keep track of their own progress and for
teachers to design better programs and report the
children’s progress to the parents.
• All gyms would be equipped with the latest tech-
nology, such as digital video and still cameras, perma-
nently mounted television monitors, pedometers,
heart rate monitors, and wireless handheld and lap-
top computers linked to the Internet.
We continue to dream about and search for better
ways of teaching children. And we’d like to hear your
dreams and ideas about children, teaching, and physi-
cal education. If you’d like to communicate with us,
please write to us in care of the publisher.
One other dream emerged as we were writing this
book. Wouldn’t it be great if the ideas from our book
help you become a more effective teacher of children?
We’ve done our part — now it’s up to you. Make a pos-
itive difference in the lives of the children you teach.
Sample School-Year Overviews
if some areas, such as immediately stopping at the
stop signal and paying careful attention when the
teacher is talking, need additional work.
5. The sequencing of the skill themes and movement
concepts takes typical weather patterns into account.
Outdoor activities are grouped at the beginning and
end of the school year, indoor activities toward the
middle of the year. For the most part, the movement
concepts are introduced early in the year and are re-
visited throughout the year when time permits.
6. Fitness concepts (see Chapter 4) are taught through-
out the year on Wednesdays in the fi ve-day-a-week
schedules and every other week in the two-day-a-
week schedules. Obviously they could be grouped
differently, but this placement allows you to teach
a concept or two and set aside time for the children
to incorporate the concept into their lifestyle before
you introduce another fi tness concept. It also allows
you to review and reinforce concepts throughout
the year, instead of lumping them into a block of
lessons.
7. In our program, time is allowed throughout the year
for special events that take time away from teaching.
(In most of the elementary schools in which we have
taught, there are days when physical education must
be missed because of fi eld trips, holiday shows or as-
semblies, voting, or picture days.)
8. Notice that skill themes tend to be massed at the be-
ginning (several days combined) and then distrib uted
throughout the remainder of the year. Notice too
that in the programs for the experienced classes, sev-
eral days in a row are sometimes spent on a single
skill theme. As children improve in skill profi ciency,
they tend to want to spend more days on the same
skill because their success rate is much higher. When
success rates are low, children seem to concentrate
better when the skill themes are changed frequently
and reviewed regularly.
In this appendix we present four sample yearly over-
views based on the material in Children Moving. The
overviews are (1) a two-day-a-week program for an in-
experienced class, (2) a fi ve-day-a-week program for an
inexperienced class, (3) a two-day-a-week program for
an experienced class, and (4) a fi ve-day-a-week program
for an experienced class. As you study the programs,
keep these important points in mind:
1. The content outlines show how we might organize a
year using the material in Children Moving. They are
in tended not to be strictly followed, but rather to be
used as starting points for developing your own
yearly plans. They are also not inclusive of all tasks
developed in the movement concept and skill theme
chapters. Adapt your development to your own
needs.
2. In this context, inexperienced generally refers to K–2
classes, experienced to grades 3 –5. In your specifi c sit-
uation, inexperienced may refer to K–3 and experienced
to grades 4 –5. That’s why the outlines should be used
only as guides or examples and should not be taken
literally.
3. The content listed for each day is intended to be the
major focus of that day’s lesson, but in many instances
other content will be taught as well—for example, a
review of a skill theme or concept from the previous
day, or responsibility concepts (see Chapters 9 and 10)
or a skill that needs to be worked on frequently but for
short periods of time, such as jumping rope and trans-
ferring weight from feet to hands.
4. In both programs, the fi rst few days are devoted to
establishing a learning environment (see Chapter 9).
Several other days are devoted to “reviewing” the
learning environment. The period after winter or
spring break, for instance, is often a good time to
review the learning environment. Review days give
you a chance to check the environment to determine
A P P E N D I X
A-1
A-2 APPENDIX Sample School-Year Overviews www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Two-Day-a-Week Program for an Inexperienced Class
Content Outline for an Inexperienced Class That Meets Two Days a Week
Percentage Number
Topic of Lesson/Activity of School Year a of Days
Establishing a Learning Environment 4 3
Space Awareness 9 6
Effort 5 4
Relationships 5 4
Traveling 7 5
Chasing /Fleeing /Dodging 4 3
Jumping and Landing 5 4
Rolling 7 5
Balancing 5 4
Transferring Weight 5 4
Kicking and Punting 7 5
Throwing and Catching 7 5
Volleying 3 2
Dribbling 3 2
Striking with Rackets 4 3
Striking with Hockey Sticks 2 1
Striking with Golf Clubs 2 1
Striking with Bats 3 2
Fitness and Wellness 8 6
Field Day and Other Events 5 3
100 72
a Percentages are approximate.
APPENDIX Sample School-Year Overviews A-3
Two-Day-a-Week Program for an Inexperienced Class (72 Days a Year)
Week Chapter Day
1 9 1 Establishing an Environment for Learning (p. 125)
9 2 Establishing an Environment for Learning (cont.) (p. 125)
2 16 1 Exploring Self-Space (p. 254)
16 2 Exploring General Space (p. 256)
3 16 1 Traveling in Different Directions (p. 258)
16 2 Traveling and Freezing at Different Levels (p. 260)
4 4 1 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
25 2 Throwing at a Large Target (p. 478)
5 25 1 Catching a Rolling Ball (p. 478); Catching from a Skilled Thrower (p. 478)
19 2 Traveling with Different Locomotor Patterns (p. 314): Sliding; Galloping; Hopping; Skipping (p. 315)
6 19 1 Performing Locomotor Sequences (p. 316)
20 2 Traveling to Flee (p. 336); Fleeing from a Partner (p. 337)
7 20 1 Traveling to Dodge (p. 336); Dodging the Obstacles (p. 337)
24 2 Kicking a Stationary Ball from a Stationary Position (p. 443)
8 24 1 Approaching a Stationary Ball and Kicking (p. 443); Kicking in the Air (p. 445)
24 2 Dropping, Bouncing, and Kicking Lightweight Balls (p. 459); Dropping and Punting (p. 459)
9 21 1 Jumping and Landing: Basic Patterns (p. 357)
4 2 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
10 26 1 Striking Balloons in the Air (p. 504)
26 2 Striking a Ball Upward (Underhand Pattern) (p. 506)
11 26 1 Bouncing a Ball Down (Dribbling) Continuously (p. 522)
26 2 Dribbling and Walking (p. 522)
12 17 1 Exploring Time (p. 271)
17 2 Exploring Force (p. 276)
13 17 1 Traveling and Changing Force Qualities (p. 276)
9 2 Establishing an Environment for Learning (p. 125)
14 16 1 Exploring Pathways (p. 261)
16 2 Exploring Extensions (p. 265)
15 19 1 Moving to Rhythms (p. 317)
4 2 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
16 27 1 Downs; Ups (pp. 544, 545)
27 2 Ups and Downs (p. 545)
17 21 1 Jumping over Low Obstacles: Hoops (p. 359); Jumping over Low Obstacles: Hurdles (p. 359)
21 2 Jumping a Turned Rope (p. 361); Jumping a Self-Turned Rope (p. 361)
18 18 1 Identifying Body Parts (p. 285); Balancing on Matching and Nonmatching Parts (p. 287)
18 2 Traveling and Freezing in Different Body Shapes (p. 289)
19 4 1 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
19 2 Leaping (p. 315)
20 18 1 Over, Under, Around, In Front Of, and Behind Concepts (p. 294)
19 2 The Follow-Me Dance (p. 320)
21 23 1 Rocking on Different Body Parts (p. 418); Rolling to Match a Partner (p. 420)
23 2 Rolling Sideways (p. 418); Rolling Forward (p. 422)
22 1 Special Event
18 2 Matching (p. 298); Mirroring (p. 298); Matching and Mirroring (p. 298)
23 22 1 Balancing on Different Bases of Support (pp. 376, 379)
22 2 Balancing in Different Body Shapes (pp. 377, 380)
24 23 1 Rolling in a Long, Narrow Position (log roll) (p. 420)
23 2 Rocking Backwards (p. 421); Rocking Backward over the Shoulders (p. 423)
25 23 1 Transferring Weight to Hands Momentarily (p. 402)
23 2 Transferring Weight to Hands across Mats (p. 403)
26 25 1 Throwing Overhand (p. 479); Throwing Underhand (p. 480); Throwing Sidearm (p. 480)
25 2 Throwing a Ball against a Wall and Catching the Rebound (p. 486)
27 22 1 Traveling on Low Gymnastics Equipment (p. 378)
22 2 Balancing Sequence (p. 388)
(continued)
A-4 APPENDIX Sample School-Year Overviews www.mhhe.com/graham8e
Two-Day-a-Week Program for an Inexperienced Class (72 Days a Year)
(continued)
Week Chapter Day
28 17 1 Traveling and Flow (p. 278)
23 2 Rolling after jumping off equipment and landing (p. 428)
29 23 1 Transferring Weight from feet to combinations of body parts (p. 404)
23 2 Transferring off Low Apparatus (Bench, Crate, or Low Table) (p. 406)
30 24 1 Kicking a Rolling Ball from a Stationary Position (p. 448); Kicking to a Partner (p. 449)
24 2 Punting Different Types of Balls (p. 463)
31 4 1 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
20 2 Dodging the Obstacles (p. 337)
32 25 1 Throwing and Catching with a Partner (p. 487)
27 2 Striking a Ball Rebounding from a Wall (p. 553)
33 21 1 Jumping for Distance (p. 356); Jumping for Height (p. 356)
28 2 Striking a Stationary Ball—Golf or Hockey (p. 571)
34 28 1 Striking for Distance—Golf or Hockey (p. 574)
28 2 Striking a Stationary Ball—Bats (p. 580)
35 4 1 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
28 2 Striking a Pitched Ball—Bats (p. 585)
36 1 Field Day
2 Field Day
APPENDIX Sample School-Year Overviews A-5
Two-Day-a-Week Program
for an Experienced Class
Content Outline for an Experienced Class That Meets Two Days a Week
Percentage Number
Topic of Lesson/Activity of School Year a of Days
Establishing a Learning Environment 3 2
Space Awareness 3 2
Effort 5 4
Relationships 4 3
Traveling 4 3
Chasing /Fleeing /Dodging 4 3
Jumping and Landing 5 4
Rolling 7 5
Balancing 4 3
Transferring Weight 7 5
Kicking and Punting 7 5
Throwing and Catching 8 6
Volleying 5 4
Dribbling 4 3
Striking with Rackets 7 5
Striking with Hockey Sticks 3 2
Striking with Golf Clubs 3 2
Striking with Bats 3 2
Fitness and Wellness 8 6
Field Day and Other Events 4 3
98 72
a Percentages are approximate.
A-6 APPENDIX Sample School-Year Overviews www.mhhe.com/graham8e
Two-Day-a-Week Program for an Experienced Class (72 Days a Year)
Week Chapter Day
1 9 1 Establishing an Environment for Learning (p. 125)
9 2 Establishing an Environment for Learning (p. 125)
2 16 1 Dodging in General Space (p. 257)
16 2 Combining Pathways, Levels, and Directions (p. 264)
3 23 1 Transferring Weight to Hands Momentarily (p. 402)
23 2 Transferring Weight to Hands: Walking (p. 409)
4 24 1 Kicking to a Partner (p. 449)
24 2 Keeping It Perfect: Zero, Zero (p. 451)
5 25 1 Throwing Overhand (p. 479); Throwing Underhand (p. 480); Throwing Sidearm (p. 480)
25 2 Throwing for Distance (p. 487)
6 20 1 Dodging Stationary Obstacles (p. 337); Dodging and Faking Moves to Avoid a Chaser (p. 339)
20 2 Dodging and Faking Moves to Avoid a Chaser (p. 339)
7 24 1 Punting for Distance (p. 463)
4 2 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
8 17 1 Combining Sport Skills and Time (p. 274)
17 2 Using Imagery and Force (p. 276)
9 18 1 Creating Postcard Sculptures (p. 290)
18 2 Creating Body Shapes in the Air (p. 291)
10 19 1 Performing Locomotor Sequences (p. 316)
19 2 Slow Motion Replay: The Sports Dance (p. 322)
11 21 1 Jumping a Self-Turned Rope (p. 361)
21 2 Jumping and Landing Task Sheet (p. 366)
12 23 1 Rolling after Jumping off Equipment and Landing (p. 428)
23 2 Rolling and Traveling Quickly (p. 431)
13 26 1 Volleying a Ball Upward (Overhead Pattern) (p. 510)
26 2 Volleying to a Partner (Overhead Pattern) (p. 510)
14 22 1 Performing Inverted Balances (p. 382)
22 2 Balancing Symmetrically and Nonsymmetrically (p. 380)
15 18 1 Meeting and Parting in a Cooperative Group (p. 301)
4 2 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
16 17 1 Following Flow Sentences (p. 279)
17 2 Combining Time, Force, and Flow (p. 280)
17 23 1 Rolling over Low Hurdles; Rolling on Low Equipment (p. 432)
23 2 Rolling, Balancing, and Rolling (p. 434)
18 26 1 Dribbling and Traveling (p. 526)
26 2 Dribbling Against an Opponent: One-on-One (p. 532)
APPENDIX Sample School-Year Overviews A-7
Week Chapter Day
19 27 1 To the Wall Again—Sideways (Sidearm Backhand Pattern) (p. 549)
27 2 Striking a Ball Rebounding from a Wall (p. 553)
20 19 1 Shadowing (p. 324)
4 2 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity and Wellness (p. 40)
21 21 1 Jumping to an Accented Beat (p. 370)
23 2 Transferring Weight to Hands and Forming a Bridge (p. 410)
22 22 1 Traveling into and out of Balances by Rolling (p. 393); Moving out of and into Balances by Stretching,
Curling and Twisting (p. 392)
23 2 Rolling to Express an Idea (p. 434)
23 23 1 Transferring Weight onto Large Apparatus (p. 410)
23 2 Combining Weight Transfer and Balances in to Sequences on Mats and Apparatus (p. 414)
24 26 1 Volleying Game: Child-Designed (p. 511)
26 2 Playing One-Bounce Volleyball (p. 511)
25 1 Special Event
4 2 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity and Wellness (p. 40)
26 26 1 Dribble Tag (p. 533)
27 2 Hitting Cooperatively and Continuously with a Partner (p. 554)
27 27 1 Striking Upward in a Dynamic Situation (p. 558)
27 2 Team Striking across a Net (p. 561)
28 25 1 Throwing and Catching with a Partner (p. 487)
25 2 Throwing and Catching While Traveling (p. 490)
29 28 1 Striking to Targets at Various Distances—Golf (p. 575)
28 2 Playing Hoop Golf (p. 586)
30 20 1 Dodging Semistationary Objects (p. 340)
4 2 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity and Wellness (p. 40)
31 24 1 Playing Soccer Golf (p. 453)
24 2 Punting to a Partner (p. 465)
32 28 1 Traveling, and Striking While Changing Pathways—Hockey (p. 579)
28 2 Striking to a Stationary Partner—Hockey (p. 577)
33 25 1 Throwing for Distance and Accuracy (p. 492)
4 2 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity and Wellness (p. 40)
34 25 1 Throwing and Catching in a Small-Sided Invasion Game (p. 497)
21 2 Jumping to Catch (p. 367); Jumping to Throw (p. 368)
35 28 1 Striking a Pitched Ball—Bats (p. 585)
28 2 One-Base Baseball (p. 597)
36 1 Field Day
2 Field Day
A-8 APPENDIX Sample School-Year Overviews www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Five-Day-a-Week Program
for an Inexperienced Class
Content Outline for an Inexperienced Class That Meets Five Days a Week
Percentage Number
Topic of Lesson/Activity of School Year a of Days
Establishing a Learning Environment 4 7
Space Awareness 9 16
Effort 5 9
Relationships 5 9
Traveling 7 12
Chasing /Fleeing /Dodging 4 7
Jumping and Landing 5 9
Rolling 7 12
Balancing 5 9
Transferring Weight 5 9
Kicking and Punting 7 12
Throwing and Catching 7 12
Volleying 3 6
Dribbling 3 6
Striking with Rackets 4 7
Striking with Hockey Sticks 2 4
Striking with Golf Clubs 2 4
Striking with Bats 3 6
Fitness and Wellness 9 16
Field Day and Other Events 4 8
100 180
a Percentages are approximate.
APPENDIX Sample School-Year Overviews A-9
Five-Day-a-Week Program for an Inexperienced Class (180 Days a Year)
Week Chapter Day
1 9 1 Establishing an Environment for Learning (p. 125)
9 2 Establishing an Environment for Learning (p. 125)
9 3 Establishing an Environment for Learning (p. 125)
9 4 Establishing an Environment for Learning (p. 125)
16, 18 5 Exploring Self-Space (p. 254); Identifying Body Parts (p. 285)
2 16 1 Curling, Stretching, and Twisting in Self-Space (p. 255)
16 2 Moving the Whole Body in Self-Space (p. 256)
16, 19 3 Exploring General Space (p. 256); Traveling in General Space (p. 311)
16 4 Reducing the Size of the General Space (p. 257)
16 5 Traveling Over, Under, and Around Obstacles in General Space (p. 258)
3 16, 19 1 Traveling in Different Directions (p. 258); Hopping (p. 315); Skipping (p. 315); Sliding (p. 314);
Galloping (p. 315)
16 2 Turning while Moving in Different Directions (p. 260)
16 3 Traveling and Freezing at Different Levels (p. 260)
16 4 Rising and Sinking to Create Different Levels (p. 261)
16 5 Exploring Pathways (p. 261)
4 16 1 Exploring Extensions (p. 265)
24 2 Kicking a Stationary Ball from a Stationary Position (p. 443)
4 3 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
24 4 Dropping, Bouncing, and Kicking Lightweight Balls (p. 459)
17 5 Exploring Time (p. 271)
5 17, 19 1 Moving at Different Speeds (p. 272); Traveling at Different Speeds (p. 321)
17 2 Exploring Force (p. 276)
17 3 Traveling and Changing Force Qualities (p. 276)
17 4 Traveling and Flow (p. 278)
17 5 Eliciting Flow Qualities (p. 279)
6 18 1 Round, Narrow, Wide, and Twisted Body Shapes (p. 288); Traveling and Freezing in Different Body
Shapes (p. 289)
18 2 Balancing on Matching and Nonmatching Parts (p. 287)
4 3 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
18 4 Traveling Over, Close to, Far Away, Inside (p. 292)
18 5 Over, Under, Around, In Front of, and Behind Concepts (p. 294)
7 18 1 Matching (p. 298); Mirroring (p. 298); Matching and Mirroring (p. 298)
18 2 Traveling Alongside/Following (p. 299)
19 3 Running (p. 315)
19 4 Performing Locomotor Sequences (p. 316)
19 5 Moving to Rhythms (p. 317)
8 25 1 Throwing a Yarn Ball against the Wall (p. 477)
19 2 Moving to Rhythms (cont.) (p. 317)
4 3 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
20 4 Traveling to Flee (p. 336); Fleeing from a Partner (p. 337)
20 5 Traveling to Dodge (p. 336); Dodging in Response to a Signal (p. 336)
9 20 1 Dodging with Quick Changes of Direction (p. 337)
21 2 Jumping and Landing: Basic Patterns (p. 357)
21 3 Jumping for Distance (p. 356); Jumping for Height (p. 356)
24 4 Approaching a Stationary Ball and Kicking (p. 443)
24 5 Dropping and Punting (p. 459)
10 23 1 Rolling in a Long, Narrow Position (log roll) (p. 420); Rolling Forward (p. 422)
23 2 Making Curled Shapes (p. 418); Rocking to Match a Partner (p. 420)
4 3 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
20 4 Moving Obstacles (p. 335)
21 5 Jumping and Landing: Basic Patterns (p. 357)
(continued)
A-10 APPENDIX Sample School-Year Overviews www.mhhe.com/graham8e
Five-Day-a-Week Program for an Inexperienced Class (180 Days a Year)
(continued)
Week Chapter Day
11 21 1 Jumping over a Swinging Rope (p. 357)
9 2 Review of Establishing an Environment for Learning (p. 125)
4 3 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
19 4 Traveling in Confi ned Spaces (p. 317)
23 5 Rolling Sideways (p. 418)
12 23 1 Rolling Backward (p. 421)
16 2 Creating Follow-the-Leader Pathways (p. 263)
16 3 Using Extensions and Imagery (p. 265)
20 4 Overtaking a Fleeing Person (p. 337)
21 5 Jumping over Low Obstacles: Hoops (p. 359); Jumping over Low Obstacles: Hurdles (p. 359)
13 21 1 Jumping Rhythmically (p. 360)
17 2 Combining Imagery and Time (p. 273)
4 3 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
24 4 Kicking a Rolling Ball from a Stationary Position (p. 448)
24 5 Tapping the Ball along the Ground (Soccer Dribble) (p. 449)
14 19 1 Traveling through Rope Pathways (p. 313)
17 2 Using Imagery and Force (p. 276)
25 3 Throwing at a Large Target (p. 478)
23 4 Rolling in Different Directions (p. 426)
23 5 Rolling from Different Positions (p. 424)
15 22 1 Balancing on Different Bases of Support (p. 379)
17 2 Practicing Flow Sequences (p. 279)
4 3 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
25 4 Catching a Rolling Ball (p. 478); Catching from a Skilled Thrower (p. 478)
22 5 Traveling and Stopping in Balanced Positions (p. 385); Balancing on a Wide Base of
Support (p. 377)
16 22 1 Tightening the Gymnastics Muscles (p. 379)
9 2 Review of Establishing an Environment for Learning (p. 125)
18 3 Making Symmetrical and Nonsymmetrical Shapes (p. 290)
20 4 Fleeing a Chaser (p. 338)
23 5 Rolling from Different Directions and Positions (p. 427)
17 23 1 Rolling at Different Speeds (p. 424)
18 2 Going over and under the Obstacle Course (p. 295)
4 3 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
4 Special Event
22 5 Balancing in Different Body Shapes (p. 380)
18 22 1 Traveling on Low Gymnastics Equipment (p. 378); Stationary Balances on Equipment (p. 385)
23 2 Locomotor Actions (p. 402); Transferring Weight from Feet to Combinations of Body Parts (p. 404)
19 3 Leaping (p. 315)
18 4 Meeting/Parting (p. 300)
21 5 Jumping a Turned Rope (p. 361)
19 21 1 Jumping a Self-Turned Rope (p. 361)
22 2 Balancing Boards (p. 390)
4 3 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
22 4 Counterbalance (p. 379)
23 5 Rolling Using Different Directions and Speeds (p. 427)
20 23 1 Rolling after Jumping off Equipment and Landing (p. 428)
23 2 Transferring Weight with a Rocking Action (p. 402); Transferring Weight to Hands Momentarily
(p. 402)
23 3 Transferring Weight onto and off Equipment (p. 403)
23 4 Transferring Weight to Hands across Mats (p. 403)
5 Special Event
APPENDIX Sample School-Year Overviews A-11
Week Chapter Day
21 1 Special Event
20 2 Dodging with Quick Changes of Direction (p. 337)
4 3 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
21 4 Jumping Using Buoyant and Yielding Landings (p. 362)
23 5 Rolling after Jumping off Equipment and Landing (cont.) (p. 428)
22 25 1 Tossing to Self and Catching (p. 478)
9 2 Review of Establishing an Environment for Learning (p. 125)
24 3 Kicking to a Distance Zone (p. 446)
24 4 Kicking to Targets (p. 447)
23 5 Rolling after Jumping for Height and Landing (p. 428)
23 23 1 Rolling after Jumping from Different Heights (p. 429)
22 2 Traveling on Large Apparatus (p. 387)
4 3 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
22 4 Balancing Sequence (p. 388)
23 5 Transferring Weight from Feet to Combinations of Body Parts (pp. 404)
24 23 1 Stretching, Curling, and Twisting into Transfers (p. 404)
26 2 Striking Balloons in the Air (p. 504); Striking with Different Body Parts (p. 505)
26 3 Striking a Ball to the Wall (Underhand Pattern) (p. 507)
27 4 Paddle Balance (p. 539); Balloon Strike (Lightweight Paddle) (p. 541)
27 5 Upward Bound (p. 544)
25 27 1 Downs (p. 544); Ups (p. 545); Ups and Downs (p. 545)
24 2 Kicking to a Partner (p. 449)
4 3 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
24 4 Dribbling around Stationary Obstacles (p. 450)
19 5 Traveling an Obstacle Course (p. 318)
26 28 1 Striking a Stationary Ball—Golf or Hockey (p. 571)
16 2 Traveling Pathways and Obstacles (p. 263)
16 3 Combining Pathways, Levels, and Directions (p. 264)
19 4 The Follow-Me Dance (p. 320)
23 5 Performing Spring/Step Takeoffs (p. 404); Performing Spring/Step Takeoffs onto Crates and/or
Benches (p. 405)
27 23 1 Transferring off Low Apparatus (Bench, Crate, or Low Table) (p. 406)
25 2 Throwing Overhand (p. 479); Throwing Underhand (p. 480); Throwing Sidearm (p. 480)
4 3 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
26 4 Bouncing a Ball Down and Catching It (p. 522)
26 5 Bouncing Down (Dribbling) Continuously (p. 522)
28 26 1 Dribble Like a Basketball Player (p. 523)
19 2 Traveling Using Different Directions, Levels, Pathways, and Locations (p. 321)
24 3 Starting and Stopping (p. 449); Traveling in Pathways (p. 450)
24 4 Punting Different Types of Balls (p. 463)
25 5 Throwing an Object to Different Levels and Catching It (p. 481)
29 25 1 Catching in Different Places around the Body (p. 481)
16 2 Review of Space Awareness Key Ideas (p. 251)
4 3 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
23 4 Traveling over Low Apparatus (p. 407); Transferring onto Low Apparatus (p. 407)
27 5 Ups and Downs (p. 545)
30 1 Special Event
26 2 Striking Lightweight Objects (p. 505)
26 3 Striking a Ball Upward (Underhand Pattern) (p. 506)
27 4 Striking to Different Places (p. 551)
27 5 Striking for Distance (Varying the Force) (p. 548)
(continued)
A-12 APPENDIX Sample School-Year Overviews www.mhhe.com/graham8e
Five-Day-a-Week Program for an Inexperienced Class (180 Days a Year)
(continued)
Week Chapter Day
31 27 1 Striking through a Target (p. 552)
26 2 Dribbling at Different Levels (p. 523)
4 3 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
26 4 Switches (p. 524)
28 5 Striking off a Batting Tee—Bats (p. 572)
32 28 1 Striking Suspended Objects—Bats (p. 583)
28 2 Striking for Distance—Golf and Hockey (p. 574)
28 3 Striking to Targets—Hockey (p. 576)
28 4 Throwing a Ball in the Air and Striking It—Bats (p. 584)
28 5 Striking to Varying Distances—Golf (p. 575)
33 28 1 Striking in the Air—Golf (p. 575)
26 2 Volleying to a Partner (Overhead Pattern) (p. 510)
4 3 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
26 4 Playing Keep It Up (p. 510)
28 5 Striking a Pitched Ball—Bats (cont.) (p. 585)
34 28 1 Striking a Pitched Ball—Bats (cont.) (p. 585)
25 2 Throwing Overhand at a Low Stationary Target (p. 483)
25 3 Catching with a Scoop (p. 485)
28 4 Striking to Targets—Hockey (p. 576)
28 5 Traveling, Stopping, and Controlling the Ball—Hockey (p. 578)
35 28 1 Directing the Placement of an Object—Bats (p. 591)
25 2 Throwing a Ball against a Wall and Catching the Rebound (p. 486)
25 3 Throwing for Distance (p. 487)
25 4 Throwing and Catching with a Partner (p. 487)
26 5 Dribbling with the Body in Different Positions (p. 525)
36 26 1 Dribbling and Traveling (p. 526)
2 Field Days and Special Events
3 Field Days and Special Events
4 Field Days and Special Events
5 Field Days and Special Events
APPENDIX Sample School-Year Overviews A-13
Five-Day-a-Week Program
for an Experienced Class
Content Outline for an Experienced Class That Meets Five Days a Week
Percentage Number
Topic of Lesson/Activity of School Year a of Days
Establishing a Learning Environment 3 6
Space Awareness 3 6
Effort 5 9
Relationships 4 7
Traveling 4 7
Chasing /Fleeing /Dodging 4 7
Jumping and Landing 5 9
Rolling 7 12
Balancing 5 9
Transferring Weight 7 12
Kicking and Punting 7 12
Throwing and Catching 8 15
Volleying 5 9
Dribbling 4 7
Striking with Rackets 7 12
Striking with Hockey Sticks 3 6
Striking with Golf Clubs 3 6
Striking with Bats 4 7
Fitness and Wellness 9 16
Field Day and Other Events 3 6
100 180
a Percentages are approximate.
A-14 APPENDIX Sample School-Year Overviews www.mhhe.com/graham8e
Five-Day-a-Week Program for an Experienced Class (180 Days a Year)
Week Chapter Day
1 9 1 Establishing an Environment for Learning (p. 125)
9 2 Establishing an Environment for Learning (p. 125)
9 3 Establishing an Environment for Learning (p. 125)
16 4 Traveling Over, Under, and Around Obstacles in General Space (p. 258)
16 5 Turning While Moving in Different Directions (p. 260)
2 16 1 Traveling While Rising and Sinking (p. 261)
16 2 Traveling Pathways and Obstacles (p. 263)
17 3 Combining Imagery and Time (p. 273)
17 4 Differentiating among Time Words (p. 274)
17 5 Combining Sport Skills and Time (p. 274)
3 20 1 Dodging Stationary Obstacles (p. 339)
20 2 Dodging and Faking Moves to Avoid a Chaser (p. 339)
22 3 Performing Inverted Balances (p. 382)
22 4 Performing Inverted Balances (cont.) (p. 382)
21 5 Jumping a Self-Turned Rope (p. 361)
4 24 1 Kicking to a Partner (p. 449)
24 2 Traveling in Pathways (p. 450)
26 3 Dribbling and Traveling (p. 526)
23 4 Transferring Weight Hands across Mats (p. 403)
23 5 Transferring Weight to Hands: Walking (p. 409)
5 25 1 Throwing Overhand (p. 479); Throwing Underhand (p. 480); Throwing Sidearm (p. 480)
25 2 Throwing a Ball against a Wall and Catching the Rebound (p. 486)
4 3 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
25 4 Throwing for Distance (p. 487)
24 5 Punting with an Approach (p. 462); Punting for Distance (p. 463)
6 24 1 Punting for Accuracy (p. 464); Punting for Height (p. 464)
20 2 Dodging While Manipulating an Object (p. 341)
20 3 Dodging While Manipulating an Object (cont.) (p. 341)
25 4 Throwing and Catching over a Net with a Partner (p. 488)
25 5 Throwing and Catching While Traveling (p. 490)
7 25 1 Throwing to Make a Partner Move to Catch (p. 491)
16 2 Combining Pathways, Levels, and Directions (p. 264)
4 3 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
16 4 Traveling and Extensions (p. 265)
24 5 Keeping It Perfect: Zero, Zero (p. 451)
8 24 1 Traveling and Kicking for a Goal (p. 452)
27 2 Ups, Downs, and Forwards (p. 546)
27 3 Striking to Different Places (p. 551)
27 4 Striking an Object to Send It over a Net (p. 552)
27 5 Striking a Ball Rebounding from a Wall (p. 553)
9 27 1 Hitting Cooperatively and Continuously with a Partner (p. 554)
28 2 Striking a Pitched Ball—Bats (p. 585)
4 3 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
28 4 Striking a Pitched Ball—Bats (cont.) (p. 585)
26 5 Moving Switches (p. 527)
10 26 1 Dribbling around Stationary Obstacles (p. 530)
26 2 Volleying to a Partner (Overhead Pattern) (p. 510); Playing Keep It Up (p. 510)
26 3 Obstacle-Course Volley (p. 511)
26 4 Playing Four Square, Two Square (Underhand Pattern) (p. 508)
26 5 Playing One-Bounce Volleyball (p. 511)
11 26 1 Striking a Ball Continuously with Different Body Parts (p. 513)
22 2 Balancing Symmetrically and Nonsymmetrically (p. 380)
4 3 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
(continued)
APPENDIX Sample School-Year Overviews A-15
Week Chapter Day
22 4 Balancing on Crates (p. 391)
22 5 Traveling into and out of Balances by Rolling (p. 393)
12 21 1 Jumping a Self-Turned Rope (p. 361)
9 2 Establishing an Environment for Learning (p. 125)
28 3 Striking for Distance—Golf and Hockey (p. 574)
28 4 Striking for Distance—Golf and Hockey (cont.) (p. 574)
17 5 Showing Contrasts of Force (p. 277); Using Imagery and Force (p. 276)
13 19 1 Changing Speeds to Music (p. 321)
19 2 A Dance of Water, Steam, and Ice (p. 321)
4 3 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
19 4 Slow Motion Replay: The Sports Dance (p. 322)
21 5 Jumping Using Buoyant and Yielding Landings (p. 362); Jumping on and off Equipment Using
Buoyant and Yielding Landings (p. 365)
14 21 1 Jumping and Landing Task Sheet (p. 366)
21 2 Jumping and Landing Task Sheet (cont.) (p. 366)
22 3 Performing Inverted Balances on Equipment (p. 394)
22 4 Performing Sequences That Combine Stationary Balances and Traveling on Mats (p. 398)
22 5 Balancing While Supporting the Weight of a Partner (p. 396)
15 22 1 Balancing on Hanging Ropes (p. 396)
23 2 Transferring Weight to Hands and Forming a Bridge (p. 410)
4 3 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
23 4 Transferring Weight onto Large Apparatus (p. 410)
28 5 Pathways, Speeds, and Directions—Hockey (p. 587)
16 1 Special Event
23 2 Rolling after Jumping over Equipment and Landing (p. 429)
23 3 Rolling, Levels, Directions, and Jumping (p. 430)
23 4 Rolling While Traveling, Jumping and Landing (p. 431)
23 5 Rolling after Jumping from Different Heights (p. 429)
17 23 1 Rolling and Traveling Quickly (p. 431)
9 2 Establishing an Environment for Learning (p. 125)
4 3 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
19 4 Traveling with a Partner: Matching Pathways (p. 323)
23 5 Transferring Weight to Head and Hands on Apparatus (Box, Beam, Table) (p. 410)
18 28 1 Striking While Dodging Stationary Obstacles—Hockey (p. 580)
17 2 Following Flow Sentences (p. 279); Practicing Flow Sequences (p. 279)
17 3 Using Flow Conversations (p. 280)
17 4 Combining Time, Force, and Flow (p. 280)
26 5 Dribbling in General Space While Changing Directions (p. 527)
19 26 1 Dribbling While Stopping, Starting, and Turning (Pivots and Fakes) (p. 529)
23 2 Rolling, Jumping, and Traveling in Relationship to Others (p. 432)
4 3 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
23 4 Rolling on Low Equipment; Rolling over Low Hurdles (p. 432)
19 5 Shadowing (p. 324)
20 19 1 Performing Rhythmical Patterns (p. 326)
18 2 Creating Postcard Sculptures (p. 290)
18 3 Creating Body Shapes in the Air (p. 291)
23 4 Traveling and Rolling between Pieces of Equipment (p. 433)
23 5 Rolling, Balancing, and Rolling (p. 434)
21 18 1 Creating Postcard Sculptures (cont.) (p. 290)
23 2 Rolling to Express an Idea (p. 434)
4 3 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
23 4 Rolling to Express an Idea (cont.) (p. 434)
26 5 Dribbling against an Opponent: One on One (p. 532)
(continued)
A-16 APPENDIX Sample School-Year Overviews www.mhhe.com/graham8e
Five-Day-a-Week Program for an Experienced Class (180 Days a Year)
(continued)
Week Chapter Day
22 26 1 Now You’ve Got It, Now You Don’t (p. 533)
19 2 Traveling to Express Age: The Fountain of Youth Dance (p. 326)
23 3 Transferring Weight on Bars (p. 414)
23 4 Transferring Weight over an Apparatus (Vaulting Box) (p. 412)
23 5 Transferring Weight along Apparatus (p. 413)
23 1 Special Event
26 2 Dribble Tag (p. 533)
4 3 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
28 4 Striking to a Stationary Partner—Hockey (p. 577)
21 5 Jumping to an Accented Beat (p. 370)
24 21 1 Jumping with a Partner to Mirror Actions (p. 370); Jumping with a Partner to Match Actions (p. 371)
28 2 Traveling and Striking While Changing Pathways—Hockey (p. 579)
18 3 Traveling along Equipment (p. 294)
18 4 Forming Cooperative and Collaborative Relationships (p. 300)
18 5 Forming Cooperative and Collaborative Relationships (cont.) (p. 300)
25 18 1 Meeting and Parting in a Cooperative Group (p. 301)
9 2 Establishing an Environment for Learning (p. 125)
4 3 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
23 4 Rolling onto Low Equipment (p. 435)
25 5 Throwing to a Moving Target (p. 491)
26 25 1 Throwing for Distance and Accuracy (p. 492)
2 Special Event
23 3 Transferring Weight on Bars (p. 414)
23 4 Combining Skills on Mats (p. 414)
23 5 Combining Weight Transfer and Balances into Sequences on Mats and Apparatus (p. 414)
27 23 1 Combining Weight Transfer and Balances into Sequences on Mats and Apparatus (cont.) (p. 414)
21 2 Jumping to Catch (p. 367); Jumping to Throw (p. 368)
4 3 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
21 4 Throwing and Catching while Jumping (p. 369)
24 5 Playing Soccer Golf (p. 453)
28 20 1 Dodging Semistationary Obstacles (p. 340)
26 2 Volleying with a Volleybird (p. 514)
26 3 Striking to the Wall—Varying Levels, Force, and Body Position (p. 515)
26 4 Volleying Continuously to a Partner (p. 516)
` 26 5 Volleying Three on Three (p. 516)
29 24 1 Playing One-on-One Soccer (p. 455)
28 2 Striking from a Stationary Position to a Moving Target—Hockey (p. 589)
4 3 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
28 4 Playing Hockey Bowl (Small Targets) (p. 586)
28 5 Striking to Targets at Various Distances—Golf (p. 575)
30 20 1 Dodging and Chasing One Person in a Mass (p. 340)
25 2 Catching to Throw Quickly to a Partner (p. 494)
25 3 Throwing and Catching in a Field, Run, and Score Gamelike Situation (p. 495)
25 4 Throwing to Avoid a Defender (p. 496)
25 5 Throwing and Catching in a Small Sided Invasion Game (p. 497)
31 25 1 Throwing at a Stationary Object While Being Defended (p. 497)
27 2 Striking to Different Places around a Partner (p. 555)
4 3 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
27 4 Striking Upward in a Dynamic Situation (p. 558)
27 5 Striking to One Wall with a Partner (p. 559)
32 20 1 Dodging in a Dynamic Situation (p. 341)
27 2 Striking at Angles to Two Walls with a Partner (p. 559)
(continued)
APPENDIX Sample School-Year Overviews A-17
Week Chapter Day
27 3 Partner Striking across a Net (p. 560)
27 4 Partner Striking across a Net (cont.) (p. 560)
27 5 Self-Designed Racket Games (p. 562)
33 27 1 Self-Designed Racket Games (cont.) (p. 462)
24 2 Punting within a Limited Time (p. 466)
4 3 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
24 4 Playing Rush the Circle (p. 467)
24 5 Playing Two-on-One Soccer (p. 455)
34 28 1 Directing the Air Pathway of the Struck Object —Golf (p. 586)
28 2 Directing the Air Pathway of the Struck Object —Golf (cont.) (p. 586)
28 3 Playing Hoop Golf (p. 586)
28 4 Hitting to Open Spaces —Bats (p. 592)
28 5 Striking a Pitched Object Varying the Distance —Bats (p. 592)
35 28 1 Directing the Pathway, Distance, and Speed of an Object —Bats (p. 596)
25 2 Throwing and Catching with a Flying Disc in a Small-Sided Invasion Game (p. 498)
25 3 Throwing and Catching a Flying Disc in Different Places around the Body with a Partner (p. 495)
4 4 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity and Wellness for Children (p. 40)
28 5 Six-Player Striking and Fielding in a Gamelike Situation (p. 596)
36 28 1 One-Base Baseball (p. 597)
2 Special Event
3 Special Event
4 Special Event
5 Field Day
I N D E X
Abdominal strength/endurance exercises, 61 Absences, 76 Academic performance, physical activity and,
664 – 666 Accountability, 126 –127, 140, 202, 224 Action words, 275b Active Academics Web site, 656 Active schools, 50 Activities
cardiovascular, 61 categories, items and choices in, 91b family fi tness, 60 – 61 fl exibility, 60 negligence, 141–142 strength/endurance, 60
Adjusting the activities, 22 Aerial rolls, 432 Affective domain, 23 –24, 222 After-school sports programs, 649 Age, motor ability and, 15 Alcohol abuse, 42 – 43 Allen, Dwight, 65n Alley Soccer, 457– 458, 457f Alternative assessment, 202 American Alliance for Health, Physical Education,
Recreation and Dance, 141 American Heart Association, 47 Analytic rubrics, 220, 220f Appropriate Practices for Elementary School Physical
Education (NASPE), 637, 673 Asperger syndrome, 88 Assessment, 202 –230
for accountability, 202, 224 advance knowledge of material for, 204 appropriate vs. inappropriate, 203b, 225b balancing, 380, 383f basic principles, 207 checklists, 221, 222f defi ned, 202 disabilities, 79b, 223 –224 for distance, 487 dribbling, 523 event tasks, 215 –216, 217f exit slips, 207–208, 209f, 210, 211b, 223f generic levels of skill profi ciency, 107
homework, 212 –213, 212f implementation, 204 –205 instruction linked with, 203 jumping and landing, 359, 365 for learning, 202 –204 location, 258 meaningful tasks, 204 methods, 205 –219 movement concepts, 223 as ongoing process, 204 overview, 202 –204 peer observation, 213, 214f physical fi tness, 53 –56, 54b portfolios, 218 –219 rubrics, 219 –221, 220f, 221f self-assessment, 213, 215, 215f, 216f skill profi ciency determination, 102 –108 striking with long-handled implements, 591,
596 –597 student as primary client, 203 –204 student displays, 218 student drawings, 218 student journals, 210, 210f, 211b, 211f, 212 summarizing/reporting, 225, 226f,
228 –229, 228f teacher observation, 207 technology, 229 –230 three domains, 221–222 throwing and catching, 168b, 482 – 484, 487,
488, 492 – 494, 501 time needed for, 229 –230 transferring weight and rolling, 415 – 416 traveling, 315 – 317 videotape/digital pictures, 216, 218
Asthma, 86 Atlantoaxial subluxation, 89 Attention defi cit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), 88 Audiotape, for teacher self-observation, 235 –237 Authentic assessment, 202 Autism spectrum disorder, 88 Automobile safety, 42
Balance beam, 385f Balance bench, 386f Balance boards, 378f, 390, 391f
I-1
Note: Special material is indicated by an italicized letter following a page number: b = box; f = fi gure; n = footnote; t = table.
I-2 INDEX www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Balancing, 375 – 398 assessment, 380, 383f balance boards, 378 – 379, 378f, 390, 391f body part alignment, 383 – 384 body shapes, 377, 380 – 382 center of gravity, 375f control level, 379 – 391 counterbalance, 379 – 380 crates, 391– 392 development sequence, 377 dynamic balance, 375 gymnastics dance, 382 hanging ropes, 396 – 397, 397f inverted balances, 382 – 383, 384f, 394, 394f kickups, 384 – 385 large apparatus, 387– 388 levels of profi ciency, 376 low gymnastics equipment, 378 muscular tension, 379 National Standards for Physical Education, 375 precontrol level, 376 – 379 profi ciency level, 395 – 398 rolling, 393 sequences, 388 – 389, 394 – 395, 395f, 398 static balance, 375 stationary, on equipment, 385 – 387, 385 – 387f stationary and traveling sequences,
394 – 395, 398 stilts, 389 – 390, 389f, 390f stretching, curling, twisting, 392 – 393 support bases, 376, 377, 379 supporting partner’s weight, 396, 396f symmetrical/nonsymmetrical, 380 transferring off equipment with weight on
hands, 397– 398 traveling, 388 traveling and stopping, 377– 378, 378f, 385 utilization level, 391– 395
BAM! Web site, 47 Barrett, Kate, 186 Barry, Andy, 203 Baseball; see Striking with long-handled
implements Baseball gloves, 487 Bats; see Striking with long-handled implements Baughman, Dale, 150 Beginning of school year, 135 –138, 137f Behavior contracts, 154 –155, 156f Behavior disorders, 88 Behavior management; see Management of
students Behavior reports, 155, 157f, 158f Bell, Ken, 17 Belly-ups, 62
Benchmarks, 116 –118; see also Performance indicators; Performance outcomes
Berra, Yogi, 110 Bicycle safety, 42 Bierschbach, Jan, 11 Body composition, 52 Body part relationships
balancing, 286 –288 body part identifi cation, 285 –286 body shapes in the air, 291 changing shapes, 289 concept, 285 freezing, 287 postcard sculptures, 290 –291 round, narrow, wide, and twisted
shapes, 288 –289, 289b symmetrical/nonsymmetrical shapes, 290 traveling, 287 traveling and freezing in different shapes, 289
Bombardment, 341 Boucher, Andrea, 622 Brain functioning, physical activity and, 666, 666b,
674, 674f Breach of duty, 141 Bunker, Linda, 164
California Department of Education, 665 Cardiovascular activities, 61 Cardiovascular effi ciency, 52 Carroll, Lewis, 110 Catching; see Throwing and catching Center of gravity, 375f Centers for Disease Control (CDC), 44, 47, 665 Cerebral palsy, 83 – 85 Challenge, 90 – 92, 129, 169 –170 Change, 129 Chasing, fl eeing, dodging, 333 – 347
chasing and dodging simultaneously, 343 – 344 continual, with large group, 342 control level, 336 – 339 development sequence, 334 dodging in gamelike situation, 344 – 345, 344f dodging in response to signal, 336 – 337 dynamic situation, 341 fl eeing a chaser, 338 – 339, 338f fl eeing from partner, 337 invasion game – like situation, 344, 346 – 347 levels of profi ciency, 333 – 335 maintaining possession of an object, 343 make-believe chase, 336 manipulating an object, 341, 346 – 347, 347f moving obstacles, 335 – 336 National Standards for Physical Education, 333b obstacles, 337, 339, 340, 340f
INDEX I-3
one person in a mass, 340 – 341 overtaking, 337– 338 precontrol level, 335 – 336 profi ciency level, 342 – 347 quick direction changes, 337 self-designed games, 347 target game – like situation, 345, 345f team strategy, 346 traveling, 336 utilization level, 339 – 341
Checklists assessment, 221, 222f observation, 183 –184, 184f, 208f
Checkpoints; see Benchmarks; Performance indicators; Performance outcomes
Child-designed instruction, 188, 196 –199 Child Nutrition and WIC Reauthorization Act of
2004, 44 Chinese ribbons, 617– 618 Choice, 92, 129 Classes
behavior management, 156 –160 movement patterns, 177, 179
Classroom management; see Learning environment; Management of students
Classroom teachers attitudes toward skill theme approach,
24 –25 gaining support from, 674 – 675 as physical education teachers, 67
Class sessions per week, 67– 68, 107, 111 Class size, 67, 111 Cognitive domain, 23, 222 Community-school relationship, 75 –76, 678 Competence, 18 –20 Competition, 302, 640, 648 – 649 Cone Soccer, 458, 458f Congruent feedback, 169, 236 Consequences
behavior and, 137, 152 –156 rules and, 132
Consistency, in gymnasium atmosphere, 139 Content development,
165 –172 assessment of, 170 challenges, 169 –170 cues (critical elements), 167–169 individual differences, 171–172 informing, 166 –167 lesson plan, 170t overview, 165 –170 planning, 170 –171 tasks, 167 teacher self-analysis of, 237, 238f
Content linkage approach, 658, 659t Contracts
behavior, 154 –155, 156f individual, 197, 198f students with disabilities, 224, 224f
Control level balancing, 379 – 391 chasing, fl eeing, dodging, 336 – 339 class sessions per week, 107 defi ned, 103 –104 dribbling, 522 –527 jumping and landing, 357– 367 kicking and punting, 444 – 451 punting, 459, 462 – 465 rolling, 420 – 431 striking with long-handled
implements, 573 –585 striking with rackets and paddles, 544 –554 throwing and catching, 479 – 489 transferring weight and rolling, 403 – 409 traveling, 314 – 323
Convergent inquiry, 193 –194 Cooperation, in games, 640, 648 – 649 Cooperative learning, 195 –196 Co-op format, 196 Coordinated School Health, 44 COPEC; see Council on Physical Education for
Children (COPEC) Corporal punishment, 160 Council on Physical Education for Children
(COPEC), 9, 14, 654 Creative dance, 608 – 609, 610b, 611– 612, 612t Creativity, 613b Critical elements (cues), 117–118, 117t, 167–169 Critical thinking, 75 Cues; see Critical elements (cues); Learning cues Culminating event, 663 Cultural dances; see Folk /cultural dances Cultural differences, 75 –76 Cultural literacy, 75 Curling, 289b Curriculum
diamond model, 17–18, 17f interdisciplinary, 654 – 667 skill theme approach, 35b
Curriculum diamond, 17–18, 17f
Daily lesson plans, 118, 119 –120b, 120 –122 Dance, 602 – 621
child-designed, 620 – 621 creative /expressive, 608 – 609, 610b,
611– 612, 612t defi ned, 24 design of, 325b, 609 – 611
I-4 INDEX www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Dance (continued) evaluation of design, 611 fl oor pattern design, 325b folk /cultural, 326, 606 – 608, 607b imagery and, 614 – 615 with music, 615 National Standards for Physical Education, 604b props, 614 purpose of, 602, 604 rapping, 604 rhythmic, 604 – 606, 606f skill theme approach, 24 teacher-designed, 617– 619 teaching, 602, 612 – 614 types of experiences, 604 – 609
Davies, A., 219 Decision making, 136t Decoration of gym, 129 Degenerative disease, 44 – 45 Demonstrations, 166 –167, 243 –244, 243f, 632 Desists, 153 Development
games and, 649 – 650 rates of, 15
Developmentally appropriate physical education, 9, 15 –16, 20 –21
Diabetes, 86 – 87 Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 4 Differential treatment, 149 –150, 150f Differentiated instruction, 64; see also Refl ective
teaching Digital pictures, for assessment, 216, 218 Direct instruction; see Interactive teaching Directions
changing, 259 –260 clockwise /counterclockwise, 259 concept, 258 defi ned, 254 exploring, 259 traveling in different, 258 –259 turning while moving, 260
Directness of instruction, 187 Disabilities
assessment, 223 –224 hearing impairments, 81– 82 intellectual, 87– 88 learning, 89 meeting needs, 93 – 95 peer acceptance, 84, 89 physical, 82 – 86 physical activity and fi tness, 78 physical fi tness test packages, 79b teaching tips, 84b visual impairments, 79 – 81
Discipline, 68, 129, 147 Divergent inquiry, 194 –195 Diverse learners, 72 – 96
autism spectrum disorder, 88 behavior disorders, 88 cultural differences, 75 –76 emotional disturbance, 88 gender equity, 76 –77 health-related disorders, 86 – 87 hearing impairments, 81– 82 inclusion, 72 –77, 90 – 92 intellectual disabilities, 87– 88 learning disabilities, 89 meeting needs, 93 – 95 overweight children, 74 peer acceptance, 84, 89 physical disabilities, 82 – 86 poverty, 77 religious differences, 76 –77 remedial physical education, 89 – 90 social interaction disorders, 88 special needs children, 77–78 visual impairments, 79 – 81
Dodgeball, 335, 335b Dodging; see Chasing, fl eeing, dodging Down syndrome, 89 Doyle, Walter, 125 Dress, 76 –77 Dribbling, 520 –536
all-the-time, 522 –523 assessment, 523 basketball, 523 around body, 525 –526 body positions, 525 bouncing and catching, 522 changing directions, 526, 526f,
527–528 changing speeds, 527 development sequence, 521 different levels, 523 –524 different pathways, 528 –529,
528f, 529f dodging, 534 Dribble Tag, 533 fancy routines, 534 game situations, 534 group situations, 532 –533 integrated approach, 658 keep-away, 535 levels of profi ciency, 520 –522 looking and, 524 mirroring and matching, 531 moving switches, 527 National Standards for Physical Education, 521b
INDEX I-5
Now You’ve Got It, Now You Don’t, 533 obstacles, 530, 530f one-on-one, 532 with partner, 531–532 pivots and fakes, 529 –530 practice schedule, 20f precontrol level, 522 profi ciency level, 532 –536 small-group game, 535 –536 switching hands, 524, 525f, 527 targets, 534 –535 traveling, 526 –527 utilization level, 527–532 walking and, 522
Drug abuse, 42 – 43 Duration recording system, 240 –241, 242f,
242t, 243 Duty, 140 –141 Dynamic balance, 375
Educational gymnastics; see Gymnastics Education for All Handicapped Children Act of
1975, 77 Effective teachers, 234b Effort, 269 –281
applying concepts of, 280 –281 concept, 269 fl ow, 278 –280 force, 276 –278 movement analysis framework, 270f National Standards for Physical Education, 269b time, 270 –276
Emotional disturbance, 88 Emotional health, 41– 42 Emotions; see Affective domain Endurance activities, 60 Entering /leaving gymnasium, 133 Environment; see Learning environment; Least
restrictive environment Equipment
games, 648 gymnastics, 628, 630 negligence, 141 refl ective teaching, 68, 111–112 routines, 133 safety, 142 talking to, as behavior management tactic, 150 visual impairments, 80
Ethnic dances; see Folk /cultural dances Evans, Jane R., 71 Event tasks, 215 –216, 217f Exercises, 61– 62 Exit slips, 207–208, 209f, 210, 211b, 223f Expressive dance; see Creative dance
Extensions changing, 265 concept, 265 defi ned, 254 exploring, 265 imagery and, 265 –266 traveling, 265
Extrinsic motivation, 159
Facilities negligence, 81 refl ective teaching, 68, 111–112
Fader, Daniel, 148 Family fi tness activities, 60 – 61 Feedback
congruent, 169, 236 content-oriented, 169 cultural differences and, 75 gender equity and, 76 on protocols, 139 specifi c vs. general, 236 teacher feedback form, 236f on teacher performance, 233 teacher self-analysis of, 235 –237, 239 –240, 241f
Feiffer, Jules, 603b Ferguson, Ronald F., 95 Finger walk, 61 Fire safety, 42 First Amendment, 76 Fitnessgram, 53 Fleeing; see Chasing, fl eeing, dodging Flexed-arm hang, 61 Flexibility, 52 Flexibility activities, 60 Flow
concept, 278 conversations, 280 qualities, 279 sentences, 279 sequences, 279 –280 time and force combined with,
280, 281f traveling, 278
Folk /cultural dances, 326, 606 – 608, 607b Food pyramid, 43, 43f Foot bags, 514 Force
concept, 276 contrasts, 277–278 exploring, 276 imagery and, 276 traveling and changing, 276
Forward roll, 422 – 423, 422f Foster, Herbert, 63, 69
I-6 INDEX www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Galloping, 310 Games, 636 – 651
appropriate vs. inappropriate practices, 639b child-designed, 646 – 647, 647b, 647f child development and, 649 – 650 combinations of skills, 641– 642 competition, 640, 648 – 649 content, 638 – 639 cooperation, 640, 648 – 649 defi ned, 24 dynamic gamelike skill experiences, 639 – 642 equipment, 648 games-playing experiences, 639 – 640, 642 – 649 group size, 648 invariant game skill experiences, 639 – 640 learning environment, 649 modifi ed predesigned, 644 – 645, 645t National Standards for Physical Education,
637, 638b nature of, 636 – 637 offi ciating, 648 predesigned, 644 problems with, 637 purpose of, 637 responsibility, 638, 649 – 650 skills in open environment, 641 skill theme approach, 24 sports vs., 637, 648 tactics, 638, 642 teacher/child-designed, 646 teacher-designed, 645 teaching, 638, 644 – 649 thematic approach, 496 traveling, 330 types of experiences, 639 – 643
Gardner, Howard, 657b Gender
ability differences, 16 equity, 76
General space assessment, 258 city streets, crowded spaces, 257 concept, 256 defi ned, 253 dodging, 257 exploring, 256 –257 obstacles, 258 open spaces, 257 reducing size of, 257
Generic levels of skill profi ciency (GLSP), 102 –108 assessment, 107 control level, 103 –104, 107 development of, 102 multiple levels in a class, 106 –107
observable characteristics, 103b one child on multiple levels, 104 –105 precontrol level, 103 profi ciency level, 104, 107 teacher’s use of, 105 –106 utilization level, 104
GLSP; see Generic levels of skill profi ciency (GLSP) Golf; see Striking with long-handled
implements Good health balance, 43 – 44 “Good” letters, 155, 158f Grading, 228 –229 Grading contracts, 224, 224f Graham, George, 11, 17 Grapevine step, 322b Group selection, 133, 135, 135b Guided discovery, 193 –195 Gymnasium atmosphere, 127, 129 –130 Gymnastics, 623 – 633
apparatus experiences, 627– 628 appropriate vs. inappropriate practices, 625b balancing, 625 content, 625 – 628 defi ned, 24 educational vs. Olympic-style, 624 – 625,
631– 633 fl oor experiences, 626 – 627 National Standards for Physical Education, 624b nature of, 623 outdoor play equipment, 628 purpose of, 624 – 625 safety concerns, 629 – 631 sequences, 628 skill theme approach, 24 spotting, 632 teaching, 629 – 632 traveling, 330, 331f
Hamstring fl exibility exercises, 62 Hannaford, Carla, 666 Hanson, Margie, 323b Haubenstricker, John, 29 Health-related disorders
asthma, 86 diabetes, 86 – 87
Health-related fi tness, 51–52 Healthy Hearts 4 Kids Web site, 656 Healthy People 2010 (USDHHS), 44 Hearing impairments, 81– 82
aggression, 81 characteristics, 81 needs, 81– 82 social domain, 81 teaching modifi cations, 81
INDEX I-7
Hellison, Don, 127, 131, 160 Helping Murgatroid, 208 Hichwa, John, 653 High level, 260 Himberg, Catherine, 17 Hinman, Dave, 11 Hockey; see Striking with long-handled implements Holiday lessons, 77 Holistic rubrics, 220, 221f Home-school relationship, 75 –76, 137, 675 – 678 Homework, 212 –213, 212f Hopping, 307, 307f
IEPs; see Individualized education programs (IEPs) Ignoring inappropriate behavior, 151 Imagery
dance, 612, 614 extensions, 265 –266 force, 276 jumping and landing, 372 time, 273 –274 traveling, 313 use of, 269 –270, 271b
Inclusion; see also Least restrictive environment conditions for, 90 – 92 ecological model, 94 – 95 essential elements, 94 expansion of, 72 –77 implementation, 95 visual impairments, 80
Indirect instruction, 187 Individual differences, 171–172 Individualized education programs (IEPs),
53 –54, 93, 223 Individualized instruction, 76, 179 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of
1990 and 2004 (IDEA), 77–78, 96 Informing students, 166 –167 Injury
negligence, 141 visual impairments and, 81
In loco parentis, 140 Inner-thigh stretch, 62 Inquiry teaching, 642; see also Guided discovery Institute for Aerobics Research, 53 Instruction; see Teaching Instructional alignment, 22 Instructionally appropriate physical education,
9, 142 Instructional materials; see Teaching materials Integrated learning; see Interdisciplinary learning Intellectual disabilities, 87– 88 Interaction patterns, 237, 239f Interactive teaching, 188 –190
Interdisciplinary learning benefi ts, 656 – 657 considerations, 657 content linkage approach, 658, 659t defi ned, 654 physical education and, 654 – 657, 655b research supporting, 664 – 666 scope and sequence of subject area content,
664, 664t shared integration approach, 659 – 660,
659t, 660b teaching process, 658 – 663 thematic unit approach, 660 – 663 Web sites, 656
Intratask variation, 171–172 Intrinsic motivation, 159 Invariant teaching, 64t
Jefferson, Thomas, 48 Jensen, Eric, 666 Jigsaw approach, 196 Jogging /walking clubs, 47 Journals, student, 210, 210f, 211b, 211f, 212 Joyce, Mary, 271b Jumping and landing, 206f, 227f, 350 – 372
accented beats, 370 assessment, 359, 365 basic patterns, 357– 358 benches, 368 – 369 buoyant and yielding landings, 362 – 365 catching, 367– 370 control level, 357– 367 dance creation, 371 dancing, imagery, and, 372 development sequence, 356 different patterns, 355 – 356 distance, 353 – 354b, 356 forming body shapes, 363 – 364 fundamental patterns, 350 height, 351– 352b, 356, 358 – 359 hoops, 359 hurdles, 359 – 360 hurdling, 372 jump, squash, TaDa, 365 – 366 levels of profi ciency, 350, 355 matching, 371 mirroring, 370 National Standards for Physical Education, 350b precontrol level, 355 – 357 profi ciency level, 370 – 372 rhythmical sequences, 360 – 361 rhythm jumping, 360 ropes, 357, 361, 361– 362 sequences and body shapes, 364
I-8 INDEX www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Jumping and landing (continued) springboards, 371 standing long jump, 358 task sheet, 366 – 367, 366f throwing, 368 – 370 traveling and body shapes, 364 using equipment, 364 – 365 utilization level, 367– 370
Jump rope, 619 Jump rope clubs, 47
Kennedy, John F., 40 Kennedy, Robert F., 681 Kicking, 439 – 458
in the air, 441– 442b, 445 – 446 Alley Soccer, 457– 458, 457f approaching stationary ball, 443, 444f changing directions, 451– 452 Cone Soccer, 458, 458f continuous tap/dribble, 452 control level, 444 – 451 development sequence, 443 for distance, 446, 446f, 447f dribbling around stationary obstacles, 450 – 451 along the ground, 440b on the ground, 445 Keeping It Perfect: Zero, Zero, 451 levels of profi ciency, 439b National Standards for Physical Education, 439 to partner, 449, 454 – 455, 455f precontrol level, 443 – 444 profi ciency level, 455 – 458 rolling ball from stationary position, 448 – 449 soccer, mini, 456 – 457 soccer, one-on-one, 453 soccer, two-on-one, 455 soccer dribble, 449 soccer golf, 453 – 454, 454f soccer keep-away, 457 starting and stopping, 449 – 450 stationary ball from stationary position, 443 tapping the ball, 444 targets, 443, 444f, 447– 448, 448f, 456, 456f traveling and kicking for a goal, 452 – 453, 452f traveling in pathways, 450 utilization level, 451– 455
Kickups, 384 – 385 Kid Fit and Fun, 47 KISS principle, 166 Kohl, Herbert, 195
Lambert, Leslie, 204 Landing; see Jumping and landing Language arts, integrated approach to, 661b
Large movements, 265 Layson, J., 174 Leaping, 307, 310f Learning
assessment for, 202 –204 conditions for, 90, 127 cooperative, 195 –196
Learning centers, 191f Learning cues, 140 Learning disabilities, 89 Learning environment, 126 –143
challenge, 129 change, 129 choice, 129 games, 649 guidelines, 129 gymnasium atmosphere, 127, 129 –130 gymnastics, 629 – 630 managerial component, 130 –138 overview, 143f, 162f safety, 140 –142 teaching skills, 138 –140, 160 –161
Least restrictive environment, 78, 93 – 94; see also Inclusion
Legislators, 679 Less is more, 118 Lesson content, 76 Lesson design, 122 –123 Lesson plans, 118, 119 –120b, 120 –122, 170t Levels
body parts at different, 261 concept, 260 defi ned, 254 rising and sinking, 261 traveling and freezing, 260 –261 traveling while rising and sinking, 261
Lifelong physical activity, 38b Limited selection, in observation,
183 –184 Linear thinking, 65n Listening games, 134b Listening skills of children, 133, 134b Location
assessment, 258 defi ned, 253 –254 general space, 256 –258 self-space, 254 –256
Locke, Larry, 68, 175, 234 Locomotor skills, 306 – 310
galloping, 310 hopping, 307, 307f leaping, 307, 310f running, 307, 308 – 309b skipping, 310, 311f
INDEX I-9
sliding, 307, 310f walking, 306 – 307
Lopiano, Donna, 5 Lower back exercises, 62 Low level, 260 Lummi sticks, 617 Lying knee pull, 62
MacCracken, Mary, 85 Management of students; see also
Learning environment appropriate behavior, increasing, 149 –152 appropriate behavior, maintaining, 156 –160 behavior contracts, 154 –155, 156f classwide, 156 –160 communication with parents, 155 corporal punishment, 160 desists, 153 differential treatment, 149 –150, 150f disruptive behavior categories, 148 ignoring inappropriate behavior, 151 inappropriate behavior, decreasing, 152 –156 nonverbal teacher interactions, 151–152 overview, 143f, 162f person-to-person dialogue, 152 planning time, 154, 155b positive interaction, 149 positive practice, 153 principal’s involvement, 155 –156 proactive strategies, 149 –150 prompting, 150 protocols, 130 reactive approaches, 150 –152 reward systems, 158 –159 routines, 130, 132 –133, 135 –138 rules, 130 –132 self-refl ection regarding, 147–148 student responsibility, 127, 130, 131b, 132 –133,
135, 136t, 159 –160 time-outs, 153 –154, 154f, 155f
Manross, Mark, 11 Margie dance, 323b Mathematics, integrated approach to, 659, 664t Mauldon, E., 174 McCrumb, Dawn, 17 McFarland, Allison, 671 McGillan, Fran, 181 Mental health, 41– 42 Middle level, 260 Milne, A. A., 188 Mobility training program, 80 Motivation, intrinsic vs. extrinsic, 159 Motor ability, age and, 15 Motor skills, play and, 15 –16
Movement, love of, 603b Movement analysis framework, 31
effort, 270f model, 32f overview, 33 – 34 relationships, 284f space awareness, 253f
Movement concepts assessment, 223 effort, 269 –281 imagery and, 271b relationships, 284 – 302 scope and sequence, 113t skill themes and, 30 – 34, 289b space awareness, 252 –266
Multidisciplinary team, 93 Multiple intelligences, 657b Murdock, Mark, 135 Murray, Ruth L., 601 Muscular dystrophy, 86 Muscular strength and endurance, 51–52 Music
dance, 614 traveling, 318, 321
Musical parachute, 618 – 619 Mustain, Wendy, 17 MyPyramid, 43, 43f
National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE), 5, 8, 34, 74, 110, 114, 152, 201, 224, 302, 654, 673
National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC), 9
National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion (NCCDPHP), 17, 36, 38b, 164
National Standards for Physical Education (NASPE), 34, 36 – 38, 205, 673 assessment, 208 background, 34, 36 balancing, 375 benchmarks, 117–118, 120 chasing, fl eeing, dodging, 333b content standards, 11b, 36 cues (critical elements), 168 curriculum, 17 dance, 604b dribbling, 521b effort, 269b games, 637, 638b gymnastics, 624b instructional approaches, 188 interdisciplinary learning, 654, 667 jumping and landing, 350b
I-10 INDEX www.mhhe.com /graham8e
National Standards for Physical Education (NASPE) (continued) kicking and punting, 439b performance indicators, 37b physical activity, 44 physical fi tness, 50 relationships, 292b scope and sequence, 114 space awareness, 252b striking with rackets and paddles, 538b student responsibility, 127 throwing and catching, 471b transferring weight and rolling, 401b traveling, 306b volleying, 503b
Natural athletes, 16 NCCDPHP; see National Center for Chronic
Disease Prevention and Health Promotion (NCCDPHP)
Negligence, 140 –142 Nerf tennis balls, 543 New physical education, 9 No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001, 664 Nonverbal teacher interactions, 151–152 North Carolina Energizers Web site, 656 Nutrition, 43 – 44, 57 Nylon-hose paddles, 542f
Obesity, 44 – 45, 74; see also Overweight children Object relationships
concept, 291 equipment setup, 291f over and under obstacle course, 295 onto/off, 293 over, close to, far away, inside, 292 over, under, around, in front of, behind, 294 over, under, close to, far away from equipment,
292, 293f partners as obstacles, 295 –296 traveling along equipment, 294 traveling through obstacles, 294 –295
Observation assessment method, 207 checklists, 183 –184, 184f, 208f class movement patterns, 177, 179 guidelines, 180f how to observe, 180 –184 importance of, 175 –176 individual movement patterns, 179 knowing what to look for, 181–183 on-task behavior, 177 peer, 213, 214f positioning, 180 –181, 181f, 182f recording sheet, 178f
safety, 176 –177 strategies, 183 –184 teacher observation sheet, 227f teachers’ self-observation, 234 –245 what to observe, 176 –179
Obstacle course, 318f Offi ciating, 648 On-task behavior, 177 Opie, Iona, 648 Opie, Peter, 648 Opportunity to Learn (COPEC), 654, 655b Outcome assessment, 202 Overweight children, 74; see also Obesity
Paddles; see Striking with rackets and paddles Pairs-check, 195 –196 Parents
communication with, 137, 155, 675 – 676, 676f gaining support from, 675 – 678 relationship with, 75 –76
Participation, 90, 123 Partner selection, 133, 135, 135b Pathways
cards, 262f concept, 261 defi ned, 254 designing, 262 exploring, 261–262 following-the-dots, 264 follow-the-leader, 263 levels and directions combined with, 264 –265 maps, 262 obstacles, 263 taped on fl oor, 262f task sheet, 264f traveling, 263
PE Central, 11, 656, 675, 677 Pedagogy; see Teaching Pedometers, 48 Peer acceptance of children with disabilities, 84, 89 Peer observation, 213, 214f Peer teaching, 188, 192 –193 PE Metrics (NASPE), 224 People relationships
alone in a mass, 296 –297 concept, 296 cooperative and collaborative, 300 – 301 following with a group, 299 – 300 groups, 297–298 between groups, 298 matching, 298 matching and mirroring, 298 –299 meeting /parting, 300 meeting /parting in cooperative group, 301
INDEX I-11
mirroring, 298 partners, 297 performing solo, 301 solo, 297 traveling alongside /following, 299 traveling and matching, 298
Performance assessment, 202 Performance indicators, 37b, 116 –118, 117t, 206f;
see also Performance outcomes Performance outcomes, 205; see also Benchmarks;
Performance indicators Personal fi tness profi le, 54 –55, 55f Personal responsibility, 42 – 43, 159 –160 Person-to-person dialogue, 152 Physical activity, 44 –50
academic performance and, 664 – 666, 673 – 674, 674f
active schools, 50 defi ned, 5 disabilities, 78 exercises, 61– 62 factors infl uencing, 74 good health balance, 43 – 44 guidelines, 45 – 47 guidelines for promoting lifelong, 38b health benefi ts, 6 hourglass model, 8 inactivity, 45 in-school activities, 47 lifelong, 38b outside-of-school activities,
48 – 49 beyond physical education, 50 as punishment, 152 –153 pyramid model, 46 – 47, 46f statistics on, 7b Web sites, 57
Physical Activity and Health (U.S. Surgeon General), 7b
Physical activity directors, 49 Physical Activity for Children (Council on Physical
Education for Children), 45, 46 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans
(USDHHS), 6 Physical activity hourglass, 8 Physical Activity Policy Research
Network, 679 Physical activity pyramid, 46 – 47, 46f Physical contact, 76 –77 Physical disabilities, 82 – 86
cerebral palsy, 83 – 85 muscular dystrophy, 86 program planning, 83 spina bifi da, 85 – 86
Physical education; see also Teaching appropriate vs. inappropriate practices, 56, 128b,
203b, 225b, 625b, 639b benefi ts, 5, 673b consequences of lack of, 6b curriculum, 52 defi ned, 5 developmentally appropriate, 9, 15 –16, 20 –21 future of, 682 – 684 instructionally appropriate, 9 interdisciplinary learning, 654 – 657, 655b new, 9 newsletters, 676f program characteristics, 8 –10 program support, 672 – 679 purpose of, 5 remedial, 89 – 90 science and, 656t signing, 82 – 83f technology, 49
Physical education teachers attitudes and beliefs, 66 – 67, 127 attitudes toward skill theme approach, 25 classroom teachers as, 67 leadership role, 49 sign language, 81
Physical fi tness, 50 –57 concepts, 51 curriculum, 52 defi ned, 51 disabilities, 78 factors in success, 56 family activities, 60 – 61 goal, 56 history, 50 –51 National Standards for Physical Education, 50 personal profi les, 54 –55, 55f skill theme approach, 22 –23 teaching, 52 –53 technology, 49
Physical inactivity, 45 The Physically Educated Person (NASPE), 36 Pinpointing, 167 Planning, 111–124
benchmarks, 116 –118 content development, 170 –171 daily lesson plans, 118, 119 –120b, 120 –122 four-step process, 112 –122 lesson design, 122 –123 making it enjoyable, 122 recording progress, 122 refl ective, 111–112 scope and sequence, 113 –114 yearly overview, 114 –116, 114t, 115f
I-12 INDEX www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Planning time, 154, 155b Play, motor skill development through, 15 –16 Portfolios, 218 –219 Positioning, for observation, 180 –181, 181f, 182f Positive interaction, 129, 149 Positive practice, 153 Poverty, 77 Practice opportunities, 239 –241, 240f, 241f Precontrol level
balancing, 376 – 379 chasing, fl eeing, dodging, 335 – 336 defi ned, 103 dribbling, 522 jumping and landing, 355 – 357 kicking and punting, 443 – 444 punting, 459 rolling, 418, 420 striking with long-handled implements, 569,
571–573 striking with rackets and paddles, 539 –544 throwing and catching, 477– 479 transferring weight and rolling, 401– 403 traveling, 311– 314 volleying, 504 –505
President’s Challenge, 53 President’s Council on Physical Fitness and
Sports, 53 Principals, 155 –156, 672 – 674 Profi ciency level
balancing, 395 – 398 chasing, fl eeing, dodging, 342 – 347 defi ned, 104 dribbling, 532 –536 jumping and landing, 370 – 372 kicking and punting, 455 – 458 punting, 467– 468 rarity of, 107 rolling, 436 striking with long-handled implements,
593 –597 striking with rackets and paddles, 558 –562 throwing and catching, 495 –501 transferring weight and rolling, 409 – 415, 416 traveling, 327– 330 volleying, 517–520
Progress, recording, 122 Progression spiral, 31
overview, 34 punting, 33f
Prompting, 150 Proprioceptive perception, 79 Protocols
rules and routines, 130 –138 teaching, 138 –139, 139b
Proximate cause, 141 Public Law 94-142, 77 Punishment
corporal, 160 defi ned, 152
Punting, 458 – 468 accuracy, 464 angles, 465, 465f with an approach, 462 – 463 consistency, 462 control level, 459, 462 – 465 development sequence, 459 for distance, 463 dropping, 459 height, 464 – 465 levels of profi ciency, 458 lightweight balls, 459 limited time, 466 – 467 low ropes, 462 National Standards for Physical Education
(NASPE), 439b observation points, 460 – 461b to partner, 465 – 466, 466f precontrol level, 459 profi ciency level, 467– 468 progression spiral, 33f Punt-Over, 468, 468f receiving and punting against opponents,
467– 468 receiving pass, then punting, 466 Rush the Circle, 467, 467f traveling, 468 types of balls, 463 utilization level, 465 – 467 zones, 463 – 464, 464f
Push-ups, 62
Quimby, Donald, 3
Rackets; see Striking with rackets and paddles Rapping, 604 Ratey, John, 666 Recordkeeping, 122, 178f Recreation, thematic unit on, 662t Refereeing, 648 Refl ective planning, 111–112 Refl ective teaching, 64 – 69, 233 –247
class sessions per week, 67– 68, 111 class size, 67, 111 defi ned, 65 developing, 69 facilities and equipment, 68, 111–112 invariant teaching vs., 64t linking data to teaching, 246 –247
INDEX I-13
need for, 66 planning, 111–112 school context, 68 self-observation, 234 –245 self-refl ection, 147–148, 234 student behavior, 68 support groups, 247 teacher attitudes and beliefs, 66 – 67 written instruments, 245 –246, 246f
Relationships, 284 – 302 applying concepts of, 301– 302 body parts, 285 –291 concept, 284 –285 movement analysis framework, 284f National Standards for Physical Education, 292b objects, 291–296 people, 296 – 301
Religion, 76 –77 Responsibility
games, 638, 649 – 650 levels, 131b management of students, 127, 130, 131b,
132 –133, 135, 136t, 159 –160 personal, 42 – 43, 159 –160 routines, 132 –133, 135, 136t rules, 130 social, 42 – 43, 159 –160, 649 – 650
Rett’s disorder, 88 Reuschlein, Sam, 29 Reverse pull-ups, 61 Reward systems, 158 –159 Rhythm instruments, 606f Richert, Anna, 232 Rink, Judith E., 63, 649 Rolling, 416 – 436
aerial rolls, 432 back shoulder roll, 424 – 425 backward, 425 – 426, 425f, 426f balancing, 434 – 435 body parts, 418, 420 – 421 catching, 434 – 436 control level, 420 – 431 curled shapes, 418 curling, 420 development sequence, 416 different directions, 426 – 427 different positions, 424, 427 different speeds, 424, 427– 428 expressing an idea, 434 forward, 422 – 423, 422f handclasp backward roll, 425 hurdles, 432 instructional logistics, 417– 418, 418f after jumping, 428 – 430, 429f
jumping and traveling in relation to others, 432 levels, directions, and jumping, 430 – 431 levels of profi ciency, 416 – 417 linking rolls, 427 log roll, 420 low equipment, 432 – 435 matching, 420 meeting /parting, 436 National Standards for Physical Education, 401 observation points, 419b precontrol level, 418, 420 profi ciency level, 436 rocking backward, 421, 423 – 424, 424f safety concerns, 418 sideways, 418, 420 – 421, 421f spotting, 435 striking, 436 task sheet, 430f throwing, 434 – 436 traveling, jumping, and landing, 431 traveling quickly, 431– 432 utilization level, 431– 436
Rosenberg, Morris, 218 Routines
beginning of school year, 135 –138, 137f defi ned, 130 entering/leaving gym, 133 equipment, 133 listening, 133 partner/group selection, 133, 135, 135b stopping activities, 133 student responsibility, 132 –133, 135, 136t
Rubrics, 219 –221 analytic, 220, 220f components, 219 –220 holistic, 220, 221f strategies for designing, 221 students with disabilities, 223 –224
Rules consequences, 132 defi ned, 130 guidelines for, 131–132 student responsibility, 130
Rumble rhumba, 343f Running, 307, 308 – 309b
Safety gymnastics, 629 – 631 learning environment, 140 –142 observation, 176 –177 personal, 42 rolling, 418 striking with long-handled implements, 576 striking with rackets and paddles, 539, 543
I-14 INDEX www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Sanders, Steve, 671 Sarcasm, 129 Sawhorse, 386f Scanning, 183 Schmidt, Richard, 28 School attendance, 76 School board, 678 School-community relationship, 75 –76, 678 School Health Index (USDHHS), 8 School-home relationship, 75 –76, 137,
675 – 678 Schools
context, 68 factors constituting, 66f
Science, and physical education, 656t Scope and sequence, 21–22, 113 –114, 113t, 114t Scoring rubrics, 204 Seefeldt, Vern, 29, 101 Self-assessment, 213, 215, 215f, 216f Self-check; see Task teaching Self-confi dence, 45 Self-esteem, 41, 45 Self-refl ection, 147–148, 234 Self-space
assessment, 258 concept, 254 curling, stretching, and twisting, 255 –256 defi ned, 253 different speeds, 271–272 exploring, 254 –255 whole body movement, 256
Sequences, designing, 273b Shared integration approach, 659 – 660, 659t, 660b Short-handled paddles, 544f Shoulder exercises, 62 Sign language
physical education, 82 – 83f teaching, 81
Sit-ups, 61 60-second one-ball test, 10 Skill profi ciency classifi cation; see Generic levels of
skill profi ciency (GLSP) Skill theme approach, 15 –25
adjusting the activities, 22 affective domain, 23 –24 characteristics, 18 –22 children’s attitudes toward, 107 cognitive domain, 23 competence, 18 –20 curriculum, 35b, 654 – 667 curriculum diamond, 17–18, 17f dance, 24 defi ned, 15 developmentally appropriate education, 20 –21
developmentally appropriate physical education, 15 –16
games, 24 gymnastics, 24 instructional alignment, 22 physical fi tness, 22 –23 rationale, 28 scope and sequence, 21–22 skill themes, 17 student interest, 22 teacher attitudes, 24 –25 traditional activities, 16 –17
Skill themes, 31t balancing, 375 – 398 characteristics, 28 – 30 chasing, fl eeing, dodging, 333 – 347 dance, 602 – 621 defi ned, 17 dribbling, 520 –536 games, 636 – 651 gymnastics, 623 – 633 jumping and landing, 350 – 372 kicking and punting, 439 – 468 movement concepts and, 30 – 34, 289b practice schedule, 24f scope and sequence, 114t in sports, 29t striking with long-handled implements,
564 –597 striking with rackets and paddles, 538 –562 throwing and catching, 471–501 transferring weight and rolling, 401– 436 traveling, 306 – 331 volleying, 503 –520
Skipping, 310, 311f Sliding, 307, 310f Small movements, 265 Smith, James A., 613b Soccer; see Kicking Soccer golf, 453 – 454, 454f Social interaction disorders, 88 Social responsibility, 42 – 43, 159 –160, 649 – 650 Social studies, integrated approach to, 665 Socioeconomic status, 77 Space, 33n, 269n Space awareness, 252 –266
applying concepts of, 266 concept, 252 directions, 254, 258 –260 extensions, 254, 265 –266 general space, 253, 256 –258 levels, 254, 260 –261 location, 253 –258 movement analysis framework, 252 –253, 253f
INDEX I-15
National Standards for Physical Education, 252b pathways, 254, 261–265 self-space, 253 –256 visually impaired children, 79 – 80
Special needs children, 77–78 Spina bifi da, 85 – 86 Spiral; see Progression spiral Sports
after-school programs, 649 games vs., 637, 648 skill themes, 29t traveling, 330
Spotting, 435, 632 Stanley, Sheila, 102 State standards, 115 Static balance, 375 Stations, 191f, 630 – 631 Station teaching; see Task teaching Stepping across the U.S., 660b Stiehl, Jim, 635 Stilts, 389 – 390, 389f, 390f Stinson, Sue, 604 Stopping activities, 133 Straddle, 411f Strategy, 638 Strength activities, 60 Stretching, 289b Striking with long-handled implements, 564 –597
in the air, 575 assessment, 591, 596 –597 baseball gamelike situation, 596 bats, 572 –573, 580 –585, 591–592, 596 –597 batting tees, 572 –573, 572f changing directions, 587 changing pathways, 579 changing speeds, 578 –579 control level, 573 –585 development sequence, 570 different places, 583 –584 directing air pathway, 586 directing placement of object, 591–592, 591f distance, 574 –575, 582 –583, 582f distance and placement combined, 592 –593 dodging opponent, 594 –595, 595f dribbling backward, 587 feet position, 581, 585f goals, 588 –589 golf, 571, 572 –576, 586, 593 –594 grips, 574f, 581 grounders and fl ies, 591 Hit and Run, 584, 584f hockey, 571–580, 586 –590, 594 –596 hockey bowl, 586 –587 hoop golf, 586
implements for sidearm striking, 572 implements for underhand striking, 569, 571f invasion game, 595 –596 keep-away, 595 Keeping It Moving, 590 levels of profi ciency, 564, 569 level swings, 581–582, 582f obstacles, 580 one-base baseball, 597, 597f one-on-one hockey, 589 overview, 564 to partner, 577 passing and receiving on the move, 590 pathway, distance, and speed, 593, 596 pathways, speeds, and directions, 587–588 pitched ball, 585, 592 precontrol level, 569, 571–573 profi ciency level, 593 –597 safety concerns, 576 self-space, 571 self-tossed ball, 584 –585 sidearm striking, 565 –566b stationary ball, 571, 573 –574, 580 –581, 582f suspended objects, 583 targets, 571, 576 –577, 579 –580, 586, 589 –590 task sheet, 588f traveling, 577–578 traveling, stopping, and controlling, 578 two-on-one hockey, 590 underhand striking, 567–568b utilization level, 585 –593 varying distances, 575 –576, 586, 592 Whiffl e Ball Golf, 593 –594, 594f
Striking with rackets and paddles, 538 –562 aerial pathways, 557–558, 557f auditory feedback, 550 backhand, 549 –550 balloons, 541 both sides of paddle, 168f, 547 control level, 544 –554 cues, 546 development sequence, 539 different places, 551–552, 554 –555, 560 distance, 548 downs, 544 –545 equipment modifi cations, 544 forehand, 549 forward striking, 546 grips, 549f group striking across net, 561–562 hit the wall, 543 for hoops, 548 –549 levels of profi ciency, 538 –539 National Standards for Physical Education, 538b
I-16 INDEX www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Striking with rackets and paddles (continued) Nerf tennis balls, 543 over net, 552 –553, 556, 560 –561, 561f nylon-hose paddles, 542f observation points, 540 –541b overhead, 555 –556 paddle balance, 539, 541 with partner, 554 –555 to partner across net, 560 precontrol level, 539 –544 presentation of task, cues, challenges, 168f profi ciency level, 558 –562 rebounding from wall, 553 safety concerns, 539, 543 self-designed games, 562 short-handled paddles, 544f sideways, 549 –550 suspended balls, 542 –543, 543f targets, 547–548, 550 –554, 551f, 552f team striking across net, 561 ups, 545 ups and downs, 545 –546 ups, downs, and forwards, 546 –547, 547f upward bound, 544 upward in dynamic situation, 558 upward with a group, 556 –557, 557f utilization level, 554 –558 to walls, 559 –560, 559f
Student displays, 218 Student drawings, 218 Student helpers, 76 Student interest, 22, 121 Student journals, 210, 210f, 211b, 211f, 212 Students
as advocates for physical education, 679 assessment geared toward, 203 –204 behavior of, 68, 147–162 grouping of, 76 IEPs, 53 –54, 93, 223 individual differences, 171–172 movement patterns, class and individual,
177, 179 names of, 76 observation of, 175 –185 participation, 90, 123 teacher interaction with, 237, 239,
239f, 240f teacher letters to, 676, 677f teacher-student relationship, 127, 129
Substance abuse, 42 – 43 Support groups, 247 Surgeon General of the United States, 5, 44,
672, 673 Symbols, religious, 77
Systematic observation, 234 –245 by colleagues, 244 –245 demonstration checklist, 243 –244, 243f duration recording system, 240 –241,
242f, 242t, 243 feedback analysis, 235 –237, 236f, 239 –240, 241f getting started, 234 –235 interaction patterns, 237, 239f lesson content, 237 peer-assisted, 239 –244 practice opportunities, 239 –241, 240f, 241f student-assisted techniques, 237, 239 unassisted techniques, 235 –237 what to observe, 235b
Tactics, 638, 642 Tasks
content development, 167 how to know it works, 105 –106, 167 intratask variation, 171–172 on- or off-task behavior, 177 selection of, 105
Task sheet, 192f Task teaching, 190 –192 Teachers; see Classroom teachers; Physical
education teachers effective, 234b feedback for, 233 negligence, 141 as referees, 148 roles, 233 student-teacher relationship, 127, 129 support groups, 247
Teaching; see also Physical education approaches, 75, 187–199, 189t appropriate, 9, 142 assessment linked with, 203 challenge, 90 – 92 change, 90 child-designed instruction, 196 –199 choice, 92 cooperative learning, 195 –196 developmentally appropriate, 9 direct vs. indirect, 187 fi tness concepts, 52 –53 guided discovery, 193 –195 infl uences on, 233 interactive teaching, 188 –190 invariant, 64t by invitation, 92, 171 learning environment, 126 –143 management of students, 130 –140 peer teaching, 192 –193 planning, 111–124
INDEX I-17
refl ective teaching, 64 – 69, 64t skill profi ciency determination, 102 –108 task teaching, 190 –192
Teaching by invitation, 92, 171 Teaching materials
cultural diversity in, 75 gender equity in, 76
Teaching through questions; see Guided discovery
Technology, 49, 229 –230 Tennis; see Striking with rackets and paddles Tenoschok, Michael, 671 Test packages
physical fi tness, 54b students with disabilities, 79b
Thematic unit approach, 660 – 663 Themes, 28 – 30; see also Skill themes Throwing and catching
accuracy, 492 – 493 assessment, 168b, 482 – 484, 487, 488,
492 – 494, 501 avoiding defenders, 496 – 498, 496f, 497f backhand, 484 basketballs, 498 bouncing to self and catching, 481 catching around the body, 481– 482 catching from skilled thrower, 478 catching off a bounce, 489 catching off fl y, 486 catching rebound from wall, 486 – 487 catching rolling ball, 478 catching with scoop, 485 – 486, 485f control level, 479 – 489 critical elements, 19b development sequence, 21, 474 distance, 492 – 493 drop-catch, 478 fl ying discs, 484 – 485, 493, 495, 498 – 499 footballs, 499 game-like situation, 495 – 496 handballs, 499 –500, 500f invasion games, 497–501, 500f levels of profi ciency, 471– 472, 475 – 477,
488 – 489 moving, 489 – 490, 490 – 491 National Standards for Physical Education, 471b over net with partner, 488 observation points, 473b, 475 – 476b overhand, 480, 482 – 483 overs, unders, and sides, 480 – 481 with partner, 487– 488 precontrol level, 477– 479 profi ciency level, 495 –501 quickness, 494
sidearm, 480 targets, 478, 482 – 484, 484f, 491– 494 tossing to self and catching, 478 – 479, 481 traveling, 490 underhand, 479 – 480, 483 utilization level, 489 – 495 while in the air, 494 – 495 yarn ball against the wall, 477– 478, 477f
Time action words, 274, 275b changes in, while traveling, 274, 276 concept, 270 –271 different speeds in self-space, 271–272 exploring, 271 imagery and, 273 –274 moving at different speeds, 272 –273 sport skills, 274 traveling and freezing, 273
Time-outs, 132, 153 –154, 154f, 155f Tinikling, 328 – 330, 328 – 330f Title IX of the Education Amendments, 76 Tobacco abuse, 42 – 43 Token systems, 159 Traditional activities, 16 –17 Transferring weight, 401– 416
apparatus, 412 – 413 assessment, 415 – 416 bars, 411– 412, 414 bridges, 410 cartwheels, 408 – 409 control level, 403 – 409 development sequence, 402 onto/off equipment, 403 feet-to-back, 402, 403 – 404 feet-to-combinations of body parts, 404, 405f feet-to-hands, 402 – 403, 408, 414 hands across mats, 403 head and hands on apparatus, 410 – 411 large apparatus, 410 levels of profi ciency, 401 locomotor actions, 402 low apparatus, 406, 407f National Standards for Physical Education, 401 precontrol level, 401– 403 profi ciency level, 416 rolling, 413 sequences, 406 – 407, 414 – 415, 415f skill combinations on mats, 414 spring /step takeoffs, 404 – 407 stretching, curling, twisting, 404 twisting, 409 – 410 utilization level, 409 – 415 vaulting box, 412 – 413 walking, 409
I-18 INDEX www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Traveling, 306 – 331 assessment, 315 – 317 bound and free fl ow, 326 – 327 changing speed and direction with partner, 324 changing speeds to music, 321 combination locomotors, 322b, 323b confi ned spaces, 317– 318 control level, 314 – 323 copy cat dance, 324 dance of water, steam, and ice, 321– 322 development sequence, 312 different directions, 319 different directions, levels, pathways,
locations, 321 different locomotor movements, 312 different locomotor patterns, 314 different pathways, 319 – 320 different speeds, 321 different ways, 312 – 313 follow-me dance, 320 fountain of youth dance, 326 fundamental locomotor skills, 306 – 310 galloping, 315 games and sports, 330 general space, 311– 312 gymnastics, 330, 331f hopping, 315 imagery and, 313 among large and tall, 313 – 314 leaping, 315 levels of profi ciency, 310 – 311 locomotors dance, 320 locomotor sequences, 316 – 317 matching pathways, 323 – 324, 324f meeting /parting, 325 – 326 with music, 318 National Standards for Physical
Education, 306 obstacle course, 318 – 319, 318f open spaces, 316 precontrol level, 311– 314 primitive tribe depictions, 327– 328 profi ciency level, 327– 330 rhythmical patterns, 326 rhythms, 317 rope pathways, 313, 313f running, 315 shadowing, 324 – 325 skipping, 315 slidestepping, 319 sliding, 314 sports dance, 322 tinikling, 328 – 330, 328 – 330f Tom Foolery rhymes, 327
tradition vs. change, 328 utilization level, 323 – 327
Trunk and shoulder extensions, 62 Trunk and shoulder rotation, 62 Trust, 75 Tuck, 411f Turning, 289b Twisting, 289b
United States Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS), 8, 89
Upper-body strength/endurance exercises, 61– 62 USDHHS; see United States Department of Health
and Human Services (USDHHS) Utilization level
balancing, 391– 395 chasing, fl eeing, dodging, 339 – 341 defi ned, 104 dribbling, 527–532 jumping and landing, 367– 370 kicking and punting, 451– 455 punting, 465 – 467 rolling, 431– 436 striking with long-handled implements,
585 –593 striking with rackets and paddles, 554 –558 throwing and catching, 489 – 495 traveling, 323 – 327 volleying, 511–517
VERB! Web site, 47 Videotape
assessment, 216 teacher self-observation, 235 –237
Videotape, for assessment, 218 Visual impairments
adaptations, 80 characteristics, 79 equipment, 80 inclusion, 80 injuries, 81 mobility training program, 80 needs, 79 proprioceptive perception, 79 signing for physical education, 82 – 83f space awareness, 79 – 80
Volleybirds, 514 –515 Volleying, 503 –520
aerial soccer, 514 balloons, 504 body parts, 505, 506, 513 –514, 517–518 bump, 507 child-designed games, 511–513, 513f control level, 505 –511
INDEX I-19
development sequence, 504 with foot, 514 Four Square, 508 –509, 508f Hand Corner Ball, 515, 515f Hoop Volley, 508, 508f Keep It Up, 510 –511 levels of profi ciency, 503 lightweight objects, 505 over a line, 508 in line formation, 520 modifi ed volleyball, 520 National Standards for Physical
Education, 503b over net, 509, 509f, 516 obstacle course, 511, 512f one-bounce volleyball, 511 overhead, 509 –510 to partner, 510, 516 precontrol level, 504 –505 profi ciency level, 517–520 serving, 517, 518 –519 spiking, 519, 519f striking downward, 519 three-on-three, 516 –517 traveling, 517–518 Two Square, 508 –509, 508f underhand, 506 –508, 507f
utilization level, 511–517 varying levels, force, and body position, 515 volleybirds, 514 –515
Walking, 306 – 307 Walking hands, 61– 62 Wall push, 61 Water safety, 42 Weight training, 52 Wellness, 41– 44
emotional health, 41– 42 good health balance, 43 – 44 mental health, 41– 42 nutrition, 43 responsibility, 42 – 43
Welsh, Iris, 27 What Moves U, 47 Wheel; see Movement analysis framework Wiggins, Grant, 204 Wild Wild West thematic unit, 663t Wilson, Nettie, 644 Wolf position, 411f
Yarn ball, 477f Yearly overviews, 114 –116
Zadra, Dan, 632
- Title
- Contents
- PART ONE Introduction and Content Overview
- 1 The Value and Purpose of Physical Education for Children
- Why Children Need Physical Education
- Health Benefi ts Associated with a Lifetime of Physical Activity
- Characteristics of a Quality Physical Education Program
- Summary
- Reading Comprehension Questions
- References/Suggested Readings
- CHAPTER
- The Skill Theme Approach
- What Is Developmentally Appropriate Physical Education?
- Children Develop at Different Rates
- Age Does Not Predict Motor Ability
- Children Develop Motor Skills Naturally through Play
- The Myth of the Natural Athlete
- Difference in Physical Abilities between Boys and Girls
- Why Don’t You Describe Such Activities as Duck, Duck, Goose and Kick Ball?
- What Are Skill Themes?
- What Is the Curriculum Diamond?
- Building a Foundation (Preschool through Grade 5)
- Exploring Possibilities (Grades 6–8)
- Developing Expertise (Grades 9 –12)
- What Are the Characteristics of the Skill Theme Approach?
- Characteristic 1
- Characteristic 2
- Characteristic 3
- Characteristic 4
- Is It Diffi cult to Maintain Youngsters’ Interest in a Program That Emphasizes the Fundamentals?
- What Does “Adjusting the Activities” Mean?
- Where Is Physical Fitness in the Skill Theme Approach?
- Where Does the Cognitive Domain Fit into the Skill Theme Approach?
- Where Does the Affective Domain Fit into the Skill Theme Approach?
- What about Dance and Gymnastics?
- How Do Classroom Teachers Feel about the Skill Theme Approach?
- How Do Middle (Junior) and High School Physical Education Teachers Feel about the Skill Theme Approach?
- Summary
- Reading Comprehension Questions
- References/Suggested Readings
- 2 Skill Themes, Movement Concepts, and the National Standards
- Characteristics of Themes
- Skill Themes and Movement Concepts
- The Wheel (Movement Analysis Framework)
- Progression Spiral
- The National Standards and the Skill Theme Approach
- Background of National Standards Development
- Skill Themes and the Content Standards
- Summary
- Reading Comprehension Questions
- References/Suggested Readings
- 3 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity and Wellness for Children
- Wellness for Children
- Mental and Emotional Health
- Personal and Social Responsibility
- Nutrition
- The Good Health Balance
- Physical Activity
- Physical Inactivity
- Guidelines for Physical Activity
- Physical Activity in and beyond the School Day
- In-School Activities
- Out-of-School Activities
- Physical Activity Director
- Active Schools
- Physical Fitness for Children
- History of Physical Fitness
- Physical Fitness: A Defi nition
- Concepts of Physical Fitness
- Fitness in the Physical Education Curriculum
- The Teaching of Fitness Concepts
- Assessing Physical Fitness
- After the Assessment
- A Final Thought on Fitness
- Summary
- Reading Comprehension Questions
- References/Suggested Readings
- Appendix 4A: Family Fitness Activities
- Appendix 4B: Prescriptions for Fitness
- 5 Refl ective Teaching
- What Is Refl ective Teaching?
- The Need for Refl ective Teaching
- Values of the Teacher
- Class Size
- Number of Class Sessions per Week
- Facilities and Equipment
- Student Behavior
- Context of the School
- How Do I Become a Refl ective Teacher?
- Summary
- Reading Comprehension Questions
- References/Suggested Readings
- 6 Teaching Diverse Learners
- Inclusion Expanded
- Overweight Children
- Cultural Differences
- Gender Equity
- Religious Differences
- Children of Poverty
- Children with Special Needs
- Physical Activity and Fitness
- Disabilities, Impairments, and Disorders
- Visual Impairments
- Hearing Impairments
- Physical Disabilities
- Health-Related Disorders
- Intellectual Disabilities
- Emotional Disturbance and Behavior Disorders
- Social Interaction Disorders/Autism Spectrum Disorder
- Learning Disabilities
- Remedial Physical Education
- Creating Conditions for Inclusion
- Change
- Challenge
- Choice
- Meeting the Needs of Children with Disabilities
- The Multidisciplinary Team
- Individualized Education Program
- Least Restrictive Environment
- The Ecological Model of Inclusion
- Implementing Inclusion
- A Final Thought
- Summary
- Reading Comprehension Questions
- References/Suggested Readings
- PART TWO Teaching Skills
- 7 Determining Generic Levels of Skill Profi ciency
- Identifying Generic Levels of Skill Profi ciency
- Precontrol Level
- Control Level
- Utilization Level
- Profi ciency Level
- One Child, More Than One Level
- Using the Generic Levels of Skill Profi ciency in Teaching
- Which Task?
- How to Know If a Task Works
- Insights about the Generic Levels of Skill Profi ciency
- Multiple Skill Levels in a Class
- Control Level in Two Days a Week
- Profi ciency Level Is Rare
- Assessment Using the GLSP?
- Summary
- Reading Comprehension Questions
- References/Suggested Readings
- 8 Planning
- Refl ective Planning
- A Four-Step Planning Process
- Step 1: Developing the Scope and Sequence
- Step 2: Devising a Yearly Overview
- Step 3: Determining Benchmarks (Performance Indicators or Checkpoints)
- Step 4: Detailing Daily Lesson Plans
- Making Planning Enjoyable
- Recording Progress
- Lesson Design
- Interesting Lessons
- Appropriate Lessons
- Maximum Participation
- Parting Thought
- Summary
- Reading Comprehension Questions
- References/Suggested Readings
- 9 Establishing an Environment for Learning
- Gymnasium Atmosphere
- The Managerial Component
- Developing Protocols
- Establishing Rules and Expectations That Refl ect a Positive Environment
- Establishing Gymnasium Routines
- Getting Off to a Good Start
- Teaching Skills for Establishing a Learning Environment
- Teaching Protocols
- The Instructional Component
- Safety
- Elements of Negligence
- Areas in Which Negligence Might Occur
- Summary
- Reading Comprehension Questions
- References/Suggested Readings
- 10 Maintaining Appropriate Behavior
- Increasing Appropriate Behavior
- Proactive Strategies
- Reactive Approaches
- Decreasing Inappropriate Behavior
- Positive Practice
- Desists
- Time-outs
- Planning Time
- Behavior Contracts
- Letters to Parents
- Involving the Principal
- Maintaining Appropriate Behavior in Entire Classes
- Reward Systems
- Developing Personal and Social Responsibility
- Corporal Punishment
- Teaching Skills to Maintain a Productive Learning Environment
- Summary
- Reading Comprehension Questions
- References/Suggested Readings
- 11 Developing the Content
- Overview of Content Development
- Informing
- Tasks (Extensions)
- Cues (Refi nements)
- Challenges (Applications)
- Assessing Your Content Development
- Planning Format
- Accommodating Individual Differences
- Teaching by Invitation
- Intratask Variation
- Summary
- Reading Comprehension Questions
- References/Suggested Readings
- 12 Observing Student Responses
- What to Observe
- Safety
- On-Task Behavior
- Class Movement Patterns
- Individual Movement Patterns
- How to Observe
- Positioning
- Knowing What to Work For
- Strategies
- Summary
- Reading Comprehension Questions
- References/Suggested Readings
- 13 Instructional Approaches
- Interactive Teaching
- Task Teaching
- Peer Teaching
- Guided Discovery
- Convergent Inquiry
- Divergent Inquiry
- Cooperative Learning
- Child-Designed Instruction
- A Final Thought
- Summary
- Reading Comprehension Questions
- References/Suggested Readings
- 14 Assessing Student Learning
- Understanding Assessment
- Linking of Assessment and Instruction
- Student as Primary Client
- Ongoing Process
- Meaningful Tasks
- Distribution of Criteria
- Making It Work
- What Has Been Learned? Selecting Assessment Options
- Teacher Observation
- Exit (or Entrance) Slips
- Student Journals
- Homework
- Peer Observation
- Self-Assessment
- Event Tasks
- Videotape/Digital Pictures
- Student Drawings
- Student Displays
- Portfolios
- Assessing How Well Something Was Learned
- Writing Rubrics
- Assessing All Three Domains
- Fitness Assessment
- A Word about Assessing Movement Concepts
- Assessment of Students with Disabilities
- What to Do with the Results of Assessment, or Summarizing and Reporting Progress
- Two Practical Systems
- Grading
- Finding the Time for Assessment
- Summary
- Reading Comprehension Questions
- References/Suggested Readings
- 15 Understanding Your Teaching
- Self-Refl ection
- Systematic Observation
- Getting Started
- Unassisted Techniques
- Student-Assisted Techniques
- Peer-Assisted Techniques
- Combining and Adapting Techniques
- Being Observed
- Written Instruments
- Linking and Finding Out More
- Support Groups
- Summary
- Reading Comprehension Questions
- References/Suggested Readings
- PART THREE Movement Concepts Defi ned
- 16 Space Awareness
- Developing the Concept of Self-Space
- Teaching the Concept of Self-Space
- Learning Experiences Leading to Movement Concept Understanding
- Exploring Self-Space
- Curling, Stretching, and Twisting in Self-Space
- Moving the Whole Body in Self-Space
- Developing the Concept of General Space
- Teaching the Concept of General Space
- Learning Experiences Leading to Movement Concept Understanding
- Exploring General Space
- Open Spaces
- Reducing the Size of the General Space
- City Streets, Crowded Spaces
- Dodging in General Space
- Traveling Over, Under, and Around Obstacles in General Space
- Obstacle Course
- Developing the Concept of Directions
- Teaching the Concept of Directions
- Learning Experiences Leading to Movement Concept Understanding
- Traveling in Different Directions
- Moving Clockwise and Counterclockwise
- Exploring Directions
- Changing Directions on Signal
- Turning While Moving in Different Directions
- Developing the Concept of Levels
- Teaching the Concept of Levels
- Learning Experiences Leading to Movement Concept Understanding
- Traveling and Freezing at Different Levels
- Traveling with Body Parts at Different Levels
- Rising and Sinking to Create Different Levels
- Traveling While Rising and Sinking
- Developing the Concept of Pathways
- Teaching the Concept of Pathways
- Learning Experiences Leading to Movement Concept Understanding
- Exploring Pathways
- Using Pathway Maps
- Designing Pathways
- Creating Follow-the-Leader Pathways
- Traveling Pathways and Obstacles
- Following-the-Dots Pathways
- Combining Pathways, Levels, and Directions
- Developing the Concept of Extensions in Space
- Teaching the Concept of Extensions in Space
- Learning Experiences Leading to Movement Concept Understanding
- Exploring Extensions
- Traveling and Extensions
- Changing from One Extension to Another
- Using Extensions and Imagery
- Applying the Concept of Space Awareness
- Reading Comprehension Questions
- References/Suggested Readings
- 17 Effort
- Developing the Concept of Time
- Teaching the Concept of Time
- Learning Experiences Leading to Movement Concept Understanding
- Exploring Time
- Using Different Speeds in Self-Space
- Moving at Different Speeds
- Traveling and Freezing by Using Changes in Time
- Combining Imagery and Time
- Differentiating among Time Words
- Combining Sport Skills and Time
- Continually Changing in Time While Traveling
- Developing the Concept of Force
- Teaching the Concept of Force
- Learning Experiences Leading to Movement Concept Understanding
- Exploring Force
- Traveling and Changing Force Qualities
- Using Imagery and Force
- Showing Contrasts of Force
- Developing the Concept of Flow
- Teaching the Concept of Flow
- Learning Experiences Leading to Movement Concept Understanding
- Traveling and Flow
- Eliciting Flow Qualities
- Following Flow Sentences
- Practicing Flow Sequences
- Using Flow Conversations
- Combining Time, Force, and Flow
- Applying the Effort Concepts
- Reading Comprehension Questions
- References/Suggested Readings
- 18 Relationships
- Developing the Concept of the Relationships of Body Parts
- Teaching the Concept of the Relationships of Body Parts
- Learning Experiences Leading to Movement Concept Understanding
- Identifying Body Parts
- Balancing While Using Different Body Parts
- Freezing on Different Body Parts
- Traveling on Different Body Parts
- Balancing on Matching and Nonmatching Parts
- Round, Narrow, Wide, and Twisted Body Shapes
- Changing from One Body Shape to Another
- Traveling and Freezing in Different Body Shapes
- Making Symmetrical and Nonsymmetrical Shapes
- Creating Postcard Sculptures
- Creating Body Shapes in the Air
- Developing the Concept of the Relationships with Objects
- Teaching the Concept of the Relationships with Objects
- Learning Experiences Leading to Movement Concept Understanding
- Traveling Over, Close To, Far Away, Inside
- Traveling Over, Under, Close To, and Far Away from Equipment
- Onto/Off Concepts
- Over, Under, Around, In Front of, and Behind Concepts
- Traveling Along Equipment
- Traveling Through Obstacles
- Going Over and Under the Obstacle Course
- Using Partners as Obstacles
- Developing the Concept of the Relationships with People
- Alone in a Mass
- Solo
- Partners
- Groups
- Between Groups
- Teaching the Concept of the Relationships with People
- Learning Experiences Leading to Movement Concept Understanding
- Matching
- Traveling and Matching
- Mirroring
- Matching and Mirroring
- Traveling Alongside/Following
- Following with a Group
- Meeting/Parting
- Forming Cooperative and Collaborative Relationships
- Meeting and Parting in a Cooperative Group
- Performing Solo
- Applying the Concept of Relationships
- Competition
- Reading Comprehension Questions
- References/Suggested Readings
- PART FOUR Skill Theme Development
- 19 Traveling
- Fundamental Locomotor Skills
- Walking
- Running
- Hopping
- Leaping
- Sliding
- Galloping
- Skipping
- Levels of Skill Profi ciency
- Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration
- Traveling in General Space
- Traveling with Different Locomotor Movements
- Traveling in Different Ways
- Traveling with Imagery
- Traveling Through Rope Pathways
- Traveling Among the Large and Tall
- Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
- Traveling with Different Locomotor Patterns
- Sliding
- Galloping
- Hopping
- Skipping
- Leaping
- Running
- Traveling to Open Spaces
- Performing Locomotor Sequences
- Moving to Rhythms
- Traveling in Confi ned Spaces
- Traveling with Music
- Traveling an Obstacle Course
- Traveling in Different Directions
- Slidestepping
- Traveling in Different Pathways
- The Locomotors Dance
- The Follow-Me Dance
- Traveling at Different Speeds
- Traveling Using Different Directions, Levels, Pathways, and Locations
- Changing Speeds to Music
- A Dance of Water, Steam, and Ice
- Slow-Motion Replay: The Sports Dance
- Combination Locomotors
- Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
- Traveling with a Partner: Matching Pathways
- The Copy Cat Dance
- Traveling with a Partner: Changing Speed and Direction
- Shadowing
- Meeting and Parting While Traveling with a Partner
- Performing Rhythmical Patterns
- Traveling to Express Age: The Fountain of Youth Dance
- Traveling in Bound and Free Flow
- Traveling to Tom Foolery Rhymes
- Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
- Depicting Primitive Tribes through Travel
- Traveling to Show Tradition versus Change
- Performing Rhythmical Patterns: Tinikling
- Traveling in Games and Sports
- Traveling in Gymnastics
- Reading Comprehension Questions
- References/Suggested Readings
- 20 Chasing, Fleeing, and Dodging
- Chasing
- Fleeing
- Dodging
- Levels of Skill Profi ciency
- Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration
- Moving Obstacles
- Traveling to Flee
- Traveling to Dodge
- Make-Believe Chase
- Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
- Dodging in Response to a Signal
- Fleeing from a Partner
- Dodging the Obstacles
- Dodging with Quick Changes of Direction
- Overtaking a Fleeing Person
- Fleeing a Chaser
- Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
- Dodging Stationary Obstacles
- Dodging and Faking Moves to Avoid a Chaser
- Dodging Semistationary Obstacles
- Dodging and Chasing One Person in a Mass
- Dodging in a Dynamic Situation
- Dodging While Manipulating an Object
- Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
- Continual Fleeing and Chasing with a Large Group
- Dodging While Maintaining Possession of an Object
- Chasing and Dodging Simultaneously
- Chasing and Fleeing in an Invasion Game–Like Situation
- Dodging in a Game-Like Situation
- Dodging in a Target Game-Like Situation
- Using Team Strategy for Chasing, Fleeing, and Dodging in an Invasion Game-Like Situation
- Dodging While Manipulating an Object in an Invasion Game–like Situation
- Self-Designed Chasing, Fleeing, and Dodging Game
- Reading Comprehension Questions
- References/Suggested Readings
- 21 Jumping and Landing
- Fundamental Jumping Patterns
- Levels of Skill Profi ciency
- Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration
- Jumping and Landing: Different Patterns
- Jumping for Distance
- Jumping for Height
- Jumping over a Swinging Rope
- Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
- Jumping and Landing: Basic Patterns
- Standing Long Jump
- Jumping for Height
- Jumping over Low Obstacles: Hoops
- Jumping over Low Obstacles: Hurdles
- Jumping Rhythmically
- Jumping in Rhythmical Sequences
- Jumping a Turned Rope
- Jumping a Self-Turned Rope
- Jumping Using Buoyant and Yielding Landings
- Jumping to Form a Body Shape During Flight
- Traveling, Jumping, and Body Shapes
- Performing Jumping Sequences and Making Body Shapes
- Jumping over Equipment Using Buoyant Landings
- Jumping on and off Equipment Using Buoyant and Yielding Landings
- Jump, Squash, TaDa
- Jumping and Landing Task Sheet
- Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
- Jumping to Catch
- Jumping to Throw
- Jumping on a Bench
- Throwing and Catching While Jumping
- Jumping to an Accented Beat
- Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
- Jumping with a Partner to Mirror Actions
- Jumping with a Partner to Match Actions
- Jumping with a Springboard
- Jumping as Part of a Dance Creation
- Jumping, Dancing, and Imagery
- Hurdling Jumps
- Reading Comprehension Questions
- References/Suggested Readings
- CHAPTER
- 22 Balancing
- Levels of Skill Profi ciency
- Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration
- Balancing on Different Bases of Support
- Balancing on a Wide Base of Support
- Balancing in Different Body Shapes
- Traveling and Stopping in Balanced Positions
- Traveling on Low Gymnastics Equipment
- Balancing on Boards
- Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
- Balancing on Different Bases of Support
- Tightening the Gymnastics Muscles
- Counterbalance
- Balancing Symmetrically and Nonsymmetrically
- Balancing in Different Body Shapes
- The Gymnastics Dance
- Performing Inverted Balances
- Alignment of Body Parts
- Doing Kickups
- Traveling and Stopping in Balanced Positions
- Stationary Balances on Equipment
- Traveling on Large Apparatus
- Traveling While Balanced
- Balancing Sequence
- Balancing on Stilts
- Balance Boards
- Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
- Balancing on Crates
- Moving out of and into Balances by Stretching, Curling, and Twisting
- Traveling into and out of Balances by Rolling
- Performing Inverted Balances on Equipment
- Performing Sequences That Combine Stationary Balances and Traveling on Mats
- Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
- Balancing While Supporting the Weight of a Partner
- Balancing on Hanging Ropes
- Transferring off Equipment with Weight on Hands
- Performing Apparatus Sequences That Combine Stationary Balances and Traveling with Movement Concepts
- Reading Comprehension Questions
- References
- 23 Transferring Weight and Rolling
- Levels of Skill Profi ciency in Transferring Weight
- Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration of Weight Transfer
- Locomotor Actions
- Transferring Weight from Feet to Back
- Transferring Weight from Feet to Hands
- Transferring Weight onto and off Equipment
- Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development in Weight Transfer
- Transferring Weight to Hands across Mats
- Transferring Weight with a Rolling Action
- Transferring Weight from Foot to Combinations of Body Parts
- Stretching, Curling, and Twisting into Transfers
- Performing Spring/Step Takeoffs
- Performing Spring/Step Takeoffs onto Crates and/or Benches
- Transferring Off Low Apparatus (Bench, Crate, or Low Table)
- Making Spring/Step Takeoffs with Sequences
- Traveling over Low Apparatus
- Transferring onto Low Apparatus
- Transferring Weight from Foot to Hands
- Transferring Weight to Hands by Stepping: Cartwheels
- Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development in Weight Transfer
- Transferring Weight to Hands: Walking
- Transferring Weight to Hands and Twisting
- Transferring Weight to Hands and Forming a Bridge
- Transferring Weight onto Large Apparatus
- Transferring Weight to Head and Hands on Apparatus (Box, Beam, Table)
- Transferring Weight onto Bars (Parallel Bars, Climbing Frame)
- Transferring Weight over Apparatus (Vaulting Box)
- Transferring Weight along Apparatus
- Transferring Weight by Rolling (Bench, Box, or Table)
- Transferring Weight to Hands on Low Apparatus
- Transferring Weight on Bars
- Combining Skills on Mats
- Combining Weight Transfer and Balances into Sequences on Mats and Apparatus
- Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development in Weight Transfer
- Levels of Skill Profi ciency in Rolling
- Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration of Rolling
- Making Curing Shapes
- Rocking on Different Body Parts
- Rolling Sideways
- Curling to Roll
- Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development in Rolling
- Rocking to Match a Partner
- Rolling in a Long, Narrow Position (Log Roll)
- Rolling Sideways on Different Body Parts
- Rolling Sideways over a Shoulder
- Rocking Backward
- Rolling Forward
- Rocking Backward over the Shoulders
- Rolling from Different Positions
- Rolling at Different Speeds
- Back Shoulder Roll
- Handclasp Backward Roll
- Rolling Backward
- Rolling in Different Directions
- Rolling from Different Directions and Positions
- Linking Rolls
- Rolling Using Different Directions and Speeds
- Rolling after Jumping off Equipment and Landing
- Rolling after Jumping for Height and Landing
- Rolling after Jumping from Different Heights
- Rolling after Jumping over Equipment and Landing
- Rolling, Levels, Directions, and Jumping
- Rolling While Traveling, Jumping, and Landing
- Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development in Rolling
- Rolling and Traveling Quickly
- Rolling, Jumping, and Traveling in Relationship to Others
- Rolling over Low Hurdles
- Rolling on Low Equipment
- Rolling off Low Equipment
- Traveling and Rolling between Pieces of Equipment
- Rolling, Balancing, and Rolling
- Rolling to Express an Idea
- Rolling While Throwing and Catching
- Rolling onto Low Equipment
- Rolling and Balancing on Equipment
- Rolling to Meet and Part
- Rolling and Striking
- Catching, Throwing, and Rolling
- Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development in Rolling
- Reading Comprehension Questions
- References
- 24 Kicking and Punting
- Levels of Skill Profi ciency in Kicking
- Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration of Kicking
- Kicking a Stationary Ball from a Stationary Position
- Kicking at Large Targets
- Approaching a Stationary Ball and Kicking
- Tapping the Ball
- Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development in Kicking
- Kicking on the Ground
- Kicking in the Air
- Kicking for Distance
- Kicking to a Distance Zone
- Kicking to Targets
- Kicking a Rolling Ball from a Stationary Position
- Kicking to a Partner
- Tapping the Ball along the Ground (Soccer Dribble)
- Starting and Stopping
- Traveling in Pathways
- Dribbling around Stationary Obstacles
- Keeping It Perfect: Zero, Zero
- Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development in Kicking
- Changing Directions: Tap/Dribble
- Performing a Continuous Tap/Dribble and Change of Direction
- Traveling and Kicking for a Goal
- Playing One-on-One Soccer
- Playing Soccer Golf
- Kicking to a Partner from Various Angles
- Kicking to a Traveling Partner
- Passing to a Partner in General Space
- Playing Two-on-One Soccer
- Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development in Kicking
- Kicking at Small Stationary Targets
- Kicking at a Moving Target
- Playing Mini Soccer
- Playing Soccer Keep-Away
- Playing Alley Soccer
- Playing Cone Soccer
- Levels of Skill Profi ciency in Punting
- Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration of Punting
- Dropping, Bouncing, and Kicking Lightweight Balls
- Dropping and Punting
- Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development in Punting
- Punting for Consistency
- Punting over Low Ropes
- Punting with an Approach
- Punting Different Types of Balls
- Punting for Distance
- Using Punting Zones
- Punting for Accuracy
- Punting for Height
- Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development in Punting
- Punting at Angles
- Punting to a Partner
- Receiving a Pass, Then Punting
- Punting within a Limited Time
- Playing Rush the Circle
- Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development in Punting
- Receiving and Punting against Opponents
- Punting While Traveling
- Playing Punt-Over
- Reading Comprehension Questions
- References
- 25 Throwing and Catching
- Levels of Skill Profi ciency in Throwing
- Levels of Skill Profi ciency in Catching
- Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration
- Throwing a Yarn Ball against the Wall
- Throwing at a Large Target
- Catching a Rolling Ball
- Catching from a Skilled Thrower
- Drop—Catch
- Tossing to Self and Catching
- Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
- Throwing Underhand
- Throwing Overhand
- Throwing Sidearm
- Overs, Unders, and Sides
- Bouncing a Ball to Self and Catching It
- Throwing an Object to Different Levels and Catching It
- Catching in Different Places around the Body
- Throwing Overhand at a High Stationary Target
- Throwing Overhand at a Low Stationary Target
- Throwing Underhand to Targets: Jugs
- Throwing Underhand to Targets: Hoops
- Throwing to High Targets
- Throwing Backhand to a Target
- Throwing a Flying Disc
- Catching with a Scoop
- Catching off the Fly
- Throwing a Ball against a Wall and Catching the Rebound
- Throwing for Distance
- Throwing and Catching with a Partner
- Throwing and Catching over a Net with a Partner
- Catching off a Bounce
- Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
- Moving to Catch
- Throwing and Catching While Traveling
- Throwing on the Move
- Throwing to Make a Partner Move to Catch
- Throwing to a Moving Target
- Throwing for Distance and Accuracy
- Target Backaway
- Throwing Discs at Targets
- Catching to Throw Quickly to a Partner
- Catching to Throw Quickly to a Target
- Throwing While in the Air
- Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
- Throwing and Catching a Flying Disc in Different Places around the Body with a Partner
- Throwing and Catching in a Field, Run, and Score Game-Like Situation
- Throwing to Avoid a Defender
- Throwing and Catching in a Small-Sided Invasion Game
- Throwing at a Stationary Object While Being Defended
- Throwing and Catching in a Small-Sided Basketball-Type Game
- Throwing and Catching with a Flying Disc in a Small-Sided Invasion Game
- Throwing and Catching with a Football in a Small-Sided Invasion Game
- Throwing and Catching with a Team Handball in a Small-Sided Invasion Game
- Throwing and Catching While Using Simple Offense and Defense in a Small-Sided Invasion Game
- Reading Comprehension Questions
- References/Suggested Readings
- 26 Volleying and Dribbling
- Volleying
- Levels of Skill Profi ciency in Volleying
- Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration
- Striking Balloons in the Air
- Striking a Balloon Forward
- Striking with Different Body Parts
- Striking Lightweight Objects
- Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
- Striking a Ball Noncontinuously with Different Body Parts
- Striking a Ball Upward (Underhand Pattern)
- Striking a Ball Upward with the Forearms (The Bump)
- Striking a Ball to the Wall (Underhand Pattern)
- Striking a Ball over a Line (Underhand Pattern)
- Playing Hoop Volley (Underhand Pattern)
- Playing Four Square, Two Square (Underhand Pattern)
- Striking over a Low Net (Underhand Pattern)
- Volleying to the Wall (Overhead Pattern)
- Volleying a Ball Upward (Overhead Pattern)
- Volleying to a Partner (Overhead Pattern)
- Playing Keep It Up
- Playing One-Bounce Volleyball
- Obstacle-Course Volley
- Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
- Volleying Game: Child-Designed
- Striking a Ball Continuously with Different Body Parts
- Volleying with the Foot
- Playing Aerial Soccer
- Volleying with a Volleybird
- Striking to the Wall—Varying Levels, Force, and Body Position
- Volleying over a Net
- Volleying Continuously to a Partner
- Volleying Three-on-Three
- Serving Underhand over the Net
- Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
- Striking with Different Body Parts While Traveling
- Serving Overhand over the Net
- Striking Downward with Force
- Spiking
- Volleying in a Line Formation
- Playing Modifi ed Volleyball
- Dribbling
- Levels of Skill Profi ciency in Dribbling
- Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration
- Bouncing a Ball Down and Catching It
- Bouncing a Ball Down (Dribbling) Continuously
- Dribbling and Walking
- Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
- All-the-Time Dribble
- Dribble Like a Basketball Player
- Dribbling at Different Levels
- Dribbling and Looking
- Switches
- Dribbling with the Body in Different Positions
- Dribbling in Different Places around the Body While Stationary
- Dribbling While Changing Directions in Self-Space
- Dribbling and Traveling
- Moving Switches
- Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
- Dribbling and Changing Speed of Travel
- Dribbling While Changing Directions
- Dribbling in Different Pathways
- Dribbling While Stopping, Starting, and Turning (Pivots and Fakes)
- Dribbling around Stationary Obstacles
- Mirroring and Matching While Dribbling
- Dribbling and Passing with a Partner
- Dribbling against an Opponent: One-on-One
- Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
- Dribbling against Opponents: Group Situations
- Now You’ve Got It, Now You Don’t
- Dribble Tag
- Dribbling While Dodging
- Dribbling and Passing in Game Situations
- Making Up Fancy Dribbling/Passing Routines
- Dribbling and Throwing at a Target
- Dribble/Pass Keep-Away
- Small-Group Basketball-Type Game
- Reading Comprehension Questions
- References/Suggested Readings
- 27 Striking with Rackets and Paddles
- Levels of Skill Profi ciency
- Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration
- Paddle Balance
- Balloon Strike (Lightweight Paddle)
- Striking a Suspended Ball
- Hit the Wall
- Upward Bound
- Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
- Downs
- Ups
- Ups and Downs
- Up against the Wall (Striking Forward)
- Ups, Downs, and Forwards
- Both Sides (of the Paddle) Now
- Striking to Wall Targets
- Striking for Distance (Varying the Force)
- Striking for Hoops (Varying the Distance)
- To the Wall—Sideways (Sidearm Forehand Pattern)
- To the Wall Again—Sideways (Sidearm Backhand Pattern)
- Striking at High and Low Targets
- Striking to Different Places
- Striking through a Target
- Striking an Object to Send It over a Net
- Striking a Ball Rebounding from a Wall
- Striking Continuously over and through a Target
- Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
- Hitting from Different Places
- Hitting Cooperatively and Continuously with a Partner
- Striking to Different Places around a Partner
- Striking Overhead
- Striking Overhead over a Net
- Striking Continuously Upward with a Group
- Striking in Various Aerial Pathways in Dynamic Situations
- Striking Upward in a Dynamic Situation
- Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
- Striking to One Wall with a Partner
- Striking at Angles to Two Walls with a Partner
- Striking To and From Different Places
- Partner Striking across a Net
- Aerial Striking over a Net
- Team Striking across a Net
- Group Striking across a Net
- Self-Designed Racket Games
- Reading Comprehension Questions
- Reference/Suggested Readings
- 28 Striking with Long-Handled Implements
- Levels of Skill Profi ciency
- Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration
- Striking a Stationary Ball—Golf or Hockey
- Striking to Large Targets—Golf or Hockey
- Striking (Dribbling) a Ball in Self-Space—Hockey
- Traveling Slowly While Striking a Ball—Hockey
- Striking Off a Batting Tee—Bats
- Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
- Striking a Stationary Ball on the Ground—Golf and Hockey
- Striking for Distance—Golf and Hockey
- Striking in the Air—Golf
- Striking to Varying Distances—Golf
- Striking to Targets—Hockey
- Striking to a Target (Around the World)—Hockey
- Striking to a Stationary Partner—Hockey
- Traveling Slowly While Striking a Ball—Hockey
- Traveling, Stopping, and Controlling the Ball—Hockey
- Traveling and Changing Speeds—Hockey
- Traveling and Striking While Changing Pathways—Hockey
- Striking to Targets—Hockey
- Striking While Dodging Stationary Obstacles—Hockey
- Striking a Stationary Ball—Bats
- Level Swings—Bats
- Striking a Stationary Ball for Distance—Bats
- Striking Suspended Objects—Bats
- Hitting a Stationary Ball from Different Places—Bats
- Hit and Run—Bats
- Throwing a Ball in the Air and Striking it—Bats
- Striking a Self-Tossed Ball to Different Distances—Bats
- Striking a Pitched Ball—Bats
- Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
- Striking to Targets at Various Distances—Golf
- Playing Hoop Golf—Golf
- Directing the Air Pathway of the Struck Object—Golf
- Playing Hockey Bowl (Small Targets)—Hockey
- Dribbling and Changing Directions Backward—Hockey
- Performing a Continuous Dribble and Change of Direction—Hockey
- Pathways, Speeds, and Directions—Hockey
- Traveling and Striking for a Goal—Hockey
- One-on-One Hockey—Hockey
- Striking from a Stationary Position to a Moving Target—Hockey
- Passing and Receiving on the Move—Hockey
- Keeping It Moving—Hockey
- Two-on-One Hockey—Hockey
- Grounders and Flies—Bats
- Directing the Placement of an Object—Bats
- Hitting to Open Spaces—Bats
- Striking a Pitched Object Varying the Distance—Bats
- Batting, Combining Distance and Placement—Bats
- Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill Development
- Directing the Pathway, Distance, and Speed of an Object—Golf
- Whiffl e Ball Golf
- Striking to Dodge an Opponent—Hockey
- Keep-Away—Hockey
- Small Sided Hockey Invasion Game—Hockey
- Directing the Pathway, Distance, and Speed of an Object—Bats
- Six-Player Striking and Fielding in a Gamelike Situation—Bats
- One-Base Baseball—Bats
- Reading Comprehension Questions
- References/Suggested Readings
- PART FIVE Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas
- 29 Skill Themes in Dance
- The Purpose of Dance in Elementary School
- Dance Experiences
- Rhythmic Experiences
- Folk /Cultural and Ethnic Dances
- Creative Experiences
- Design of Dance
- Evaluation of Dance Making
- The Content of Expressive Dance
- The Process of Teaching Dance
- Don’t Call It Dance!
- Begin Gradually
- Start with a Cooperative Class
- Use Props
- Imagery
- Start with Exciting Movement Experiences
- Dance to the Music
- A Final Thought
- Summary
- Reading Comprehension Questions
- References/Suggested Readings
- Appendix 29A: Teacher-Designed Group Routines
- Lummi Sticks
- Chinese Ribbons
- Musical Parachute
- Jump Rope
- Appendix 29B: Children Designing Their Own Dance: A Description of a Process
- Background
- An Outline of the Dance
- Creation of the Dance
- Slavery
- Freedom
- Gathering Together: Strength as a People
- Dispersing: Strength as Individuals
- Gathering Again: Strength, Pride, Confi dence
- Respect and Thankfulness to God
- Conclusion: We Are Strong and Proud
- 30 Skill Themes in Gymnastics
- The Nature of Gymnastics
- The Purpose of Gymnastics
- The Content of Educational Gymnastics
- Floor Experiences
- Apparatus Experiences
- Recording Sequences
- Outdoor Play Equipment as Gymnastics Apparatus
- The Process of Teaching Educational Gymnastics
- The Learning Environment
- Gymnastics Equipment
- Stations
- Varying the Task
- Club Gymnasts
- Demonstrating
- A Final Thought
- Summary
- Reading Comprehension Questions
- References/Suggested Readings
- 31 Skill Themes in Games
- The Nature of Games
- The Purpose of Games in Elementary School
- The Content of Elementary School Games
- Games Experiences
- Invariant Game Skill Experiences
- Dynamic Gamelike Skill Experiences
- Games-Playing Experiences
- The Process of Teaching Games-Playing Experiences
- Selecting a Games-Playing Experience
- Other Considerations
- The Learning Environment
- After-School Sport Programs
- Child Development and Games
- A Final Thought
- Summary
- Reading Comprehension Questions
- References/Suggested Readings
- 32 Integrating the Skill Theme Approach across the Curriculum
- Connecting Physical Education and the Classroom Curriculum through Interdisciplinary Learning
- Defi ning Interdisciplinary Learning
- Interdisciplinary Learning and Quality Physical Education
- Integrating Physical Education
- Benefi ts of Integration
- Important Considerations
- The Process of Teaching Using an Interdisciplinary Learning Approach
- Content Linkage Approach
- Shared Integration Approach
- Developing an Integrated Learning Experience
- Thematic Unit Approach
- Understanding the Scope and Sequence of Subject Area Content
- The Connection between Physical Activity and Academic Performance
- What the Research Suggests: Physical Activity, Fitness, and Physical Education
- What the Research Suggests: Brain-Based Learning
- A Final Thought
- Summary
- Reading Comprehension Questions
- References/Suggested Readings
- PART SIX The Future
- 33 Building Support for Your Program
- The Principal
- Teachers in the School
- Parents
- The School Board
- The Community at Large
- Legislators
- Children as Advocates
- Summary
- Reading Comprehension Questions
- References/Suggested Readings
- 34 Physical Education for Tomorrow’s Children
- Appendix: Sample School Year Overviews
- Index
