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GeorgeM.Graham_MelissaA.Parker_ShirleyAnnHale-ChildrenMoving_AReflectiveApproachtoTeachingPhysicalEducation-McGraw-HillHigherEducation20101.pdf
Children Moving
EIGHTH EDITION
Children Moving A REFLECTIVE APPROACH TO TEACHING PHYSICAL EDUCATION
George Graham The Pennsylvania State University
Shirley Ann Holt /Hale Linden Elementary School, Oak Ridge, Tennessee
Melissa Parker University of Northern Colorado
CHILDREN MOVING: A REFLECTIVE APPROACH TO TEACHING PHYSICAL EDUCATION
Published by McGraw-Hill, an imprint of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the
Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2010 , 2008 , 2006 , 2004 , 2002 , 2000 , 1997 , 1994
by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
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to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 CCI/CCI 0 9
ISBN: 978-0-07-337645-5
MHID: 0-07-337645-0
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Graham, George, 1943 –
Children moving : a refl ective approach to teaching physical education /George
Graham, Shirley Ann Holt/Hale, Melissa Parker.— 8th ed.
p. cm.
ISBN 978-0-07-337645-5 (alk. paper)
1. Physical education for children — Study and teaching —United States. 2. Physical
education for children — Curricula —United States. 3. Movement education —United
States. I. Holt/Hale, Shirley Ann. II. Parker, Melissa. III. Title.
GV443.G73 2009
372.86’044 — dc22
2008040029
www.mhhe.com
In Honor of Our Mothers
Gona D. Holt
Lela Payne Parker
For my mother, Regina (Peggy) Graham, and all of
the other women who have been so infl uential and
inspirational in my life
B R I E F C O N T E N T S
Preface xxiii
PART ONE
Introduction and Content Overview 1 CHAPTER 1 The Value and Purpose of Physical Education
for Children 3
CHAPTER 2 The Skill Theme Approach 14
CHAPTER 3 Skill Themes, Movement Concepts, and the
National Standards 27
CHAPTER 4 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and
Wellness for Children 40
CHAPTER 5 Refl ective Teaching 63
CHAPTER 6 Teaching Diverse Learners 71
PART TWO
Teaching Skills 99 CHAPTER 7 Determining Generic Levels of Skill
Profi ciency 101
CHAPTER 8 Planning 110
CHAPTER 9 Establishing an Environment for Learning 125
CHAPTER 10 Maintaining Appropriate Behavior 146
CHAPTER 11 Developing the Content 164
CHAPTER 12 Observing Student Responses 174
CHAPTER 13 Instructional Approaches 186
CHAPTER 14 Assessing Student Learning 201
CHAPTER 15 Understanding Your Teaching 232
PART THREE
Movement Concepts Defi ned 249 CHAPTER 16 Space Awareness 251
CHAPTER 17 Effort 268
CHAPTER 18 Relationships 283
PART FOUR
Skill Theme Development 303 CHAPTER 19 Traveling 305
CHAPTER 20 Chasing, Fleeing, and Dodging 332
CHAPTER 21 Jumping and Landing 349
CHAPTER 22 Balancing 374
CHAPTER 23 Transferring Weight and Rolling 400
CHAPTER 24 Kicking and Punting 438
CHAPTER 25 Throwing and Catching 470
CHAPTER 26 Volleying and Dribbling 502
CHAPTER 27 Striking with Rackets and Paddles 537
CHAPTER 28 Striking with Long-Handled
Implements 563
PART FIVE
Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas 599 CHAPTER 29 Skill Themes in Dance 601
CHAPTER 30 Skill Themes in Gymnastics 622
CHAPTER 31 Skill Themes in Games 635
CHAPTER 32 Integrating the Skill Theme Approach across
the Curriculum 653
PART SIX
The Future 669 CHAPTER 33 Building Support for Your Program 671
CHAPTER 34 Physical Education for Tomorrow’s
Children 681
Appendix Sample School-Year Overviews A-1
Index I-1
vii
ix
C O N T E N T S
Preface xxiii
PART ONE
Introduction and Content Overview 1
CHAPTER 1
The Value and Purpose of Physical Education
for Children 3
Why Children Need Physical Education 5
Health Benefi ts Associated with a Lifetime of
Physical Activity 6
Characteristics of a Quality Physical Education
Program 8
Summary 12
Reading Comprehension Questions 12
References /Suggested Readings 12
CHAPTER 2
The Skill Theme Approach 14
What Is Developmentally Appropriate Physical
Education? 15
Children Develop at Different Rates 15
Age Does Not Predict Motor Ability 15
Children Develop Motor Skills Naturally through Play 15
The Myth of the Natural Athlete 16
Difference in Physical Abilities between Boys and Girls 16
Why Don’t You Describe Such Activities as Duck, Duck,
Goose and Kick Ball? 16
What Are Skill Themes? 17
What Is the Curriculum Diamond? 17
Building a Foundation (Preschool through Grade 5) 17
Exploring Possibilities (Grades 6 – 8) 18
Developing Expertise (Grades 9 –12) 18
What Are the Characteristics of the Skill Theme
Approach? 18
Characteristic 1 18
Characteristic 2 20
Characteristic 3 21
Characteristic 4 22
Is It Diffi cult to Maintain Youngsters’ Interest in a Program
That Emphasizes the Fundamentals? 22
What Does “Adjusting the Activities” Mean? 22
Where Is Physical Fitness in the Skill Theme
Approach? 22
Where Does the Cognitive Domain Fit into the Skill
Theme Approach? 23
Where Does the Affective Domain Fit into the Skill Theme
Approach? 23
What about Dance and Gymnastics? 24
How Do Classroom Teachers Feel about the Skill Theme
Approach? 24
How Do Middle (Junior) and High School Physical Education
Teachers Feel about the Skill Theme Approach? 24
Summary 25
Reading Comprehension Questions 24
References /Suggested Readings 26
CHAPTER 3
Skill Themes, Movement Concepts, and the
National Standards 27
Characteristics of Themes 28
Skill Themes and Movement Concepts 30
The Wheel (Movement Analysis Framework) 33
Progression Spiral 34
The National Standards and the Skill Theme Approach 34
Background of National Standards Development 34
Skill Themes and the Content Standards 36
Summary 38
Reading Comprehension Questions 39
References /Suggested Readings 39
CHAPTER 4
Physical Fitness, Physical Activity and Wellness
for Children 40
Wellness for Children 41
Mental and Emotional Health 41
Personal and Social Responsibility 42
Nutrition 43
The Good Health Balance 43
Physical Activity 44
Physical Inactivity 45
Guidelines for Physical Activity 46
Physical Activity in and beyond the School Day 47
In-School Activities 47
Out-of-School Activities 48
Physical Activity Director 49
Active Schools 50
Physical Fitness for Children 50
History of Physical Fitness 50
Physical Fitness: A Defi nition 51
Concepts of Physical Fitness 51
Fitness in the Physical Education Curriculum 52
The Teaching of Fitness Concepts 52
Assessing Physical Fitness 53
After the Assessment 54
A Final Thought on Fitness 56
Summary 57
Reading Comprehension Questions 58
References /Suggested Readings 58
Appendix 4A: Family Fitness Activities 60
Appendix 4B: Prescriptions for Fitness 61
CHAPTER 5
Refl ective Teaching 63
What Is Refl ective Teaching? 65
The Need for Refl ective Teaching 66
Values of the Teacher 66
Class Size 67
Number of Class Sessions per Week 67
Facilities and Equipment 68
Student Behavior 68
Context of the School 68
How Do I Become a Refl ective Teacher? 69
Summary 69
Reading Comprehension Questions 70
References /Suggested Readings 70
CHAPTER 6
Teaching Diverse Learners 71
Inclusion Expanded 72
Overweight Children 74
Cultural Differences 75
Gender Equity 76
Religious Differences 76
Children of Poverty 77
Children with Special Needs 77
Physical Activity and Fitness 78
Disabilities, Impairments, and Disorders 79
Visual Impairments 79
Hearing Impairments 81
Physical Disabilities 82
Health-Related Disorders 86
Intellectual Disabilities 87
Emotional Disturbance and Behavior
Disorders 88
Social Interaction Disorders /Autism
Spectrum Disorder 88
Learning Disabilities 89
Remedial Physical Education 89
Creating Conditions for Inclusion 90
Change 90
Challenge 90
Choice 92
Meeting the Needs of Children with
Disabilities 93
The Multidisciplinary Team 93
Individualized Education Program 93
Least Restrictive Environment 93
The Ecological Model of Inclusion 94
Implementing Inclusion 95
A Final Thought 95
Summary 96
Reading Comprehension Questions 97
References /Suggested Readings 97
PART TWO
Teaching Skills 99
CHAPTER 7
Determining Generic Levels of
Skill Profi ciency 101
Identifying Generic Levels of Skill Profi ciency 103
Precontrol Level 103
Control Level 103
Utilization Level 104
Profi ciency Level 104
One Child, More Than One Level 104
Using the Generic Levels of Skill Profi ciency in
Teaching 105
Which Task? 105
How to Know If a Task Works 105
Insights about the Generic Levels of Skill
Profi ciency 106
Multiple Skill Levels in a Class 106
Control Level in Two Days a Week 107
Profi ciency Level Is Rare 107
Assessment Using the GLSP? 107
Summary 108
Reading Comprehension Questions 108
References /Suggested Readings 109
x Contents
CHAPTER 8
Planning 110
Refl ective Planning 111
A Four-Step Planning Process 112
Step 1: Developing the Scope and
Sequence 113
Step 2: Devising a Yearly Overview 114
Step 3: Determining Benchmarks (Performance Indicators
or Checkpoints) 116
Step 4: Detailing Daily Lesson Plans 118
Making Planning Enjoyable 122
Recording Progress 122
Lesson Design 122
Interesting Lessons 123
Appropriate Lessons 123
Maximum Participation 123
Parting Thought 123
Summary 123
Reading Comprehension Questions 124
References /Suggested Readings 124
CHAPTER 9
Establishing an Environment for
Learning 126
Gymnasium Atmosphere 127
The Managerial Component 130
Developing Protocols 130
Establishing Rules and Expectations That Refl ect a
Positive Environment 130
Establishing Gymnasium Routines 132
Getting Off to a Good Start 135
Teaching Skills for Establishing a Learning
Environment 138
Teaching Protocols 138
The Instructional Component 139
Safety 140
Elements of Negligence 140
Areas in Which Negligence Might
Occur 141
Summary 142
Reading Comprehension Questions 143
References /Suggested Readings 144
CHAPTER 10
Maintaining Appropriate Behavior 146
Increasing Appropriate Behavior 149
Proactive Strategies 149
Reactive Approaches 150
Decreasing Inappropriate Behavior 152
Positive Practice 152
Desists 152
Time-outs 152
Planning Time 154
Behavior Contracts 154
Letters to Parents 155
Involving the Principal 155
Maintaining Appropriate Behavior in Entire
Classes 156
Reward Systems 158
Developing Personal and Social Responsibility 159
Corporal Punishment 160
Teaching Skills to Maintain a Productive Learning
Environment 160
Summary 161
Reading Comprehension Questions 163
References /Suggested Readings 163
CHAPTER 11
Developing the Content 164
Overview of Content Development 165
Informing 166
Tasks (Extensions) 167
Cues (Refi nements) 167
Challenges (Applications) 169
Assessing Your Content Development 170
Planning Format 170
Accommodating Individual Differences 171
Teaching by Invitation 171
Intratask Variation 171
Summary 172
Reading Comprehension Questions 172
References /Suggested Readings 172
CHAPTER 12
Observing Student Responses 174
What to Observe 178
Safety 178
On-Task Behavior 177
Class Movement Patterns 177
Individual Movement Patterns 179
How to Observe 180
Positioning 180
Knowing What to Work For 181
Strategies 184
Summary 184
Reading Comprehension Questions 185
References /Suggested Readings 185
Contents xi
CHAPTER 13
Instructional Approaches 186
Interactive Teaching 188
Task Teaching 190
Peer Teaching 192
Guided Discovery 193
Convergent Inquiry 193
Divergent Inquiry 194
Cooperative Learning 195
Child-Designed Instruction 196
A Final Thought 199
Summary 199
Reading Comprehension Questions 199
References /Suggested Readings 200
CHAPTER 14
Assessing Student Learning 201
Understanding Assessment 202
Linking of Assessment and Instruction 203
Student as Primary Client 203
Ongoing Process 203
Meaningful Tasks 203
Distribution of Criteria 204
Making It Work 204
What Has Been Learned? Selecting Assessment
Options 205
Teacher Observation 207
Exit (or Entrance) Slips 207
Student Journals 210
Homework 212
Peer Observation 213
Self-Assessment 213
Event Tasks 215
Videotape /Digital Pictures 216
Student Drawings 218
Student Displays 218
Portfolios 218
Assessing How Well Something Was Learned 219
Writing Rubrics 219
Assessing All Three Domains 221
Fitness Assessment 222
A Word about Assessing Movement
Concepts 223
Assessment of Students with Disabilities 223
What to Do with the Results of Assessment, or
Summarizing and Reporting Progress 225
Two Practical Systems 225
Grading 228
Finding the Time for Assessment 229
Summary 230
Reading Comprehension Questions 230
References /Suggested Readings 231
CHAPTER 15
Understanding Your Teaching 232
Self-Refl ection 234
Systematic Observation 234
Getting Started 234
Unassisted Techniques 235
Student-Assisted Techniques 237
Peer-Assisted Techniques 239
Combining and Adapting Techniques 244
Being Observed 244
Written Instruments 245
Linking and Finding Out More 246
Support Groups 247
Summary 247
Reading Comprehension Questions 248
References /Suggested Readings 248
PART THREE
Movement Concepts Defi ned 249
CHAPTER 16
Space Awareness 251
Developing the Concept of Self-Space 254
Teaching the Concept of Self-Space 254
Learning Experiences Leading to Movement Concept
Understanding 254
Exploring Self-Space 254
Curling, Stretching, and Twisting in Self-Space 255
Moving the Whole Body in Self-Space 256
Developing the Concept of General Space 256
Teaching the Concept of General Space 256
Learning Experiences Leading to Movement Concept
Understanding 256
Exploring General Space 256
Open Spaces 257
Reducing the Size of the General Space 257
City Streets, Crowded Spaces 257
Dodging in General Space 257
Traveling Over, Under, and Around Obstacles in
General Space 258
Obstacle Course 258
Developing the Concept of Directions 258
Teaching the Concept of Directions 258
Learning Experiences Leading to Movement Concept
Understanding 258
Traveling in Different Directions 258
xii Contents
Moving Clockwise and Counterclockwise 259
Exploring Directions 259
Changing Directions on Signal 259
Turning While Moving in Different Directions 260
Developing the Concept of Levels 260
Teaching the Concept of Levels 260
Learning Experiences Leading to Movement Concept
Understanding 260
Traveling and Freezing at Different Levels 260
Traveling with Body Parts at Different Levels 261
Rising and Sinking to Create Different Levels 261
Traveling While Rising and Sinking 261
Developing the Concept of Pathways 261
Teaching the Concept of Pathways 261
Learning Experiences Leading to Movement Concept
Understanding 261
Exploring Pathways 261
Using Pathway Maps 262
Designing Pathways 262
Creating Follow-the-Leader Pathways 263
Traveling Pathways and Obstacles 263
Following-the-Dots Pathways 264
Combining Pathways, Levels, and Directions 264
Developing the Concept of Extensions in Space 265
Teaching the Concept of Extensions in Space 265
Learning Experiences Leading to Movement Concept
Understanding 265
Exploring Extensions 265
Traveling and Extensions 265
Changing from One Extension to Another 265
Using Extensions and Imagery 265
Applying the Concept of Space Awareness 266
Reading Comprehension Questions 266
References /Suggested Readings 267
CHAPTER 17
Effort 268
Developing the Concept of Time 270
Teaching the Concept of Time 271
Learning Experiences Leading to Movement Concept
Understanding 271
Exploring Time 271
Using Different Speeds in Self-Space 271
Moving at Different Speeds 272
Traveling and Freezing by Using Changes in Time 273
Combining Imagery and Time 273
Differentiating among Time Words 274
Combining Sport Skills and Time 274
Continually Changing in Time While Traveling 274
Developing the Concept of Force 276
Teaching the Concept of Force 276
Learning Experiences Leading to Movement Concept
Understanding 276
Exploring Force 276
Traveling and Changing Force Qualities 276
Using Imagery and Force 276
Showing Contrasts of Force 277
Developing the Concept of Flow 278
Teaching the Concept of Flow 278
Learning Experiences Leading to Movement Concept
Understanding 278
Traveling and Flow 278
Eliciting Flow Qualities 279
Following Flow Sentences 279
Practicing Flow Sequences 279
Using Flow Conversations 280
Combining Time, Force, and Flow 280
Applying the Effort Concepts 280
Reading Comprehension Questions 281
References /Suggested Readings 282
CHAPTER 18
Relationships 283
Developing the Concept of the Relationships of
Body Parts 285
Teaching the Concept of the Relationships of Body Parts 285
Learning Experiences Leading to Movement Concept
Understanding 285
Identifying Body Parts 285
Balancing While Using Different Body Parts 286
Freezing on Different Body Parts 287
Traveling on Different Body Parts 287
Balancing on Matching and Nonmatching Parts 287
Round, Narrow, Wide, and Twisted Body Shapes 288
Changing from One Body Shape to Another 289
Traveling and Freezing in Different Body Shapes 289
Making Symmetrical and Nonsymmetrical Shapes 290
Creating Postcard Sculptures 290
Creating Body Shapes in the Air 291
Developing the Concept of the Relationships with
Objects 291
Teaching the Concept of the Relationships with Objects 291
Learning Experiences Leading to Movement Concept
Understanding 292
Traveling Over, Close To, Far Away, Inside 292
Traveling Over, Under, Close To, and Far Away from
Equipment 292
Onto/Off Concepts 293
Over, Under, Around, In Front of, and Behind Concepts 294
Traveling Along Equipment 294
Traveling Through Obstacles 294
Going Over and Under the Obstacle Course 295
Using Partners as Obstacles 295
Developing the Concept of the Relationships with
People 298
Alone in a Mass 298
Solo 297
Partners 297
Groups 297
Contents xiii
Between Groups 298
Teaching the Concept of the Relationships with People 298
Learning Experiences Leading to Movement Concept
Understanding 298
Matching 298
Traveling and Matching 298
Mirroring 298
Matching and Mirroring 298
Traveling Alongside /Following 299
Following with a Group 299
Meeting/Parting 300
Forming Cooperative and Collaborative Relationships 300
Meeting and Parting in a Cooperative Group 301
Performing Solo 301
Applying the Concept of Relationships 301
Competition 302
Reading Comprehension Questions 302
References /Suggested Readings 302
PART FOUR
Skill Theme Development 303
CHAPTER 19
Traveling 305
Fundamental Locomotor Skills 306
Walking 306
Running 307
Hopping 307
Leaping 307
Sliding 307
Galloping 310
Skipping 310
Levels of Skill Profi ciency 310
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration 311
Traveling in General Space 311
Traveling with Different Locomotor Movements 312
Traveling in Different Ways 312
Traveling with Imagery 313
Traveling Through Rope Pathways 313
Traveling Among the Large and Tall 313
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development 314
Traveling with Different Locomotor Patterns 314
Sliding 314
Galloping 315
Hopping 315
Skipping 315
Leaping 315
Running 315
Traveling to Open Spaces 316
Performing Locomotor Sequences 316
Moving to Rhythms 317
Traveling in Confi ned Spaces 317
Traveling with Music 318
Traveling an Obstacle Course 318
Traveling in Different Directions 319
Slidestepping 319
Traveling in Different Pathways 319
The Locomotors Dance 320
The Follow-Me Dance 320
Traveling at Different Speeds 321
Traveling Using Different Directions, Levels, Pathways, and
Locations 321
Changing Speeds to Music 321
A Dance of Water, Steam, and Ice 321
Slow-Motion Replay: The Sports Dance 322
Combination Locomotors 322
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development 323
Traveling with a Partner: Matching Pathways 323
The Copy Cat Dance 324
Traveling with a Partner: Changing Speed and
Direction 324
Shadowing 324
Meeting and Parting While Traveling with a Partner 325
Performing Rhythmical Patterns 326
Traveling to Express Age: The Fountain of
Youth Dance 326
Traveling in Bound and Free Flow 326
Traveling to Tom Foolery Rhymes 327
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development 327
Depicting Primitive Tribes through Travel 327
Traveling to Show Tradition versus Change 328
Performing Rhythmical Patterns: Tinikling 328
Traveling in Games and Sports 330
Traveling in Gymnastics 330
Reading Comprehension Questions 330
References /Suggested Readings 330
CHAPTER 20
Chasing, Fleeing, and Dodging 332
Chasing 333
Fleeing 333
Dodging 333
Levels of Skill Profi ciency 333
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration 335
Moving Obstacles 335
Traveling to Flee 336
Traveling to Dodge 336
Make-Believe Chase 336
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development 336
Dodging in Response to a Signal 336
Fleeing from a Partner 337
Dodging the Obstacles 337
Dodging with Quick Changes of Direction 337
xiv Contents
Overtaking a Fleeing Person 337
Fleeing a Chaser 338
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development 339
Dodging Stationary Obstacles 339
Dodging and Faking Moves to Avoid a Chaser 339
Dodging Semistationary Obstacles 340
Dodging and Chasing One Person in a Mass 340
Dodging in a Dynamic Situation 341
Dodging While Manipulating an Object 341
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to
Skill Development 342
Continual Fleeing and Chasing with a Large Group 342
Dodging While Maintaining Possession of an Object 343
Chasing and Dodging Simultaneously 343
Chasing and Fleeing in an Invasion Game –Like
Situation 344
Dodging in a Game-Like Situation 344
Dodging in a Target Game-Like Situation 345
Using Team Strategy for Chasing, Fleeing, and Dodging in
an Invasion Game-Like Situation 346
Dodging While Manipulating an Object in an Invasion
Game – like Situation 346
Self-Designed Chasing, Fleeing, and Dodging Game 347
Reading Comprehension Questions 347
References /Suggested Readings 348
CHAPTER 21
Jumping and Landing 349
Fundamental Jumping Patterns 350
Levels of Skill Profi ciency 350
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration 355
Jumping and Landing: Different Patterns 355
Jumping for Distance 356
Jumping for Height 356
Jumping over a Swinging Rope 357
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development 357
Jumping and Landing: Basic Patterns 357
Standing Long Jump 358
Jumping for Height 358
Jumping over Low Obstacles: Hoops 359
Jumping over Low Obstacles: Hurdles 359
Jumping Rhythmically 360
Jumping in Rhythmical Sequences 360
Jumping a Turned Rope 361
Jumping a Self-Turned Rope 361
Jumping Using Buoyant and Yielding Landings 362
Jumping to Form a Body Shape During Flight 363
Traveling, Jumping, and Body Shapes 364
Performing Jumping Sequences and Making
Body Shapes 364
Jumping over Equipment Using Buoyant Landings 364
Jumping on and off Equipment Using Buoyant and Yielding
Landings 365
Jump, Squash, TaDa 366
Jumping and Landing Task Sheet 366
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to
Skill Development 367
Jumping to Catch 367
Jumping to Throw 368
Jumping on a Bench 368
Throwing and Catching While Jumping 369
Jumping to an Accented Beat 370
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to
Skill Development 370
Jumping with a Partner to Mirror Actions 370
Jumping with a Partner to Match Actions 371
Jumping with a Springboard 371
Jumping as Part of a Dance Creation 371
Jumping, Dancing, and Imagery 372
Hurdling Jumps 372
Reading Comprehension Questions 372
References /Suggested Readings 373
CHAPTER 22
Balancing 374
Levels of Skill Profi ciency 376
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration 376
Balancing on Different Bases of Support 376
Balancing on a Wide Base of Support 377
Balancing in Different Body Shapes 377
Traveling and Stopping in Balanced Positions 377
Traveling on Low Gymnastics Equipment 378
Balancing on Boards 378
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development 379
Balancing on Different Bases of Support 379
Tightening the Gymnastics Muscles 379
Counterbalance 379
Balancing Symmetrically and Nonsymmetrically 380
Balancing in Different Body Shapes 380
The Gymnastics Dance 382
Performing Inverted Balances 382
Alignment of Body Parts 383
Doing Kickups 384
Traveling and Stopping in Balanced
Positions 385
Stationary Balances on Equipment 385
Traveling on Large Apparatus 387
Traveling While Balanced 388
Balancing Sequence 388
Balancing on Stilts 389
Balance Boards 390
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development 391
Balancing on Crates 391
Moving out of and into Balances by Stretching, Curling,
and Twisting 392
Traveling into and out of Balances by Rolling 393
Contents xv
Performing Inverted Balances on Equipment 394
Performing Sequences That Combine Stationary Balances
and Traveling on Mats 394
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development 395
Balancing While Supporting the Weight of a Partner 396
Balancing on Hanging Ropes 396
Transferring off Equipment with Weight on Hands 397
Performing Apparatus Sequences That Combine
Stationary Balances and Traveling with
Movement Concepts 398
Reading Comprehension Questions 398
References 399
CHAPTER 23
Transferring Weight and Rolling 400
Levels of Skill Profi ciency in Transferring Weight 401
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration of
Weight Transfer 401
Locomotor Actions 402
Transferring Weight from Feet to Back 402
Transferring Weight from Feet to Hands 402
Transferring Weight onto and off Equipment 403
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development in Weight Transfer 403
Transferring Weight to Hands across Mats 403
Transferring Weight with a Rolling Action 403
Transferring Weight from Foot to Combinations of
Body Parts 404
Stretching, Curling, and Twisting into Transfers 404
Performing Spring/Step Takeoffs 404
Performing Spring/Step Takeoffs onto Crates and /or
Benches 405
Transferring Off Low Apparatus (Bench, Crate, or
Low Table) 406
Making Spring/Step Takeoffs with Sequences 406
Traveling over Low Apparatus 407
Transferring onto Low Apparatus 407
Transferring Weight from Foot to Hands 408
Transferring Weight to Hands by Stepping: Cartwheels 408
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development in Weight Transfer 409
Transferring Weight to Hands: Walking 409
Transferring Weight to Hands and Twisting 409
Transferring Weight to Hands and Forming a Bridge 410
Transferring Weight onto Large Apparatus 409
Transferring Weight to Head and Hands on Apparatus (Box,
Beam, Table) 410
Transferring Weight onto Bars (Parallel Bars, Climbing
Frame) 411
Transferring Weight over Apparatus (Vaulting Box) 412
Transferring Weight along Apparatus 413
Transferring Weight by Rolling (Bench, Box, or Table) 413
Transferring Weight to Hands on Low Apparatus 414
Transferring Weight on Bars 414
Combining Skills on Mats 414
Combining Weight Transfer and Balances into Sequences on
Mats and Apparatus 414
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development in Weight Transfer 416
Levels of Skill Profi ciency in Rolling 416
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration of
Rolling 418
Making Curing Shapes 418
Rocking on Different Body Parts 418
Rolling Sideways 418
Curling to Roll 420
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development in Rolling 420
Rocking to Match a Partner 420
Rolling in a Long, Narrow Position (Log Roll) 420
Rolling Sideways on Different Body Parts 420
Rolling Sideways over a Shoulder 421
Rocking Backward 421
Rolling Forward 422
Rocking Backward over the Shoulders 423
Rolling from Different Positions 424
Rolling at Different Speeds 424
Back Shoulder Roll 424
Handclasp Backward Roll 425
Rolling Backward 425
Rolling in Different Directions 426
Rolling from Different Directions and Positions 427
Linking Rolls 427
Rolling Using Different Directions and Speeds 427
Rolling after Jumping off Equipment and Landing 428
Rolling after Jumping for Height and Landing 428
Rolling after Jumping from Different Heights 429
Rolling after Jumping over Equipment and Landing 429
Rolling, Levels, Directions, and Jumping 430
Rolling While Traveling, Jumping, and Landing 431
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development in Rolling 431
Rolling and Traveling Quickly 431
Rolling, Jumping, and Traveling in Relationship to
Others 432
Rolling over Low Hurdles 432
Rolling on Low Equipment 432
Rolling off Low Equipment 433
Traveling and Rolling between Pieces of
Equipment 433
Rolling, Balancing, and Rolling 434
Rolling to Express an Idea 434
Rolling While Throwing and Catching 434
Rolling onto Low Equipment 435
Rolling and Balancing on Equipment 435
Rolling to Meet and Part 436
Rolling and Striking 436
Catching, Throwing, and Rolling 436
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development in Rolling 436
xvi Contents
Reading Comprehension Questions 437
References 437
CHAPTER 24
Kicking and Punting 438
Levels of Skill Profi ciency in Kicking 439
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration of Kicking 443
Kicking a Stationary Ball from a Stationary Position 443
Kicking at Large Targets 443
Approaching a Stationary Ball and Kicking 443
Tapping the Ball 444
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development in Kicking 445
Kicking on the Ground 445
Kicking in the Air 445
Kicking for Distance 446
Kicking to a Distance Zone 446
Kicking to Targets 447
Kicking a Rolling Ball from a Stationary Position 448
Kicking to a Partner 449
Tapping the Ball along the Ground (Soccer Dribble) 449
Starting and Stopping 449
Traveling in Pathways 450
Dribbling around Stationary Obstacles 450
Keeping It Perfect: Zero, Zero 451
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development in Kicking 451
Changing Directions: Tap /Dribble 451
Performing a Continuous Tap /Dribble and Change of
Direction 452
Traveling and Kicking for a Goal 452
Playing One-on-One Soccer 453
Playing Soccer Golf 453
Kicking to a Partner from Various Angles 454
Kicking to a Traveling Partner 454
Passing to a Partner in General Space 455
Playing Two-on-One Soccer 455
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development in Kicking 455
Kicking at Small Stationary Targets 456
Kicking at a Moving Target 456
Playing Mini Soccer 456
Playing Soccer Keep-Away 457
Playing Alley Soccer 457
Playing Cone Soccer 458
Levels of Skill Profi ciency in Punting 458
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration of Punting 459
Dropping, Bouncing, and Kicking Lightweight Balls 459
Dropping and Punting 459
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development in Punting 459
Punting for Consistency 462
Punting over Low Ropes 462
Punting with an Approach 462
Punting Different Types of Balls 463
Punting for Distance 463
Using Punting Zones 463
Punting for Accuracy 464
Punting for Height 464
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development in Punting 465
Punting at Angles 465
Punting to a Partner 465
Receiving a Pass, Then Punting 466
Punting within a Limited Time 466
Playing Rush the Circle 467
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development in Punting 467
Receiving and Punting against Opponents 467
Punting While Traveling 468
Playing Punt-Over 468
Reading Comprehension Questions 469
References 469
CHAPTER 25
Throwing and Catching 470
Levels of Skill Profi ciency in Throwing 471
Levels of Skill Profi ciency in Catching 475
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration 477
Throwing a Yarn Ball against the Wall 477
Throwing at a Large Target 478
Catching a Rolling Ball 478
Catching from a Skilled Thrower 478
Drop —Catch 478
Tossing to Self and Catching 479
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development 479
Throwing Underhand 479
Throwing Overhand 480
Throwing Sidearm 480
Overs, Unders, and Sides 482
Bouncing a Ball to Self and Catching It 481
Throwing an Object to Different Levels and Catching It 481
Catching in Different Places around the Body 481
Throwing Overhand at a High Stationary Target 482
Throwing Overhand at a Low Stationary Target 483
Throwing Underhand to Targets: Jugs 483
Throwing Underhand to Targets: Hoops 483
Throwing to High Targets 484
Throwing Backhand to a Target 484
Throwing a Flying Disc 484
Catching with a Scoop 485
Catching off the Fly 486
Throwing a Ball against a Wall and Catching the Rebound 486
Throwing for Distance 487
Throwing and Catching with a Partner 487
Throwing and Catching over a Net with a Partner 488
Catching off a Bounce 489
Contents xvii
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development 489
Moving to Catch 489
Throwing and Catching While Traveling 490
Throwing on the Move 490
Throwing to Make a Partner Move to Catch 491
Throwing to a Moving Target 491
Throwing for Distance and Accuracy 492
Target Backaway 493
Throwing Discs at Targets 493
Catching to Throw Quickly to a Partner 494
Catching to Throw Quickly to a Target 494
Throwing While in the Air 494
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development 495
Throwing and Catching a Flying Disc in Different Places
around the Body with a Partner 495
Throwing and Catching in a Field, Run, and Score Game-Like
Situation 495
Throwing to Avoid a Defender 496
Throwing and Catching in a Small-Sided Invasion Game 497
Throwing at a Stationary Object While Being Defended 497
Throwing and Catching in a Small-Sided Basketball-Type
Game 498
Throwing and Catching with a Flying Disc in a Small-Sided
Invasion Game 498
Throwing and Catching with a Football in a Small-Sided
Invasion Game 499
Throwing and Catching with a Team Handball in a Small-Sided
Invasion Game 499
Throwing and Catching While Using Simple Offense and
Defense in a Small-Sided Invasion Game 500
Reading Comprehension Questions 501
References /Suggested Readings 501
CHAPTER 26
Volleying and Dribbling 502
Volleying 503
Levels of Skill Profi ciency in Volleying 503
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration 504
Striking Balloons in the Air 504
Striking a Balloon Forward 504
Striking with Different Body Parts 505
Striking Lightweight Objects 505
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development 505
Striking a Ball Noncontinuously with Different Body Parts 506
Striking a Ball Upward (Underhand Pattern) 506
Striking a Ball Upward with the Forearms ( The Bump) 507
Striking a Ball to the Wall (Underhand Pattern) 507
Striking a Ball over a Line (Underhand Pattern) 508
Playing Hoop Volley (Underhand Pattern) 508
Playing Four Square, Two Square (Underhand Pattern) 508
Striking over a Low Net (Underhand Pattern) 509
Volleying to the Wall (Overhead Pattern) 509
Volleying a Ball Upward (Overhead Pattern) 510
Volleying to a Partner (Overhead Pattern) 510
Playing Keep It Up 510
Playing One-Bounce Volleyball 511
Obstacle-Course Volley 511
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to
Skill Development 511
Volleying Game: Child-Designed 511
Striking a Ball Continuously with Different Body
Parts 513
Volleying with the Foot 514
Playing Aerial Soccer 514
Volleying with a Volleybird 514
Striking to the Wall—Varying Levels, Force, and
Body Position 515
Volleying over a Net 516
Volleying Continuously to a Partner 516
Volleying Three-on-Three 516
Serving Underhand over the Net 517
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to
Skill Development 517
Striking with Different Body Parts While Traveling 517
Serving Overhand over the Net 518
Striking Downward with Force 519
Spiking 519
Volleying in a Line Formation 520
Playing Modifi ed Volleyball 520
Dribbling 520
Levels of Skill Profi ciency in Dribbling 520
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration 522
Bouncing a Ball Down and Catching It 522
Bouncing a Ball Down (Dribbling) Continuously 522
Dribbling and Walking 522
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development 522
All-the-Time Dribble 522
Dribble Like a Basketball Player 523
Dribbling at Different Levels 523
Dribbling and Looking 524
Switches 524
Dribbling with the Body in Different Positions 525
Dribbling in Different Places around the Body While
Stationary 525
Dribbling While Changing Directions in
Self-Space 526
Dribbling and Traveling 526
Moving Switches 527
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to
Skill Development 527
Dribbling and Changing Speed of Travel 527
Dribbling While Changing
Directions 527
Dribbling in Different Pathways 528
Dribbling While Stopping, Starting, and Turning
(Pivots and Fakes) 529
Dribbling around Stationary Obstacles 530
xviii Contents
Mirroring and Matching While Dribbling 531
Dribbling and Passing with a Partner 531
Dribbling against an Opponent: One-on-One 532
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development 532
Dribbling against Opponents: Group Situations 532
Now You’ve Got It, Now You Don’t 533
Dribble Tag 533
Dribbling While Dodging 534
Dribbling and Passing in Game Situations 534
Making Up Fancy Dribbling/Passing Routines 534
Dribbling and Throwing at a Target 534
Dribble /Pass Keep-Away 535
Small-Group Basketball-Type Game 535
Reading Comprehension Questions 536
References /Suggested Readings 536
CHAPTER 27
Striking with Rackets and Paddles 537
Levels of Skill Profi ciency 538
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration 539
Paddle Balance 539
Balloon Strike (Lightweight Paddle) 541
Striking a Suspended Ball 542
Hit the Wall 543
Upward Bound 544
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development 544
Downs 544
Ups 545
Ups and Downs 545
Up against the Wall (Striking Forward) 546
Ups, Downs, and Forwards 546
Both Sides (of the Paddle) Now 547
Striking to Wall Targets 547
Striking for Distance ( Varying the Force) 548
Striking for Hoops ( Varying the Distance) 548
To the Wall— Sideways (Sidearm Forehand Pattern) 549
To the Wall Again — Sideways (Sidearm Backhand
Pattern) 549
Striking at High and Low Targets 550
Striking to Different Places 551
Striking through a Target 552
Striking an Object to Send It over a Net 552
Striking a Ball Rebounding from a Wall 553
Striking Continuously over and through a Target 553
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development 554
Hitting from Different Places 554
Hitting Cooperatively and Continuously with a
Partner 554
Striking to Different Places around a Partner 555
Striking Overhead 555
Striking Overhead over a Net 556
Striking Continuously Upward with a Group 556
Striking in Various Aerial Pathways in Dynamic Situations 557
Striking Upward in a Dynamic Situation 558
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to
Skill Development 558
Striking to One Wall with a Partner 559
Striking at Angles to Two Walls with a Partner 559
Striking To and From Different Places 560
Partner Striking across a Net 560
Aerial Striking over a Net 560
Team Striking across a Net 561
Group Striking across a Net 561
Self-Designed Racket Games 562
Reading Comprehension Questions 562
Reference /Suggested Readings 562
CHAPTER 28
Striking with Long-Handled Implements 563
Levels of Skill Profi ciency 564
Precontrol Level: Activities for Exploration 569
Striking a Stationary Ball—Golf or Hockey 571
Striking to Large Targets —Golf or Hockey 571
Striking (Dribbling) a Ball in Self-Space —Hockey 571
Traveling Slowly While Striking a Ball—Hockey 572
Striking Off a Batting Tee —Bats 572
Control Level: Learning Experiences Leading to
Skill Development 573
Striking a Stationary Ball on the Ground—Golf and Hockey 573
Striking for Distance —Golf and Hockey 574
Striking in the Air —Golf 575
Striking to Varying Distances —Golf 575
Striking to Targets —Hockey 576
Striking to a Target (Around the World)—Hockey 576
Striking to a Stationary Partner —Hockey 577
Traveling Slowly While Striking a Ball—Hockey 577
Traveling, Stopping, and Controlling the Ball—Hockey 578
Traveling and Changing Speeds —Hockey 578
Traveling and Striking While Changing Pathways—Hockey 579
Striking to Targets —Hockey 579
Striking While Dodging Stationary Obstacles —Hockey 580
Striking a Stationary Ball—Bats 580
Level Swings —Bats 581
Striking a Stationary Ball for Distance —Bats 582
Striking Suspended Objects —Bats 583
Hitting a Stationary Ball from Different Places —Bats 583
Hit and Run —Bats 584
Throwing a Ball in the Air and Striking it —Bats 584
Striking a Self-Tossed Ball to Different Distances —Bats 584
Striking a Pitched Ball—Bats 585
Utilization Level: Learning Experiences Leading to Skill
Development 585
Striking to Targets at Various Distances —Golf 586
Playing Hoop Golf —Golf 586
Directing the Air Pathway of the Struck Object —Golf 586
Playing Hockey Bowl (Small Targets)—Hockey 586
Dribbling and Changing Directions Backward —Hockey 587
Contents xix
Performing a Continuous Dribble and Change of
Direction —Hockey 587
Pathways, Speeds, and Directions —Hockey 587
Traveling and Striking for a Goal—Hockey 588
One-on-One Hockey —Hockey 589
Striking from a Stationary Position to a Moving
Target —Hockey 589
Passing and Receiving on the Move —Hockey 590
Keeping It Moving —Hockey 590
Two-on-One Hockey —Hockey 590
Grounders and Flies —Bats 591
Directing the Placement of an Object —Bats 591
Hitting to Open Spaces —Bats 592
Striking a Pitched Object Varying the Distance —Bats 592
Batting, Combining Distance and Placement —Bats 592
Profi ciency Level: Learning Experiences Leading to
Skill Development 593
Directing the Pathway, Distance, and Speed of an
Object —Golf 593
Whiffl e Ball Golf 593
Striking to Dodge an Opponent —Hockey 594
Keep-Away —Hockey 595
Small Sided Hockey Invasion Game —Hockey 595
Directing the Pathway, Distance, and Speed of an
Object —Bats 596
Six-Player Striking and Fielding in a Gamelike
Situation —Bats 596
One-Base Baseball—Bats 597
Reading Comprehension Questions 597
References /Suggested Readings 598
PART FIVE
Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in Content Areas 599
CHAPTER 29
Skill Themes in Dance 601
The Purpose of Dance in Elementary School 602
Dance Experiences 603
Rhythmic Experiences 603
Folk /Cultural and Ethnic Dances 606
Creative Experiences 608
Design of Dance 609
Evaluation of Dance Making 610
The Content of Expressive Dance 611
The Process of Teaching Dance 611
Don’t Call It Dance! 612
Begin Gradually 612
Start with a Cooperative Class 612
Use Props 612
Imagery 612
Start with Exciting Movement Experiences 614
Dance to the Music 614
A Final Thought 614
Summary 614
Reading Comprehension Questions 615
References /Suggested Readings 615
Appendix 29A: Teacher-Designed Group Routines 617
Lummi Sticks 617
Chinese Ribbons 617
Musical Parachute 618
Jump Rope 619
Appendix 29B: Children Designing Their Own Dance: A
Description of a Process 620
Background 620
An Outline of the Dance 620
Creation of the Dance 620
Slavery 621
Freedom 621
Gathering Together: Strength as a People 621
Dispersing: Strength as Individuals 621
Gathering Again: Strength, Pride, Confi dence 621
Respect and Thankfulness to God 621
Conclusion: We Are Strong and Proud 621
CHAPTER 30
Skill Themes in Gymnastics 622
The Nature of Gymnastics 623
The Purpose of Gymnastics 624
The Content of Educational Gymnastics 625
Floor Experiences 626
Apparatus Experiences 627
Recording Sequences 628
Outdoor Play Equipment as Gymnastics Apparatus 628
The Process of Teaching Educational Gymnastics 629
The Learning Environment 629
Gymnastics Equipment 630
Stations 630
Varying the Task 631
Club Gymnasts 631
Demonstrating 632
A Final Thought 633
Summary 633
Reading Comprehension Questions 633
References /Suggested Readings 633
CHAPTER 31
Skill Themes in Games 635
The Nature of Games 636
The Purpose of Games in Elementary School 637
The Content of Elementary School Games 638
xx Contents
Games Experiences 639
Invariant Game Skill Experiences 640
Dynamic Gamelike Skill Experiences 640
Games-Playing Experiences 642
The Process of Teaching Games-Playing
Experiences 644
Selecting a Games-Playing Experience 644
Other Considerations 647
The Learning Environment 649
After-School Sport Programs 649
Child Development and Games 649
A Final Thought 650
Summary 650
Reading Comprehension Questions 651
References /Suggested Readings 651
CHAPTER 32
Integrating the Skill Theme Approach across
the Curriculum 653
Connecting Physical Education and the Classroom
Curriculum through Interdisciplinary Learning 654
Defi ning Interdisciplinary Learning 654
Interdisciplinary Learning and Quality Physical
Education 654
Integrating Physical Education 655
Benefi ts of Integration 656
Important Considerations 657
The Process of Teaching Using an Interdisciplinary
Learning Approach 658
Content Linkage Approach 658
Shared Integration Approach 659
Developing an Integrated Learning Experience 659
Thematic Unit Approach 659
Understanding the Scope and Sequence of Subject
Area Content 664
The Connection between Physical Activity and
Academic Performance 664
What the Research Suggests: Physical Activity, Fitness, and
Physical Education 665
What the Research Suggests: Brain-Based Learning 666
A Final Thought 666
Summary 667
Reading Comprehension Questions 667
References /Suggested Readings 667
PART SIX
The Future 669
CHAPTER 33
Building Support for Your Program 671
The Principal 672
Teachers in the School 674
Parents 675
The School Board 678
The Community at Large 678
Legislators 679
Children as Advocates 679
Summary 679
Reading Comprehension Questions 680
References /Suggested Readings 680
CHAPTER 34
Physical Education for Tomorrow’s
Children 681
Appendix: Sample School Year Overviews A-1
Index I-1
Contents xxi
xxiii
P R E F A C E
T hirty years ago, authors George Graham, Missy
Parker, and Shirley Holt/Hale, along with Tim
McEwen, dreamed of a physical education curric-
ulum for children that would focus on skill development;
of gymnasiums and playgrounds fi lled with children
engaged in developmentally appropriate activities; of
children with a love of movement and a desire to be
physically active for a lifetime. That dream resulted in
the fi rst edition of Children Moving and is evident today
in the eighth edition of the text. In Children Moving, the
pedagogy (teaching process) and content (what is taught)
are woven together into a unifi ed “system” that has come
to be known as the skill theme approach.
When the fi rst edition of Children Moving was pub-
lished in 1980, the skill theme approach was new to
many in our profession. Today, an increasing number of
teachers follow the developmentally appropriate guide-
lines and practices outlined in this book. We have
blended the literature on effective teaching with re-
search on physical activity and teacher preparation into
a practical format designed to help you understand, and
successfully implement, the skill theme approach with
children . . . an approach that provides a program of
physical education appropriate for all children, not just
the athletically gifted or physically fi t youngsters.
When the fi rst edition of Children Moving was pub-
lished, the research documenting the benefi ts of physical
activity and the importance of physical education in the
school curricula was nonexistent, as was the universal
lack of understanding about the importance of physical
activity for children. Today, with the increasing epidemic
of obesity and the associated health problems, there is
little need to convince parents, administrators, and the
medical community of the importance of regular physi-
cal activity for children.
Children Moving describes a process designed to ensure
that the love of physical activity children are born with
remains alive throughout adolescence and adulthood.
As you read throughout the 34 chapters in the eighth
edition, you will discover that we view the purpose of
physical education as “guiding youngsters in the pro-
cess of becoming physically active for a lifetime.” The
pages that follow describe in detail how we go about at-
tempting to do so.
It has now been more than a decade since the Surgeon
General’s report on physical activity and the fi rst edi-
tion of the National Standards for Physical Education were
published. Today they have become landmark docu-
ments, and a second edition of the National Standards
(2004) has been published. It is clear that our task is no
longer to simply understand the intent of standards, but
also to show how to align programs so that they meet
the guidelines suggested in these documents. Physical
educators can no longer justify programs that simply
keep youngsters “busy, happy, and good,” thereby pro-
viding classroom teachers a planning period. In this era
of increased accountability and testing, state legislatures
and school districts are mandating that teachers docu-
ment what students have and have not learned, often
through high-stakes testing with highly publicized re-
sults. Physical education programs that do not have
sound educational goals and practices guiding their in-
struction are now more vulnerable than ever before.
This edition frequently references several national
documents that have provided direction, guidance,
and support for physical education in schools by trans-
lating research and consensus reports into meaningful
and worthwhile experiences for children. The Surgeon
General’s report on physical activity and the consensus
report on physical activity sponsored by the National
Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Pro-
motion, both published in 1996, clearly documented
the value of physical activity. They also recommended
that more time be allocated for physical education pro-
grams designed to build the foundation for youngsters
to become physically active for a lifetime.
The National Standards for Physical Education, fi rst
published by the National Association for Sport and
Physical Education (NASPE) in 1995, with a second edi-
tion in 2004, provides guidance for the content and goals
of physical education programs. NASPE’s Developmentally
Appropriate Physical Education Practices for Children (1992)
and Appropriate Practices for Elementary School Physical
Education (third edition, 2009) offer counsel for the
structure of quality physical education programs along
with suggested content.
The authors of Children Moving have been involved
with these and other national, regional, and state proj-
ects in various ways. Our involvement is one of the key
reasons for the match between Children Moving and the
recent national and state advances substantiating the
importance of physical activity. This edition includes
literally hundreds of practical learning experiences and
assessments for reaching the goals and objectives outlined
in the combined editions of the National Standards and
various state standards.
While we have expanded and clarifi ed the informa-
tion from the documents of the mid-1990s, much re-
mains from previous editions, especially our goal to
keep the text both informal and practical. What we
wrote in the preface to the fi rst edition remains true:
“We are teachers of children fi rst. And writers second.
Individual insights gained during years of teaching ex-
perience and ideas to enhance teacher success are
sprinkled throughout the text. We hope that by shar-
ing these experiences we can help others to enrich the
lives of children.”
We begin the eighth edition of Children Moving by
describing the value and purpose of physical educa-
tion. Part 1, “Introduction and Content Overview”
(Chapters 1– 6) provides an overview of the skill theme
approach, the name by which the program suggested
in Children Moving has come to be known, and ties it to
our beliefs and values in regard to children’s physical
education.
Chapter 1 highlights the benefi ts of physical activ-
ity for children as well as the components of a quality
physical education program for children. It also links
the skill theme approach not only to NASPE’s physical
activity guidelines, but also to the U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services’ School Health Index and
Dietary Guidelines.
Chapters 2 and 3 defi ne the skill theme approach.
Chapter 2 includes an overview of motor development
principles as they apply to the skill theme approach.
Chapter 4 describes the importance of physical fi t-
ness and physical activity for children, how fi tness is
interwoven into the skill theme approach, and appro-
priate fi tness practices for elementary school children.
It also includes examples of linking wellness into phys-
ical education lessons.
Chapter 5 includes a much expanded defi nition of
refl ective teaching as well as insights into how one
develops into a refl ective teacher.
An updated Chapter 6, “Teaching Diverse Learn-
ers,” provides multiple strategies that allow teachers
to meaningfully engage all children in physical edu-
cation. Inclusion becomes a proactive concept, not
limited to children with disabilities, but addressing the
needs of every child regardless of skill, fi tness, language,
gender, religion, socioeconomic status, or physical
characteristics.
Part 2, “Teaching Skills” (Chapters 7–15) focuses on
the process, or pedagogy, of teaching. Chapter 7 de-
scribes our system for determining the content children
are ready to learn based on their developmental needs
and interests (generic levels of skill profi ciency), as op-
posed to their age or grade level. Chapter 8 outlines
planning in a four-step process with examples of how
lessons can be linked to national or state standards.
Taken together, Chapters 9, 10, and 11 illustrate how
to develop a classroom environment in which student
learning is most likely to occur. Chapter 9 describes the
process of creating a positive atmosphere conducive to
learning and includes sections on safety and legal lia-
bility. In this chapter we introduce the safety icon as
an alert for a strong emphasis on safety in a given situ-
ation. Chapter 10 addresses strategies for youngsters
who may need extra help in learning how to function
appropriately in a physical education environment.
Chapter 11 describes how teachers organize content
into meaningful experiences by developing a logical
progression of tasks (learning experiences), cues (critical
elements), and challenges designed to make physical
education classes a true learning experience. These
ideas are presented in a user-friendly manner designed
for easy understanding, and they link directly to the
planning chapter (Chapter 8).
Because Children Moving describes a child-centered
rather than a subject-centered approach to teaching, it is
important that teachers constantly observe children to
determine the progress they are making so that lessons
can be adjusted for individual differences. Chapter 12
provides examples of ways teachers can observe student
responses to determine the potential for learning.
Chapter 13, which describes a variety of instructional
approaches used by teachers to heighten children’s en-
joyment and understanding of the lessons, includes a
section on cooperative learning and provides an analy-
sis of when each approach may be appropriate based on
the needs of the students and the pedagogical skills of
the teacher. New to this chapter is the linking of vari-
ous instructional approaches to specifi c learning tasks
in the skill theme chapters.
Chapter 14, on assessment, describes current assess-
ment trends. It contains a variety of assessment ex-
amples based on our teaching experiences as well as on
the fi rst edition of the National Standards. Assessment
icons are then used throughout the text to indicate
performance assessments that are explained in detail
in Chapter 14. In addition, the assessment tool of checks
for cognitive understanding is indicated with the icon
. Additionally, assessment items are aligned with the
National Standards . Chapter 15 includes a variety of
practical ways that teachers can assess their own teach-
ing to determine if, and how, they are using the tech-
niques employed by effective teachers of children’s
physical education.
Part 3, “Movement Concepts Defi ned,” and Part 4,
“Skill Theme Development,” focus on the content of
the skill theme approach. The movement concept
chapters (Chapters 16 –18) describe how the concepts
xxiv Preface
of space awareness, effort, and relationships are taught
in the skill theme approach and include references to
both editions of the National Standards for content
and assessment ideas. They are followed by the skill
theme chapters (Chapters 19 – 28), which contain
hundreds of learning experiences designed to help
children develop the motor skills necessary for suc-
cessful participation in and enjoyment of a variety of
physical activities and sports.
Each skill theme chapter begins with an overview of
the content followed by a description of a series of tasks,
the critical elements or cues necessary to succeed at
these tasks, and challenges designed to maintain chil-
dren’s interest in learning the tasks. The tasks are orga-
nized according to the generic levels of skill profi ciency
in a spiral progression from beginning to advanced.
Assessment options for the skill theme chapters are
keyed to the assessment chapter (Chapter 15).
Part 5, “Movement Concepts and Skill Themes in
Content Areas” (Chapters 29 – 32), includes chapters on
dance, gymnastics, and games in the skill theme ap-
proach and a chapter on interdisciplinary learning.
Chapter 29 links the teaching of dance to the skill theme
and movement concept chapters. It describes various
types of dance for children and provides information
about how ethnic /folk dance can be incorporated with
skill themes. Chapter 30 links the skill theme and move-
ment concept chapters to gymnastics and provides ex-
amples of developmentally appropriate gymnastics for
children. It also includes a renewed emphasis on safety
and self-responsibility in children. Chapter 31, on games,
provides examples of how educational games are used
in the skill theme approach. It contains ideas for de-
signing appropriate game and gamelike experiences
for children and clarifi es the competition /cooperation
aspect of children’s games.
Chapter 32 has been completely revised to describe
how the skill theme approach can be integrated with
topics typically taught in the classroom, such as math-
ematics and reading. It provides examples of ways
classroom teachers can use movement to enhance stu-
dent learning in the classroom and also ways that
physical education teachers and classroom teachers
can work together to create interesting and relevant
learning experiences for youngsters.
Chapters 33 and 34 make up the fi nal part, “The
Future,” in this eighth edition of Children Moving. The
fi rst describes some of the strategies teachers have
successfully used to build support for their programs
and includes references to research that can be used to
support physical education programs. Chapter 34 is
our favorite and includes our continued dreams for
children’s physical education as we approach the sec-
ond decade of the new millennium.
New to This Edition
Updated Content
A key feature of this new edition is updated content,
which is refl ected in the text discussions and in the
references and readings. Of special note is the updated
information from the second edition of the National
Standards for Physical Education. Another example is
the emphasis on teaching diverse learners and the ex-
panded concept of diversity. The idea of observing stu-
dent responses (Chapter 12) is clearly linked with the
notion of student learning in physical education, and
the notion of analyzing our teaching (Chapter 15) is
linked with those teacher practices known to facilitate
student learning.
New Research
This new edition highlights many examples of the lat-
est research in the fi eld, such as fi ndings that suggest a
connection between ongoing physical activity and
obesity, and between movement and learning; the use
of heart-rate monitors and pedometers in learning
more about movement; the creation of a learning en-
vironment and motivation in physical education; and
safety and liability issues that need to be addressed.
Successful Features
The Skill Theme Approach
The skill theme focus of this book guides teachers in
helping children develop their motor skills with develop-
mentally appropriate activities that are directed toward
their skill level rather than their grade level. Designed for
both classroom teachers and physical education teach-
ers, the skill theme approach highlights practical ways of
teaching physical education to children.
Basic Teaching Skills
This book emphasizes the foundation for teaching skills
with topics such as planning, organizing, assessing,
and evaluating. It offers a strong background in educa-
tionally sound theory and explains how to apply that
knowledge to become an effective teacher. The focus is
on refl ective teaching, which involves adjusting one’s
teaching style to match the needs of students.
Classroom Conversations
The scripted format of the skill theme chapters offers
new teachers examples of real conversations that take
Preface xxv
place in the classroom or gymnasium. In this way teach-
ers can learn how to participate in the different dialogues
that are instrumental to child-centered education.
Advocacy of Physical Education
This text focuses on physical education and its relation
to physical fi tness. Recognizing the value of physical
education as a part of total fi tness, this book incorpo-
rates the concepts of fi tness and wellness throughout
all chapters.
Promotion of Inclusion
The idea of inclusion is central to Children Moving. Ex-
amples of how all individuals can be included in high-
quality physical education are found throughout this
text.
Small-Sided Games
Demonstrating the value of small-sided games in phys-
ical education, this book offers examples of how to
design such games and make them a valuable part of
any physical education program. It discusses ideas
about developing versatile game players who under-
stand strategies and skills for playing well.
Pedagogical Aids
Key Concepts Each chapter begins with a list of Key Concepts to help students focus their attention on the
main topics as they begin studying the chapter. This
learning tool also offers an accessible and practical
method of review.
Cautions Throughout the text discussions, the symbol indicates a safety alert for a particular situa-
tion. This tool keeps the new teacher attuned to making
safety a basic element in physical education activities
and helps avoid accidents.
Tasks The skill theme and movement concept chap- ters feature a suggested progression of tasks, or exten-
sions, for children. Highlighted by the symbol T , each
task is worded in a conversational style that can be
used to give instructions to the children about how to
perform the task.
Cues Cues, or refi nements, can be used to help the children perform a skill more effi ciently. A selection of
cues — such as “Heads Up” or “Light on Your Feet — is
presented at the beginning of each series of tasks for
skill themes and movement concepts. The teacher can
choose a cue that is appropriate for the children to
make the task easier for them to perform.
Challenges Challenges, or applications, are indi- cated by the symbol C in the skill theme and move-
ment concept chapters. They are designed to maintain
the children’s interest in a particular task. Teachers can
either use the challenges listed along with the tasks or
create ones that seem appropriate for the children with
whom they are working.
Assessment Ideas Assessment tools are designed to see what students have learned in relation to the goals
set by the teacher. The symbol identifi es suggested as-
sessments that can be used as part of daily teaching rather
than as a separate entity at the end of the unit. These as-
sessment ideas include an array of options, from exit (or
entrance) slips that can be used to quickly assess cogni-
tive and affective learning to teacher observation check-
lists and digital analysis to verify psychomotor skills.
Summaries The chapter summaries highlight the major topics and concepts discussed in the chapter.
They can be used for clarifi cation or for review for
examinations.
Reading Comprehension Questions A set of questions appears at the end of each chapter to allow
students to test their understanding of the content.
This tool offers a means of reviewing and analyzing
the material.
References /Suggested Readings This list at the end of each chapter includes references that support
the text discussion and additional sources for study
and exploration.
Appendix The appendix to this book offers four sample school-year overviews based on the material in
Children Moving. It includes (1) a two-day-a-week pro-
gram for an inexperienced class; (2) a fi ve-day-a-week
program for an inexperienced class; (3) a two-day-a-
week program for an experienced class; and (4) a fi ve-
day-a-week program for an experienced class. These
overviews can be followed exactly as presented or used
as a model for developing individualized programs.
Supplements
Instructor’s Resource DVD
This DVD contains key teaching points for each chap-
ter, along with learning activities for the classroom
and the gym.
xxvi Preface
Computerized Test Bank
The test bank is available on the Instructor’s Re-
source DVD as Word fi les and is designed for use with
McGraw-Hill’s EZ Test computerized testing software.
EZ Test is a fl exible and easy-to-use electronic testing
program that allows instructors to create tests from
book-specifi c items. It accommodates a wide range of
question types, and instructors may add their own
questions. Multiple versions of the test can be cre-
ated, and any test can be exported for use with course
management systems such as WebCT, BlackBoard, or
PageOut. EZ Test Online is a new service and gives
you a place to easily administer your EZ Test – created
exams and quizzes online. The program is available
for Windows and Macintosh environments. The EZ
Test CD is packaged with a Quick Start Guide; once
the program is installed, users have access to the
complete user’s manual, including multiple Flash
tutorials. Additional help is available at www.mhhe.
com /eztest.
On the Move: Lesson Plans to Accompany
Children Moving, Eighth Edition, by
Shirley Ann Holt /Hale
This text is designed to offer learning experiences for
children that assist them in developing a broad base
of movement skills coupled with an enjoyment of
physical activity that will translate into a physically
active, healthy lifestyle for a lifetime. Some of the
highlights are (1) instructional objectives that are
attainable within a single lesson; (2) content develop-
ment with a focus on a skill rather than on broad
exploration; (3) maximum practice of the focus skill;
(4) concentration on one cue at a time; (5) challenges
throughout the lessons; and (6) both cognitive and
performance assessments.
Special features include a series of physical fi tness
concept lesson plans; sample lessons for integrated dis-
cipline activities; and a separate section devoted to
Children Moving challenges written for the classroom
teacher and designed for the recess or playground en-
vironment, with a focus on physical activities with
minimum instruction and maximum participation for
all students. Also included is a discussion of curricu-
lum mapping with a skill theme approach and a sam-
ple curriculum plan to assist teachers in the process of
planning by mapping. New to the eighth edition: Tasks
within the lesson plan book that are directly from Chil-
dren Moving are highlighted by a different font to pro-
vide an easy reference to Children Moving and to show
how a single task or series of tasks is developed into a
lesson for children.
Classroom Performance Systems (CPS)
The Classroom Performance System (CPS) is a revolu-
tionary system that brings ultimate interactivity to the
lecture hall or classroom. CPS is a wireless response
system that gives you immediate feedback from every
student in the class. CPS units include easy-to-use
software for creating and delivering questions and
assessments to your class. With CPS, you can ask sub-
jective and objective questions. Students respond
with their individual wireless response pads, providing
instant results. CPS is the perfect tool for engaging
students while gathering important assessment data.
Benefi ts include:
• Better interactivity — teachers can receive instant
feedback on what students have learned
• Increased class discussion — anonymous opinion
pools can be used to generate debate
• Improved attendance by “alert” students
• Automatically graded testing
• Simple installation, setup, and use
• Low cost
• Reliable technical support
Online Learning Center
www.mhhe.com/graham8e
The Online Learning Center to accompany this text
offers a number of additional resources for both stu-
dents and instructors. Visit this Web site to fi nd useful
materials such as:
For the Instructor
• Instructor’s Manual
• Sample syllabus
• State curriculum guide
• The Wheel and activities
• Downloadable PowerPoint presentations
• Lesson plan Web sites
• Lecture outlines
• Links to professional resources
For the Student
• State Curriculum Guide
• NASPE Curriculum Standards
• Sample Lesson Plan
• National Organizations
• Student Success Strategies
• Lesson Plan Web sites
• On the Move
• eWheel
• Quizzes
Preface xxvii
• Self-scoring chapter quizzes
• On the Mov e lesson plans
• Lesson plan template
• Fitness and nutrition journal
• Videos
Classroom Performance Systems
These fi les are formatted for use with Classroom Per-
formance System, a wireless response system used to
increase student engagement in the classroom. The
fi les are questions that can be used to create class quiz-
zes, or as impromptu questions during lecture.
Primis Online
www.mhhe.com/primis /online
Primis Online is a database-driven publishing system
that allows instructors to create content-rich textbooks,
lab manuals, or readers for their courses directly from the
Primis Web site. The customized text can be delivered
in print or electronic (eBook) form. A Primis eBook is a
digital version of the customized text (sold directly to
students as a fi le downloadable to their computer or
accessed online by a password).
Acknowledgments
Children Moving continues to be a work in progress.
Over the past 30 years we have been fortunate to work
with a number of dedicated professionals who have
assisted and inspired us to continue to improve each
edition. We would like to acknowledge many of the
people who assisted us with this edition and previous
ones. We are grateful for their efforts to work with us to
continue to improve Children Moving.
• Eloise Elliott, Concord University, Athens, West
Virginia, for writing Chapter 32, “Integrating the
Skill Theme Approach across the Curriculum,” for
the sixth edition and for revising it for the eighth
edition, as well as for developing the instructor
materials for the third through the sixth editions.
• Christina Sinclair and Jim Stiehl, University of
Northern Colorado, for expanding our understand-
ing of the notion of teaching diverse populations,
Chapter 6, “Teaching Diverse Learners.”
• Martin Block, University of Virginia, for his inspira-
tion and shared philosophy concerning children
with special needs.
• Laura Matney, Johnson City Schools, Johnson City,
Tennessee, for her assistance with Chapter 4,
“Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness
for Children.”
• Kevin Patton, California State University, Chico, for
developing the instructor materials for the eighth
edition and the PowerPoints presentation accomp-
anying the seventh and eighth editions of Children
Moving.
• Linda Sharp, J.D., of the University of Northern Col-
orado, for her ongoing expert advice related to the
legal aspects of teaching physical education.
• Pat Petrie, research assistant for her countless hours
of assistance and attention to details.
• Rosa Edwards, Shawn Fortner, Liz Harkrader, Sharn
Nicholson, John Pomeroy, Andy Lloyd, Larry Satch-
well, and so many other children’s physical educa-
tion teachers — for your inspiration, dedication
to children, and example in serving as role mod-
els for countless other teachers and thousands of
children.
• The children at St. Mary’s Elementary School, Grand
Forks, North Dakota; Bluff Elementary School, Bluff,
Utah; The Accelerated School, Los Angeles, California;
and Madison Elementary School, Greeley, Colorado,
who continually added to our understanding of link-
ing skill themes with the development of personal
and social responsibility.
• The children at Linden Elementary School in Oak
Ridge, Tennessee, who create as well as follow our
dreams of physical education for children.
• Barbara Adamcik, for her ability to capture children’s
movement through photography.
• Lans Hayes of Mayfi eld Publishing Company, who,
in 1977, took a huge risk on four unknown authors
with a radical idea.
• Jill Eccher, our freelance developmental editor for
the seventh and eighth editions, as well as produc-
tion editor for the eighth edition, for her guidance,
patience, and gentle nagging.
• Mary Anne Stewart, our copyeditor for this edition,
for her attention to detail, her patience with us as
authors, and her love of children’s physical educa-
tion and movement.
• The entire McGraw-Hill book team who worked
on this edition: Chris Johnson, Kate Engelberg, Julia
Ersery, Pam Cooper, Michele Borrelli, Melissa
Williams, Gretchen Otto, Rich DeVitto, Kim
Menning, and Kate Boylan.
• We would like to offer special thanks to the count-
less teachers and students who have made so many
positive and helpful comments since the fi rst edi-
tion of Children Moving was published. Your sup-
port and encouragement continue to be much
appreciated.
xxviii Preface
• Finally, we would like to thank the reviewers of this
edition for their valuable insights:
David Campbell
Concord University
Connie Collier
Kent State University
William Collman
William Penn University
Carol Conkell
St. Cloud State University
Rip Marston
University of Northern Iowa
Arthur Miller
University of Montana
Virginia L. Trummer
University of Texas at San Antonio
Preface xxix
xxx
635
C H A P T E R
31
Skill Themes in Games
The game is not sacred; children are.
— JIM STIEHL
Students, are you looking for practical teaching
techniques? Working hard to develop the skill
theme approach with children? Trying to improve
your grade? The features in Children Moving will
help you do this and more! Take a look.
Key Concepts
Each chapter, or each part in the skills theme
chapters, begins with a list of key concepts to help
you focus your attention on the main topics as
you begin studying each chapter. This learning
tool also offers an accessible and practical method
of review.
Online Learning Center Resources
Want a better grade? This address appears through-
out to remind you about the study aids and other
resources available at our Online Learning Center.
4 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
C hildren, especially young children, love to move.
They enjoy squirming, wriggling, crawling, run-
ning, chasing, jumping, rolling, balancing, kick-
ing, throwing, and many other activities. For parents
and teachers the challenge is getting the children to
stop moving—for just a few minutes. And then, about
10 or 12 years of age, this torrent of physical activity
becomes a trickle for far too many children. Why? What
can be done to encourage children, all children, to con-
tinue this enjoyment of movement into their teen and
adult years? In short, what can we do to encourage chil-
dren to continue moving throughout their lifetime?
Children Moving attempts to provide answers to
many of these questions. The goal of this book is to
describe both a curriculum and the companion teach-
ing skills that are designed to guide youngsters in the
process of becoming physically active for a lifetime.
There is general agreement that skillfulness, the abil-
ity to perform fundamental and sports-related motor
skills, is an important prerequisite for adopting a
physically active lifestyle. Our goal is also to teach
children to value physical activity for all the benefi ts
that are described later in this chapter—as well as the
pure enjoyment and satisfaction that comes from
successful and enjoyable participation in sports and
physical activity.
Why are some adults physically active and others
not? We don’t have the research to answer this question.
We have limited evidence suggesting that physically
active children become physically active adults (Malina
2001). And we have a solid evidence base that physi-
cally active children, as well as adults, derive substantial
benefi ts from being physically active (USDHHS 1996).
Children Moving is based on the premise that to truly
enjoy many of the physical activities and sports par-
ticipated in by adults one needs a certain level of skillful-
ness. The ideal time to learn these foundational motor
skills is when children are young and they so enjoy
moving in any form. One of the important character-
istics of motor skills is that once they are learned, they
are retained for a lifetime. For example, swimming and
riding a bike are motor skills that are remembered for a
lifetime. While we may not be as adept at these skills if
we have not done them for 20 years or so, our bodies
(kinesthetic memory) don’t forget. Thus the goal of
Children Moving is to describe effective techniques and
strategies to assist children in acquiring many of the
foundational motor skills that are used in sports and
physical activities by children and adults.
Positive physical education programs emphasize
enjoyable participation in physical activity and “help
students develop the knowledge, attitudes, motor skills,
behavioral skills, and confi dence needed to adopt and
maintain physically active lifestyles” (NCCDPHP 1997,
p. 205). Our goal is to keep the love of movement (exer-
cise) alive in youngsters so that they associate exercise
with enjoyment and fun!
The importance of physical activity in the lives of
children and adults is becoming more and more evident.
The 2005 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend
that “children and adolescents engage in at least 60 min-
utes of physical activity on most, preferably all, days of
the week” ( www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2005/
document ). In fact, the 2005 revision of the food pyra-
mid includes a fi gure climbing stairs to visually represent
the importance of physical activity in our lives ( www.
pyramid.gov ). You will also fi nd information on this
Web site designed specifi cally for children ages 6 to 11 in
the “for kids” section.
• The purpose of a quality program of physical education
is to guide youngsters in the process of becoming physi-
cally active for a lifetime.
• Regular physical activity helps prevent obesity, promotes
motor skill development and physical fi tness, and pro-
vides opportunities for setting goals, making new friends,
and reducing stress.
• The health benefi ts associated with being physically
active include a reduction in premature mortality, heart
disease, colon cancer, diabetes mellitus, and drug and
alcohol addiction.
• Positive, or quality, physical education programs have
reasonable class sizes, a developmental and sequential
curriculum, plenty of practice and movement opportuni-
ties, and adequate facilities and equipment.
• Positive physical education programs emphasize learn-
ing in all three domains: psychomotor, cognitive, and
affective.
Key Concepts
▲
▲
A G U I D E D T O U R O F C H I L D R E N M O V I N G
xxxi
CHAPTER 18 Relationships 299
Children try to match their partner as they make “one-part,
non- symmetrical balances.” Children try to match each other’s rocking motion.
practice and ask to see at least one of your combi-
nations, so be sure you know the difference. If you
have questions, ask now.
T This time, the activity will be harder. Instead of
copying a still statue your partner makes, you’re
going to mirror your partner’s movements. It
will be just like looking in a mirror when you brush
your hair. Remember that this is still in your own
space and that there’s no traveling. So if your part-
ner moves his or her left arm down, you move your
right arm down. Make four moves and change
leaders. This is hard. Think about it.
T This time, try to tell a story with your mirroring
actions, such as a baby fi rst seeing herself in the
mirror, your mother putting on her makeup, or
your father shaving. Practice your story until you
can do it the same way three times in a row.
Then we’ll have the class try to guess what you’re
saying.
Traveling Alongside /Following
Setting: Traveling in general space with a partner
Tasks /Challenges:
T Though we haven’t really discussed it, often you were
practicing another type of relationship when you
followed your partner around the space: leading and
following. So far, you’ve always followed from behind
the other person. Let’s try it differently this time,
with you traveling alongside (next to) your partner
as you follow. One person is still the leader and the
other the follower, but you both move as if you were
a team of horses: beside each other. Switch leaders
when I give the signal. This activity is harder, so you
have to watch very closely what your partner does.
Start out with slow traveling, and you can get faster
gradually. Try to fi nd fun, different ways to travel.
T Now try to speed it up a little. Watch carefully. Try
to follow exactly.
The leader must be aware of the follower’s capabilities so
that the leader challenges the partner but doesn’t frustrate
the partner with movements that are too diffi cult.
Following with a Group
Setting: Traveling in general space with a group
▲ Illustration Program Instructional full-color illustrations and photo-
graphs throughout the book enhance learning
with an exciting visual appeal.
162 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Principal Letters
Atmosphere
Managerial Instructional
Establishing a learning environment
Development and teaching of protocols
Rules Routines
Post Start/ stop
Etc. Minimum positive
Consequences
Clear directions
Target No dangles
Beginning of year
Teaching skills
Overlap No flip-flops Timing See and
hear
Separate organization and content
With-it-ness
Vary movement
patterns Scan
Bathroom
Increase appropriate
(soft)
Decrease inappropriate
(hard)
Entire class
Proactive
Desists
Time- outs
Reactive
Dialogue
Eliminate differential treatment
Prompt
Positive interaction
Ignore Nonverbal
Positive practice
Behavior contracts
Planning time
Teaching responsibility
Rewards
Maintaining a learning environment
Figure 10.6 Conceptual map of establishing and maintaining the class environment.
four characteristics of a mature throw. You select a se-
ries of tasks from Chapter 25. You also decide that your
major focus for this lesson will be the use of opposition —
that is, that the children learn to step with the foot
opposite their throwing arm. Once you’ve defi ned the
task and explained the cue (“Throw the ball as hard as
you can against the wall. Remember to step with the
foot on the other side of your body from your throw-
ing arm”), observe to see which children are using op-
position and which ones aren’t. If you observe that
most of the children aren’t using opposition, stop the
class and remind them to use opposition (or remind
children individually). You may also demonstrate the
correct performance yourself or pinpoint as models
several children who are using opposition. Then the
children can return to their practice. Be sure to observe
the responses of the children to determine whether
they are performing as the cue indicates. Remember
that the cue (opposition) is what you actually expect
the children to learn in this lesson. This cycle of teacher
task /student response /teacher observation and deci-
sion about subsequent task is the heart of teaching for
student learning in physical education (Rink 2006).
Without the ability to observe astutely, it is impossible
to teach for student learning.
Individual Movement Patterns
After observing for safety, on-task behavior, and class
movement patterns, it is time to look at the movement
patterns of individuals. Observing individual movement
When we work with individuals, we use essentially
the same process we use for the entire class. We vary
the task for different children, or we provide challenges
(intratask variation). If you ever have an opportunity
to watch a master teacher, you’ll see that this teacher is
constantly using intratask variation as he or she travels
from child to child while remaining conscious of the
entire class, safety, and on-task behavior. Now you can
better understand why it’s so important to spend time
we certainly should and do. But teachers must make
sure that they don’t become so involved with one child
that they forget to concentrate on the whole class. As
Locke’s vignette at the beginning of the chapter sug-
gests, doing so is a real challenge.
Recently I observed a teacher attempting to teach a
child how to run and kick a stationary ball. The child
was unable to adjust her run to enable herself to
arrive at the ball in a proper kicking position. After
each unsuccessful attempt (the ball barely moved;
the child appeared almost to step on the ball rather
than kick it), the teacher would say to the child, “No,
that’s not it!” The child knew she had failed as she
watched the ball erratically dribble away from her
foot, and yet the teacher offered no prescription for
improvement. Rather than stating results the student
can readily observe, the successful instructor offers
a prescription for practice — that is, a cue.
▲
▲
Vignettes and Quotations
The authors and seasoned teachers provide real
examples of experiences with students that relate
to the topics discussed, for more insight into the
dynamics of teaching.
xxxii
Skill Theme Development Sequence
Throwing and Catching Profi ciency Level
Throwing and catching while using simple offense and defense in a small-sided invasion game
Throwing and catching with a team handball in a small-sided invasion game
Throwing and catching with a football in a small-sided invasion game
Throwing and catching with a fl ying disc in a small-sided invasion game
Throwing and catching in a small-sided basketball-type invasion game
Throwing at a stationary object while being defended
Throwing and catching in a small-sided invasion game
Throwing to avoid a defender
Throwing and catching in a fi eld, run, and score game – like situation
Throwing and catching a fl ying disc in different places around the body with a partner
Utilization Level
Throwing while in the air
Catching to throw quickly to a target
Catching to throw quickly to a partner
Throwing discs at targets
Target backaway
Throwing for distance and accuracy
Throwing to a moving target
Throwing to make a partner move to catch
Throwing on the move
Throwing and catching while traveling
Moving to catch
Control Level
Catching off a bounce
Throwing and catching over a net with a partner
Throwing and catching with a partner
Throwing for distance
Throwing a ball against a wall and catching the rebound
Catching off the fl y
Catching with a scoop
Throwing a fl ying disc
Throwing backhand to a target
Throwing to high targets
Throwing underhand to targets: hoops
Throwing underhand to targets: jugs
Throwing overhand at a low stationary target
Throwing overhand at a high stationary target
Catching in different places around the body
Throwing an object to different levels and catching it
Bouncing a ball to self and catching it
Overs, Unders, and Sides
Throwing sidearm
Throwing overhand
Throwing underhand
Precontrol Level
Tossing to self and catching
Drop —Catch
Catching from a skilled thrower
Catching a rolling ball
Throwing at a large target
Throwing a yarn ball against the wall
▲
Skill Theme Development Sequences
The skill theme chapters contain hundreds of
learning experiences designed to help children
learn. Motor skills are organized according to the
generic levels of skill profi ciency in a spiral pro-
gression from beginning to advanced.
Tasks /Challenges
The skill theme and movement concept chap-
ters feature a suggested progression of tasks, or
extensions, for children. Each task is worded in
a conversational style that can be used to give
instructions to the children about how to perform
the task. Challenges are designed to maintain the
children’s interest in a particular task. Teachers can
either use the challenges listed along with the
tasks or create ones that seem appropriate for the
children with whom they are working.
Assessment Ideas
Assessment tools are designed to see what students have
learned in relation to the goals set by the teacher. These
assessment ideas include an array of options from exit
(or entrance) slips that can be used to quickly assess
cognitive and affective learning to teacher observation
checklists and digital analysis to verify psychomotor
skills.
Cues
Cues can be used to help children perform a skill more
effi ciently. A selection of cues is presented at the begin-
ning of each series of tasks. The teacher can choose a
cue that is appropriate for a particular child to make
the task easier for that child to perform.
CHAPTER 25 Throwing and Catching 487
C We’ll make a game out of it this time. I’ll time you
for one minute. Count to yourself how many times
you can hit the wall above the line and catch the
ball in the air on the rebound. Remember the
number, because we’ll do it again so you can try to
improve your score.
Assessment Example
From the National Standards for Physical Education
Peer Observation
Have partners observe the preparatory phase of a des-
ignated skill in an attempt to ascertain the correct use
of critical elements. For example, student A will throw
a ball toward a target 5 times using the overhand
pattern while student B observes the performance,
focusing on a single critical element during the prepa-
ratory phase (e.g., opposite foot forward, side to target,
arm pulled way back). The observing student gives a
thumbs-up if the critical element is correct; if incor-
rect, the observing student tells what is needed to
improve the movement.
Criteria for Assessment
a. Thrower displays the critical element that is the
focus of the observation.
b. Observer makes an accurate judgment on the
performance.
NASPE (1995, p. 33)
Throwing for Distance
Setting: Partners in a large outdoor fi eld, each pair with
a bucket of about 10 tennis balls; beanbags to mark
where the balls land (often you can get old tennis balls
from parents who play tennis. Send parents a note at
the beginning of the year asking tennis players to save
old tennis balls; collect them regularly. It doesn’t take
long to accumulate more balls than you need.)
Cues
Side to Target (Turn your hips and upper body
toward your throwing hand
when you pull it back in
preparation to throw.)
Arm Way Back (Pull your throwing arm way
back before you begin the
throw.)
Step (Step forward on the foot
opposite the hand that is
throwing the ball.)
Follow Through (Follow through toward the
target, ending at your knees.)
Tasks /Challenges:
T You’re going to practice throwing long distances —
like playing the outfi eld in baseball. Throw each
tennis ball as far as you can. With markers, your
partner will mark your farthest throw and collect
the balls. Each time, try to beat your last throw.
After you’ve thrown all the balls you have, trade
places with your partner.
Baseball Gloves
A baseball glove is an implement that can be used to catch
an object, but generally we prefer not to use gloves in our
program. When children bring their own gloves to school,
there are problems. Many children prefer to not share their
gloves with children who don’t have gloves. We also have a
hard time justifying the expense of purchasing gloves for a
physical education program. In the schools we’ve taught in,
we’ve always wanted other equipment that needs to be
purchased and is more important than baseball gloves.
Throwing and Catching with a Partner
Setting: Partners about 10 feet apart; one ball (varying
the object used to throw and catch increases or decreases
the complexity of this task) per pair
Cues
Throwing
Eyes on Target (Your eyes should be on
the target all the time.)
Face, Arm, Step, Follow (Don’t forget the cues
for throwing — always
use them.)
Catching
Watch, Reach, Pull (Watch the ball, reach
for it, and pull it in.)
Get Behind (As the ball comes
toward you, position
your body so that you’re
behind the ball, not to
the side of it.)
Thumbs/ Little Fingers (When you catch over
your head, make sure
your thumbs are to-
gether; if the catch is
low, make sure your lit-
tle fi ngers are together.)
▲
▲
▲
xxxiii
APPENDIX Sample School-Year Overviews A-3
Two-Day-a-Week Program for an Inexperienced Class (72 Days a Year)
Week Chapter Day
1 9 1 Establishing an Environment for Learning (p. •••)
9 2 Establishing an Environment for Learning (cont.) (p. •••)
2 16 1 Exploring Self-Space (p. •••)
16 2 Exploring General Space (p. •••)
3 16 1 Traveling in Different Directions (p. •••)
16 2 Traveling and Freezing at Different Levels (p. •••)
4 4 1 Physical Fitness and Wellness for Children (p. •••)
25 2 Throwing at a Large Target (p. •••)
5 25 1 Catching a Rolling Ball; Catching from a Skilled Thrower (p. •••)
19 2 Traveling with Different Locomotor Patterns: Sliding; Galloping; Hopping; Skipping (pp. •••, •••)
6 19 1 Performing Locomotor Sequences (p. •••)
20 2 Traveling to Flee; Fleeing from a Partner (pp. •••, •••)
7 20 1 Traveling to Dodge; Dodging the Obstacles (pp. •••, •••)
24 2 Kicking a Stationary Ball from a Stationary Position (p. •••)
8 24 1 Approaching a Stationary Ball and Kicking; Kicking in the Air (pp. •••, •••)
24 2 Dropping, Bouncing, and Kicking Lightweight Balls; Dropping and Punting (p. •••)
9 21 1 Jumping and Landing: Basic Patterns (p. •••)
4 2 Physical Fitness and Wellness for Children (p. •••)
10 26 1 Striking Balloons in the Air (p. •••)
26 2 Striking a Ball Upward (Underhand Pattern) (p. •••)
11 26 1 Bouncing a Ball Down (Dribbling) Continuously (p. •••)
26 2 Dribbling and Walking (p. •••)
12 17 1 Exploring Time (p. •••)
17 2 Exploring Force (p. •••)
13 17 1 Traveling and Changing Force Qualities (p. •••)
9 2 Establishing an Environment for Learning (p. •••)
14 16 1 Exploring Pathways (p. •••)
16 2 Exploring Extensions (p. •••)
15 19 1 Moving to Rhythms (p. •••)
4 2 Physical Fitness and Wellness for Children (p. •••)
16 27 1 Downs; Ups (pp. •••, •••)
27 2 Ups and Downs (p. •••)
17 21 1 Jumping over Low Obstacles: Hoops; Jumping over Low Obstacles: Hurdles (p. •••)
21 2 Jumping a Turned Rope; Jumping a Self-Turned Rope (p. •••)
18 18 1 Identifying Body Parts; Balancing on Matching and Nonmatching Parts (pp. •••, •••)
18 2 Traveling and Freezing in Different Body Shapes (p. •••)
19 4 1 Physical Fitness and Wellness for Children (p. •••)
19 2 Leaping (p. •••)
20 18 1 Over, Under, Around, In Front Of, and Behind Concepts (p. •••)
19 2 The Follow-Me Dance (p. •••)
21 23 1 Rocking on Different Body Parts; Rolling to Match a Partner (p. •••)
23 2 Rolling Sideways; Rolling Forward (pp. •••, •••)
22 1 Special Event
18 2 Matching; Mirroring; Matching and Mirroring (p. •••)
23 22 1 Balancing on Different Bases of Support (p. •••)
22 2 Balancing in Different Body Shapes (p. •••)
24 23 1 Rolling in a Long, Narrow Position (log roll) (p. •••)
23 2 Rocking Backwards; Rocking over the Shoulders (pp. •••, •••)
25 23 1 Transferring Weight from Feet to Back (pp. •••–•••)
23 2 Transferring Weight from Feet to Hands (pp. •••, •••, •••)
26 25 1 Throwing Overhand; Throwing Underhand; Throwing Sidearm (pp. •••, •••)
25 2 Throwing a Ball against a Wall and Catching the Rebound (p. •••)
27 22 1 Traveling on Low Gymnastics Equipment (pp. •••, •••)
22 2 Balancing Sequence (p. •••)
(continued)
Appendix
The appendix to this book offers four sample
school-year overviews based on the material in
Children Moving. These overviews can be followed
exactly as presented or used as a model for devel-
oping individualized programs.
▲
12 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Summary
Quality physical education programs for children
have never been more important than they are today.
The three overarching questions in this chapter pro-
vide an introduction to the program and teaching
process described in the text. The responses to the
questions taken from the recent literature (1) provide
reasons why children need quality physical education,
(2) summarize the health benefi ts that may accrue to
those who remain physically active for a lifetime, and
(3) defi ne a quality physical education program for
children as one that is developmentally and instruc-
tionally appropriate.
References /Suggested Readings
Bredekamp , S. 1992 . What is developmentally appropri- ate and why is it important? Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 63(6): 31– 32 .
[COPEC] Council on Physical Education for Children. 1992 . Developmentally appropriate physical education practices for children: A position statement of the Council on Physical Education for Children . Reston, VA: National Association for Sport and Physical Education .
[COPEC] Council on Physical Education for Children. 2000 . Appropriate practices for elementary school physical edu- cation: A position statement of the National Association for Sport and Physical Education developed by the Council on Physical Education for Children (COPEC) . Reston, VA: [NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Education . www.aahperd.org/naspe .
Furth , H. G. 1970 . Piaget for teachers . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall .
Holt/Hale , S. 2006 . On the move: Lesson plans to accompany Children Moving. 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill .
Jensen , E. 2000 . Brain-based learning: A reality check. Edu- cational Leadership 57(7): 76 –79 .
Kirkendall , D. 1985 . Effects of physical activity on intellec- tual development and academic performance. Intellectual Development 19: 49 – 63 .
Malina , R. M. 2001 . Adherence to physical activity from childhood to adulthood. Quest 53(3): 346 –55 .
[MASSPEC] Middle and Secondary School Physical Educa- tion Council. 2001 . Appropriate practices for middle school physical education: A position statement of the National
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. The introduction to Chapter 1 described the purpose
of a quality physical education program. Explain your
reasons for agreeing or disagreeing with the purpose.
2. Chapter 1 provides a list of reasons children need
quality physical education. Which of those reasons
do you think are most important? Least important?
Explain your reasons.
3. Categorize the reasons for a quality physical edu-
cation program into two categories. The fi rst cate-
gory (column) will consist of those reasons that
are predominantly the responsibility of the physi-
cal education program. In the second column, list
the reasons for which other programs may also
share responsibility (i.e., they are also goals for the
teachers in the classroom and not specifi cally those
of the physical education program).
4. The Physical Activity Hourglass suggests that oppor-
tunities for many youngsters are reduced once they
enter secondary school. Analyze the opportunities
for middle and high school youth to be physically
active in your community. Contrast the opportuni-
ties with those provided for young children. Describe
what your community might do to create more
environmental invitations to become physically
active, especially for the youngsters who are not on
athletic teams.
5. Chapter 1 describes the characteristics of a quality
physical education program. Make a three-column
table listing these characteristics in the left-hand
column. In the second column, grade your elemen-
tary school program on each of these characteristics
from A to F. In the third column, explain your reason
for each grade. If you did not have an elementary
school physical education program, analyze your
middle or high school physical education program.
6. Assume that someone asks you why youngsters
need physical education. Prepare an argument, us-
ing the information from this chapter, to convince
that person that physical education is as important
as many other subjects in school.
7. It is recommended that children be physically ac-
tive for 60 minutes, or more, most days of the week.
Physical education classes are often 30 minutes in
length. What would you recommend to a class of
third graders about how they could acquire the rec-
ommended physical activity minutes on days they
do not have physical education? Make fi ve recom-
mendations that are both fun and interesting.
Summaries
The chapter summaries highlight the major topics
and concepts discussed in the chapter. They can
be used for clarifi cation or for review for
examinations.
Reading Comprehension Questions
A set of questions appears at the end of each
chapter to allow you to test your understanding of
the content. This tool offers a means of reviewing
and analyzing the material.
References /Suggested Readings
At the end of each chapter are references that sup-
port the text discussion and additional sources for
study and exploration.
▲ ▲
▲
CHAPTER 16 Space Awareness xxxv
Children Moving
P A R T
1
A quality program of physical education for children is much more than
simply a bunch of activities that children enjoy for 30 minutes or so several
times a week. A quality program of physical education has a defi nite pur-
pose, has long-term goals, and is developmentally and instructionally ap-
propriate; in short, for children it makes a difference that lasts well beyond
elementary school.
Chapter 1 , “The Value and Purpose of Physical Education for Children,”
answers three important questions as an introduction and overview to the
book. The fi rst two answers respond to the need for, and the importance of,
physical education for children. The last answer provides insights into the
characteristics of a physical education program for children that is positive,
and that guides them in the process of becoming physically active for a
lifetime. As you will see, these responses are based on recent publications
written by some of the leading experts in physical activity for children. To-
gether they defi ne a clear and unifi ed direction (outcomes) for programs of
physical education while also suggesting a process (developmentally appro-
priate) that is consistent with contemporary approaches for teaching children.
Chapter 2, “The Skill Theme Approach,” answers many of the questions that teachers often
ask when they are fi rst exposed to the skill theme approach. Because the content is organized
by skills and concepts rather than by games, gymnastics, and dance, for example, some
teachers initially fi nd the approach confusing. In Chapter 2, we use a question-and-answer for-
mat to respond to these questions. Then, in Chapter 3, “Skill Themes, Movement Concepts,
and the National Standards,” we defi ne the skill themes and movement concepts. Chapter 3
also includes many of the reasons that support the use of a skill theme approach in children’s
physical education.
Chapter 4, “Physical Fitness and Wellness for Children,” complements Chapter 3 in describing
how physical fi tness concepts are interwoven throughout our lessons. It also provides numerous
examples of ways children can increase their physical activity and improve fi tness outside of
1
Introduction and Content
Overview
2
organized physical education classes. It’s important that
children learn to do so because most programs simply don’t
allow enough time to help children improve both their physical
abilities and their fitness.
If every school were exactly alike, we could now proceed to
provide examples of activities that would “work” in every situa-
tion. As you know, however, no two schools or programs of
physical education are exactly alike. Chapter 5, “Refl ective
Teaching,” describes how teachers adapt and adjust their
programs according to the particular characteristics of their
school (for example, the number of days per week they teach
physical education, the available facilities and equipment), and
their children (for example, background, experience, type of
community).
As the fi nal chapter in Part 1 , Chapter 6, “Teaching Diverse
Learners,” provides an overview of the philosophy of inclusion
and focuses on ways teachers can adapt both their teaching and
their curricular content to maximize learning and participation for
all children in physical education. The richness of diversity is
addressed through changes, challenges, and choices.
3
C H A P T E R
1
The Value and Purpose of Physical Education for Children As the old man walked the beach at dawn, he noticed a young man ahead of him picking up star-
fi sh and fl inging them into the sea. Finally catching up with the youth, he asked him why he was
doing this. The answer was that the stranded starfi sh would die if left until the morning sun.
“But the beach goes on for miles and there are millions of starfi sh,” countered the old man.
“How can your effort make any difference?”
The young man looked at the starfi sh in his hand and then threw it to the safety of the waves.
“It makes a difference to this one,” he said.
— DONALD QUIMBY
4 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
C hildren, especially young children, love to move.
They enjoy squirming, wriggling, crawling, run-
ning, chasing, jumping, rolling, balancing, kick-
ing, throwing, and many other activities. For parents
and teachers the challenge is getting the children to
stop moving—for just a few minutes. And then, about
10 or 12 years of age, this torrent of physical activity
becomes a trickle for far too many children. Why? What
can be done to encourage children, all children, to con-
tinue this enjoyment of movement into their teen and
adult years? In short, what can we do to encourage chil-
dren to continue moving throughout their lifetime?
Children Moving attempts to provide answers to
many of these questions. The goal of this book is to
describe both a curriculum and the companion teach-
ing skills that are designed to guide youngsters in the
process of becoming physically active for a lifetime.
There is general agreement that skillfulness, the abil-
ity to perform fundamental and sports-related motor
skills, is an important prerequisite for adopting a
physically active lifestyle. Our goal is also to teach
children to value physical activity for all the benefi ts
that are described later in this chapter—as well as the
pure enjoyment and satisfaction that comes from
successful and enjoyable participation in sports and
physical activity.
Why are some adults physically active and others
not? We don’t have the research to answer this question.
We have limited evidence suggesting that physically
active children become physically active adults (Malina
2001). And we have a solid evidence base that physi-
cally active children, as well as adults, derive substantial
benefi ts from being physically active (USDHHS 1996).
Children Moving is based on the premise that to truly
enjoy many of the physical activities and sports par-
ticipated in by adults one needs a certain level of skillful-
ness. The ideal time to learn these foundational motor
skills is when children are young and they so enjoy
moving in any form. One of the important character-
istics of motor skills is that once they are learned, they
are retained for a lifetime. For example, swimming and
riding a bike are motor skills that are remembered for a
lifetime. While we may not be as adept at these skills if
we have not done them for 20 years or so, our bodies
(kinesthetic memory) don’t forget. Thus the goal of
Children Moving is to describe effective techniques and
strategies to assist children in acquiring many of the
foundational motor skills that are used in sports and
physical activities by children and adults.
Positive physical education programs emphasize
enjoyable participation in physical activity and “help
students develop the knowledge, attitudes, motor skills,
behavioral skills, and confi dence needed to adopt and
maintain physically active lifestyles” (NCCDPHP 1997,
p. 205). Our goal is to keep the love of movement (exer-
cise) alive in youngsters so that they associate exercise
with enjoyment and fun!
The importance of physical activity in the lives of
children and adults is becoming more and more evident.
The 2005 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend
that “children and adolescents engage in at least 60 min-
utes of physical activity on most, preferably all, days of
the week” ( www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2005/
document ). In fact, the 2005 revision of the food pyra-
mid includes a fi gure climbing stairs to visually represent
the importance of physical activity in our lives ( www.
pyramid.gov ). You will also fi nd information on this
Web site designed specifi cally for children ages 6 to 11 in
the “for kids” section.
• The purpose of a quality program of physical education
is to guide youngsters in the process of becoming physi-
cally active for a lifetime.
• Regular physical activity helps prevent obesity, promotes
motor skill development and physical fi tness, and pro-
vides opportunities for setting goals, making new friends,
and reducing stress.
• The health benefi ts associated with being physically
active include a reduction in premature mortality, heart
disease, colon cancer, diabetes mellitus, and drug and
alcohol addiction.
• Positive, or quality, physical education programs have
reasonable class sizes, a developmental and sequential
curriculum, plenty of practice and movement opportuni-
ties, and adequate facilities and equipment.
• Positive physical education programs emphasize learn-
ing in all three domains: psychomotor, cognitive, and
affective.
Key Concepts
CHAPTER 1 The Value and Purpose of Physical Education for Children 5
Since 1996, when the Surgeon General of the United
States released his report documenting the important
contribution regular physical activity can make to good
health (USDHHS 1996), the importance of physical
activity has been recognized as never before. Quality
programs of physical education are believed to signifi -
cantly contribute to valuing and adopting a physically
active lifestyle.
At the outset of the book, it is important to make the
point that physical activity and physical education are
not synonymous. Physical activity is a behavior —
for example, walking or biking to school, playing a sport,
or swimming. Physical education is the school pro-
gram that is designed to lead youngsters to a lifetime of
physical activity. The goal, or purpose, of a quality physical
education program is to guide youngsters in the process of
becoming physically active for a lifetime.
This chapter answers three questions about physical
education and physical activity:
1. Why do children need quality programs of physical
education?
2. What health benefi ts are associated with a lifetime
of physical activity?
3. What components of a physical education program
encourage youngsters to maintain physically active
lifestyles?
Why Children Need Physical Education
Why do youngsters need a quality program of physi-
cal education? The simple answer is so that they un-
derstand the importance of physical activity for a
lifetime and reap the benefi ts of doing so, especially
the health benefi ts that are detailed in the next section.
Numerous other benefi ts have been summarized by
the National Association for Sport and Physical Edu-
cation (NASPE 2002, p. 7) and are adapted here.
They include:
Regular, healthful physical activity An in-
creasing number of youngsters are overweight and
obese. Regular physical activity, as well as an appro-
priate diet, is the best antidote to eliminate the cur-
rent obesity epidemic and also provide a positive
alternative to “screen time” (both television and
computers).
Skill development In a quality program of physical
education, children learn the fundamental motor
skills that enable them to develop the competence
that creates confi dence and leads to safe and suc-
cessful participation in a wide range of sports and
physical activities as adults (Chapters 16 –28).
Improved physical fi tness Children are encouraged
to improve their muscular and cardiovascular en-
durance, strength, and fl exibility (Chapter 4).
Reinforcement of other subjects Movement can
be used to reinforce the understanding of many
subjects taught in the classroom (e.g., mathematics
and reading). Movement is also associated with
enhanced brain functioning (Chapter 32).
Self-discipline Youngsters can learn valuable lessons
about accepting responsibility for their personal
motor skill and fi tness development (Chapter 9).
Goal setting Physical education classes are an ex-
cellent laboratory for helping youngsters under-
stand the process of setting and achieving goals,
especially physical fi tness.
Leadership and cooperation Many physical educa-
tion activities require youngsters to work in groups
to solve problems or as a team. These opportunities
become an excellent laboratory for developing both
leadership and cooperation skills.
Enhanced self-effi cacy The motor domain is espe-
cially important to young children who have yet to
fully develop their verbal communication skills.
Thus, confi dence in physical abilities may lead to
positive feelings of self-esteem.
Stress reduction A “good workout” helps ease stress,
tension, and anxiety and may result in better atten-
tion in the classroom.
Strengthened peer relationships Sports and physi-
cal activity are an excellent way to meet and make
new friends. Confi dence in one’s physical abilities
encourages youngsters, and later adults, to socialize
more easily and “fi t into” a variety of situations.
This list briefl y summarizes many of the benefi ts
that experts agree are outcomes that accrue to those
who are physically active. There are also serious conse-
quences related to not being physically active ( Box 1-1 ).
Before discussing the characteristics of a quality, or
positive, physical education program thought to pro-
mote a lifetime of physical activity, it is important to
outline the health benefi ts associated with remaining
physically active over a period of years.
Girls who do not participate in sports before the age
of 10 have less than a 10 percent chance of doing so
at age 25.
— DONNA LOPIANO, Women’s Sports Foundation
6 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Health Benefi ts Associated with a Lifetime of Physical Activity
The 1996 Surgeon General’s report concludes that people
of all ages, both male and female, who are physically
active derive many benefi ts. Here are some of the observa-
tions in the report (USDHHS 1996). These fi ndings have
also been supported in the recently released document
Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans (USDHHS 2000).
• Signifi cant health benefi ts can be obtained by in-
cluding a moderate amount of physical activity (e.g.,
30 minutes of brisk walking or raking leaves, 15 min-
utes of running, or 45 minutes of volleyball) on
most, if not all, days of the week. Through a modest
increase in daily activity, most Americans can im-
prove their health and quality of life (p. 4).
• Additional health benefi ts can be gained through
greater amounts of physical activity. People who
can maintain a regular regimen of activity that is of
longer duration or of more vigorous intensity are
likely to derive greater benefi t (p. 4).
• Physical activity reduces the risk of premature mor-
tality in general, and of coronary heart disease, hy-
pertension, colon cancer, and diabetes mellitus in
particular. Physical activity also improves mental
health and is important for the health of muscles,
bones, and joints (p. 4).
• Consistent infl uences on physical activity patterns
among adults and young people include confi dence
in one’s ability to engage in regular physical activity
(e.g., self-effi cacy), enjoyment of physical activity,
support from others, positive beliefs concerning the
benefi ts of physical activity, and lack of perceived
barriers to physical activity (p. 249).
• Physical activity appears to improve health-related
quality of life by enhancing psychological well-being
and by improving physical functioning in persons
compromised by poor health (p. 8).
Clearly, the accumulated evidence suggests that
youngsters who develop physically active lifestyles
stand to gain enormous health benefi ts. However, this
doesn’t happen automatically. Programs must be care-
fully designed and implemented if they are to guide
youngsters to become physically active for a lifetime.
As anyone who knows children will quickly acknow-
ledge, however, fears of heart disease, stress, or back pain
in later years are not major concerns for most 8- or 10-
year-olds. To them, 40 seems old! Fortunately children
enter school loving to move and be active. One of the
early tasks of primary-grade classroom teachers is to teach
children to listen and stay in their seats. Most youngsters
would prefer to be up and moving. The challenge of
The Physically Uneducated Adult
Adults who are physically uneducated often fi nd them-
selves in awkward and unpleasant situations. For example,
they may:
• Be overweight partly as a result of physical inactivity
• Have chronic lower back pain
• Have painful memories of being picked last when teams
were chosen
• Remember being laughed at because they couldn’t catch
a softball or were afraid of a volleyball
• Recall being last whenever they ran laps
• Dread the memory of never being able to do even one
pull-up on the physical fi tness test
• Be uncomfortable starting and maintaining an exercise
program
• Feel like a “klutz” and make excuses to avoid physical
activity
• Believe that athletes were born that way
• Not understand that there are virtually hundreds of
ways to exercise and that they would enjoy some
of them
Box 1-1
It is estimated that 65 percent of adults today are overweight or obese.
CHAPTER 1 The Value and Purpose of Physical Education for Children 7
Children enjoy seeing how they
can take their weight on their
hands on a beautiful sunny day
outside.
physical educators is not so much to instill a love of
movement as it is to keep alive and channel this inborn
urge to move so that as individuals enter their adult
years they will continue to enjoy being physically active
and will derive all the benefi ts — physical, emotional,
and social— that come to those who have been physi-
cally active throughout their lifetimes ( Box 1-2 ).
Children Moving introduces you to the skill theme
approach that’s designed for every child, from the least
skilled child in a class to the most athletic youngster.
The book explains the ways you can guide all children
in positive directions, enabling them to develop the
competence that leads to confi dence in their physical
abilities. This competence and this confi dence eventu-
ally culminate in a desire to participate regularly in
physical activity, because it has become an enjoyable
and important part of their lives as children, as teens,
and later as adults.
Box 1-2
Are Youngsters Today Physically Active?
The 1996 Surgeon General’s report, Physical Activity and
Health, cites a number of alarming statistics about physical ac-
tivity patterns in adolescents and physical education programs.
For example:
• Only about one-half of U.S. young people (ages 12 to
21 years) regularly participate in vigorous physical activity.
One-fourth report no vigorous physical activity.
• Approximately one-fourth of young people walk or bicycle
(i.e., engage in light to moderate activity) nearly every day.
• About 14 percent of young people report no recent vigor-
ous or light to moderate physical activity. This indicator of
inactivity is higher among females than males and among
black females than white females.
• Males are more likely than females to participate in vigorous
physical activity, strengthening activities, and walking or
bicycling.
• Participation in all types of physical activity declines strik-
ingly as age or grade in school increases.
• Among high school students, enrollment in physical educa-
tion remained unchanged during the fi rst half of the 1900s.
However, daily attendance in physical education declined
from approximately 42 to 25 percent.
• The percentage of high school students who were enrolled in
physical education and who reported being physically active
for at least 20 minutes in physical education classes declined
from approximately 81 to 70 percent during the fi rst half of
the 1990s.
• Only 19 percent of all high school students report being
physically active for 20 minutes or more in daily physical
education classes.
Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
Physical activity and health: A report of the Surgeon General
(Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health
Promotion, 1996), p. 8.
8 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
• Time Ideally children have physical education for at
least 150 minutes each week (USDHHS 2000). This
is especially important if children are to develop the
fundamental motor skills that are so necessary for
successful, and enjoyable, participation in sports
and physical activities in later years. NASPE recom-
mends 150 minutes per week in elementary school
and 225 minutes for middle and high school.
• Class size The number of children in a physical
education class should be the same number as in
the classroom.
• Sequential, developmental curriculum Teachers
follow a carefully planned curriculum scope and
sequence that progressively builds on past experiences
Characteristics of a Quality Physical Education Program
At this point in the chapter you may be asking how the
program described in Children Moving is different from the
program you had in elementary school. Hopefully most
of the characteristics described would apply to the
program you experienced in elementary school. Once
again we look to the National Association for Sport and
Physical Education (NASPE) for its defi nition of a qual-
ity physical education program (NASPE 2002, p. 7) and
guidelines developed by the United States Department
of Health and Human Services in its School Health Index
(USDHHS 2000, pp. 3 – 8). Some of the characteristics of
a positive, or quality, program of physical education are
straightforward and require little or no explanation. Oth-
ers are lengthier because they are not as obvious or easily
understood. The characteristics are bulleted, rather than
numbered, as they are all important parts of a positive
program of physical education that leads to the benefi ts
described in the fi rst two sections of this chapter.
Children derive lifetime benefits from becoming physically active.
The Physical Activity Hourglass
Opportunities to be physically active can be depicted as an
hourglass. Young children have plenty of opportunities to be
physically active. Playgrounds, parks, and an increasing num-
ber of fast-food chains have equipment for children to climb on,
over, around, and through. Young children also are encouraged
to run and chase their friends and siblings. Many communities
also have soccer, basketball, and softball or baseball leagues
for young children. There are also opportunities to be on a
swim team and take lessons in dance or martial arts. Unfortu-
nately, once a youngster enters middle school, many of these
opportunities are reduced, unless a youngster is athletic. Too
often if a middle school sponsors athletic teams, only a rela-
tively few “make the team.” The same is true at the high school
level, for athletics and intramurals. If intramurals are of-
fered, many are limited to team sports after school. Also, in
many schools it is not “cool” to play intramurals or have your
parents drive you to a dance lesson. After high school, how-
ever, there are once again a plethora of physical activities for
adults. They include weight and fi tness clubs, recreation pro-
grams, and simply walking, jogging, or biking activities that
were not “cool” in secondary school but are acceptable to an
adult, especially as one ages and/or puts on additional pounds.
Preschool and elementary Multitude of opportunities
Secondary school Limited to school sports and intramurals
Adults Multitude of opportunities
Physical Activity Hourglass
CHAPTER 1 The Value and Purpose of Physical Education for Children 9
and incorporates new experiences when chil dren
are developmentally ready. (The Appendix pro-
vides examples of curricular scopes and sequences
based on the content included in this book.) Les-
sons are not simply selected randomly with no
obvious connection to past and future lessons or
just as a way to keep children “busy, happy, or good”
for 30 minutes.
• Minimum of 50 percent MVPA Physical educa-
tion is a moving experience. In quality physical ed-
ucation programs, teachers fi nd ways to actively
engage all children in moderate to vigorous physi-
cal activity (MVPA) for the majority of every lesson
(USDHHS 2000).
• Plenty of practice opportunities In addition to being
actively engaged, children also need plenty of oppor-
tunities to practice the skill or concept being taught
that day. In a game of kickball, children average fewer
than two chances to throw, kick, and catch during an
entire game. And girls have fewer chances than boys
(Wilson 1976)! Quality programs provide many prac-
tice opportunities for children to practice their motor
skills, sometimes alone, sometimes with a partner,
and sometimes in small-sided games or with groups.
• High rates of success In addition to copious practice
opportunities, teachers also design lessons so that
youngsters of all abilities have high rates of success
(Chapter 12). When youngsters, especially the un-
skilled, experience success, they are more likely to
continue practicing and working to improve than
when they fail continually. This is especially impor-
tant in physical education because success and failure
are so readily observable. For this reason, many pro-
grams have switched from a curriculum consisting
predominantly of low-organized games and team
sports (e.g., kickball, basketball, dodgeball, and soccer)
to the skill theme approach as described in Children
Moving. Thus the athletic youngsters, all too often
boys, are no longer allowed to dominate (Portman
1995), and physical education is for every youngster,
especially the poorly coordinated, overweight, or awk-
ward children who stand to benefi t the most from a
quality program of physical education.
Developmentally and Instructionally
Appropriate Experiences
In the early 1990s the National Association for the Edu cation
of Young Children (NAEYC) published a series of articles and
documents describing developmentally appropriate educa-
tional experiences for young children (Bredekamp 1992).
The ideas in these documents were extremely popular with
educators and parents. Several years later the Council on
Physical Education for Children (COPEC 1992) used the
same format to describe developmentally and instructionally
appropriate elementary school physical education experi-
ences for children. This position statement was also highly
popular. Since 1992, similar documents have been pub-
lished by NASPE for preschool, middle school, high school,
and college physical education programs (COPEC 2000;
MASSPEC 2001, 2004; NASPE 2009). These documents
can be purchased from NASPE or downloaded from the
Internet by clicking on the publications section of the NASPE
Web site: www.naspe.info.org .
Quality physical education is both developmentally
and instructionally suitable for the specifi c children being
served. Developmentally appropriate practices in physical
edu cation are those that recognize children’s changing
capa cities to move and those that promote such change.
A developmentally appropriate physical education program
accommodates a variety of individual characteristics, such
as developmental status, previous movement experiences,
fi tness and skill levels, body size, and age. Instructionally
appropriate physical education incorporates the best
known practices, derived from both research and experi-
ences teaching children, into a program that maximizes
opportunities for learning and success for all children
(COPEC 1992, p. 3).
In addition to defi ning developmentally and instructionally
appropriate, these documents describe in easy-to-follow,
straightforward terms the tenets of the “new” physical edu-
cation that has been evolving over the past three decades.
They emphasize, for example, that:
• Children develop at different rates, and therefore educa-
tors should recognize these variances by designing expe-
riences that allow for individual differences in abilities.
• For learning to occur, youngsters need lots of opportunities
to practice a skill or movement at high rates of success.
• It is inappropriate to use exercise as punishment.
• The physical education curriculum should have a clear
scope and sequence, with observable outcomes that
can be assessed.
• Allowing captains to pick teams, overemphasizing com-
petition, and giving fi tness tests to one student at a time
while the rest of the class watches are inappropriate
educational practices.
These documents clearly make the point that physical
education curriculums that consist solely of large-group
games, often played with one ball, are both developmentally
and instructionally inappropriate. • Positive developmental environment Quality phy sical education classes, in addition to promoting success-
ful learning experiences, are also emotionally warm,
nurturing environments in which children are
10 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
encouraged to practice learning new motor skills
and to improve their physical fi tness without feel-
ing embarrassed or humiliated by the teacher or
their peers (Chapter 9).
• Teacher background The teacher has an extensive
background in both the content and pedagogy of
physical education for children, typically obtained as
a physical education major in college. There are also
classroom teachers who provide excellent movement
experiences for their youngsters despite their rela-
tively limited background. For this reason Children
Moving is written for both the physical education
major, or specialist, and the classroom teacher.
• Realistic expectations Teachers with an extensive
background in children’s physical education are able
forward to coming to physical education class. The
best teachers fi nd ways to make learning fun.
• Psychomotor, cognitive, and affective domains Al-
though the major emphasis in physical education
is on the psychomotor domain, quality programs
also take every opportunity to emphasize cognitive
concepts and to develop an environment that en-
courages positive social experiences and attitude
development. Chapters 9 and 10 focus on some of
the ways teachers encourage children to develop
positive attitudes toward themselves and physical
activity by creating safe and enjoyable learning
environments. Chapter 32 focuses on interdisci-
plinary learning and emphasizes the role physical
education can play in cognitive development. It
also briefl y summarizes some of the recent research
related to the importance of movement and research
on brain development ( Jensen 2000).
We hope this chapter has helped you to under-
stand why a quality physical education program can
be so important in a youngster’s life, especially for a
child who is inclined not to be a physically active
adolescent or adult. This chapter also provides an
overview of the components of a quality, or positive,
physical education (see Box 1-3 ). The next two chap-
ters describe in detail the components of the skill
theme approach designed to maintain the torrent of
physical activity and love of movement, which is so
characteristic of young children, into the middle and
high school years.
The 60-Second One-Ball Test
Typically, principals and parents do not have time to spend
hours observing a physical education class to determine if it is
a quality program. A rough estimate can be made in a short
amount of time, however, by using the 60-second one-ball
test. Here are the directions.
When you walk (or drive) by a physical education lesson,
observe how many balls are in use (obviously this applies only to
lessons in which balls are being used). If there is only one ball for
an entire class of 20 youngsters or more, make a mental note.
This typically takes less than 60 seconds, as the intent is not to
observe an entire lesson. As you notice more lessons, keep
track of the number of balls being used. After observing fi ve or
more lessons, you will have an idea of the amount of practice
opportunities children are getting in their physical education
classes. If all the lessons use only one ball, then you know the
amount of practice is severely limited, just as if a reading class
were using only one book for an entire class. In contrast, if every
child had a ball in the lessons you observed, then you know the
teacher is attempting to maximize practice opportunities for
children. Although this is hardly a scientifi c approach, it does pro-
vide one generalized indicator about the quality of a program.
Catching is a skill used in many sports and physical activities.
to develop realistic programs when their time is less
than the recommended 150 minutes per week. The
emphasis is on “developing basic motor skills that
allow participation in a variety of physical activities”
(NCCDPHP 1997, p. 209). • Adequate equipment and facilities Many excellent physical education programs have substandard facili-
ties and equipment. Ideally, however, every program
has both an indoor and outdoor facility, and a wide
variety of equipment so that children do not have to
wait for turns to use equipment.
• Enjoyability Quality physical education classes are
also fun classes. Children should enjoy and look
CHAPTER 1 The Value and Purpose of Physical Education for Children 11
PE Central www.pecentral.org
Throughout the eighth edition of Children Moving, we will be
referring to a variety of documents that can be accessed di-
rectly via the Internet. PE Central is the most comprehensive
Web site for K–12 physical educators in the world. Virtually
all the documents referred to in this edition can be located
through PE Central. In addition to links to the developmen-
tally appropriate documents, the Surgeon General’s report,
and the National Standards for Physical Education (NASPE
2004), numerous developmentally appropriate lessons and
assessment ideas are available for free on the Web site.
There are also descriptions of best practices, conference
and job announcements, kids’ quotes, and links to many
other Web sites. The Web address, or URL, for PE Central is
www.pecentral.org . You will also fi nd easy-to-use forms for
sharing your lesson and assessment ideas with other physi-
cal educators.
Mark Manross currently serves as the executive director,
and Dave Hinman and Jan Bierschbach are senior editors.
In addition, hundreds of other physical educators have pub-
lished their ideas on PE Central and /or work on it in an edit-
orial capacity. George Graham, a coauthor of this book, is
the chief executive offi cer for PE Central.
Box 1-3
National Standards for Physical Education
Physical activity is critical to the development and maintenance of
good health. The goal of physical education is to develop physi-
cally educated individuals who have the knowledge, skills, and
confi dence to enjoy a lifetime of physical activity.
A physically educated person:
Standard 1: Demonstrates competency in motor skills and
movement patterns needed to perform a variety
of physical activities.
Standard 2: Demonstrates understanding of movement con-
cepts, principles, strategies, and tactics as they
apply to the learning and performance of physical
activities.
Standard 3: Participates regularly in physical activity.
Standard 4: Achieves and maintains a health-enhancing level
of physical fi tness.
Standard 5: Exhibits responsible personal and social behavior
that respects self and others in physical activity
settings.
Standard 6: Values physical activity for health, enjoyment, chal-
lenge, self-expression, and /or social interaction.
Source: National Association for Sport and Physical Education,
Moving into the future: National standards for physical education,
2nd ed. (Reston, VA: NASPE, 2004), p.11. With permission
from the National Association for Sport and Physical Education
(NASPE), 1900 Association Drive, Reston VA 20191-1599.
12 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Summary
Quality physical education programs for children
have never been more important than they are today.
The three overarching questions in this chapter pro-
vide an introduction to the program and teaching
process described in the text. The responses to the
questions taken from the recent literature (1) provide
reasons why children need quality physical education,
(2) summarize the health benefi ts that may accrue to
those who remain physically active for a lifetime, and
(3) defi ne a quality physical education program for
children as one that is developmentally and instruc-
tionally appropriate.
References /Suggested Readings
Bredekamp , S. 1992 . What is developmentally appropri- ate and why is it important? Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 63(6): 31– 32 .
[COPEC] Council on Physical Education for Children. 1992 . Developmentally appropriate physical education practices for children: A position statement of the Council on Physical Education for Children . Reston, VA: National Association for Sport and Physical Education .
[COPEC] Council on Physical Education for Children. 2000 . Appropriate practices for elementary school physical edu- cation: A position statement of the National Association for Sport and Physical Education developed by the Council on Physical Education for Children (COPEC) . Reston, VA: [NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Education . www.aahperd.org/naspe .
Furth , H. G. 1970 . Piaget for teachers . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall .
Holt/Hale , S. 2006 . On the move: Lesson plans to accompany Children Moving. 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill .
Jensen , E. 2000 . Brain-based learning: A reality check. Edu- cational Leadership 57(7): 76 –79 .
Kirkendall , D. 1985 . Effects of physical activity on intellec- tual development and academic performance. Intellectual Development 19: 49 – 63 .
Malina , R. M. 2001 . Adherence to physical activity from childhood to adulthood. Quest 53(3): 346 –55 .
[MASSPEC] Middle and Secondary School Physical Educa- tion Council. 2001 . Appropriate practices for middle school physical education: A position statement of the National
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. The introduction to Chapter 1 described the purpose
of a quality physical education program. Explain your
reasons for agreeing or disagreeing with the purpose.
2. Chapter 1 provides a list of reasons children need
quality physical education. Which of those reasons
do you think are most important? Least important?
Explain your reasons.
3. Categorize the reasons for a quality physical edu-
cation program into two categories. The fi rst cate-
gory (column) will consist of those reasons that
are predominantly the responsibility of the physi-
cal education program. In the second column, list
the reasons for which other programs may also
share responsibility (i.e., they are also goals for the
teachers in the classroom and not specifi cally those
of the physical education program).
4. The Physical Activity Hourglass suggests that oppor-
tunities for many youngsters are reduced once they
enter secondary school. Analyze the opportunities
for middle and high school youth to be physically
active in your community. Contrast the opportuni-
ties with those provided for young children. Describe
what your community might do to create more
environmental invitations to become physically
active, especially for the youngsters who are not on
athletic teams.
5. Chapter 1 describes the characteristics of a quality
physical education program. Make a three-column
table listing these characteristics in the left-hand
column. In the second column, grade your elemen-
tary school program on each of these characteristics
from A to F. In the third column, explain your reason
for each grade. If you did not have an elementary
school physical education program, analyze your
middle or high school physical education program.
6. Assume that someone asks you why youngsters
need physical education. Prepare an argument, us-
ing the information from this chapter, to convince
that person that physical education is as important
as many other subjects in school.
7. It is recommended that children be physically ac-
tive for 60 minutes, or more, most days of the week.
Physical education classes are often 30 minutes in
length. What would you recommend to a class of
third graders about how they could acquire the rec-
ommended physical activity minutes on days they
do not have physical education? Make fi ve recom-
mendations that are both fun and interesting.
CHAPTER 1 The Value and Purpose of Physical Education for Children 13
Sanders , S. , and G. Graham . 1995 . Kindergarten children’s initial experiences in physical education: The relentless persistence for play clashes with the zone of acceptable responses. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 14(4): 372 – 83 .
Shephard , R. ( 1996) . Habitual physical activity and aca- demic performance. Nutrition Reviews 54(4): 32 – 35 .
Shephard , R. , M. Volle, H. Lavallee, R. LaBarre, J. Jequier, and M. Rajic 1982. Curricular time for physical education? A controlled experiment in French Canada asks how much curricular time should be spent on physical educa- tion . Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (November/December): 19 –29 .
[USDHHS] U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 1996 . Physical activity and health: A report of the Surgeon General . Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Pre- vention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion.
[USDHHS] U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2000 . School health index for physical activity and healthy eating: A self-assessment and planning guide for elementary school . Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Pre- vention. Available for free download from www.cdc.gov/ HealthyYouth .
[USDHHS] U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2008 . Physical activity guidelines for Americans . www. health.gov/paguidelines .
Wilson , N. 1976 . The frequency and patterns of selected motor skills by third and fourth grade girls and boys in the game of kickball. Unpublished master’s thesis, Univer- sity of Georgia, Athens .
Association for Sport and Physical Education developed by the Middle and Secondary School Physical Education Council (MASSPEC) . Reston, VA: National Association for Sport and Physical Education. www.aahperd.org /naspe . Middle and Secondary School Physical Education Coun- cil. 2004 . Appropriate practices for high school physical edu- cation: A position statement of the National Association for Sport and Physical Education developed by the Middle and Secondary School Physical Education Council (MASSPEC) . Reston, VA: National Association for Sport and Physical Education. www.aahperd.org /naspe .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Education. 2002 . 2001 Shape of the nation report . Reston, VA: National Association for Sport and Physical Education .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2004 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education . Reston, VA: National Association for Sport and Physical Education .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2009 . Appropriate practices for elementary school physical education. 3rd ed. Reston, VA: NASPE .
[NCCDPHP] National Center for Chronic Disease Preven- tion and Health Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1997 . Guidelines for school and community programs to promote lifelong physical activity among young people. Journal of School Health 76(6): 202 –19 .
Portman , P. A. 1995 . Who is having fun in physical educa- tion classes? Experiences of sixth grade students in ele- mentary and middle schools. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 14(4): 445 –53 .
Quimby , D. 1988 . The starfi sh. TEAM 2(6).
14
C H A P T E R
2
The Skill Theme Approach Physical fi tness, movement skills, concept and affective development should be emphasized
throughout the curriculum. The greatest emphasis during the preschool and early elementary grades
should be upon movement skill acquisition.
—COUNCIL ON PHYSICAL EDUCATION FOR CHILDREN, 1992
CHAPTER 2 The Skill Theme Approach 15
C hapter 1 provided important insights into why
physical education is so important in children’s
lives today, followed by an overview of the char-
acteristics of a quality, or positive, physical education
program. This chapter also answers a question: What is
the skill theme approach to children’s physical educa-
tion?
The skill theme approach describes both the con-
tent (what to teach) of children’s physical education
(the curriculum is detailed in Parts 3 and 4 of Chil-
dren Moving ) and the teaching process, or pedagogy
(how to teach) (described in Part 2). A question-and-
answer format will help you understand the charac-
teristics of the skill theme approach; how it differs
from more traditional programs; and how dance,
games, gymnastics, and physical fi tness are incorpo-
rated within the skill theme approach. The chapter
begins by explaining developmentally appropriate
physical education.
What Is Developmentally Appropriate Physical Education?
Motor development research studies the “process
of change in an individual’s movement behaviors”
(Barnett and Merriman 1992, p. 5). The skill theme
approach is developmentally appropriate because it
refl ects important motor development principles,
both in curriculum design and in the teaching pro-
cess. Some of the important motor development
principles upon which Children Moving is based are
briefl y explained below.
Children Develop at Different Rates
One critical premise of motor skill development is that
children develop at different rates. Some kindergarten
children can skip; others are not ready to skip. Some
are able to track a ball in motion; others are not visu-
ally ready yet. Developmentally appropriate physical
education recognizes this premise and therefore does
not expect all children to be able to perform the same
task identically. As you will see in subsequent chapters
detailing the skill theme approach, we work hard to
recognize and value the developmental differences in
children’s abilities, although it’s not easy with 25 or
more in a class.
Age Does Not Predict Motor Ability
If age were a predictor of motor ability, then all adults
would be skillful athletes. Although there are certain
advantages to aging (e.g., quicker refl exes, visual track-
ing ability), the only way individuals become skillful
in motor skills is to use, or practice, them. Thus most
adults are reasonably effi cient at walking. Many, how-
ever, are ineffi cient at catching a ball or striking an
object with a racket. They are ineffi cient not because
they do not have the potential to be skillful, but rather
because they have not used the skills regularly over a
period of years.
Children Develop Motor Skills
Naturally through Play
Children today have fewer and fewer opportunities to
develop motor skills on their own. Television viewing,
computer games, the Internet, and fear of playing out-
side in many communities combine to mean fewer
chances to be physically active. Although there is some
evidence that motor skills may develop through infor-
mal play (hours and hours of basketball or soccer, for
• The skill theme approach describes both the content and
pedagogy for physical education.
• The skill theme approach is based on developmentally
appropriate principles that recognize that children have
different interests, abilities, and motor skills.
• The development of fundamental motor skills and their
application to a variety of sports and physical activities
create the basis for the skill theme approach.
• The Curriculum Diamond suggests the content to be
taught in elementary, middle school, and high school
physical education programs.
• Children’s abilities and interests are used to guide the
selection of content in the skill theme approach, as
opposed to age or grade level.
• Skill themes are initially practiced in isolation; as young-
sters develop their motor skills, they are practiced in
sports, games, gymnastics, and dance contexts.
• Skill themes are revisited throughout the year rather than
in units of several weeks.
• Cognitive, affective, and physical concepts are inter-
woven throughout the skill theme approach rather than
taught as isolated units.
Key Concepts
16 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
example), this possibility is becoming less and less
probable in society today. The simple fact is that phys-
ical education is becoming increasingly important for
children because their playtime is severely limited.
This is especially true for overweight youngsters who
have little or no physical activity built into their lives.
The Myth of the Natural Athlete
One sports myth is that there are natural athletes.
Although some youngsters are physically (geneti-
cally) disposed to do better at some sports than others,
the fact is that highly skilled children have partici-
pated in one, or many, sports from very early ages.
Some children begin kindergarten with mature throw-
ing and catching patterns, for example. They were not
born this way. They played a lot of catch with par-
ents, siblings, or friends from a young age and thus
enter school more highly skilled than their peers. In
time, however, their less skilled peers can catch up if
they, too, practice and use the motor skill thousands
of times as they play with friends, on teams, or with
a parent.
Differences in Physical Abilities
between Boys and Girls
On average, boys are more physically active than girls
(USDHHS 1996). This may be one reason boys tend
to be more highly skilled than girls in certain sports.
Developmentally, however, girls have the potential to
be equally as skillful as boys. As more and more girls
play sports and become physically active, we can ex-
pect to see a decline in any gap that exists between
physical abilities. As teachers we emphasize this con-
tinually in our programs so that the girls in our classes
understand that skillfulness is a result of practice, not
heredity or gender.
Boys tend to be taller than girls and have wider
bones (AAOS 2005). As with motor skills, however,
girls can dramatically improve their strength. Just as
we are seeing an increasing number of girls playing
sports, so, too, we are seeing more girls and women
who have improved their strength through practice
and exercise.
In summary, developmentally appropriate physical
education recognizes that youngsters develop at differ-
ent rates and have different abilities, and that the envi-
ronment plays a critical role in the development of
motor skills. The chapter continues with a question-
and-answer format that answers many questions typi-
cally asked when folks are initially introduced to the
skill theme approach.
Why Don’t You Describe Such Activities as Duck, Duck, Goose and Kickball?
We don’t include many of the so-called traditional
activities for three major reasons. First, activities such
as these, in which children are singled out to per-
form solo with everyone watching them, can be both
embarrassing and discouraging when the less skilled
children are “on center stage.” Children (or adults,
for that matter) who are embarrassed or made to feel
inadequate are hardly motivated to participate. One
of our primary goals is to encourage children to de-
velop positive attitudes about themselves and about
physical activity so that they choose to be physically
active throughout their lives. Games such as the ones
named above are developmentally inappropriate in
that they do not take into account the varying skill
abilities of children within a class (NASPE 2009) and
thereby force some children into situations that
make them unhappy and may lead them to dislike
physical activity.
Second, these games emphasize “winning” more
than learning. Another of our primary goals is to help
children develop the movement competence that en-
ables them to participate in physical activity success-
fully and with enjoyment. While keeping score and
attempting to win are enjoyable for some children,
others prefer games and activities in which score is not
kept. When children are encouraged to design their
own games (Chapter 31), you will see that some keep
score, others do not.
Games like Duck, Duck Goose are fun for a few but most of the
children are inactive.
CHAPTER 2 The Skill Theme Approach 17
Ken Bell, and Catherine Himberg in 1996. The inten-
tion of this model is to help physical educators think
about and design curriculums that will guide young-
sters in the process of becoming physically active for a
lifetime. Grade levels are suggested in the model for
illustration purposes only. Clearly, decisions about
when to introduce different content will need to be
based on the progress made by the students in a given
program (e.g., number of days per week, length of
the classes, equipment, and facilities).
What Is the Curriculum Diamond?
The Curriculum Diamond suggests a curricular focus
corresponding to the grade-level structure of most
school districts across the United States — elementary,
middle, and high school. It follows the recommenda-
tions of the National Center for Chronic Disease Pre-
vention and Health Promotion (NCCDPHP 1997) and
the National Standards for Physical Education (NASPE
2004) by developing a broad foundation at the ele-
mentary and middle school levels and then focusing
on profi ciency in a few movement forms at the high
school level. It provides a brief, albeit oversimplifi ed,
answer to the question, How can elementary, middle,
and high school physical education programs work to-
gether to guide youngsters in the process of becoming
physically active for a lifetime?
Building a Foundation (Preschool
through Grade 5)
The bottom part of the diamond represents the earliest
ages at which children are introduced to skill themes
and movement concepts. The initial focus is on devel-
oping a functional (applied) understanding of the con-
cepts of space awareness, effort, and relationships
(Chapters 16 –18). As children develop, they are intro-
duced to skill themes designed to encourage and assist
them in beginning to acquire the fundamental compe-
tencies that will become the foundation skills for many
of the sports and physical activities they will pursue as
adolescents and adults (Chapters 19 –28). You will no-
tice that this section of the diamond widens as each
layer is laid upon the foundational layer that precedes
it. This is intended to represent how skill themes and
concepts are combined in the upper elementary grades.
(Some have suggested that a more appropriate geomet-
ric representation might be a trapezoid. This fi gure
would suggest that the skill themes and movement
concepts would be wider at the base, the broader foun-
dation, and gradually narrow toward the top. What do
you think?)
Finally, many of these traditional games encourage
only a few youngsters to be physically active. The less
skilled, overweight, or less physically fi t youngsters of-
ten fi nd ways to avoid actively participating in games
with one ball or tag games with one person who is “it.”
The skill theme approach was designed with the un-
derlying premise that children have different skill lev-
els and abilities.
What Are Skill Themes?
Skill themes are fundamental movements that form
the foundation for success in sports and physical ac-
tivities in later years. They are also adapted to match
the ability level of the students in a class. Initially we
focus on one skill at a time, and then in later grades
skills are combined with other skills and used in more
complex settings, such as those found in dance,
games, and gymnastics. The intent is to help children
learn a variety of locomotor, nonmanipulative, and
manipulative skills that provide the foundation to
enjoyably and confi dently play a sport, for example,
or perform a dance consisting of an intricate set
of movements.
The Curriculum Diamond ( Figure 2.1 ), created by
physical educators Dawn McCrumb and Wendy Mustain
in 1995, is intended to illustrate the concept of a motor
skill foundation leading to successful participation
in sports and physical activities. The model was ex-
panded and elaborated upon by George Graham,
Developing Expertise
(Grades 9 –12)
Exploring Possibilities
(Grades 6 – 8)
Building a Foundation (Grades Pre-K – 5)
Figure 2.1 The Curriculum Diamond.
18 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Exploring Possibilities (Grades 6 – 8)
In the middle school years, the focus shifts from build-
ing a foundation to using the skills and concepts in a
variety of movement forms. Skills continue to be devel-
oped and learned, but the focus is on exposing students
to wide variety of sports and physical activities designed
to stimulate interest in health-enhancing lifetime ac-
tivities. Ideally this is the age when adolescents begin
to discover the various sports and physical activities
that are, or are not, personally appealing. Some young-
sters, for example, like team sports, and others may
prefer individual sports. Others will enjoy yoga, dance,
martial arts, or mountain biking. The goal is to intro-
duce youngsters to many different movement forms
and then assist them to discover the types of activities
that are personally enjoyable and meaningful.
Developing Expertise (Grades 9 –12)
Ideally the exposure to many movement options in
middle school stimulates student interest in a handful
of health-enhancing lifetime activities. When students
enter high school, the diamond begins to narrow, sug-
gesting that students will begin to make decisions about
the activities they enjoy and desire to become profi -
cient in. At this point students choose electives based
on the possibilities they explored in middle school. As
students approach the peak, the focus narrows. This is
the time when students develop the expertise that en-
ables them to participate in several activities enjoyably
and with confi dence, thereby allowing them to accrue
the benefi ts that come to those who remain physically
active for a lifetime. This is the time when students re-
fi ne the skill themes and movement concepts they
learned in the early years for use in specifi c sports and
physical activities.
What Are the Characteristics of the Skill Theme Approach?
Four characteristics of the skill theme approach (con-
tent and pedagogy combined) clearly distinguish it
from the “primary use of dance, games, and gymnastic
activities . . . considered the traditional ‘activity’ ap-
proach” (Gabbard, LeBlanc, and Lowy 1987, p. 3).
Characteristic 1
Competence in performing a variety of locomotor,
nonmanipulative, and manipulative motor skills is
a major purpose of the skill theme approach.
Think of a sport or physical activity you know
well. If you were asked to write a progression (a series
of tasks) starting with novices (beginners) up to var-
sity athletes, you would be able to develop a series of
tasks or drills that would, over a period of years and
with a lot of practice, lead to the students (athletes)
becoming highly skilled in that sport. This is the ba-
sic idea behind the skill theme approach. Each skill
theme begins with the fundamental skills and con-
cepts, is gradually combined with other skills (e.g.,
dribbling while running), and eventually leads to
success and enjoyment in full-sided games (e.g., fi ve-
against-fi ve basketball).
The skill theme approach refl ects the growing
concern that some, perhaps many, children who partici-
pate in programs that emphasize game playing rather
than motor skill learning don’t necessarily improve
their motor ability (Graham 1987; Manross 2000). The
logical implication, of course, is that adults with inef-
fi cient motor skills tend to avoid physical activities
that require them to use these poorly learned skills and
as a consequence develop tendencies toward “couch
potatoism.” See Box 2-1 for one example of the differ-
ence in outcomes of the two approaches.
A basic assumption is that a curriculum that is
“scoped and sequenced” by skill themes introduces
students to the requisite skills for enjoyably participat-
ing in adult versions of sports, dance, and the myriad
other physical activities that are available today — and
those that will be invented tomorrow. As physical edu-
cators we’re able to help children learn these skills more
quickly and with less frustration than they would if
they attempted to learn the skills on their own.
The skill themes are generic, in the sense that they
are not tied to any single sport or activity. Rather, they
transcend, or cut across, structured sports. As shown in
Figure 2.2 , which illustrates a dribbling progression as
might be used in basketball, introductory or beginning
tasks for each skill theme start at the most basic level.
The children are asked to practice the motor skill—
with no defenders, for example — and the fundamen-
tal critical components or cues are emphasized, such as
throwing a ball hard against a wall while focusing on
opposition (stepping with the foot opposite the throw-
ing hand). As children demonstrate the ability to per-
form the skill using the critical components, the tasks
require children to combine the skill with other skills
and concepts, such as throwing while running to a
partner who is also running. When the children are
ready, the skill theme tasks may involve developing
dance and gymnastic routines with their classmates or
playing small-sided games.
Some skills (e.g., jumping and landing) are used in
games, dance, gymnastics, track and fi eld, and so on.
CHAPTER 2 The Skill Theme Approach 19
Other skills are more specifi c to games or sports, such
as dribbling.
Although some skill themes are typically associated
with a specifi c sport, most are used in a variety of sports
or physical activities. This is illustrated by using the
skill theme of dribbling with the hands (Chapter 26).
Dribbling is typically associated with the sport of bas-
ketball. The initial dribbling tasks focus on children
dribbling a ball in a self-space without traveling or
moving. As they gain in dribbling skill, children are
challenged to dribble and travel in different pathways,
at different speeds, and around stationary and eventu-
ally moving obstacles. If there is suffi cient time for
practice, eventually the children will be ready to drib-
ble in complex situations that might be small-sided
basketball games, but children may also be challenged
to create dribbling routines to music or to dribble in
keep-away or tag games. In some instances the teacher
designs the routine or game; in other instances the
children design their routine or invent their game. Fig-
ure 2.2 illustrates how the skill theme of dribbling is
developed with youngsters based on the tasks described
in Chapter 26.
Some skill theme chapters include rules for games
(e.g., Chapters 24, 25, and 26), but these rules are sug-
gested as part of the skill theme progression for children
at more advanced levels (e.g., utilization and profi -
ciency levels, as described in Chapter 7). To reach the
more advanced levels, the children will need to spend
considerable time on tasks devoted to learning these
skills — initially in rather static environments —before
using them successfully within the dynamic setting of
an organized game, for example. In this book, games
are carefully selected (or designed) to enhance skill
acquisition as part of a long-term progression rather
than simply as a way to keep children “busy, happy,
and good” for 30 minutes or so.
We also encourage teachers to explain to their
classes that skillfulness typically involves practicing
the skills taught in class outside of school. Unfortu-
nately, in many physical education programs there is
just not enough time to devote to the skill themes and
Box 2-1
Critical Elements in the Skill Theme Approach
One of the sample benchmarks for second graders in the
National Standards suggests that children be able to “identify
four characteristics of a mature throw” (NASPE 1995, p. 20). In
the skill theme approach, as you will see in later chapters, we
focus on children learning the critical elements. Manross (2000)
interviewed 25 children who had been taught using a skill
theme approach and 25 children whose curriculum consisted
primarily of low-organized games. As part of his study he
asked the children to identify the critical elements (cues) of the
overhand throw. It was clear that the children in the skill theme
approach (Pendleton Elementary School) could describe many
of the critical elements of a mature overhand throw, whereas
the children at the other school (Eckland) had not learned the
critical elements. The table contains their responses.
Answer Stated No. of Times
Pendleton (Skill Theme Approach)
Turn your side to the target 17
Step with the opposite foot 15
Arm way back 10
Aim at target 9
Follow through 3
Step through with other foot 2
Let elbow lead 1
Twist body at waist 1
Bring arm straight over, not sidearm 1
Eckland (Low-Organized Games)
Get straight in front of target 4
Hold ball with tight grip 3
Bring hand back behind shoulder 3
Follow through 2
Try your best 2
Don’t know 2
Practice 2
Don’t be scared of the ball 2
Take a forward step 2
Throw hard 2
Aim at target 2
Don’t strain arm 2
Try to throw sidearm 1
Hold your hand straight 1
Work on stance 1
Don’t throw hard 1
Pretend it is hot object 1
Don’t get nervous 1
Keep mind on throwing 1
Make sure they see good 1
Have a strong arm 1
Keep eye on ball 1
20 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
movement concepts to enable children to dramatically
improve their skill levels. It is important that children
understand this reality so they avoid developing unre-
alistic expectations about how much practice it takes
to become skillful.
In addition to including a progression (sequence)
of tasks for developing each skill theme from the be-
ginning through the advanced levels (Part 4), each
chapter includes information (written descriptions,
diagrams, and /or photos) to assist the teacher in the
process of observing children (this process is fi rst de-
scribed in Chapter 11) to help the youngsters develop
effi cient and biomechanically correct motor patterns
(see Chapter 12).
Characteristic 2
The skill theme approach is designed to provide
experiences appropriate to a child’s developmental
level, as opposed to age or grade level.
One of the many challenges of teaching is to match
the content of the lesson to the abilities of the students
(Chapter 12). Both grade level and age are unreliable
indices of ability. A second characteristic of the skill
theme approach is that it uses the students’ develop-
mental level as a guide for selecting the content to
be taught.
The generic levels of skill profi ciency (Chapter 7)
serve as guides for assessing the abilities of the children
and then selecting tasks that are matched to their abil-
ities. If the majority of children in a class, for example,
were unable to hit a ball against a wall continually us-
ing a paddle so that it returned on a single bounce, we
wouldn’t require them to participate in a game requiring
an even greater ability to strike the ball— for example,
a game that required them to hit a ball to a partner
(Chapter 27).
In the skill theme approach, the tasks are selected ac-
cording to the children’s abilities, not a predetermined
calendar that implies that all children of the same grade
develop at the same rate. This is especially important,
for example, when the skill development of children
may be limited because they have physical education
classes only one or two days a week (Graham, Metzler,
Games
Dribble Keep-Away Dribble Tag
Child-designed dribbling games
Small-Sided Basketball
Modified rules 2 or 3 per team
Dribbling Combined with Other Tasks/Concepts
Against a defender Around stationary/moving obstacles
Speeds Pathways Directions Traveling
Different places around the body At different levels
Dribbling as an Isolated Skill
In self-space Cues:
Look over the ball Waist high Finger pads
Push
Dribbling Routines
To music Rhythmic gymnastics
Figure 2.2 The skill theme of dribbling is ini-
tially studied as an isolated skill. As the children
become more skillful, it is combined with other
skills and concepts. Eventually, dribbling is used
in teacher- or child-designed routines, games,
or small-sided basketball games.
CHAPTER 2 The Skill Theme Approach 21
and Webster 1991). In practice, this means that if three
consecutive fourth-grade classes were taught by an ex-
perienced teacher using a skill theme approach, one
class might be challenged with a more diffi cult series of
tasks than another (Graham et al. 1993). And within
each of the three fourth-grade classes, students might be
challenged individually or in groups to undertake differ-
ent tasks (see Chapter 11).
We can use the skill of throwing (Chapter 25) to illus-
trate how a skill theme is developmentally sequenced.
At the most basic level (precontrol), children are en-
couraged to throw a ball hard or to throw it far. These
tasks lead to the development of greater trunk rotation
and foot–arm opposition, for example, which combine
with other critical components to form a mature (bio-
mechanically effi cient) throwing pattern. Throwing for
distance, however, is only one type of throwing. As the
children learn the components of an overhand throw
for distance, they are challenged by tasks that involve
throwing at targets, throwing to a partner, and throw-
ing while moving. At more advanced levels (utilization
and profi ciency), they might be invited to participate in
a game of keep-away involving throwing, such as two
against two or three against one (three throwers, one
defender). The teacher bases these decisions, however,
on the children’s readiness rather than on age or grade
level. Throwing effi ciently and effectively then becomes
a focus that is interwoven and revisited as variations of
throwing throughout the program.
Characteristic 3
The scope and sequence of the skill themes are de-
signed to refl ect the varying needs and interests of
students over a period of years.
Fitness is built into the skill theme
approach as children “hop in
general space.”
The third characteristic of the skill theme approach
can be found within the scope and sequence recom-
mendations (see Chapter 8 and the Appendix at the
end of the book). Rather than focusing on the same
skill theme for several weeks (in a three- or six-week
unit, for example), we focus on a skill theme for brief
periods and then revisit it at various times during the
year. At the beginning levels (precontrol and control),
we might spend only two or three days in a row on a
Kick the ball back and forth with your partner. Try to make it go
through the arch.
22 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
skill theme. In fact, we might not even spend an entire
class period on a single skill theme. As children gain
profi ciency, expanding their motor repertoire, they be-
come more interested in spending larger amounts of
time (three or four days) on the same skill theme be-
cause the tasks are more complex and involved and
their success rate is higher.
Revisiting the same skill theme several times during
a year, as depicted in the progression spiral in the next
chapter, also allows the teacher to teach virtually the
same lesson that was taught two or three months
before. This is often necessary when the skill of the chil-
dren doesn’t improve noticeably. A teacher who remains
on the same skill theme for many days in a row, how-
ever, is tempted to make the tasks harder (in an effort
to alleviate the boredom of both the children and the
teacher) than the children may be ready for.
Characteristic 4
The skill theme approach emphasizes instructional
alignment.
Teachers decide what students can learn in a lesson
(objectives) (Chapter 8); develop a series of tasks de-
signed to assist the children to accomplish the
objective(s) for the lesson (Chapters 16 –28); and then
assess the objective (Chapter 14) to determine if the
lesson objective(s) have been accomplished. The as-
sessment then serves as a guide for future lessons. Ac-
cording to Tannehill, a teacher “tells students what is
important for them to know and be able to do ( the ob-
jectives ), designs appropriate tasks that allow them to
practice what you taught them, and assesses them on
what they have been practicing” (Tannehill 2001, p. 19).
If a teacher wants her class to learn the grapevine step,
she would demonstrate and explain the grapevine
step, devise tasks that allow them to practice the grape-
vine, and then assess their ability to do the grapevine
to determine if they need more practice. This process is
referred to as instructional alignment and is empha-
sized throughout Children Moving.
Is It Diffi cult to Maintain Youngsters’ Interest in a Program That Emphasizes the Fundamentals?
Ideally, children begin this program in preschool.
When they do, this is really the only program they
know, so their interest is high. When we introduce this
program to children in the fourth and fi fth grades for
the fi rst time, some initially have a diffi cult time ad-
justing, particularly the highly skilled children who
enjoy playing games they dominate. In time, however,
children learn to enjoy this program because they’re
improving. We also attempt to adjust the activities to
the youngsters’ skill level, and this makes the lessons
more interesting. It is important to understand, how-
ever, that in the skill theme approach, students do play
games, albeit small sided, but only when they have the
necessary skills to do so.
What Does “Adjusting the Activities” Mean?
“Adjusting the activities” is the concept of refl ective
teaching (Chapter 5). If a boy can’t catch a ball, for
example, then he isn’t going to enjoy playing a game
of softball in which the score is kept and winning is
important. For this child we provide noncompetitive
activities in which he can succeed. In the same class,
however, a girl may have played softball on a team for
several years and be very good. We try to provide her
with gamelike activities related to softball in which she
and a group of classmates may choose to keep score.
For more effective learning in reading and math classes,
children are grouped by ability. Although it’s harder to
do this in physical education, we do provide different
tasks based on the youngsters’ ability. This “system”
for determining the skill level of the students is ex-
plained in Chapter 7. In addition, the tasks in each
skill theme chapter are organized into a logical pro-
gression or sequence.
Where Is Physical Fitness in the Skill Theme Approach?
Physical fi tness is an important part of the skill theme
approach. As we explain in Chapter 4, it is interwoven
throughout the program rather than confi ned to one
separate unit. Our emphasis is not on training children
so that they score well on a physical fi tness test battery.
Rather, we try to provide experiences that help them
to understand and value the importance of physical
fi tness. We also try to help children enjoy physical ac-
tivity so that they choose to make it a part of their
daily lives for a minimum of 60 minutes a day (NASPE
2004; www.pyramid.gov 2005). The success of the
physical fi tness component within the skill theme ap-
proach is measured not by the children’s scores on a
physical fi tness test battery, but by an assessment of
their understanding of, attitudes toward, and enjoy-
ment of physical activity.
Some of our lessons are devoted primarily to helping
children understand and apply the important fi tness
concepts. In virtually every lesson we teach, however,
CHAPTER 2 The Skill Theme Approach 23
we try to ensure that children are moderately to vigor-
ously active a minimum of 50 percent of the lesson
(USDHHS 2005), thereby enhancing their cardiovascu-
lar benefi ts. We also fi nd that running laps or doing
jumping jacks, for example, seems to be a waste of time
when children can obtain the same benefi ts while
learning and enjoying physical activity —by playing
tag games, learning new jump rope tricks, or perfecting
a sequence of jumping and landing and rolling.
Where Does the Cognitive Domain Fit into the Skill Theme Approach?
The cognitive domain is a critical aspect of the skill
theme approach for two reasons. The fi rst is the in-
creasing recognition of the important link between
physical activity and cognitive functioning (Ratey and
Hagerman 2008). As suggested in their book Spark,
there is an increasing body of evidence that physical
activity has a number of positive infl uences on brain
function, both in youth and adults.
The second related reason that the cognitive do-
main is an important part of the skill theme approach
is the correlation between physical activity and aca-
demic achievement (Carlson et al. 2008; Coe et al.
2006). “High amounts of physical education may be
associated with an academic benefi t” (Carlson et al.
2008, p. 721).
The skill theme approach, as you will see, encour-
ages children to think on their feet as they move. The
movement concepts, for example, which we introduce
in the early grades, teach them an important move-
ment vocabulary that they will use throughout their
lives. We expect the children to think as they move;
thus the skill theme approach focuses not only on the
physical movements of the children, but also on how
and why they move certain ways as well as the most
effi cient and effective ways to do so.
As with physical fi tness, we weave cognitive con-
cepts and principles into virtually every lesson we
teach. We do not teach separate lessons, or units, on
cognitive concepts, as we believe that it is far more ef-
fective to emphasize these concepts and principles in
every lesson we teach.
Many physical educators who use the skill theme
approach also work closely with the classroom teach-
ers at their schools. They try to incorporate concepts
being taught in the classroom into their physical edu-
cation lessons. Chapter 32 describe in detail how
teachers integrate the skill themes with many of the
subjects taught in the classroom (e.g., math, reading,
and science). This chapter also describes how class-
room teachers use physical activity as a way to teach
many of the subjects in their curriculum.
Where Does the Affective Domain Fit into the Skill Theme Approach?
Just as with the cognitive domain, the affective do-
main is emphasized in virtually every lesson we teach.
Children’s feelings, emotions, and self-concept cannot
ever be ignored. We attempt to design our lessons so
that they are developmentally appropriate and recog-
nize that children have different abilities, attitudes,
and feelings about being in our classes. We carefully
follow the appropriate practice guidelines developed
by the National Association for Physical Education
and Sport (NASPE 2009; www.naspeinfo.org ) to en-
sure that children are treated fairly, compassionately,
and equitably.
From years of teaching and observing children’s phy-
sical education classes, we are increasingly convinced
that lifelong attitudes and feelings toward physical
“Travel under the shape made by your partner.”
24 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
activity and exercise are developed during the elemen-
tary school years. We want children to enjoy and feel
good about their participation in physical education
because our goal is to do our part to lead them to adopt
and value a lifetime of physical activity. For this reason
the affective domain is something we are continually
aware of in every lesson we teach. We want children to
learn while they enjoy themselves in our classes. Thus
we focus on assisting children to be successful learners
while also recognizing that peer interactions are a crit-
ical part of every lesson we teach. Chapters 9 and 10
describe in detail how we create these positive learning
environments for children.
What about Dance and Gymnastics?
Initially our focus is on helping children develop and
learn the fundamental motor skills. As children learn
these skills, they are placed into the contexts of dance
and gymnastics (and games) ( Figure 2.3 ). It’s important
to understand that the purpose of dance, gymnastics,
and games extends beyond simply skill improvement.
Dance is a form of expression by moving to rhythm
alone or with others. Gymnastics is a series of acrobatic
skills combined into smooth, repeatable sequences
performed on the fl oor and /or apparatus to demon-
strate strength, balance, and body control. Games are
organized activities that use manipulative skills and
are played for the enjoyment and satisfaction of coop-
erating and competing with others.
Dance, gymnastics, and games require skills that are
best learned initially outside these contexts. It’s ineffec-
tive to always practice the skills outside these contexts,
however, so the contexts of dance, gymnastics, and
games are interwoven throughout the movement con-
cept and skill theme chapters (Parts 3 and 4). The chap-
ters on gymnastics, dance, and games (Chapters 29,
30, and 31, respectively) illustrate this technique.
An analogy with reading also illustrates this point.
Most children learn to read in elementary school; as
adults, they choose what they’ll read. In the skill theme
approach, we teach the fundamental motor skills that
are thought to provide the foundation for a lifetime of
enjoyable, hopefully regular, physical activity. The
children might tell us they aren’t interested in some
skills now. But 20 years from now, who knows?
How Do Classroom Teachers Feel about the Skill Theme Approach?
Classroom teachers are positive about the skill theme
approach because they can relate it directly to their
work in the classroom — in teaching children vocabu-
lary, for example. These teachers also appreciate the
fact that the program accommodates the variation in
abilities that is typical of any class of children. Many
teachers also consider the program’s deemphasis of
competition a welcome alternative to those programs
that constantly pit one team against another in games
in which the score is kept. They feel not only that this
is more consistent with the approaches they use in the
classroom but also that it makes their jobs easier; the
children don’t come angrily into their rooms after
Small sided games/sports Dance
Gymnastics
Combination of skills and concepts
Task practiced in isolation
Figure 2.3 Skill themes are practiced initially in isolation, then in
combination with other skills and concepts leading to their use in
games, dance, and gymnastics.
The fundamental motor skill of balancing has many applications.
CHAPTER 2 The Skill Theme Approach 25
physical education class, arguing about the scores or
who cheated, for example. As detailed in Chapter 32,
classroom teachers also are able to use movement to
teach reading, writing, and math, for example.
How Do Middle (Junior) and High School Physical Education Teachers Feel about the Skill Theme Approach?
Clearly there are many views. Some middle school
teachers are enthusiastically supportive, realizing
the importance of ensuring that children maintain
positive attitudes about physical activity. Their job is
much harder if their students have been “turned off”
to physical education. Interestingly, a number of
middle school teachers have actually started empha-
sizing skill themes in their programs in response to
their students’ poor motor skill development. These
teachers realize that it’s extremely diffi cult to excite
students about sports and lifetime physical activity if
they have yet to acquire the basic motor skills. The
skill theme approach has no age or grade limits. It
can be valuable for people of any age.
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. Why aren’t games such as basketball and duck,
duck, goose included in this book?
2. In your own words describe the skill theme ap-
proach. Use the Curriculum Diamond (Figure 2.1)
as part of your explanation.
3. Three characteristics of the skill theme approach are
listed in this chapter. Which provides the most
compelling reason, in your opinion, for using a skill
theme approach? Why?
4. The skill theme approach can be described as devel-
opmentally appropriate. How does this concept re-
late to the generic levels of skill profi ciency?
5. When are children ready for “organized” games?
Why wouldn’t it be correct to respond to this ques-
tion by suggesting an age or grade level?
6. This chapter suggests that children be taught that
becoming skillful will probably require practicing at
home. Write a brief explanation to the children that
you might use to explain why they need to practice
outside of physical education class if they want to
become “good” at a sport or physical activity.
7. Physical fi tness is an important part of the skill
theme approach, yet only one chapter addresses it.
How can this be explained?
8. Physical activity can be used to teach important
lessons about cooperating with others. How might
these lessons be taught within a skill theme
approach?
9. Do you think the skill theme approach should be
used in middle schools? Why, or why not?
Summary
The skill theme approach describes both the content
(what is taught) and the pedagogy (how it is taught)
that are used in a developmentally appropriate pro-
gram of physical education. This approach recognizes
that age or grade levels are inappropriate indicators of
physical ability; therefore lessons are designed to con-
sider different abilities and interests. The Curriculum
Diamond provides an overview of how content can be
sequentially developed so that elementary, middle
school, and high school programs work together to
provide a solid movement foundation for youngsters
to attain the competence and confi dence to remain
physically active throughout a lifetime.
Initially the skill theme approach emphasizes the
development of fundamental motor skills (e.g., throw-
ing, balancing, striking). As the children progress in
ability, the skill themes are taught in sports, games,
dance, and gymnastics contexts. Because of the rapid
changes in children’s development, skill themes are
revisited throughout the year rather than taught in
units of several weeks. Concepts related to physical fi t-
ness and the cognitive and affective domains are inter-
woven throughout the lessons.
26 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
References /Suggested Readings
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Barnett , B. E. , and W. J. Merriman. 1992 . Misconceptions in motor development. Strategies 5(3): 5 –7 .
Bernhardt , D. T., J. Gomez , B. M.D. Johnson , T. B. Martin , T. W. Rowland , E. Small , C. LeBlanc , et al. 2001 . Strength training by children and adolescents. Pediatrics 107(6): 1470 –72 .
Carlson , S. A., J. E. Fulton , S. M. Lee , L. M. Maynard , D. R. Brown , H. W. Kohl , and W. H. Dietz . 2008 . American Journal of Public Health 98(4): 721–27 .
Coe , D. P. , J. M. Pivarnik , C. J. Womack , M. J. Reeves , and R. M. Malina . 2006 . Effect of physical education and activ- ity levels on academic achievement. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 38: 1515 –19 .
[COPEC] Council on Physical Education for Children. 1992 . Developmentally appropriate physical education practices for children: A position statement of the Council on Physical Education for Children . Reston, VA: National Association for Sport and Physical Education .
[COPEC] Council on Physical Education for Children. 2000 . Appropriate practices for elementary school physical education . Reston, VA: American Alliance for Health, Phys- ical Education, Recreation and Dance .
[NCPEC] National Council on Physical Education for Children. 2004 . Physical activity for children: A statement of guidelines for children ages 5 –12. 2nd ed. Reston, VA: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recre- ation and Dance .
Gabbard , C. , E. LeBlanc , and S. Lowy. 1987 . Physical edu- cation for children . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall .
Graham , G. 1987 . Motor skill acquisition: An essential goal of physical education programs. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 58(8): 44–48 .
Graham , G. , C. Hopple , M. Manross , and T. Sitzman . 1993 . Novice and expert children’s physical education teachers: Insights into their situational decision-making. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 12(2): 197–214 .
Graham , G. , M. Metzler , and G. Webster. 1991 . Specialist and classroom teacher effectiveness in children’s physical education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 10(4): 321– 426 .
Manross , M. 2000 . Learning to throw in physical education class: What I learned from 4th and 5th graders: Part 3. Teaching Elementary Physical Education 11(3): 26 –29 .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 1995 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. Reston, VA: NASPE .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2004 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education . 2nd ed. Reston, VA: NASPE .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2009 . Appropriate practices for elementary school physical education. 3rd ed. Reston, VA: National Associa- tion for Sport and Physical Education .
[NCCDPHP/CDCP] National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1997 . Guidelines for school and community programs to promote lifelong physical activ- ity among young people. Journal of School Health 76(6): 202 –19 .
Ratey , J. J. , Hagerman E. 2008 . Spark: The revolutionary new science of exercise and the brain. New York, NY: Little, Brown & Co .
Tannehill , D. 2001 . Using the NASPE content standards. Journal of Teaching Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 72 (8): 19 .
[HHS] U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 1996 . Physical activity and health: A report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Pre- vention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion .
[HHS] U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2005 . School health index for physical activity and healthy eating: A self-assessment and planning guide for elementary school. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Pre- vention . Available for free download from: www.cdc.gov/ nccdphp/dash .
27
C H A P T E R
3
Skill Themes, Movement Concepts, and the National Standards A physical education program for children which begins with an organized sport is analogous to a
language arts program beginning with a Shakespearean sonnet.
— IRIS WELSH [STUDENT]
28 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
O ur primary goal is to provide children with a
degree of competence leading to the confi dence
that encourages them to become, and remain,
physically active for a lifetime. Our intent is to help
children gain enough skills and confi dence for them to
participate enjoyably in many activities, not just a few
traditional team sports, and to avoid the abysmal failure
and embarrassment that often result from a total lack of
skill. By focusing on learning and practicing skills rather
than on the rules or structure of a game or sport, we can
dramatically increase the amount of practice the children
actually receive, thereby heightening their opportunities
to learn the fundamental motor skills that form the foun-
dation for becoming a lifetime mover. We are also able to
do this in ways that children fi nd enjoyable.
objects of various sizes, shapes, heights, et cetera, the
student will have more effective “elements” for the per-
formance of the next jumping tasks (e.g., the running
long jump in high school).
— RICHARD SCHMIDT , “Schema Theory:
Implications for Movement Education”
• Children need to become suffi ciently competent in basic
motor skills if they are going to eventually enjoy playing
sports or games as teens and adults.
• In the elementary school, the emphasis is placed on
practicing motor skills rather than learning rules or the
structures of sports.
• Skill themes are analogous to verbs (i.e., they are action
words). They are subdivided into three categories: loco-
motor, nonmanipulative, and manipulative skills.
• Movement concepts are analogous to adverbs (i.e., they
describe how an action is performed). They are also sub-
divided into three categories: space awareness, effort,
and relationships.
• In the primary grades, movement concepts are taught
before the skill themes.
• The movement analysis framework “wheel” is based on an
analysis of human movement and describes how the skill
themes and movement concepts interact with one another.
• The “spirals” outline a developmentally appropriate pro-
gression for each of the skill themes.
• Children Moving directly addresses national and many
state physical education standards.
Key Concepts
Typically, children who are learning to read are
taught fi rst to recognize letters, then parts of words,
then complete words, and fi nally sentences. Children
who are studying mathematics learn to solve problems
after they’ve grasped the basic functions of numbers
and signs. Children learning to play a musical instru-
ment typically study the scale before attempting a
song. In physical education, however, all too often
children are taught games, dances, or complex gym-
nastic stunts before they’re able to adequately perform
fundamental motor skills. Too often, children know
the rules for a game or the formation of a dance but
don’t have the motor skills needed for successful and
enjoyable participation. Our way of teaching children
how to participate effectively in various activities is to
focus on the development of the necessary motor
skills. We call this approach teaching by skill themes.
One of the easiest ways to understand skill themes is
to think of a popular sport. Let’s pick softball. What
skills do people use when they play softball? The major
ones include throwing, catching, batting, and running.
Let’s pick another popular sport —basketball. Throw-
ing, catching, running, dribbling with hands, jumping
and landing, and chasing and fl eeing skills are used
frequently in basketball (Figure 2.2). Obviously we
could list a number of other sports. The point is that
some of the same skills — for example, throwing, catch-
ing, and running — are used in both sports, and in
many more sports that you know of. Thus if children
learn to throw and catch, for example, their odds of
playing and enjoying a sport such as softball or basket-
ball increase, because they have a reasonable chance to
succeed at that sport. We have termed these skill themes
because they apply to many different sports, although
the way they are used (the context) differs from one
sport to another. Table 3.1 lists various skill themes and
indicates which sports emphasize them.
Characteristics of Themes
In music, a theme recurs in different parts of a song, some-
times in exactly the same way, at other times in a slightly
different form. The Random House Dictionary of the English
Language defi nes theme as “a short melodic subject from
Essentially, the notion is that these elements (funda-
mental motor skills) are learned in early life through the
various activities performed (such as jumping, throwing,
striking, and the like), and then when a new act is to
be learned in later life, the student can piece together
these elements in a more effi cient way to achieve the
new motor goal. The assumption is that by jumping over
CHAPTER 3 Skill Themes, Movement Concepts, and the National Standards 29
which variations are developed.” In physical education,
various movements can be thought of as a theme.
By revisiting a movement—sometimes in the same
context as previously and sometimes in a radically differ-
ent context—we provide children with variations of a
skill theme. These variations lead to profi ciency as well as
diversity. Jumping can be presented as jumping from an
object—a box or a table—and landing softly. This move-
ment can be revisited with a slight variation: jumping
from an object and landing facing in a different direction
from the takeoff position. Jumping for distance or leap-
ing in synchronization with the leap of a partner would
be radically different, yet the theme would still be jump-
ing (Gallagher 1984). So, too, would the high jump and
the long jump for track and fi eld athletes as would jump-
ing to catch a ball in football, softball, or basketball.
Some movements, such as jumping, traveling, and
balancing, can be focused on in games, gymnastics,
and dance contexts. Other movements, such as throw-
ing and dribbling, are primarily used in games. When-
ever possible, we point out to students the similarities
in movements used in different contexts to enhance
students’ cognitive understanding of the principles
that underlie successful performance of a movement.
We’re not certain that this infl uences skill performance
(transfer of learning), but it doesn’t seem to have any
adverse effects.
The instructor who teaches by themes can focus on
helping children become skillful movers. Youngsters
will have plenty of opportunities as they grow older to
learn games, sports, dance, and gymnastics activities,
but fi rst they must learn the basic motor skills needed
for successful participation.
Table 3.1 Skill Themes Used in Sports*
Sports
Skill Themes
Traveling
Chasing, fl eeing, dodging
Jumping, landing
Balancing
Transferring weight
Rolling
Kicking
Punting
Throwing
Catching
Volleying
Dribbling
Striking with rackets
Striking with golf clubs
Striking with bats
Striking with hockey sticks
*This table is intended only to suggest how various skill themes are applied in sports contexts.
A e ro
b ic
s
B a s k e tb
a ll
F o
o tb
a ll
D a n
c e
G o
lf
H o
c k e y
M a rt
ia l A
rt s
R o
c k C
li m
b in
g
S o
c c e r
S o
ft b
a ll
T e n
n is
T ra
c k a
n d
F ie
ld
T u
m b
li n
g
U lt
im a te
F ri
s b
e e
V o
ll e y b
a ll
Many adults choose not to play tennis or swim or
dance. They don’t enjoy these activities because they
don’t possess the skills needed to participate success-
fully. An unskilled adult attempting to learn a complex
set of dance steps may be embarrassed and frustrated.
So will the adult who is trying to learn to play tennis
Fundamental activities such as running, jumping,
skipping, sliding, catching, kicking, and striking are the
basic components of the games, sports, and dances
of our society. Children who possess inadequate mo-
tor skills are often relegated to a life of exclusion from
the organized and free play experiences of their peers,
and subsequently, to a lifetime of inactivity because of
their frustrations in early movement behavior.
— VERN SEEFELDT , JOHN HAUBENSTRICKER ,
AND SAM REUSCHLEIN
30 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
forms that we typically identify as games, sports,
gymnastics, and dance. The key word, however, is
ready . We try to lead children to these experiences
gradually rather than forcing them into adult set-
tings prematurely. Let’s use the batting skill theme as
an example. In Chapter 28 we explain a variety of
enjoyable ways children can practice the skill of bat-
ting without placing them in an adult-rules nine-
against-nine softball game. Constantly striking out
in a softball game in front of your classmates is hardly
conducive to wanting to play softball as an adult.
Therefore we have developed a sequence of batting
tasks and activities that gradually progress into fun
batting-type games that also provide for plenty of
practice opportunities. We do the same for each of
the other skill themes (Part 4).
Skill Themes and Movement Concepts
We hope by now you understand why we have chosen
to develop our curriculum using skill themes. In this
section you will fi nd two tables and two fi gures that
are especially important to a thorough understanding
of the skill theme approach. The movement concepts
are listed in Table 3.2 and the skill themes in Table 3.3 .
These tables organize the content to be taught in
physical education, not by sports, but by an analysis
of movements that are used in most sports and physi-
cal activities. These tables also serve as a guide to be
certain that we teach all the important movements
and do not leave any out. The skill themes and move-
ment concepts are defi ned and thoroughly explained
in Parts 3 and 4.
but cannot even hit the ball into the opponent’s court.
Our goal in the skill theme approach is to lead young-
sters to become skillful adults who enjoy a variety of
physical activities and sports.
As children become ready, they begin to combine skill
themes and movement concepts into the movement
Try to bat the ball without hitting the cone.
Table 3.2 Movement Concepts*
Space Awareness Effort
(where the body moves) (how the body moves) Relationships
Location: Self-space and general space Time: Fast /slow Of body parts: Round (curved), narrow, wide,
Sudden /sustained twisted, symmetrical /nonsymmetrical
Directions: Up/down
Forward /backward Force: Strong /light With objects and /or people: Over/under, on /off,
Right /left near/far, in front /behind, along /through,
Clockwise /counterclockwise Flow: Bound /free meeting /parting, surrounding, around, alongside
Levels: Low/middle /high With people: Leading /following, mirroring /
Pathways: Straight /curved matching, unison /contrast, alone in a mass,
Zigzag solo, partners, groups, between groups
Extensions: Large /small
Far/near
* This table represents many of the movement concepts taught in elementary school physical education. It is not meant to be all-inclusive, but to provide examples of
movement concepts.
CHAPTER 3 Skill Themes, Movement Concepts, and the National Standards 31
Table 3.3 Skill Themes *
Locomotor Skills
Walking
Running
Hopping
Skipping
Galloping
Sliding
Chasing, fl eeing, and dodging
Nonmanipulative Skills
Turning
Twisting
Rolling
Balancing
Transferring weight
Jumping and landing
Stretching
Curling
Manipulative Skills
Throwing
Catching and collecting
Kicking
Punting
* This table represents many of the skill themes taught in physical education. It
is not meant to be all-inclusive, but to provide examples of skill themes.
The movement analysis framework , which has
been termed “the wheel” ( Figure 3.1 ), is intended to
show how the skill themes and movement concepts
interact with each other. The spiral ( Figure 3.2 ) is an
example of one of the developmentally appropriate
progressions that we have developed for each of the
skill themes in Part 4. Both the movement analysis
framework and the spiral are explained later in this
chapter. Obviously the movement content of our
program consists of more than just skill themes. In
fact, it’s diffi cult to focus on a skill theme for long
without introducing one or more movement concepts.
The two terms, skill themes and movement concepts , dif-
ferentiate the movements (skill themes) from the
ideas (movement concepts) used to modify or enrich
the range and effectiveness of skill employment.
Chapters 16 –18 are devoted specifi cally to ideas and
examples for teaching the movement concepts, while
Chapters 19 –28 do the same for skill themes. At this
point, however, it is important to understand the
differences between them.
The distinction between movement concepts (Ta-
ble 3.2) and skill themes (Table 3.3 * ) can be clarifi ed
by a comparison to grammar. Skill themes are always
verbs — they’re movements that can be performed.
Movement concepts are always modifi ers (adverbs)—
they describe how a skill is to be performed. This dis-
tinction also clarifi es how movement concepts are
employed to embellish, enhance, or expand the qual-
ity of a movement. A verb by itself — strike, travel,
roll — is typically less interesting than one that is
modifi ed by an adverb — strike hard, travel jerkily, roll
smoothly. Skills can stand by themselves. You can roll
or gallop or jump, but you can’t low or high or under.
Concepts modify skills.
Our initial focus with the primary-grade children is
on learning and understanding the movement con-
cept vocabulary (see Table 3.2) and Chapters 16 –19;
for this reason, the movement concepts are listed
Children enjoy learning the vocabu-
lary of the skill theme approach.
This teacher has posted her skill
themes on the gym wall.
* The major source for this explanation of skill themes and
movement concepts is Sheila Stanley, Physical education: A
movement orientation, 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1977).
32 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
S o lo
A lo
n e in
a m
a ss
Fa stSlo
wS tro
n gLig
ht
Bound
Self-space
General space
Up/down
Forward/ backward
Right /le ft
Cloc kwis
e /
cou nter
cloc kwis
e
Low
M id
dl e
H ig
h
St ra
ig h t
C u rv
ed
Z ig
za g
L a rg
e /s
m a ll
Fa r/
n e a r
R o u n
d (
c u rv
e d
)
R e la t io n s h ip s
Effort:How the
body m oves
S p a c e a w a re n e ss: W h e re th e b o d
y m oves
Of b ody
pa rts
W it h
o b
je c ts
a n
d /o
r p
e o p
le
Wi th
peo ple
Time
Force
Flow
Lo ca
tio n
D ire
c tio
n s
Levels Pathw
ays (floor/air)
Extensions
C u rlin
g
S tretch
in g
Ju m
p in
g an
d lan
d in
g
Transferring
weight
Balancing
Rolling
Twi stin
g
Tu rni
ng
D od
gi ng
Fl ee
in g
C h a si
n g
G a ll o p
in g
S k ip
p in
g
H o p p in
g
R u n n in
g
W al
ki n g
Str ikin
g
wit h l
on g-
ha nd
led
im ple
me nts
Striking
with rackets
Volleying
Dribbling
Punting
K icking
C o lle
c tin
g
C a tc
h in
g
T h
ro w
in g
P a rtn
e rs
G ro
u p s
B etw
een g
ro u p s
U n iso
n /co
n trast
M irroring
/
m atching
Leading/
follow ing
Alongside
Around
Surrounding
Meeting/parting
Along/th rough
In fr ont/
beh ind
Ne ar/
far
On /o
ff
O ve
r/ un
de r
Sy m
m et
ri ca
l/
no ns
ym m
et ri ca
l Tw
is te
d
W id
e
N a rr
o w
Locomotor
Manipulative Nonmanipulative
Free
Figure 3.1 Movement analysis framework (wheel) depicting the interaction of movement concepts and skill themes. An “interactive” wheel is
located inside the back cover of this book.
before the skill themes (see Table 3.3). We focus on
movement concepts before skill themes because
children in preschool and the primary grades spend
a great deal of time studying vocabulary (learning
new words), and many of the movement concepts
are part of this vocabulary. This is also the time
when children truly enjoy the challenge of learn-
ing and moving as they demonstrate their under-
standing of such words as symmetrical , zigzag , and
twisted .
It’s important to remember, however, that although
the children are focusing on learning the movement
concepts, they are also practicing the skill themes in
Chapters 19 –28. As soon as the children begin to
move, they are practicing one or more skill themes,
even though they may not be thinking about it at the
time. For example, if we ask children to skip in a curved
pathway, they may be thinking about the curve, but
they are also practicing skipping. If we ask them to
land in a low level (from a jump), they are also getting
CHAPTER 3 Skill Themes, Movement Concepts, and the National Standards 33
PUNTING
Proficiency Level Playing Punt-Over
Punting while traveling
Receiving and punting against
opponents
Utilization Level Playing rush the circle
Punting within a limited time
Receiving a pass, then punting
Punting to a partner
Punting at angles
Control Level Punting for height
Punting for accuracy
Using punting zones
Punting for distance
Punting different types of balls
Punting with an approach
Punting over low ropes
Punting for consistency
Precontrol Level Dropping and punting
Dropping, bouncing, and kicking
lightweight balls
Figure 3.2 Progression spiral illustrating the contextual variations
in which skill themes can be studied.
jumping and landing practice. In later grades, the
teacher’s focus will shift from the low level (movement
concept) to providing cues for soft, safe landings —
from the concept to the skill. In fact, however, this is
an artifi cial separation, because the skill themes and
movement concepts are constantly interacting.
The Wheel (Movement Analysis Framework)
The interaction between the movement concepts and
the skill themes listed in Tables 3.2 and 3.3 is represented
schematically by fi ve concentric circles (Figure 3.1). (For
easy reference, we call the movement analysis frame-
work “the wheel,” a term our students coined.) The two
inner circles represent the skill themes; the three outer
circles represent the movement concepts.
The fi rst inner circle contains the general categories
of the skill themes from Table 3.3: manipulative, non-
manipulative, and locomotor skills. The next inner
circle contains the breakdown of the skills in each cat-
egory, such as walking and running for locomotor
skills, balancing and rolling for nonmanipulative skills,
and throwing and kicking for manipulative skills.
The outer circle contains the three categories of the
movement concepts from Table 3.2: space awareness
(where the body moves), effort (how the body moves),
and relationships. * The second circle subdivides each of
The movement concept of “direc-
tions” is illustrated on the gym
wall.
* Some movement analysis frameworks include the concept of
space (direct and fl exible) as a quality of movement. In our
teaching, however, we use this concept so infrequently that we
don’t include it in our discussion of the qualities of movement.
34 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
the three movement concept categories. For example,
the subdivisions of space awareness (Chapter 16) include
location and directions; the subdivisions of effort (Chap-
ter 17) include time and force; and among the relation-
ship subdivisions (Chapter 18) are body parts and people.
Finally, in the third circle, the movement concepts are
subdivided even further.
In the wheel that is provided with your copy of Chil-
dren Moving, you will see that the two inner circles
representing the skill themes are stationary. The three
outer circles are connected to each other but are able to
rotate around the two inner circles. This rotation illus-
trates the idea that the same movement concept can be
used to enhance the development of different skills.
The concept of levels in space, for example, is useful for
refi ning such skills as catching, striking, volleying, and
balancing (e.g., catching at high level). The concept of
fast and slow can be applied to the study of such skills
as traveling, rolling, dribbling, transferring weight, and
dodging (e.g., rolling at a slow speed). At times, some
concepts blend with other concepts. For example, fast
or slow may modify pathways, and forward and back-
ward may modify over and under (e.g., galloping slowly
forward in a zigzag pathway).
Progression Spiral
Just learning the terminology for the movement concepts
(Table 3.2) and the skill themes (Table 3.3) is not enough
to begin actually teaching them. We have developed
thorough explanations for each of the movement con-
cepts and skill themes, along with a plethora of activities,
in subsequent chapters. Part 3 (Chapters 16 –18) contains
the defi nitions and suggested activities for teaching the
movement concepts. Part 4 (Chapters 19 –28) does the
same for the skill themes.
In each of these chapters we provide tasks and ac-
tivities in a progression from the easiest to the hardest,
and from less to more complex. The content in each of
the skill theme chapters is outlined in a fi gure that we
call a progression spiral (Figure 3.2). The spiral is in-
tended to be read from the bottom to the top — that is,
the easiest tasks are at the bottom, the hardest at the top.
It also suggests that tasks may need to be retaught when,
for example, it has been several months since the chil-
dren have practiced that skill or it is the beginning of a
school year.
The movement concepts that are emphasized de-
pend on the skill theme being studied. The concepts of
fast and slow, for example, can be used to make a task
more interesting or challenging. The skill theme of
rolling or transferring weight can be made more diffi -
cult by challenging the children to move more slowly.
But with a skill such as dribbling, which is easier to
perform at a slower rate, the challenge “dribble faster”
increases the complexity of the task. In short, there’s
no standard formula that can be used as a guide for
varying the contexts in which all skill themes are stud-
ied. Each skill theme is different as are the children.
The spirals do not suggest the length of time, or the
number of lessons, to be spent studying a particular
theme. In refl ective teaching, as explained in Chapter 8,
these decisions are based on the time allocated for phys-
ical education classes (e.g., two days a week versus daily)
and the children and their home backgrounds and the
opportunities available in the community.
Finally, the spiral represents a progression from the
precontrol (beginner or novice) level up to the profi -
ciency level (varsity athlete) (see Chapter 7). The move-
ment concept and skill theme progressions in Parts 3 and
4 are based on our knowledge of the pertinent literature
and on years of teaching experience. But you may fi nd
that a different ordering of the tasks (activities) is more
appropriate for a particular teaching situation. Each child,
each class, each teaching environment differs from all
others, and the refl ective teacher adapts to these differ-
ences. See Box 3-1 for an example of one school’s use of
skill themes in its physical education curriculum.
The National Standards and the Skill Theme Approach
In this eighth edition of Children Moving , we attempt
to show how our program fi ts with the content of the
National Association for Sport and Physical Education’s
Moving into the Future: National Standards for Physical
Education (NASPE 2004). We think this will be espe-
cially useful for those teachers who are interested in
revising their programs to refl ect the content suggested
in the National Standards . Before describing how Chil-
dren Moving might be used as a guide to developing a
program designed on the National Standards , it seems
important to provide a brief background of the process
that led to the development of those standards.
Background of National Standards Development
In the late 1980s, the National Association for Sport
and Physical Education formed a blue-ribbon task force
and asked its members to:
• Defi ne a person who is “physically educated”
• Defi ne “outcomes” and “benchmarks” that could
serve as guidelines for constructing physical educa-
tion program curriculums
The Outcomes Task Force worked on the project for more
than fi ve years, and each year, at NASPE’s national
CHAPTER 3 Skill Themes, Movement Concepts, and the National Standards 35
Box 3-1
Adapting the Skill Theme Approach
Since the fi rst edition of Children Moving was published in
1980, a number of school districts throughout the United
States have based their curriculums on skill themes. In
Gwinnett County (near Atlanta, Georgia), an overview of each
area of the curriculum is described on a poster that many
elementary schools in the county display on their walls. The
poster is prominently displayed alongside math, reading, and
science posters, an arrangement conveying the message
that the teachers of Gwinnett County are dedicated to edu-
cating the total child.
Physical Education K–5 Curriculum
The fundamental objective of the physical education program is to provide opportunities for the development of motor skills and physical fitness.
Skill Themes and Fitness Concepts Students in grades K–5 will experience a developmentally designed program of skill and fitness development, including educational games, educational dance, and educational gymnastics. The following motor skills and fitness concepts are included:
• body awareness • balancing • chasing, fleeing, dodging • kicking and punting • striking with implements (short and long handled) • rolling • throwing and catching • traveling • volleying and dribbling • transferring weight • jumping and landing • cardiorespiratory endurance • flexibility • muscular strength and endurance • fitness testing
Becoming physically educated is a developmental process that begins in early childhood and continues throughout life. The physical education program involves the total child and includes physical, mental, social, and emotional growth experiences. The physical education program provides instruction that will enable the pursuit of physical fitness and a lifetime of physical activity.
Gwinnett County Public Schools
36 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
conference, physical educators from throughout the
United States were invited to review and critique the
work. The task force then revised its work based on
these recommendations and presented it again the fol-
lowing year. Over several years, the work of the task
force was reviewed by hundreds of physical educators
and as a result refl ects the collective wisdom of much
of the profession. The result of this work, published in
1992, was a document entitled The Physically Educated
Person (NASPE 1992, p. v), which defi ned a physically
educated person as an individual who:
• HAS learned skills necessary to perform a variety of
physical activities
• IS physically fi t
• DOES participate regularly in physical activity
• KNOWS the implications of and the benefi ts from
involvement in physical activity
• VALUES physical activity and its contributions to a
healthful lifestyle
Outcome statements were also developed for each of
the fi ve parts of the defi nition, along with benchmarks
for kindergarten, second, fourth, sixth, eighth, tenth,
and twelfth grades.
Using the same process, NASPE built upon the foun-
dation of the “Outcomes Project” to develop national
content standards for physical education, including
examples for assessment. The standards were initially
published in 1995 (NASPE 1995) and were revised in
2004 (NASPE 2004). They were especially important
because they paralleled work that was also being done
in other disciplines, such as mathematics, science, and
geography. The skill theme approach, as defi ned in
Children Moving , is aligned with the National Standards
for Physical Education .
Skill Themes and the Content Standards
Box 1-3 (in Chapter 1) lists the six content standards
for physical education from the National Standards.
Children Moving addresses all the standards throughout
the text, but many readers will fi nd Parts 3 and 4 of the
book especially helpful for designing, delivering, and
assessing the fi rst two content standards. The fi rst two
content standards, and part of the general description
for each one, follow:
1. A physically educated person demonstrates compe-
tency in motor skills and movement patterns
needed to perform a variety of physical activities.
The intent of this standard is development of the phy-
sical skills needed to enjoy participation in physical
activities. Mastering movement fundamentals estab-
lishes a foundation to facilitate continued motor skill
acquisition and gives students the capacity for success-
ful and advanced levels of performance to further the
likelihood of participation on a daily basis. In the pri-
mary years, students develop maturity and versatility
in the use of fundamental motor skills (e.g., running,
skipping, throwing, striking) that are further refi ned,
combined, and varied during the middle school years.
These motor skills, now having evolved into specialized
skills (e.g., a specifi c dance step, chest pass, catching
with a glove, or the use of a specifi c tactic), are used in
increasingly complex movements . . . through the
middle school years (NASPE 2004, p. 12).
2. A physically educated person demonstrates under-
standing of movement concepts, principles, strate-
gies, and tactics as they apply to the learning and
performance of physical activities.
The intent of this standard is facilitation of learners’
ability to use cognitive information to understand and
enhance motor skill acquisition and performance. . . .
In the lower elementary grades, emphasis is placed on
establishing a movement vocabulary and applying in-
troductory concepts. Through the upper elementary and
middle school years, an emphasis is placed on applying
and generalizing these concepts to real-life physical
activity situations (NASPE 2004, p. 12).
In subsequent chapters you will fi nd many exam-
ples of how you can teach children the skills and con-
cepts suggested in the National Standards . It will also
help to refer to Boxes 3-2 and 3-3 , which contain sam-
ple performance outcomes from the National Standards ,
and Box 3-4 , which contains guidelines for promoting
lifelong physical activity from the National Center for
Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion.
After each sample benchmark you will see one or more
chapter references that indicate where you can learn
more about that specifi c benchmark and the activities
that teachers use to help children achieve the sug-
gested goal.
In many chapters we have also quoted sample per-
formance outcomes from the National Standards to
assist you in understanding how the content of the
Children Moving chapters can be developed to meet
these benchmarks. When appropriate, we have also
included assessment examples in those chapters to
assist you in determining how well your students are
progressing in regard to the benchmarks.
As we conclude this section on skill themes and
movement concepts and how they are described in
the National Standards, it is important to remember
that the standards are not intended as a prescribed set
of goals or outcomes to be achieved by all physical
education programs. The National Standards document
CHAPTER 3 Skill Themes, Movement Concepts, and the National Standards 37
Box 3-2
A more detailed description of each performance indicator,
along with activities to teach it, is included in the Children
Moving chapter(s) listed below at the end of each benchmark.
The critical elements (cues) of a mature form are also de-
scribed in these chapters.
Grades K– 2
• Skips (or hops, gallops, slides, etc.) using mature form
(Chapter 19)
• Performs a simple dance step in keeping with a specifi c
tempo (Chapter 29)
• Demonstrates clear contrasts between slow and fast
movements when skipping (hopping, galloping, sliding,
etc.) (Chapters 17, 19)
• Travels forward and sideways, changing directions quickly
in response to a signal or obstacle using a variety of motor
skills (Chapters 16, 17, 19)
• Demonstrates a smooth transition between locomotor skills
in time to music (Chapters 17, 19)
• Drops a ball and catches it at the peak of the bounce
(Chapter 25)
• Throws a ball underhand using mature form (Chapter 25)
• Discovers how to balance on different body parts, at differ-
ent levels, becoming “like” a statue while making symmetri-
cal and nonsymmetrical shapes (Chapters 16, 22)
Grades 3 – 5
• Balances with control on a variety of objects (e.g., balance
board, large apparatus, skates) (Chapter 22)
• Catches a fl y ball using a mature form (Chapter 25)
• Jumps vertically and lands using mature form (Chapter 21)
• Throws a ball overhand and hits a target on the wall (Chap-
ter 25)
• Develops and refi nes a gymnastics sequence (or creative
dance sequence) demonstrating smooth transitions. (Chap-
ters 29, 30)
• Dribbles, then passes a ball to a moving receiver (Chapter 26)
• Throws a ball to a partner 15 yards away using mature form
(Chapter 25)
Grades 6 – 8
• Serves a volleyball underhand using a mature form (Chapter 26)
• Dribbles a ball while preventing an opponent from stealing
the ball (Chapter 26)
• Places the ball away from an opponent during a tennis rally
(Chapter 27)
• Designs and performs gymnastics (or dance) sequences
that combine traveling, rolling, balancing, and weight trans-
fer into smooth, fl owing sequences with intentional changes
in direction, speed, and fl ow (Chapters 16 –19, 23)
Sample Performance Indicators for National Standard 1: Movement Forms
Box 3-3
A more detailed description of each performance indicator,
along with activities to teach it, is included in the Children
Moving chapter(s) listed below at the end of each perfor-
mance indicator.
Grades K– 2
• Identifi es correctly various body parts (e.g., knee, foot, arm,
palm) (Chapter 16)
Grades 3 – 5
• Identifi es four characteristics of a mature throw (Chapter 25)
• Uses concepts of space awareness and movement control
to run, hop, and skip in different ways in a large group with-
out bumping or falling (Chapters 16,19)
• Identifi es and demonstrates the major characteristics
of mature walking, running, hopping, and skipping
(Chapter 19)
Grades 6 – 8
• Transfers weight from feet to hands at fast and slow speeds
using large extensions (e.g., mule kick, handstand, cart-
wheel) (Chapter 23)
• Accurately recognizes the critical elements of a throw made
by a fellow student and provides feedback to that student
(Chapter 25)
• Consistently strikes a softly thrown ball with a bat or paddle,
demonstrating an appropriate grip (Chapters 27, 28)
Sample Performance Indicators for National Standard 2: Movement Concepts
38 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Box 3-4
Almost 30 years ago the National Center for Chronic Disease
Prevention and Health Promotion (NCCDPHP) made the fol-
lowing recommendations for “developing students’ mastery of
and confi dence in motor and behavioral skills for participating
in physical activity.” They still apply today:
• Students should become competent in many motor skills
and profi cient in a few to use in lifelong physical activities.
• Elementary school students should develop basic motor
skills that allow participation in a variety of physical
activities.
• Older students should become competent in a select
number of physical activities they enjoy and succeed in.
• Students’ mastery of and confi dence in motor skills occur
when these skills are broken down into components and
the tasks are ordered from easy to hard.
• Students need opportunities to observe others performing
the skills and receive encouragement, feedback, and re-
peated opportunities for practice during physical education
class.
• Active student involvement . . . that focuses on building
confi dence may increase the likelihood that children and
adolescents will enjoy and succeed in physical education
and physical activity.
Source: NCCDPHP 1977, p. 209.
Guidelines for Promoting Lifelong Physical Activity
is not a national curriculum! As detailed in Chapter 5,
“Refl ective Teaching,” teachers must determine the
goals of their program based on the specifi c charac-
teristics of the schedule, the children, and the com-
munity. The suggested grade levels, for example, are
only that — suggestions. The National Standards can
be immensely helpful, however, as they represent
the professional judgment of hundreds of physical
education teachers and professors about the content
of a quality physical education curriculum that pro-
vides the movement foundation for a lifetime of
physical activity.
It must be emphasized, however, that the National
Standards are designed for programs that have daily
physical education for grades K–12. Even then, how-
ever, the standards may represent optimistic goals. The
challenge for many schools and districts that have
physical education only one or two days a week is to
carefully select the standards that they can truly ac-
complish in the amount of time they have allocated
for their physical education programs. The standards
can also provide the foundation for a strong argument
for more time for physical education in the school day.
It always diffi cult to decide which of the standards a
school or district will ignore because of the lack of time
allocated for physical education.
Since the National Standards were fi rst published in
1995, a number of states have revised or developed
state standards, many of them based on the National
Standards . If you are interested in seeing if your state
has developed standards, go to PE Central ( www.
pecentral.org/professional/statestandards.html ). It might
be interesting also to see how your state standards
compare to the ones developed at the national level.
Summary
Teaching by skill themes focuses on developing chil-
dren’s competence in a variety of motor skills and
movement concepts that, if practiced frequently out-
side of the school setting, will eventually enable the
children to acquire confi dence and enjoy physical ac-
tivity throughout their lifetimes. Games, sports, gym-
nastics, and dance typically require children to use
combinations of motor skills and movement concepts
that are developed only after a substantial amount of
practice. Therefore the teacher places emphasis on
teaching children how to acquire the skills and confi -
dence necessary to participate in games, gymnastics,
and dance with enjoyment and confi dence.
Teaching by themes also involves revisiting the
same skills or concepts continually throughout the
program at different times and in different contexts. In
preschool and the primary grades, the focus is on
learning the vocabulary associated with the movement
concepts. Once the vocabulary has been learned, the
emphasis shifts to the skill themes. In fact, however,
the skill themes and movement concepts constantly
interact, as depicted in the movement analysis frame-
work (the wheel). The progression and activities for
each of the skill themes are illustrated by the spiral.
The spiral is a visual reminder that the child revisits
each task to enhance skill acquisition and retention
CHAPTER 3 Skill Themes, Movement Concepts, and the National Standards 39
and that skills are best learned when they are presented
in a progression from basic to advanced.
Support for the skill theme approach can be found
in three national statements, the National Standards for
Physical Education (NASPE 1995, 2004); Developmentally
Appropriate Physical Education Practices for Children
(COPEC 1992); and Appropriate Practices for Elementary
School Physical Education (COPEC 2000; NASPE 2009).
Essentially, these sources recommend that physical
education programs at the preschool and elementary
school levels focus on helping children improve their
fundamental motor skills. Physical fi tness, rather than
being a separate unit, is interwoven throughout the
program as we help children understand and value its
importance while they also learn to develop their own
programs of physical fi tness.
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. What do children need to learn in physical edu-
cation before they’re ready to play a game? Why?
2. What are movement concepts? How do they
modify skill themes?
3. How can you distinguish skill themes from move-
ment concepts?
4. What does “revisiting themes” mean?
5. What does the spiral indicate about skill develop-
ment? (Use Figure 3.1, the wheel, to explain your
answer.)
6. What three skill themes relate most directly to
dance? To games? To gymnastics? You may not use
the same skill theme twice.
7. Explain how two skill themes might be combined
in a task and write three samples for a third-grade
class. Use Chapters 19 –28 if you need assistance.
8. Select a team sport. List fi ve examples of how space
awareness concepts are important for that team to
succeed. You may want to refer to Chapter 16 for
the more expanded explanation of skill themes.
9. Explain what the authors mean when they write
that the skill themes may be used to develop a
program that refl ects the content suggestions in
the National Standards .
10. Attempt to locate your state physical education
standards at PE Central ( www.pecentral.org /
professional/statestandards.html ). (If your state
has not posted them, you can refer to the national
standards.) Find three examples of state (national)
standards for the elementary school grades that
directly address the teaching of movement con-
cepts or skill themes. Copy the standard (include
the grade level and standard number) and indicate
which skill theme or movement concept the stan-
dard addresses.
References /Suggested Readings
[COPEC] Council on Physical Education for Children. 1992 . Developmentally appropriate physical education practices for children: A position statement of the Council on Physical Education for Children . Reston, VA: National Association for Sport and Physical Education .
[COPEC] Council on Physical Education for Children. 2000 . Appropriate practices for elementary school physical education: A position statement of the National Association for Sport and Physical Education . Reston, VA: National As- sociation for Sport and Physical Education .
Gallagher , J. 1984 . Making sense of motor development: Interfacing research with lesson planning. In Motor skill development during childhood and adolescence , ed. J. Thomas, pp. 123 – 38 . Minneapolis: Burgess .
Holyoak , C. , and H. Weinberg . 1988 . Meeting needs and pleasing kids: A middle school physical education curriculum . Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 1992 . The physically educated person . Reston, VA: National Association for Sport and Physical Education .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 1995. Moving into the future: National standards for physical education . Reston, VA: NASPE .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2004 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. 2nd ed. Reston, VA: NASPE.
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2009 . Appropriate practices for elementary school physical education . 3rd ed. Reston, VA: National Associa- tion for Sport and Physical Education .
[NCCDPHP] National Center for Chronic Disease Preven- tion and Health Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1977 . Guidelines for school and commu- nity programs to promote lifelong physical activity among young people. Journal of School Health 76(6): 202 –19 .
Schmidt , R. A. 1977 . Schema theory: Implications for move- ment education. Motor Skills: Theory into Practice 2: 36–48 .
Stanley , S. 1977 . Physical education: A movement orienta- tion . 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill .
40
C H A P T E R
4
Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children Intelligence and skill can only function at the peak of their capacity when the body is healthy and
strong.
— JOHN F. KENNEDY
CHAPTER 4 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children 41
T he concept of wellness encompasses physical,
emotional, mental, spiritual, interpersonal/social,
and environmental well-being (Fahey, Insel, and
Roth 2003), the goal of which is a healthy, productive
lifestyle. The goal of physical fi tness is a healthy indi-
vidual. The goal of physical education is children who
become and remain physically active for a lifetime. Thus
the goals of wellness, physical education, and fi tness are
intertwined. This chapter will focus on wellness for chil-
dren and its relationship to physical education, physical
activity as the medium for the development of fi tness in
children, and physical education as the priority venue
for wellness and fi tness in children.
Wellness for Children
The dimensions of wellness for children translate into
mental/emotional health; personal and social respon-
sibility; personal safety (bicycle, auto, water, and fi re);
nonabuse of drugs, alcohol, and tobacco; and nutri-
tion, as well as physical activity and fi tness. All the di-
mensions of wellness are critical to a child’s well-being.
Crisis in any dimension leads to a breakdown in opti-
mum health for that child. The total package comes to
school; the total package comes to physical education
each time a child enters our class. Our task: the teaching
of the skills of physical education while not neglecting
any dimensions of the total child.
Mental and Emotional Health
Emotional security ranks second only to food and shel-
ter in the most basic needs of the individual. The need
to be loved and accepted moves quickly to the top for
children as the basic needs of food and shelter are met.
What happens in the life of children at home, on the
way to school, at breakfast, and in the classroom af-
fects their emotional health in the gymnasium. Emo-
tional health affects their learning. What happens in
our gymnasiums and on our playgrounds affects the
emotional health of the child in the classroom, for the
day, and beyond the school day.
The foundation of young children’s emotional
health is self-esteem —how worthy and valuable they
consider themselves (Anspaugh and Ezell 2004). We as
teachers play a critical role in how children view them-
selves. Our reactions to their skill or lack of skill, our
reaction to their mistakes and sometimes loss of con-
trol greatly affect their view of themselves. Children’s
opinions of themselves are established early and are
very fragile. A quick, negative response can have a last-
ing effect on a child. Children with a strong sense of
worth and importance are free to develop their poten-
tial, better able to resolve personal and interpersonal
confl icts, and free to establish their independence and
self-expression.
As teachers we need to remember:
• Acceptance of children, even on their worst days, is
critical.
• What happens in elementary school affects children
throughout life.
• The most important infl uences in young children’s
lives are their parents; the most powerful infl uences
at age 11 and older are their peers.
• Perception of self may or may not match reality;
perception of self greatly affects self-esteem.
R. M. Page and T. S. Page (1993) offer the following
suggestions to foster a positive climate for emotional
wellness:
• Quickly learn the names of students, call them by
name, and show respect for each child.
• Be sensitive to diverse cultures, ethnicities, and
races; strive to view children from their perspectives
rather than your own.
• The focus of fi tness in elementary school physical
edu cation has shifted from strenuous exercise programs
to physical activity as a preventative for disease and a
formula for good health.
• Physical fi tness has shifted from skills-related /athletic to
health-related fi tness.
• Physical fi tness for youngsters centers around under-
standing the health-related fi tness components and con-
cepts of fi tness, and appreciating the importance of
being physically active.
• The purpose of fi tness assessment is to identify areas of
concern and assist youngsters in establishing personal
fi tness goals; fi tness assessment should never be used
for assigning grades to children.
• Physical fi tness is a product of movement that provides
children with skills, confi dence, and enjoyment.
• Physical fi tness becomes a process, maintained through
a physically active lifestyle that begins in childhood.
• Wellness encompasses emotional, mental, spiritual,
social, and environmental well-being as well as fi tness.
• The concepts of wellness are partners with fi tness and
physical activity for a healthy lifestyle.
Key Concepts
42 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
• Expect no problems. Expect students to be compe-
tent, capable, and eager to learn.
• When problems arise, handle them immediately
and consistently.
• Avoid sarcasm, ridicule, and belittling remarks; help
students to do the same.
• Avoid all suggestions of criticism, anger, or frustra-
tion. Make personal corrections in private.
• Create an atmosphere in which children feel at ease.
• Arrange for a high ratio of successes to failures.
• Avoid encouraging competitiveness between students
in learning activities.
• Demonstrate the characteristics of effective teachers:
warmth, friendliness, fairness, a good sense of humor,
enthusiasm, empathy, openness, spontaneity, adapt-
ability, and a democratic governing style.
We are teachers of children; our interactions with
them, our actions, and our language affect not just the
moment, but their lives.
Personal and Social Responsibility
The gymnasiums and playgrounds of our schools pro-
vide a rich environment for the development of per-
sonal and social responsibility. The physical activity
setting provides a miniworld of emotional, interactive
situations. Within this world of competition and co-
operation, success and failure, and fast-moving action,
children make a multitude of decisions on a daily basis.
The development of personal and social responsibility—
and its importance to the future of our society — is a
reminder that we are teachers of children, not just
skills, sequences, games, and dances.
The importance of personal and social responsibility
is highlighted in the National Standards for Physical
Education, in two of the six standards (NASPE 2004a):
• Exhibits responsible personal and social behavior that
respects self and others in physical activity settings.
• Values physical activity for health, enjoyment, chal-
lenge, self-expression, and /or social interaction.
Although we as physical educators teach in an envi-
ronment rich in opportunity for the development of
personal and social responsibility, it is not enough simply
to let children experience decision-making situations.
We must guide them in the development of acceptance
of responsibility through awareness talks, group meet-
ings, counseling, refl ection time, individual decision
making, and our modeling of responsible personal and
social actions (Hellison 2003). Further discussion of
Hellison’s model for the development of personal and
social responsibility can be found in Chapter 9, “Estab-
lishing an Environment for Learning.”
Personal and social responsibility stem from accep-
tance of two basic concepts:
• I will respect myself and others.
• I am responsible for myself, my actions, and my
behavior.
Responsible adults develop from responsible chil-
dren who have had opportunities to make decisions,
to experience success and failure, to be accepted, and
to accept others. Acceptance of self and others leads to
respect for self and others and to personal and social
responsibility.
Safety (Bicycle, Auto, Fire, Water) The concepts of safety relative to helmets and safe riding of bicycles,
rollerblades, and skateboards; the buckling of seat belts
at all times when riding in automobiles; and water safety
for swimming and recreational outings/sports are mat-
ters of personal responsibility. Each of these areas of
personal responsibility and safety presents excellent op-
portunities for collaborative endeavors with community
agencies as schools and agencies come together to pres-
ent programs, sponsor community events, and provide
hands-on demonstrations of safety for children. Again,
we cannot assume that young children know the safety
concepts for each of these areas; they must be taught by
responsible, caring adults. We do know that when
learned at an early age the lessons of “helmets, seat belts,
and life jackets” become habits for a lifetime.
Fire Safety Should Be a Part of All
Elementary School Curriculums
The concepts of fi re safety can be addressed via a school
assembly and hands-on activities conducted by the local fi re
department personnel. We have found fi re fi ghters eager to
come to the schools; they bring trucks and ladders for dem-
onstrations, provide active participation in “stop, drop, and
roll” and “stay low,” and teach the basic critical emergency
response, “911.”
Drug, Alcohol, and Tobacco Abuse With chil- dren experimenting with drugs, alcohol, and tobacco
at increasingly younger ages, it is never too early to
educate them on the risks of use and dangers of sub-
stance abuse. We can no longer pretend that drug and
alcohol use and abuse is limited to older adolescents
and young adults. Nor can we pretend that abuse and
overdose happen only somewhere else. Elementary-
school-age children are experimenting with drugs and
alcohol. No socioeconomic level is immune to sub-
stance abuse.
CHAPTER 4 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children 43
in nutrition as it relates to running, jumping, throwing,
and being a better athlete. Thus the appeal of athletics
opens the door to educating children about the impor-
tance of eating fruits and vegetables, decreasing fats, at-
taining healthy body weight, and maintaining a balance
of physical activity and nutrition as a daily pattern, a
childhood pattern that becomes a lifestyle for wellness.
MyPyramid Children at the elementary level need an understanding of the food guide in MyPyramid ( Fig-
ure 4.1 ), the contribution of the major essential nutrients
to building and maintaining healthy bodies, and the
necessity of balancing exercise and nutrition in main-
taining good health. This new food and activity guide
focuses on personal choice, moderation, and variety.
Food groups are represented in proportionate bands,
indicating in general how much food should be selected
from each group. The importance of daily physical ac-
tivity is symbolized by a youngster running up the stairs
and by children in a variety of physical activities—the
combination of physical activity and nutrition so essen-
tial for good health ( www.MyPyramid.gov ). As children
approach puberty, this balance between exercise and
nutrition in maintaining proper body weight becomes
very important for both boys and girls; however, for
young children the emphasis on the balance is for good
health. Lessons on teaching nutrition as a wellness con-
cept and its linkage to physical activity and good health
can be found in On the Move, Lesson Plans to Accompany
Children Moving (Holt/Hale 2010).
The Good Health Balance
Physical activity and good nutrition are the essential in-
gredients for the body’s good health balance. Envision a
young child fi rst learning to walk a balance beam; the
Physical educators serve a key role for children in
the area of substance abuse. With daily reports of pro-
fessional athletes involved in substance abuse, children
receive a confusing message regarding the dangers of
drugs and the consequences of use. We can provide
positive role models and clear, consistent messages
regarding abstinence. Responsible decisions/personal re-
sponsibility begin with a solid knowledge base provided
by adults that are respected and viewed as important in
a child’s life. We as teachers are second only to parents in
the potential infl uence we have on young children.
Much research and thought have been given to the
reasons individuals use drugs. Two of those reasons are
boredom and low self-esteem. A youngster actively in-
volved in physical activity and sports is an active
youngster. A youngster involved in a quality physical
education program develops the skills for successful
participation in a variety of sports and physical activi-
ties. A solid movement-skills base provides a positive
self-image in this important area for children. Thus
physical education has the potential to contribute di-
rectly to a healthy, drug-free world for children.
Nutrition
The importance of nutrition as a contributor to a
child’s well-being cannot be overestimated. Nutrition
contributes to cognitive learning in the classroom and
in the gymnasium. Nutrition contributes to a child’s
physical development and to his or her physical activity.
Lack of good nutrition contributes to obesity and
numerous health problems.
A number of factors have contributed to the exist-
ing state of poor nutrition among school-age children
in the United States. A large number of children are
responsible for their own meals, especially breakfast
and after-school snacks. Children do not choose fruits
and vegetables as a favorite snack; neither do young
children have the knowledge or skills to prepare
healthy meals or snacks. For many children, the foods
needed for good nutrition are not available in their
homes. Thus, by choice and by circumstance, many
children are the victims of poor nutrition.
Busier schedules and more fast-food meals have also
contributed to a decrease in good nutrition for America’s
families. A positive increase in physical activity—that
is, organized sports, dance, and gymnastics clubs for
children—has been coupled with a decrease in family
meals at home. All too often the quickest meal is one
from a drive-through, one that is high in fat and low in
the balance of nutrients needed for good health.
Although elementary-age children may not be in-
terested in nutrition for good health (after all, they are
immortal), we have found that they are very interested
Figure 4.1 MyPyramid.
Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service,
2005. www.mypyramid.gov
44 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
arms are extended outward on either side of the body
for good balance ( Figure 4.2 ). If neither arm is extended
or if the extension is only on one side, the child’s bal-
ance is in jeopardy. In adults we speak of the match
between caloric intake and daily energy expenditure —
that is, energy balance. In children we call it the good
health balance.
Adults in the United States have a tremendous
mismatch between caloric intake and energy expen-
diture, the results of which are the obesity epidemic
and the health risks associated with obesity. A combi-
nation of larger food portions, more readily available
food, a lack of knowledge regarding portion sizes and
number of servings within containers, and the abun-
dance of high-fat, high-calorie food means energy
expenditure — that is, physical activity — must increase.
However, advances in technology and automation
have created just the opposite — an environment that
supports less physical activity. The same mismatch
exists for children. We as teachers must take the lead
in creating the good health balance for children — a
balance of daily physical activity and good nutrition
that leads to children becoming, and remaining,
physically active for a lifetime.
Physical Activity
Physical activity is the other half of the good health bal-
ance. The importance of physical activity is evidenced
with its inclusion in Healthy People 2010 (USDHHS 2000a),
reports from the Surgeon General (USDHHS 1996), the
National Standards for Physical Education (NASPE 2004a),
and the Child Nutrition and WIC (Women, Infants, and
Children) Reauthorization Act of 2004 (Public Law
108-285). Healthy People 2010 identifi ed the 10 leading
indicators that most greatly affect health for individuals
and communities; physical activity was number one on
that list. The Surgeon General’s report speaks of the de-
velopment of an active lifestyle, with physical inactivity
portrayed as hazardous to health. NASPE’s physical edu-
cation standards devote one of the six standards to
regular participation in physical activity.
Physical activity is now recognized as a preventa-
tive for disease and a formula for good health (Shephard
2005; Strong et al. 2005; Watts 2005; Welk and Blair
2000). Childhood obesity and preventative degener-
ative diseases have reached epidemic proportions in
the United States. The health risks of obesity can be
largely managed through physical activity. The health
risks of degenerative diseases, appearing in children
as early as age eight, can be prevented through daily
physical activity.
The obesity and degenerative diseases epidemic
presents the following:
• Young children predicted to not outlive their par-
ents (Katz 2004)
• Childhood obesity that has tripled in the last two
decades (Satcher 2003)
The Child Nutrition and WIC (Women, Infants, and
Children) Reauthorization Act of 2004 mandated that
school districts establish policies and goals regarding
nutrition, physical activity, and other school-based ac-
tivities designed to promote student wellness. Coordi-
nated School Health was established by the CDC in
1998 to promote student health and wellness by “put-
ting it all together to help students grow strong and
healthy.” Two of the eight components of Coordinated
School Health are nutrition and physical education.
Both Coordinated School Health and the Child Nutri-
tion Act emphasize school-based wellness commit-
tee /advisory councils comprised of teachers, parents,
and community leaders and collaboration to promote
wellness for children. Physical education teachers can
and should be vital members of each.
Figure 4.2 The good health balance.
CHAPTER 4 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children 45
Physical Inactivity
Physical inactivity is a health issue, an environmental
issue, and an emotional issue. As a health issue, we now
know inactivity is a contributing factor in children be-
ing overweight and obese. Inactivity has a direct ink to
degenerative diseases; more than 40 years ago the term
hypokinetic was used to describe diseases associated with
a lack of physical activity (Corbin et al. 2008). Decreases
in physical activity have been linked to increased televi-
sion time, video games, and computers — that is, in-
creases in sedentary time. Less outdoor play, due to a
variety of reasons, has also contributed to the increase
in physical inactivity. A drive through any neighbor-
hood provides a very vivid visual of the decrease in
children’s physical activity.
elementary school. Self-confi dence is linked as a protec-
tive factor against obesity and depression (Dunton et al.
2006). Confi dence in self breeds increased activity; a lack
of confi dence breeds a lack of activity leading to less
activity and increased weight gain. The negative cycle:
inactivity leads to more inactivity, to obesity and degen-
erative disease, to low self-esteem and fear of failure, and
thus to increased inactivity. The positive cycle: physical
activity leads to more activity, serves as a preventative
for obesity and degenerative disease, and increases self-
esteem and emotional, as well as physical, health.
Enjoyment and skill development are the two key
factors given by children and adolescents as reasons to
engage in and maintain programs of physical activity
(Gately et al. 2000; Lohman, Going, and Metcalfe
2004). Perceived competence of that skill development
greatly affects participation in physical activity (Davison
et al. 2006; Fairclough and Stratton 2006). It is impor-
tant for us as teachers to remember the word is “per-
ceived.” Children may be very capable of successful
participation in a variety of activities but do not view
themselves as having the skills for success. Very young
children think they are very skilled, capable of con-
qu ering the highest climbing wall, shooting at the tallest
basket, and performing at the highest level on all mea-
sures of physical ability. As children progress through
the elementary school, this perception begins to match
against the reality of the performance and the com-
parison to others, all too often resulting in a decrease
in perceived competence and confi dence, leading to a
decrease in willingness to participate and a decrease in
the joy in doing so. Our task as teachers is to provide
developmentally appropriate activities, in a “differen-
tiated, inclusive learning environment” (Dunton et al.
2006), to assure children enjoyment, confi dence, and
competence in physical activity.
Guidelines for Physical Activity
The importance of establishing physical activity habits
in childhood is supported in the research. Habits estab-
lished early in life tend to remain into adulthood, thus
becoming lifestyle. The recommendations for children’s
physical activity are included in the Physical Activity for
Children guidelines established by the Council on Phys-
ical Education for Children (NASPE 2004b). The guide-
lines include the following recommendations:
• Children should accumulate at least 60 minutes, and
up to several hours, of age-appropriate physical activity
on all, or most, days of the week. This daily accumula-
tion should include moderate and vigorous physical
activity with the majority of the time being spent in
activity that is intermittent in nature.
Physical inactivity increases with age; girls are less
active than boys. Minority children are less likely to be
active, with the highest rate of physical inactivity
among African American and Hispanic females (Kimm
et al. 2002). The percentage of physically inactive mi-
nority females who become less active as they grow
into adolescence is of clinical and public health signifi -
cance (Crespo 2005). Self-confi dence and self-esteem
are consistently mentioned as important predictors of
physical activity, or lack of activity, in both boys and
girls, increasing in importance as children reach upper
• Health care costs related to obesity ranging between
$90 billion and $120 billion per year (Satcher 2003)
• One in three children, born in 2000 and beyond, who
will develop type 2 diabetes (McConnaughey 2003)
Obesity is a health issue, an emotional issue, and a
social issue.
For children struggling with being overweight, the em-
phasis should be on fi tness and a healthy body image
rather than on weight loss. A positive focus on fi tness
and activity contributes to emotional wellness and
self-esteem as well as increased physical activity. Ex-
cellent resources are Kathy Kater’s Real Kids Come
in All Sizes (2004), a guide for parents, and Healthy
Body Image (2005), a curriculum guide for elementary
and middle school students.
Hypokinetic diseases are those diseases or conditions
associated with lack of physical activity or too little
regular exercise.
— CORBIN ET AL. 2008
46 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
• Children should participate in several bouts of phys-
ical activity lasting 15 minutes or more each day.
• Children should participate each day in a variety of
age-appropriate physical activities designed to achieve
optimal health, wellness, fi tness, and performance
benefi ts.
• Extended periods (periods of two hours or more) of
inactivity are discouraged for children, especially
during the daytime hours.
It is important to establish guidelines for the selec-
tion of physical activity for children, physical activity
that contributes positively to the child’s health and
well-being during the elementary school years and
beyond.
The Physical Activity Pyramid from the Physical Ac-
tivity for Children guidelines (NASPE 2004b) outlines
the physical activities appropriate for elementary-
school-age children with contributions to lifetime ac-
tivity and a physically active lifestyle ( Figure 4.3 ). With
a goal of 60-plus minutes of daily physical activity for
all children, the pyramid depicts the types of physical
activity appropriate for children, as well as the amount
of activity recommended within each category.
Children should receive the largest amount of their
activity at Level 1; for children ages 5 to 9, these are the
activities that involve the large muscles and have very
little formal organization (e.g., active play). The large-
motor, natural play of children is considered to be life-
style physical activities for children. Level 2 activities
are a combination of those that have an aerobic effect
(e.g., jogging, biking, and swimming) and the basic
skills of physical education. Younger children are en-
couraged to participate in free-play activities that make
Figure 4.3 Physical Activity Pyramid.
Source: National Association for Sport and Physical Education, Physical Activity for Children: A Statement of Guidelines for Children Ages 5 –12,
2nd ed. (Reston, VA: NASPE, 2004), p. 15.
Avoid long periods of
inactivity/sedentary living.
Play games that make you stretch, i.e.,
stretching exercises.
Flexibility Exercise*
Perform at least three days a week.
Play games that overload your muscles i.e., muscle fitness exercises, climbing, and jumping.
Muscle Fitness Exercise*
Walk to school, work in the yard, do chores around
the house, play outside, play games, and/or walk with your parents.
Lifestyle Activities
Include at least some of your daily activity from this level.
Accumulate many of your daily 60-plus minutes from this category.
Do sports or recreational activities that make your heart beat faster and make you sweat.
Active Sports and Recreation*
Do activities that make your heart beat faster and make you
sweat, i.e., running, jumping, biking.
Active Aerobics
* Less emphasis in these areas for children ages 5 to 9.
L E V E L 1
L E V E L 2
L E V E L 3
L E V E L 4
CHAPTER 4 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children 47
their hearts beat faster and make them sweat. Chil-
dren ages 10 to 12 will begin sports involvement and
more vigorous physical activities. Although sports
involvement appears on the Physical Activity Pyra-
mid for older children at Level 2, the focus is on self-
selection by the child and the match to the needs
and interests of the child as the primary factor for
selection. The key in Level 2 is some vigorous physi-
cal activity during the week for all children — free
play, recreation, sports. Level 3 activities include a
selection of developmentally appropriate physical
activities to reinforce the fi tness concepts of muscu-
lar strength and fl exibility. Level 4 is reserved for
“quiet” time set aside each day for play types other
than vigorous physical activity. As the pyramid is as-
cended from Level 1 to Level 4, the amount of time
spent at each level decreases. Thus, quiet /nonactive
time, while important, receives less emphasis than
active play. The Physical Activity Pyramid guidelines
are based on children’s needs and developmental
characteristics; the guidelines focus on developmen-
tally appropriate physical activity, skill development,
and fi tness through activity. Physical education pro-
vides the tools; physical activity provides the arena
for good health and fi tness development.
With the recommendations of 60 minutes plus of
physical activity per day for children, the importance
of physical education and recess becomes increas-
ingly apparent. It is through physical education that
the skills for activity are developed. It is through re-
cess that play as physical activity is fostered, social
interaction in activity is “tested,” and confi dence in
physical activity is increased. Given the skills of phys-
ical education and the environment of positive inter-
action on the playground, children gain competence
and confi dence in themselves, thus engaging in more
physical activity.
Physical Activity in and beyond the School Day
It is also readily apparent that, in most situations in our
elementary schools today, we cannot meet the recom-
mendations for 60 minutes plus of daily physical activity.
Thus programs of before and after school, in school, and
at home are essential to successful promotion of daily
physical activity. Lee and Solomon (2007) term this the
“whole-school approach,” involving all school clients—
students, physical education specialist, classroom teach-
ers, and parents—in the promotion of physical activity
for children. We as teachers of physical education must
take the lead in designing programs of physical activity
outside physical education classes and promoting physi-
cal activity for children in school, at home, and in our
communities. The physical education teacher thus
becomes the school’s “Physical Activity Director” as
well as the Teacher of Children in Physical Education.
In-School Activities
With many school programs not affording children daily
physical education, activities beyond the gymnasium
are critical for meeting the guidelines for physical activ-
ity daily, as well as for establishing the pattern for a life-
time of daily participation. In-school activities include
before- and after-school activities, daily recess, physical
activity breaks during the school day provided by the
classroom teacher, and educational television /PBS or
child-designed activity/exercise programs. Examples of in-
school programs to provide physical activity include:
• Jump rope clubs organized at different skill and in-
terest levels. These clubs are organized for full par-
ticipation by all students, in comparison to a jump
rope team with selected students.
• Jogging /walking clubs with an emphasis on jogging
or walking for distance, as opposed to running for
speed. These clubs can focus on total miles com-
pleted for each student, matching the miles of a
friend /parent/community volunteer on a hiking
trail, or walking /jogging across the state.
• Kid Fit and Fun, locally produced age-appropriate
activities for classroom breaks by PBS /educational
television. Upper-elementary-age students can
produce in-school programs to promote physical
activity using students, parents, and community
volunteers.
• “Challenges,” lesson plans to promote active par-
ticipation and skill development with minimum
teacher supervision at recess, found in On the Move,
Lesson Plans to Accompany Children Moving (Holt/
Hale 2010).
• The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) BAM! (Body
and Mind) website offers interactive activities for
students and teachers linked to national standards
for health and science; designed for students ages
9 –13 ( www.bam.gov ).
• The CDC’s VERB! (It’s What You Do) Web site offers
physical activity ideas and resources for students
ages 9 –13, parents, and teachers ( www.cdc.gov/
verb ).
• The American Heart Association’s What Moves U
campaign offers activities for P–K through upper
elementary, organized by grade levels, focused on
nutrition and physical activity; their Balance It Out
program offers activities for elementary focused on
nutrition ( www.americanheart.org ).
See References/Suggested Readings at the end of this
chapter for additional Web site listings.
48 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Pedometers
Pedometers can be excellent instruments for increasing chil-
dren’s awareness of their physical activity level. Wearing pe-
dometers during recess and after school /at home will assist
children in assessing their individual levels of activity and the
amount of cumulative activity they attain in a given time pe-
riod and in different environments (e.g., on the playground,
in organized sports, in free play).
Children enjoy charting their steps for “A Walk Across
America,” calculating the miles (and steps) to various desti-
nations within the state, or climbing Mt. Everest. Classroom
teachers appreciate the reinforcements of mathematics and
geography lessons. It is important to remember that 10,000
steps as a daily goal is a target number of steps set for
adults. It is a goal that is too high for sedentary individuals or
those with chronic diseases; it is a number that is low for
many children during an average day. If pedometers are
used to motivate children for increased physical activity, it is
important to set personal goals after establishing baseline
steps for the child, specifi c health goals, and sustainability of
the goal for that child in a routine day (Tudor-Locke 2002).
Pedometers allow children to calculate the amount of activity
they receive and to set goals for the future.
Thomas Jefferson introduced pedometers to America.
They came into the commercial market in Japan in
1965 under the name of manpo-meter ( manpo in
Japanese means 10,000 steps).
— HATANO AND TUDOR- LOCKE, 2001
Outside-of-School Activities
The decrease in physical activity is an environmental
issue. We are seeing a lack of play spaces, safety con-
cerns for children at play, fewer children riding bikes or
walking to school, and fewer neighborhood schools
within walking distance for children. Opportunities for
physical activity beyond the school setting are impor-
tant for the children we teach, for their parents, and for
the communities that collectively are our present and
our future.
Fitness clubs, physical activity clubs, and play-
ground fi tness courses provide additional physical
Physical activity leads to fi tness and wellness.
CHAPTER 4 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children 49
activity for youngsters and involve their families in
the physical activity. Awards systems often give dou-
ble points for parental participation. Family physical
activity nights, fi tness fairs, and fi tness / health
checks bring families together to participate in phys-
ical activity, as well as to learn the current informa-
tion on physical activity, fi tness, nutrition, and good
health.
Saturday activities such as “Bark in the Park,” which
invites you to bring along your dog for the activities,
and “Play with Mr. J,” scheduled playtime with the
physical education teacher Mr. J, bring students and
parents to school playgrounds and community parks
for informal physical activity. School playgrounds
Technology in Fitness / Wellness Education
The world of technology relative to fi tness /wellness educa-
tion has exploded during recent years. Fitness technology
now includes electronic portfolios and heart rate monitors for
upper-elementary students, equipment for fi tness /wellness
labs, interactive video games, the storage and analysis of fi tness data for both students and teachers, and a wealth of
information via the Internet. Jogging /walking club members
can now connect with other students around the world
charting mileage and comparing adventures. The list of In-
ternet resources is almost limitless in fi tness, nutrition, and
other areas of wellness. We encourage you as teachers of
physical education to explore the use of technology in your
teaching of physical education; however, we caution you to
use technology to enhance your program of physical educa-
tion, not as a substitute for quality teaching.
become community parks as children and adults play
together in an environment that is emotionally safe
and fosters confi dence and competence. Remembering
that parents are the number one infl uence in the lives
of elementary-age children, what better way to estab-
lish the habits and instill the importance of physical
activity for good health.
Physical Activity Director
With quality programs of physical education and daily
programs of physical activity, inside and outside the
school, we can meet the recommendation of 60 min-
utes plus of daily physical activity for children. A com-
mitment from everyone — students, parents, classroom
teachers, and the physical education specialist — is crit-
ical to attaining the goal. We as teachers must believe
we can make a difference in the lives of children, that
we can have a positive effect on children’s present and
their future of attaining and maintaining physical
activity and good health.
While everyone in the schools needs to be united
in the goal of daily physical activity for all children, it
is the role of the physical education teacher to take
the lead, to design and /or coordinate the programs of
phy sical activity. Our role as teachers of children ex-
pands to include not just our physical education cur-
riculum, but also physical activity in and outside our
gymnasiums and our schools. As teachers of physical
education and directors of physical activity, we can
provide children with the skills to develop compe-
tence and confi dence in a variety of physical activities
that are enjoyable and challenging, thus increasing
physical activity beyond their years with us.
The development of skill
promotes increased physical
activity; increased physical activity
promotes increased fi tness.
50 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Active Schools
With the physical education specialist as director of
physical activity and a school committed to meeting
the recommended requirement of physical activity for
good health, schools can become “Active Schools” de-
signed to maximize school-based opportunities for re-
inforcing the relevance and value of physical activity
for all children (Fox, Cooper, and McKenna 2004). We
as teachers of children in physical education, in collab-
oration with classroom teachers, parents and commu-
nity leaders, can design and promote our schools as
Active Schools with the following strategies:
• Develop “safe routes” to school for walking and
riding bikes.
• Develop and maintain safe, developmentally appro-
priate playgrounds at school and in the community.
• Permit access to the gymnasiums and school play-
ground after school hours and on weekends.
• Work with classroom teachers to incorporate physical
activity breaks during the day and “active” lessons.
• Mark outdoor paved surfaces for game play.
• Adopt a policy of daily recess for all children (NASPE
2001).
• Promote the value of physical education and the
impor tance of physical activity in each school
newsletter.
• Ensure safe play during recess, both physically and
emotionally.
• Market the school as being healthy, active, and safe.
Active Schools promote quality physical education
and daily physical activity, thus contributing to chil-
dren’s wellness, and to their future with a belief and
participation in physical activity.
Physical Fitness for Children
Quality physical education contributes to increased
physical activity, improved self-concept, increased self-
effi cacy, improved motor skills, increased enjoyment,
History of Physical Fitness
The fi rst alarm on children’s physical fi tness was
sounded in the mid-1950s in response to a comparison
of fi tness levels of American and European children.
The Kraus-Weber test battery had a signifi cant impact
on physical education programs in schools, resulting in
Physical Fitness and the National Standards
for Physical Education
Standard 3: Participates regularly in physical activity
Standard 4: Achieves and maintains a health-enhancing
level of physical fi tness
The National Standards for Physical Education (NASPE 2004a)
recognize the importance of physical fi tness for children,
with an emphasis at the elementary level on the learning of
skills, knowledge, and behaviors that will enable children to
be physically active now and in their adult years. The focus
for children in the early elementary years is the enjoyment of
activity: positive participation in physical education on the
playgrounds of school and community and in active play. As
children grow and mature, the focus is on an awareness of
fi tness concepts and their importance, coupled with the
development of skills and knowledge for regular participation
in meaningful activity. In the National Standards, fi tness is
viewed as a product of a physically active lifestyle; a
physically active lifestyle is the product of movement
competency and knowledge gained through the process
of positive participation in physical activity.
Physical Activity beyond Physical Education
• A before-school activity program
• Family Fun and Wellness Education nights
• A before-school coed dance program
• An exercise program that is townwide for students,
families, dignitaries, and friends
• Fitness homework calendars
• A Run / Walk Club at recess
Susan Donovan, Director of Physical Activity and Physical
Education Specialist, Guiteras Elementary School
increased motivation, and a reduction in sedentary be-
havior (LeMasurier and Corbin 2006). Physical activity
is a preventative to degenerative diseases and obesity.
With the importance of physical education and phy-
sical activity well documented in the research, what
then is the role of physical fi tness for children? What
is the role of physical fi tness in our programs of physi-
cal education?
For some teachers, fi tness is the focus of physical
education, with the curriculum devoted almost en-
tirely to activities that promote specifi c areas of physi-
cal fi tness. For some teachers, a segment of every class
is devoted to fi tness, with a specifi c number of minutes
targeting a fi tness component. For some teachers, ev-
ery physical education class begins with exercises. We
as the authors of Children Moving believe that fi tness is
a product of a quality physical education program, a
process that is ongoing as children move and learn in
our gymnasiums and on our playgrounds.
CHAPTER 4 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children 51
increased emphasis on exercises to improve physical
fi tness in children and youth and fi tness as the major
curricular focus for physical education. The second
alarm on children’s fi tness was sounded with the link-
age of physical fi tness in childhood to the prevention
of cardiorespiratory and coronary disease in adults, as
well as of the degenerative diseases of hypertension
and diabetes. The result was a curricular shift to health-
related fi tness and a renewed emphasis on activities to
boost fi tness components. The alarm sounding today
focuses on children’s lack of physical activity and the
increase in overweight and obese children.
The importance of physical activity as a preventa-
tive for disease and a formula for good health places
the emphasis of physical fi tness on a broad range of
health- enhancing physical activities. Physical fi tness
then is a product of movement that provides chil-
dren with confi dence, skills, and enjoyment. Through
quality physical education, fi tness becomes a process,
attained and maintained through health-related
physical activity. Physical fi tness as a process, a part
of a quality program of physical education, is inher-
ent throughout Children Moving. It is the philosophy
the authors have held since the idea of fi tness for
children was fi rst introduced in the text more than
25 years ago.
Physical Fitness: A Defi nition
Physical fi tness is the capacity of the heart, blood ves-
sels, lungs, and muscles to function at optimum effi -
ciency. In previous years, fi tness was defi ned as the
capacity to carry out the day’s activities without undue
fatigue. Automation, increased leisure time, and changes
in lifestyles following the Industrial Revolution meant
this criterion was no longer suffi cient. Optimum effi -
ciency is the key. Physical fi tness is now defi ned as the
body’s ability to function effi ciently and effectively in
work and leisure activities, to be healthy, to resist hy-
pokinetic diseases, and to meet emergency situations
(Corbin et al. 2008).
Physical fi tness in the past focused on skill-related
components associated with athletic performance;
fi tness today centers around factors pertaining to a
healthy lifestyle. The components of health-related fi tness
are muscular strength and endurance, fl exibility, cardio-
vascular effi ciency, and body composition.
Concepts of Physical Fitness
Fitness concepts in elementary physical education
center around children’s understanding of fi tness, an
awareness of the linkage of fi tness to good health, and
a working knowledge of activities that promote a
healthy level of fi tness:
Physical Fitness It is important that teachers help children understand these critical concepts about
physical fi tness:
• Physical fi tness is important for good health.
• Physical fi tness is improved with regular physical
activity and exercise.
• Being physically active is fun.
• Daily physical activity or active play has positive
health benefi ts.
• Body size does not determine fi tness; physical fi t-
ness is not bulky muscles.
• Good exercise and physical activity habits begin in
childhood.
• Exercise and physical activity should be a daily
habit, like brushing your teeth.
• Fitness doesn’t just happen; you prepare and practice.
• Athletic fi tness is different from health-related fi tness.
• Fitness has several components, and a truly physically
fi t person is healthy in each area.
• To develop a specifi c fi tness component — for ex-
ample, muscular strength —you must do exercises
and activities targeted for that component.
In addition, the following are important concepts for
teachers to remember:
• An emphasis on conditioning for sports is not ap-
propriate at the elementary-school-age level.
• Overload of muscles and bones can be accomplished
through activity for young children.
• Given the opportunity to be active, children will
do so.
• Because physical activity participation declines as
boys and girls reach adolescence, the teaching of
the concepts and behaviors of fi tness in the elemen-
tary school years is critically important.
Health-Related Fitness Fitness concepts for each of the components of health-related fi tness center around
children’s understanding of that component, its linkage
to good health, and activities that promote that area of
health-related fi tness. Here we highlight concepts asso-
ciated with muscular strength, endurance, fl exibility,
cardiovascular effi ciency, and body composition as they
relate to elementary school children.
Muscular Strength and Endurance The following are
important concepts for teachers to remember:
• Activities that require children to move and lift their
body weight, as opposed to forced exercise and condi-
tioning, are desirable at the elementary school level.
52 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
• Weight training is not appropriate for elementary
students; overload of muscles and bones can be ac-
complished through physical activity.
• Lack of upper-body muscular strength can be very
discouraging for children; therefore, focus on praise
for progress.
Flexibility These are the critical concepts children
should understand about fl exibility:
• You must continue to exercise to maintain fl exibility.
• Stretching should be done slowly, without bouncing.
• Stretching and /or gentle activity before activity will
help prevent injury in vigorous physical activity.
Cardiovascular Effi ciency The important concepts
for children to understand about cardiovascular effi -
ciency are:
• The heart is a muscle that benefi ts from exercise, as
do other muscles.
• Endurance running is not sprinting; pacing is im-
portant for endurance activities.
• Being on an athletic team doesn’t automatically
increase your cardiovascular effi ciency; active par-
ticipation is necessary.
In addition, teachers should remember that participa-
tion in continuous aerobic activities of long duration
is not desirable for elementary-school-age children.
Body Composition The important concepts about
body composition are:
• A certain amount of body fat is needed for good
health.
• Body weight and body composition are not the same.
• A good balance of body fat and lean tissue is at-
tained by good nutrition and physical activity.
• Body composition is affected by heredity, nutrition,
and lifestyle.
Fitness in the Physical Education Curriculum
Research has shown that children can be trained and
coached in the components of fi tness if (1) exercises
are maintained at a rate of intensity high enough to
produce the desired results and (2) diversifi ed programs
of physical education are replaced with programs of
just physical fi tness a minimum of three times per
week. Both these concepts, however, are in direct
opposition to our beliefs about activity programs
for children.
Programs of strenuous calisthenics for children can
result in “winning the battle but losing the war.” We
may develop fi tness in children for the period of time
We try to present moderate to vigorous activity as
an enjoyable experience so that children develop a
positive attitude toward an active lifestyle. We also try
to provide children and their parents with a suffi cient
knowledge of fi tness and training concepts to be wise
consumers of commercial fi tness items, packaged pro-
grams, and health spas. As teachers, we can help chil-
dren and their parents choose sports and activities for
enjoyment of physical activity and fostering fi tness.
Fitness is a personal matter; its goal is self-improvement
toward healthy living. Within our elementary physical
education curriculum we can teach basic concepts of
fi tness, design our lessons to promote physical activity,
and help children build a repertoire of skills for their
personal use.
The Teaching of Fitness Concepts
Teaching the concepts of fi tness involves a series of
lessons, distributed throughout the year, that are de-
signed to focus on a fi tness concept or component. For
example, the concept of physical fi tness is chosen as
the theme for a lesson in physical education. The con-
cept is introduced with a brief discussion of children’s
perceptions of a physically fi t person: What does a
physically fi t person look like? Do you know one? How
do you know he or she is physically fi t? Stations, vari-
ous activity areas set up around the teaching space,
provide active participation, targeting each of the
they’re under our control, but the negative feelings as-
sociated with the forced exercise /activity often lead to
negative feelings toward activity and exercise that con-
tinue into adulthood.
Although a carefully designed weight-training program
is appropriate for adolescents, experts recommend
that children lift weights only under the careful super-
vision of a qualifi ed teacher or trainer who has an ex-
tensive background in prepubescent bone ossifi cation
(Bernhardt et al. 2001). We do not recommend weight
training as part of an elementary school physical edu-
cation program.
The use of calisthenics is unacceptable in children’s
physical education. Formal exercises are unrelated to
child life situations and have very little, if any, carry-
over value.
— NEILSON AND VAN HAGEN, 1935
CHAPTER 4 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children 53
health-related fi tness components. Children working
with partners discuss and answer questions regarding
the activity and its contribution to fi tness. Following
participation at each of the stations, younger children
draw a picture to illustrate a physically fi t person; older
youngsters write two or three sentences in their journals
describing what it means to be physically fi t. The les-
son concludes with children’s responses to a defi nition
of physical fi tness. Lesson plans for introducing fi tness
components and examples of concept lessons may be found
in On the Move (Holt /Hale 2010), the collection of lesson
plans designed to accompany Children Moving. In addi-
tion to the focus lessons, support activities are provided
for the classroom teacher, bulletin boards highlight the
concept, linkage cues are given during instructional
physical education, and the concept is revisited and /or
expanded throughout the year.
The teaching of fi tness in physical education also
includes the planning of all instructional lessons to
maximize active participation, and refl ection on the
overall fi tness of classes and individual children. In ad-
dition to instructional physical education, the teaching
of fi tness to children includes providing opportunities
for physical activity during and beyond the school
day. Finally, the teaching of health-related fi tness in-
volves assisting those youngsters below the healthy
range of fi tness in the design of personal programs to
meet their needs.
Assessing Physical Fitness
The components of fi tness are assessed with a battery
of tests designed to measure a child’s performance on
each of the components. Fitness assessment may be
conducted with a commercial packaged assessment
program, with a teacher-designed test, or by children
choosing from a “menu” with several assessments for
each component. The two most widely used commer-
cial assessments for physical fi tness are the President’s
Challenge and Fitnessgram. Further information on
the specifi cs of each test, awards systems, and so forth
can be obtained by contacting the President’s Council
on Physical Fitness and Sports (President’s Challenge)
or the Institute for Aerobics Research (Fitnessgram).
The President’s Challenge is a criteria referenced test,
with norms established by testing a large number of
boys and girls at each age level. Fitnessgram is a crite-
rion reference test, with criteria established for health
fi tness — that is, the score is the level needed for good
health. See Box 4-1 for contact information.
Physical fi tness assessments can be used to culminate
a unit, to motivate students, as diagnostic screening
instruments, and /or as an ongoing process throughout
the year. Physical fi tness assessment is part of the over-
Physical Fitness Test Packages
Additional information concerning specifi c physical fi tness
packages, national norms, awards programs, and so on
may be obtained from the following sources:
Fitnessgram
Developed by:
Institute for Aerobics Research
www.cooperinst.org
Distributed by:
Human Kinetics
P.O. Box 5076
Champaign, IL 61825
www.HumanKinetics.com
President’s Challenge
Developed by:
President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports
www.presidentschallenge.org
Distributed by:
The President’s Challenge
501 N. Morton Street, Suite 203
Bloomington, IN 47404
www.presidentschallenge.org
Box 4-1
all fi tness education for children, providing information
on their levels of health-related fi tness, ways to measure
the components of fi tness, and the linkage between phy-
sical activity and improvements in fi tness. We strongly
advocate using physical fi tness assessments for screen-
ing purposes and as an ongoing process. Fitness assess-
ments should never be used to assign a grade in physical
education. Young children in primary physical educa-
tion should not be formally evaluated with a fi tness test.
We recommend not recording test scores of children
below the fourth grade. Younger children can take the
test as an educational experience, but the characteristics
of young children do not promote maximum effort
and extended concentration on a subject that is of
more interest to the teacher than to them.
If the physical fi tness assessment is to be used as a
diagnostic tool, administer the test in early fall. You can
then use the test results to help develop yearly plans, as-
sist youngsters in establishing personal fi tness goals, and
plan remedial programs for individual students. We rec-
ommend that children who have extremely low scores
be given remedial fi tness programs — individualized
54 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
After the Assessment
What is important in fi tness assessment for children is
not the test itself, but what is done after the test is
completed. Fitness assessment should be an educa-
tional experience for the child, the parents, and the
teacher. Simply sending home scores on a report card
or at the end of the semester is of very little benefi t to
anyone. The recording of scores should be done in a
manner that provides ownership to children, is per-
sonal and private for each individual, and assists chil-
dren in setting fi tness goals. Children can be active
participants in the recording of their fi tness scores fol-
lowing test completion. Scores may be recorded with
computer programs or with teacher/child-designed acti-
vity sheets, both providing interactive participation
for the children. With commercial programs, students
enter their test scores in the computer program and
receive the print-out of physical fi tness assessment;
some commercial programs also provide suggestions
for improvement in low areas.
At Linden Elementary School, we have found that
the children enjoy recording their fi tness scores with
bar graphs and bright colors. A simple graph can be
designed listing test items ( Figure 4.4 ). After the health
fi tness screening in the fall, each child is provided his
or her scores from the assessment. Using a highlighter,
Simple playground activities lead to fi tness.
education programs (IEPs)— for their area(s) of weak-
ness. The physical education teacher can counsel these
students individually on ways to improve fi tness through
physical activity. Programs of activity and exercise can
be designed for use at home, and parents can become
active participants with their child.
Children with extremely low scores refl ecting an
areas of fi tness that is of concern can benefi t from ex-
periences in a school fi tness lab, activities to do at
home to focus on a particular fi tness component, and
family activities to promote fi tness and physical activ-
ity for everyone. Schools with available space and staff-
ing can create a fi tness/wellness lab to which children
can come for physical activity and exercise designed
for their areas of weakness. Working on their personal
fi tness plans, under the supervision of a trained volun-
teer and /or the physical education teacher, children
follow their prescribed programs of activity, record the
activity in their fi tness logs, and describe feelings via
journal entries. At-home “prescriptions” can be writ-
ten, for which children complete the activities along
with their parents. A monthly calendar can be pro-
vided for the child to code (color, star, sticker) at the
completion of the activity each day. We have found
the at-home prescriptions to be an excellent introduc-
tion to family fi tness as parents and children take part
in the activities together. Examples of prescription
activities and exercises for fl exibility, muscular strength,
and cardiovascular fi tness as well as family fi tness acti-
vities can be found in Appendixes 4A & 4B at the end
of this chapter.
Whether the physical fi tness assessment is used as a
screening tool in the fall, as a culminating experience for
children, or as an ongoing process, it should be an edu-
cational endeavor. Each test item should be carefully ex-
plained, emphasizing the particular component being
tested. All too often, children do poorly on an assess-
ment because they do not understand the directions.
Suffi cient time should be allowed for practice so that
children understand the proper techniques and stretch
their muscles. The purpose of the test is to motivate the
children to do their personal best, not to trick them.
CHAPTER 4 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children 55
Personal Fitness Profile
Name
Note: Body composition should not be reported on a child’s Personal Fitness Profile.
Fall
Super HealthyBe Healthy Club
Spring
Abdominal Strength: Curl-ups
Fitness Component:
Homeroom
Score:
Fall
Super HealthyBe Healthy Club
Spring
Upper Body Strength: Pull-ups, push-ups Score:
Fall
Super HealthyBe Healthy Club
Spring
Cardiovascular Endurance: One-mile run Score:
Fall
Super HealthyBe Healthy Club
Spring
Flexibility: Sit and Reach Score:
B e c o m
in g
h e a lt
h y
H e a lt
h y
A th
le ti
c h
e a lt
h y
S u p
e r
h e a lt
h y
S e ri
o u s
c o n
c e rn
Figure 4.4 Personal fi tness
profi le.
the child colors in the portion of the bar correspond-
ing to the score for each test item —upper bar for fall
scores. Completion of the graph provides a visual rep-
resentation for the child of the areas of fi tness in the
health fi tness range, those above, and those needing
remediation. When the children have recorded their
scores and refl ected on the assessment results, they can
write in their journals their feelings about their test re-
sults and record their personal fi tness goals for the year.
When the fi tness assessment is repeated in the spring,
each child again colors the portion of the bar corre-
sponding to spring scores (lower bar for spring scores),
using a different color highlighter. A comparison of fall
and spring scores shows changes in fi tness and progress
toward personal goals established in the fall. Note: A
simple turning of the paper reveals for each child a bar
graph of the year’s fi tness assessments and opportunity
for an integrated mathematics lesson.
The focus of elementary physical education is the
child; the focus of physical fi tness should also be the
child. No child should be asked to give more than his
or her personal best. Scores from the assessment test
are personal; they are not to be compared. We recom-
mend the following guidelines for the assessment of
children’s physical fi tness:
• Develop an assessment tool that meets your needs:
times per week you see the children for physical
education, entry-level fi tness for children, class size,
your goals for fi tness.
56 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Box 4-2
Component: Developing Health-Related Fitness
Appropriate Practice
• The health-related component of fi tness is the
focus on fi tness activities. Skill-related components
of fi tness are emphasized in their relation to skill
development.
• The physical educator helps students interpret and use
assessment data for setting goals and to develop a lifelong
fi tness plan.
Inappropriate Practice
• Fitness activities are random and unrelated to lifelong
learning benefi ts. Physical fi tness activity consists of
mass exercises following a designated leader or
standard routine.
• The teacher conducts the fi tness assessment but never
uses results to set goals or to design a personal fi tness
plan.
Component: Fitness Testing
Appropriate Practice
• Physical educators use fi tness assessment as part of the
ongoing process of helping students understand, enjoy, im-
prove, and /or maintain their physical fi tness and well-being
(e.g., students set goals for improvement and they are re-
visited during the school year).
• As part of an ongoing program of physical education, stu-
dents are physically prepared in each fi tness component so
they can safely complete the assessments.
Inappropriate Practice
• Teachers use fi tness test results to assign a grade.
• Students are required to run a mile without appropriate
conditioning or acclimatization.
Source: [NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical
Education, Appropriate Practices for Elementary School Physical
Education (Reston, VA: NASPE, 2009).
Appropriate and Inappropriate Physical Education Practices
• Assist the children in setting their personal fi tness
goals. Following the fall screening and graphing of
scores, have the children record in their journals
their personal goals for the year. Young children
often need teacher assistance in setting realistic
goals. All too often the school athlete is the mea-
sure of success for children. Instead, goals should
be based on a refl ection of assessments and incre-
ments of success.
• Praise children’s accomplishments at the lower end of
the spectrum, as well as those at the high-performance
level. (In the fall, the class cheered Molly’s efforts on
the mile run [21:00]; in the spring, they cheered her
accomplishments [16:34].)
As teachers, we need to remember:
• The purpose of fi tness assessment is to determine those
areas that are below the desired range for good health.
• Factors such as chronological age, maturation, and
heredity infl uence scores on a fi tness test.
• The goal of fi tness assessment is a healthy level of
physical fi tness.
Appropriate and inappropriate practices in regard to
physical fi tness and fi tness testing are summarized in
Box 4-2 .
A Final Thought on Fitness
The goal of physical fi tness for children is to enable
them to develop health and activity habits that will
become lifestyles. The two most important factors in
attaining this goal at the elementary school level are
(1) enjoyment of physical activity and (2) mastery of
the basic skills of physical education that will enable
them to participate successfully in physical activities
that promote fi tness. Only if physical activity and fi t-
ness are fun will children pursue them outside the
time they are with us in physical edu cation. Therefore
we focus on the teaching and learning of skills, knowl-
edge, and behaviors that will enable children to value
physical activity and be physically active today, to-
morrow, and throughout their adult lives.
Jonathan, a large fourth-grader, was not looking for-
ward to the one-mile run for spring fi tness testing. On
the day of testing, his mother appeared on the jogging
track to encourage him as he began his laps. He com-
pleted his mile run in 13:35 minutes. During the last
week of school, fourth-graders were asked to write in
their journals about their favorite activity in physical
education — the favorite of all the things they had
done during the year. Jonathan’s favorite: the one-mile
run! Enjoyment and a secure environment are keys to
physical activity and fi tness for children.
CHAPTER 4 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children 57
This teaching and learning must all be done in
environ ments that are physically and emotionally
safe for children. If we at the elementary level can pro-
vide enjoyment in activity, a solid cognitive base of the
importance of fi tness for good health, and the skills
with which to be active, we will have made tremen-
dous strides in children having the confi dence and
accepting personal responsibility for their fi tness as
adolescents and young adults. This personal responsi-
bility leads to:
• A healthy individual
• A healthy, productive lifestyle
• Children with the skills to become and remain
physically active for a lifetime, and the goals of fi t-
ness, wellness, and physical education
Web Sites for Physical Activity and Nutrition
After School Physical Activity Activities to promote group
participation and physical activity, sponsored by the San
Diego County Offi ce of Education and the California
Department of Education; designed for grades 4 – 8;
www.afterschoolpa.com.
Body Venture An educational exhibit for nutrition and physi-
cal activity, sponsored by the Kansas Department of Educa-
tion; designed for grades K– 5; www.bodyventure.org.
Brain Breaks Guides to integrating physical activity and aca-
demics, sponsored by the Michigan Department of Education;
designed for grades K– 6; www.emc.cmich.edu/BrainBreaks.
CircusFit Physical activity and nutrition activities for young-
sters, parents, and families, sponsored by Ringling Bros.
and Barnum & Bailey; www.CircusFit.com.
Fit, Healthy, and Ready to Learn Guidelines for promoting
good health, nutrition, and physical activity, available from
the National Association of State Boards of Education book-
store; www.nasbe.org.
Nation at Risk A statistical sourcebook on obesity, physical
activity, and nutrition; www.americanheart.org.
Physical Best A standards-based program to assist physical
educators in teaching health-related fi tness education, spon-
sored by the National Association for Sport and Physical
Education; workshops, resources, fi tness testing for children
grades K–12; www.aahperd.org /naspe /physicalbest.
School Health Index A self-assessment and planning guide to
assist schools and wellness committees /councils in the analy-
sis of physical activity and nutrition, sponsored by the Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention, linked to the Coordinated
School Health components; www.cdc.gov.
Walking Works for Schools A walking program for schools,
sponsored by BlueCross BlueShield of Tennessee, the
Governor’s Council on Physical Fitness, and the Tennessee
Association for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and
Dance; www.WalkingWorksForSchoolsTN.com.
Web Sites with Emphasis on Nutrition for
Teachers, Children, and Parents
ABC for Fitness A physical activity program for children with
fi ve- to six-minute activity bursts for the classroom;
www. davidkatzmd.com /abcforfi tness.aspx
Dole SuperKids A focus on nutrition for children, families,
teachers, and school food services via games, songs, and
activities for children; www.dole5aday.com.
KidsHealth All about children’s health, including nutrition,
wellness, and fi tness; www.kidshealth.org.
MyPyramid A focus on nutrition and physical activity, with
activities for kids, tips for families, and classroom materials
for teachers (see For Kids link for all); www.mypyramid.gov.
Nutrition Detectives Teaching children to make healthy
choices regarding nutrition; www.davidkatzmd.com /nutrition
detectives.aspx
Summary
Physical fi tness is the capacity of the heart, blood ves-
sels, lungs, and muscles to function at optimum effi -
ciency in work, in leisure activities, and in emergency
situations. In previous years, fi tness was defi ned as the
capacity to carry out the day’s activities without undue
fatigue; we are now recognizing that this condition
may not be suffi cient for healthy hearts and lungs.
Optimum effi ciency is the key. That effi ciency also in-
cludes resistance to hypokinetic diseases.
Fitness is a process and the product of a physically
active lifestyle; a physically active lifestyle is the product
of movement competency and knowledge gained
through the process of positive participation in physi-
cal education and physical activity.
Physical fi tness for children includes a health-
related screening each fall, setting of individual goals,
a cognitive understanding of the components of
fi tness, and moderate to vigorous activity on a regular
basis. It involves the physical education specialist, the
classroom teacher, the child, and the parent(s). Physi-
cal fi tness can be incorporated into the theme of study,
added to the lesson as a group activity, and increased
58 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
through before- and after-school programs. The focus
of physical fi tness for the elementary school child is
the development of a positive attitude toward an ac-
tive lifestyle, a knowledge of the concepts of fi tness,
and an understanding of how to attain and maintain
personal fi tness.
Wellness is optimal health and well-being. In addition
to physical fi tness, wellness encompasses the dimensions
of emotional, mental, spiritual, interpersonal/social, and
environmental well-being. Physical education, fi tness,
and wellness share a common goal: optimal health and
well-being for all children.
References /Suggested Readings
Anspaugh, D. J ., and G . Ezell . 2004 . Teaching today’s health. 7th ed. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings.
Bernhardt , D . T ., et al. 2001 . Strength training by children and adolescents. Pediatrics 107: 1470 –72.
Blair , S . N ., and M. D. Meredith . 1994 . The exercise-health relationship: Does it apply to children and youth? In Health and fi tness through physical education, ed. R . R. Pate and R. C. Hohn , pp. 11–20 . Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2003 . Preva- lence of physical activity, including lifestyle activities among adults —United States, 2000 – 2001 . MMWR— Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 52(32): 764 – 69.
Corbin , C . B ., G. LeMasurier , and B. D. Franks . Making sense of multiple physical activity recommendations. PCPFS Research Digest 3(19).
Corbin , C . B ., et al. 2008 . Concepts of fi tness and wellness: A comprehensive lifestyle approach. 7th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Crespo , C . J . 2005 . Physical activity in minority popula- tions: Overcoming a public health challenge. PCPFS Re- search Digest 6(2).
Davison , K . K ., et al. 2006 . Pathways linking perceived ath- letic competence and parental support at age 9 years to girls’ physical activity at age 11 years. RQES 77(1): 23 – 31.
Dunton , G . F ., et al. 2006 . Physical activity , fi tness , and physical self-concept in adolescent females. Pediatric Exercise Science 18(2): 240 –51.
Fahey , T . D ., P. M. Insel , and W. T. Roth . 2003 . Fit and well. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Fairclough , S ., and G. Stratton . 2006 . Physical activity , fi tness , and affective responses of normal-weight and over- weight adolescents during physical education. Pediatric Exercise Science 18(1): 53 – 63.
Fox , K . R ., A. Cooper , and J. McKenna . 2005 . The school and promotion of children’s health-enhancing physical activity: Perspectives from the United Kingdom. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 23(4): 338 –58.
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. Defi ne physical fi tness. Why can we no longer de-
fi ne the level of fi tness as the capacity to carry out
the day’s activities without undue fatigue?
2. What is the difference between health-related and
skill-related fi tness?
3. Why do we emphasize health-related fi tness in our
programs?
4. What is the focus of fi tness at the elementary
school level?
5. Discuss the linkage of physical activity to physical
fi tness and wellness. Why is this relationship so
important to children in our elementary schools?
6. Why is physical inactivity called an environmen-
tal, an emotional, and a health issue?
7. Why is physical activity termed a preventative for
disease and a formula for good health?
8. Design a program of physical activity beyond phys-
ical education classes for elementary-age children.
9. Describe the options for physical fi tness assess-
ment for children.
10. Why do the authors of Children Moving not recom-
mend testing of children for fi tness below the
fourth grade?
11. What is meant by the term good health balance ?
Why is it important for children?
12. How do the Council on Physical Education for
Children Physical Activity for Children guidelines
affect the physical education curriculum?
13. What is meant by the term Active Schools ? Design
a collaborative project for working with com-
munity leaders, the parent – teacher organization,
or local agencies to increase physical activity for
children.
14. Defi ne wellness. What are the components of well-
ness for children at the elementary school level?
15. Choose one wellness component. Design a strat-
egy for working with the classroom teacher to
teach that component. Include in your action plan
the integrating of the component into physical
education.
CHAPTER 4 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children 59
Fox , K . R ., and J. Harris . 2003 . Promoting physical activity through schools. In Perspectives on health and exercise, e d. J. McKenna , and C. Riddoch , pp. 181–202 . Basingstoke , UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
Gately , P . J ., C. B. Cooke , R. Butterly , C. Knight , and S. Carroll . 2001 . The acute effects of an 8- week diet , exercise and educational camp program on obese children. Pediatric Exercise Science 12: 413 –23.
Hatano , Y ., and C. Tudor-Locke. 2001 . Pedometer-assessed physical activity: Measurement and motivations. Paper presented at the American College of Sports Medicine Meeting , Baltimore , MD.
Hellison , D . 2003 . Teaching responsibility through physical activity. 2nd ed. Champaign , IL: Human Kinetics.
Holt / Hale , S . A . 2010 . On the move: Lesson plans to accom- pany Children Moving. 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Kane , M . 2004 . Kid fi t and fun. Knoxville , TN: East Tennessee Public Communications Corporation.
Kater , K . J . 2004 . Real kids come in all sizes: Ten essential les- sons to build your child’s body esteem. New York: Broadway Books.
Kater , K . J . 2005 . Healthy body image: Teaching kids to eat and love their bodies too! 2nd ed. Seattle : National Eating Disorders Association. Available from www.bodyimage.org.
Katz , D . 2004 . How we grew so big. Time Magazine 163: 23.
Kennedy , J . F . 1960 . The soft American. Sports Illustrated 13: 15.
Kimm , S ., et al. 2002 . Decline in physical activity in black girls and white girls during adolescence. New England Journal of Medicine 347: 709 –15.
Lee , A ., and M. Solomon . 2007 . School programs to in- crease physical activity. JOPERD 78(5): 22 –24.
LeMasurier , G ., and C. B. Corbin . 2006 . Top 10 reasons for quality physical education. JOPERD 77(6): 44 –53.
Lohman , T . G ., S. B. Going , and L. Metcalfe . Seeing our- selves through the obesity epidemic. PCPFS Research Digest 5(3): 1– 6.
McAllister , R . 2003 . Healthy lunchbox. Washington , DC: LifeLine Press.
McConnaughey , J . 2003 . CDC diabetes warning for chil- dren. Associated Press , June 16.
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2001 . Recess in elementary schools: A position paper from the National Association for Sport and Physical Education. Reston , VA: NASPE.
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Education. 2004 a. Moving into the future: National stan- dards for physical education. 2nd ed. St. Louis , MO: Mosby.
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2004 b. Physical education for children ages 5 –12: A statement of guidelines. 2nd ed. Reston , VA: NASPE.
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2005 . Physical best activity guide: Elementary level. 2nd ed. Champaign , IL: Human Kinetics.
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2009 . Appropriate practices for elementary school physical education. Reston , VA: NASPE.
National Association of State Boards of Education. 2004 . The obesity epidemic. State Education Standard 5(2).
Neilson , N . P ., and W. Van Hagen. 1935 . Physical education for elementary schools. New York: A. S. Barnes .
Page , R . M ., and T. S. Page . 1993 . Fostering emotional well- being in the classroom. Boston: Jones & Bartlett.
Parker , M ., and J. Stiehl . 2005 . Personal and social respon- sibility. In Standards-based physical education curriculum development, e d. J. Lund and D. Tannehill . Boston: Jones & Bartlett.
Satcher , D . 2003 . Address to the American Alliance for Health , Physical Education , Recreation and Dance , New Orleans , March.
Shephard , R . J . 2005 . The obesity epidemic: A challenge to pediatric work physiologists? PES 17(1): 3 –17.
Strong , W . B ., et al. 2005 . Evidence based physical acti vity for school-age youth. Journal of Pediatrics 146: 732 – 37.
Tudor- Locke , C . 2002 . Taking steps toward increased physical activity: Using pedometers to measure and moti- vate. PCPFS Research Digest 3(17): 1– 6.
[USDHHS] U. S. Department of Health and Human Services. 1996 . Physical activity and health: A report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta , GA: Centers for Disease Control and Pre- vention , National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion.
[USDHHS] U. S. Department of Health and Human Ser- vices. 1997 . Guidelines for school and community programs to promote lifelong physical activity among young people. Atlanta , GA: USDHHS , Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
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[USDHHS] U. S. Department of Health and Human Ser- vices. 2000 b. Promoting better health for young people through physical activity and sports. Silver Springs , MD: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
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60 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Flexibility Activities
Wake-up Time
• Stretch all your body in all different directions; then wiggle
like Jell-O on a plate.
• Lie on your stomach, and then reach back and grab your feet
with your hands. Try to make a bowl shape with your body by
raising up your chest and legs and rocking on your stomach.
Going to School
• Keep one arm straight, and swing it in a big circle from the
front of your body to the back. Hold on tight to your books.
• Shake your leg each time you take a step. If you’re wearing
long socks, try to shake them down to your ankles. The
vibration of the skin and muscles will help loosen you up.
Studying
• Hold your hands together behind your chair, keeping your arms
straight. Can you feel which muscles are being stretched?
• Let your head fall to one shoulder, and then roll it around to
the other shoulder. Be limp, but don’t fall asleep.
In the Kitchen or Den
• Stand about 3 feet from the kitchen counter or a table. Lean
toward it, holding on to the edge of the counter or table. Can
you keep your legs straight and your feet fl at on the fl oor?
Television Time
• Sit on the fl oor and pull your feet up to your body with the
bottoms of your feet together. Hold on to your feet; then use
your elbows to push your knees to the fl oor. Next, try to touch
your chest to your feet. What do you feel stretching this time?
Family Time
• Sit facing a partner with your legs spread apart and your
feet touching your partner’s feet. (If you’re doing this exer-
cise with your father or mother, your feet may touch only
their ankles because their legs are much longer.) Hold
hands; one partner leans back and slowly pulls the other
partner so that he or she is stretching. Take turns stretching
your partner.
Strength and Endurance Activities
Wake-up Time
• Before getting out of bed, tighten all the muscles in your
body, rest your muscles, then tighten them again —hard!
Can you tighten one part of your body at a time?
Getting Ready
• While you’re wringing out the washcloth, squeeze and twist
it as hard as you can. What does this movement
strengthen?
• After putting on your shoes, lift both your feet and legs up
and down from a sitting position. How many times can you
do this without stopping? Can you hold both legs in the air
for 30 seconds?
Going to School
• Hold a heavy book in one hand and see how many times
you can lift it up and down by bending your elbow. Try lifting
the book while keeping your arm straight.
• On the bus, put your feet underneath the seat in front of you
and tighten your leg muscles to make them straight and stiff.
Studying
• Hold the sides of your chair and pull as hard as you can,
but don’t bend your back.
• How hard can you push down on the desk with your hand
and arm? Push and hold for 30 seconds.
Television Time
• Lie on your side, and lift one leg up and down in the air.
Can you do each leg for a whole commercial?
• Lie on your back with knees bent, feet fl at on the fl oor,
and arms at your sides. Tighten your abdominal muscles
and raise your arms, shoulders, and head slightly off the
fl oor. Hold that position for a couple of seconds.
• Lie on your back. Place a pillow between your knees and
try to curl up in a ball so that your nose touches the knees.
How many times can you do this during one commercial?
Appendix 4A: Family Fitness Activities
CHAPTER 4 Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Wellness for Children 61
Cardiovascular Activities
Wake-up Time
• Before getting out of bed, lie on your back and kick your
legs up in the air. Keep kicking them as fast and as long as
possible, or move them in a circular motion, as if you were
riding a bicycle.
Getting Ready
• Stand in front of the mirror and pretend you’re boxing
with yourself. How quickly can you swing and punch?
How long?
Going to School
• Walk, skip, ride a bicycle, or even jog to school or the
bus stop.
• If you ride in a car pool, run to the car before mom or dad
gets there, and then count the number of times you can
jump up and down before she or he arrives.
Family Time
• Put on some upbeat music and dance. See who can move
around the most, longest, and best.
Appendix 4B: Prescriptions for Fitness
Activities /Exercises for Abdominal
Strength and Endurance
Wall Push Stand with your back against a wall, your feet only a few inches from the wall. Your knees
should be slightly bent, with your arms at the sides of
your body. Pull in your abdomen and press your shoul-
ders, small of back, and buttocks against the wall. Hold
the position for 5 seconds.
Untimed Sit-ups Lie fl at on your back with your knees bent and your arms crossed on your chest. Grad-
ually perform sit-ups.
Sit-up variations:
• Extend your arms forward. Shake your hands and
arms as you curl up.
• Extend your arms forward. Clap your hands on the
fl oor as you curl back to the mat.
Finger Walk Lie fl at on your back with your knees bent in the sit-up position. Extend your arms at your
sides. Walk your fi ngers forward on the mat in the direc-
tion of your feet as you tighten your stomach muscles
and raise your shoulders slightly off the mat. Gently
lower your shoulders to the mat and repeat.
Activities /Exercises for Upper-Body
Strength and Endurance
Flexed-Arm Hang In a pull-up position, palms fac- ing forward, chin above the bar ( Figure 4.5 ), hold the
position for 5 to 8 seconds without letting your chin
touch the bar or drop below the bar. When holding for
Figure 4.5 Correct position for fl exed-arm hang.
8 seconds feels comfortable, increase the duration to
15 seconds.
The fl exed-arm hang should not be held for ex-
tended periods because of the possibility of elbow
injury and /or extreme muscular fatigue.
Reverse Pull-ups Hold the bar as in the fl exed-arm position, chin above the bar, palms either forward or
reversed. Slowly lower your weight to a hanging posi-
tion by straightening your arms.
Walking Hands Assume a push-up position with your body fully extended and your hands on the fl oor
behind a line or tape mark ( Figure 4.6 ). Walk your hands
62 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
forward and backward over the line as you count 1-2-3-4;
aim for 60 counts. Variation: Time for 60 seconds.
Pillow Push-ups In a push-up position ( Figure 4.7 ), hands shoulder width apart, fi ngers forward, slowly
lower your body toward the fl oor until your chest gent-
ly touches the pillow. Straighten your arms to raise
your body back to starting position. We have found that
children have a fear of crashing to the fl oor when attempting
a push-up. Placing the pillow under the chest eliminates
this fear. You may begin with a modifi ed push-up —
knees bent — if you wish; when you are confi dent and
ready, switch to the regular position — legs straight.
Belly-ups Sit on the fl oor with legs extended for- ward, arms at the side, hands fl at on the fl oor, with
your fi ngers pointing away from your body ( Figure 4.8 ).
Raise your hips, extending your body — straight like a
board. Bend your elbows to slowly lower your body
toward the fl oor; do not allow your buttocks to touch
the fl oor. Return to the extended starting position by
pushing your body upward. Bending the elbows to lower
the body is the key to building the arm muscles.
Activities /Exercises for Shoulders, Lower
Back, and Hamstring Flexibility
Trunk and Shoulder Extensions Slowly ex- tend both your arms overhead as high as possible and
hold them for 10 seconds. Gently lower arms; repeat
extension.
Trunk and Shoulder Rotation With your right arm at shoulder level, look and slowly turn to your left;
Figure 4.8 Correct position for belly-ups.
Figure 4.9 Student performing the inner-thigh stretch on the right leg.
Figure 4.10 The lying knee-pull exercise.
hold 10 seconds. Repeat the movement in the opposite
direction.
Inner-Thigh Stretch Sit on the fl oor with your legs spread apart and extended. Slowly lean forward with
one arm on each side of one leg and hold the position
( Figure 4.9 ). Repeat the exercise on the other leg.
Lying Knee Pull Lie fl at on your back with your legs extended and arms straight at your sides. Bring your left
knee to your chest, grabbing under the knee with both
your hands ( Figure 4.10 ). Pull and hold your knee for 5
seconds. Repeat the exercise with your right leg. Remem-
ber to keep your extended leg straight and on the fl oor.
Figure 4.7 Correct position for pillow push-ups.
Figure 4.6 Weight on hands improves upper-body strength.
63
C H A P T E R
5
Refl ective Teaching The good teacher must relate his teaching to the world of his students as it is, not as he or she
would like it to be.
— HERBERT FOSTER
A search for rigid prescriptions of the right way to teach has largely been replaced with the search
for propositional rules and principles to guide practice.
— JUDITH E. RINK
64 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
T he fi rst four chapters provided an introduction to
the purpose and characteristics of a quality pro-
gram of physical education, along with an over view
of skill themes and concepts of movement, physical
fi tness, and wellness. This short but important chapter
also provides an overview — of refl ective teaching and
• The refl ective teacher believes that students, classes,
and teaching situations are different and develops
lessons and the curriculum accordingly.
• The number of students in a class, frequency and length
of classes, facilities, equipment, the behavior of the stu-
dents, and the characteristics of the school are all factors
taken into account by refl ective teachers as they develop
their lessons and programs.
• The personal value system of the teacher is the most im-
portant characteristic of a refl ective or an invariant teacher.
• Invariant teachers rarely refl ect on their effectiveness, con-
tinuing to teach the same lessons and content year after
year, ignoring the progress and interest of the students.
• Refl ective teachers are continually thinking about what
they need to change, or do differently, to heighten their
teaching and program effectiveness.
Key Concepts
the reasons for refl ective, as opposed to invariant,
teaching ( Table 5.1 ). The actual skills of refl ective teach-
ing (planning, observing, developing the content, esta-
blishing a learning environment, and analyzing your
teaching) are detailed in Part 2.
One of the guiding concepts in education today is
differentiated instruction. This means that all children
are not identical and that teachers should attempt to
vary their teaching, both what and how they teach,
based on the abilities of the children. The authors of
Children Moving , and many other respected educators,
do not believe that a prepackaged curriculum can be
used to meet the needs and abilities of all children in a
class. We want every child we teach to experience suc-
cess and pleasure and a sense of competence that leads
to their becoming physically active for a lifetime. In
order to do so, we differentiate our instruction — that
is, we are refl ective teachers who recognize that in
quality programs of physical education, one size does
not fi t all (NASPE 2009).
No two children are exactly alike. There are obvious
physical differences and more subtle personality and
individual differences. What is exciting to one child is
boring to another. Some youngsters can accomplish a
great deal on their own; other children require almost
constant monitoring if they are to make progress. For
each child who delights in the challenge and camara-
derie of a team game, another prefers the challenge
and satisfaction of individual activities.
Table 5.1 Comparison of Refl ective Teaching and Invariant Teaching
Variable Refl ective Teachers Invariant Teachers
Planning Adjust lesson plans to differences between classes Use the same plan for each primary grade and the same
and children plan for each intermediate grade
Progression within Base progression on such factors as youngsters’ Base progression on such factors as (1) six-week units;
and between lessons (1) rate and extent of improvement; (2) physical skill (2) amount of material to be covered in a semester or year;
needs; (3) interest in a particular topic or activity (3) a predetermined formula for progression
Methodology Vary the methodology according to such factors as Employ the same methodology with all classes and
(1) characteristics of children in the class; (2) purpose hope that the children will eventually fulfi ll the teacher’s
of the lesson; (3) ability of the children to accept expectations
responsibility
Curriculum Design curriculum for each unique class of children Use predetermined curricular content without
after examining the children to determine their abilities considering such factors as children’s ability, community
and needs infl uences, or children’s interests
Equipment and Modify activities and lessons to available equipment Teach activities and lessons that use available
facilities and facilities equipment and facilities
Discipline Attempt to understand management problems and Assume that the children are misbehaving and resort
then seek the causes, modifying teaching procedure to punitive measures to modify individual and class
accordingly behavior
Assessment Regularly assess the children and seek Assess sporadically and often base assessment on
constructive criticism about their teaching from whether children liked the lesson, how long they
children and colleagues remained interested, and how well they behaved
CHAPTER 5 Refl ective Teaching 65
Schools are also different. Some school buildings
have open designs, and others are divided into perma-
nent classrooms. Administrators can be strict, stultify-
ing, or supportive. Fellow teachers can be cooperative
or competitive, helpful, or obstructive. Gymnasiums,
plentiful physical education equipment, adequate fi eld
space, and small class sizes are basic necessities in some
elementary schools; other schools view such facilities
as frills. Parents may be concerned, meddlesome, apa-
thetic, helpful, or unavailable.
How is a teacher to succeed amid this diversity? We
have no magical answers. But we are convinced that a
prepackaged (linear) approach * to teaching is not ef-
fective, and so we coined the term refl ective teaching .
The refl ective teacher achieves success and professional
satisfaction by differentiating instruction in an attempt
to challenge both the high- and low-skilled children in
a class. She also changes lessons from one class to an-
other, recognizing that all third-grade classes, for ex-
ample, are not identical.
What Is Refl ective Teaching?
Refl ective teaching is recognizing that children are
different — and doing something about it. It could
also be called “adapted” teaching because the teacher
adapts the content, and his teaching, to suit the needs
of individual students and classes. Refl ective teaching
is directly related to the concept of developmentally
appropriate teaching, which acknowledges that stu-
dents develop at different rates and stages (NASPE
2009). Invariant teaching, the opposite of refl ective
teaching, assumes that all children have the same
abilities, interests, and level of physical fi tness (Ta-
ble 5.1). The concept of refl ective teaching, or differ-
entiated instruction, is not new. In fact, one expects
that the teachers in one-room schoolhouses were
models of refl ective teaching, as they were required
to teach children of many ages in the same class-
room. For many teachers, the results of attempting
to teach prepackaged lessons without considering
the unique characteristics of a class have been disas-
trous for both the children and themselves. As stated
in a recent review of the importance of physical
activity for school-age youth: “Coaching and teaching
styles are particularly relevant to the self-concept
in organized sport and physical education” (Strong
et al. 2005).
In this book, refl ective teaching doesn’t refer to
any particular methodology or style of teaching; it
refers to the many teaching skills employed by indi-
viduals who are respected as master teachers (Graham
2008). The refl ective teacher is one who can design
and implement an educational program that is con-
gruent with the idiosyncrasies of a particular school
situation. Invariant teaching, unlike refl ective teach-
ing, is characterized by the use of one approach, and
often identical content, in all teaching situations. In-
variant teachers often rely on prepackaged curricu-
lums that provide the same lessons for many classes,
thereby assuming that all children have the same
abilities and that one school is virtually identical to
another school.
Some teachers teach most of their
lessons outdoors.
*Dwight Allen defi ned linear thinking as searching for the
answer to a problem by investigating a single solution without
considering feasible alternatives (Allen 1975).
66 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
it has been our experience that far too many invariant
teachers fail to account for them in their teaching.
These six variables are the values of the teacher, class
size, the number of class sessions per week, facilities
and equipment, student behavior, and the context of
the school. We’ll now discuss these variables in detail.
Values of the Teacher
Clearly one of the most important variables is the per-
sonal disposition (attitudes and beliefs) we, as teachers,
bring to our teaching situation. Some physical edu-
cation teachers, for example, are more interested in
coaching than teaching — and their programs refl ect a
lack of planning and interest in high-quality physical
education. Other physical education teachers are to-
tally dedicated to their programs and spend countless
hours planning new and interesting activities, as well
as volunteering time with children before and after
The Need for Refl ective Teaching
If all schools, classes, and youngsters were identical,
there would be no need for refl ective teaching. We
would simply provide you with prepackaged lesson
plans for each grade level, and you could follow them
exactly. You know, however, that schools, programs,
and youngsters are different. Figure 5.1 illustrates some
of the more obvious differences. It has been drawn in
the shape of a puzzle to indicate that teaching is a con-
stant challenge as we attempt to fi t the pieces together
into a unifi ed, consistent program that provides young-
sters with the active learning experiences they need.
Refl ective teachers take these differences into account
and continuously modify and change their teaching
and curriculum based on the needs of the students at
their school. We want to focus on six of these variables
that are major factors in any program necessitating
refl ective teaching. Although they may seem obvious,
?
Student-teaching experience of
teacher
Abilities of children ?
Amount of physical education equipment
Length of class periods
Experience of teacher
Social classes of children
Facilities
Attitude of administration toward
physical education
? Support for
physical education from other teachers
Teacher’s intelligence
Attitudes of children
Age of teacher
Frequency of
classes
Teacher‘s motivation Personality
traits of teacher
Ages of children
Teacher’s training program
Size of school
?
Size of the class
Board of Education
Ethnic composition of school and community
Short-term program
goals Days per
week Social class
of teacher Community
sports programs for children
Teacher’s knowledge of subject
Busing
Long-term goals of program
Community recreation program
for children
Weather conditions
Figure 5.1 Interacting factors
that contribute to the unique
ecology of each school.
CHAPTER 5 Refl ective Teaching 67
school. Still other physical education teachers view
physical education as merely a break for the children
from the routine of the classroom, so their programs
consist primarily of fun activities for the children, with
virtually no emphasis on learning.
In many schools, physical education is also the re-
sponsibility of the classroom teacher. Like physical ed-
ucation teachers, classroom teachers vary in their views
of the purpose and importance of physical activity in
the lives of children. Some classroom teachers, for ex-
ample, fi nd time in their hectic schedules to develop
programs for children that truly enhance the develop-
ment of positive attitudes and learning as suggested in
Chapter 1. In contrast, other classroom teachers view
physical education as a break for the children and
themselves — and rely on such old standbys as kickball,
dodgeball, and Duck, Duck, Goose to keep the children
entertained during physical education class.
Ideally, every teacher, whether classroom teacher or
physical education teacher, would appreciate the impor-
tance of physical education and physical activity for
children and develop programs that are developmentally
appropriate—and effective—for children. Realistically,
however, there will always be some teachers who fall back
on the ways things were done in the past rather than
working to develop innovative programs for children. In
addition to the values of the teacher, a number of other
variables contribute to the ease or diffi culty of develop-
ing quality programs of physical education for children.
Class Size
A variable that has particular impact on what a teacher
is able to accomplish in physical education is the size
of the classes. Physical education classes are all too
often the largest classes in a school. A person doesn’t
need much teaching experience to realize that the
number of students within a given class, other vari-
ables excluded, signifi cantly dictates what a teacher
can accomplish. Lessons that are possible with 25 chil-
dren are diffi cult, if not impossible, with 100 children.
This is the primary reason it is recommended that
physical education classes be the same size as in the
classroom (USDHHS 2000).
For teachers to do more than provide directions to a
mass of children, they must have opportunities to ob-
serve and analyze and to give children feedback. The
logistical problems of providing individual instruction
for each child in a class of 50 children who meet for
half an hour are overwhelming. The educational litera-
ture supports this viewpoint: “The more successful
teachers did more tutorial teaching. They spoke to the
class as a whole in order to provide structure and give
general direction, but most of their actual instruction
was given in small groups or to individuals” (Good,
Biddle, and Brophy 1975, p. 70). Class size strongly
infl uences the teaching approach that a given teacher
can use to foster a successful educational experience.
Number of Class Sessions per Week
In addition to the values of the teacher and the size of
classes, another infl uential variable that must be con-
sidered is the number of class sessions per week. Chil-
dren in some schools, for example, have “organized”
physical education only one day a week. Children in
other schools have daily physical education. Obvi-
ously, the children who have instructional physical
education for 180 days a year can learn signifi cantly
more than those who have physical education only
36 days a year (NASPE 2002; USDHHS 2000). The chal-
lenge for the teacher is to make the diffi cult decisions
Some teachers teach in gymnasi-
ums that are used only for physical
education.
68 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
about what can be learned in one or two days a week
so that the children truly benefi t from the program,
rather than simply being exposed to a variety of
activities (Graham, Metzler, and Webster 1991;
NASPE 2009). This also means that the teacher, or
the district, will have to decide which state or na-
tional standards will have to be excluded because of
time constraints.
In schools where children don’t have daily physical
education, the classroom teacher can play a vital role
in reinforcing what the specialist has taught — and vice
versa. When the classroom teachers and the physical
education specialist work together closely, the children
reap the benefi ts.
Facilities and Equipment
A fourth variable is the adequacy of the facilities and
equipment within a particular school. Established pro-
grams of physical education often include adequate
equipment and a reasonable solution to the use of in-
door space during inclement weather. In contrast,
fl edgling programs of physical education may lack
physical education equipment. In some schools, phys-
ical education classes are forced to use classrooms, caf-
eterias, or even hallways on rainy days.
Some teachers are masters of improvisation, but
others can’t function without adequate facilities and
equipment. The teaching skills acquired during stu-
dent teaching, when equipment and facilities were
ideal, often must be adapted to less desirable condi-
tions. You may fi nd that there is only one ball per class
instead of one ball per pupil. You may fi nd yourself on
a rainy afternoon teaching in a classroom instead of
on a playground. Different environments call for dif-
ferent teaching skills.
Student Behavior
Another variable that contributes to the need for re-
fl ective teaching is generally referred to as student be-
havior. The ability to manage children effectively is a
major concern in education today, among parents as
well as teachers.
The ability to manage a class of children effectively
is also one of the few teaching skills that educators
agree is a prerequisite to successful teaching. A teacher
must be able to create and maintain an appropriate
environment if children are to learn. Some teachers are
able to maintain desirable student behavior simply by
glancing occasionally at certain children within a class.
Other teachers spend most of their time trying to
maintain order. We believe that specifi c teaching skills
can be effectively employed to create and sustain an
appropriate environment (see Chapters 9 and 10).
Unfortunately, many textbooks — and many teach-
ers —underplay the role of discipline. These texts and
teachers assume that a “good” teacher doesn’t have
discipline problems (Siedentop and Tannehill 2000).
Our experience suggests otherwise. During a teaching
career, a teacher encounters many kinds of classes.
Some will test the teacher’s ability to maintain appro-
priate behavior; others are cooperative. Successful
teachers are able to work effectively with both types
of classes.
Context of the School
A sixth variable, certainly not the least important,
that supports the need for refl ective teaching is the
context of the school. Some schools today are popu-
lated predominantly by children in transient situa-
tions, many of whom will move before the end of the
school year. An increasing number of children are
from homes in which both parents work outside the
home and consequently are generally unavailable dur-
ing the day or when the children return home after
school. Rural schools continue to have children with
needs different from those of children in suburban or
inner-city schools. Moreover, it is typical today to
have one or more children in a class who do not speak
English, and it seems that more classes have main-
streamed children than ever before. Each of these situ-
ations, as well as the many variations that have not
been described, presents interesting challenges to
teachers — challenges that have no standard answers.
The one constant in all of these situations is that chil-
dren need caring, dedicated teachers, perhaps more
than ever.
At the heart of complexity in the gym is numbers.
That the teacher is one and the learners are many
is a fact of life which shapes every aspect of the
teacher’s experience. What many outsiders fail to
appreciate is that an average class contains a lot of
kids for one person to handle even if there were no
intent to teach anything. This failure particularly is
true of parents who often feel qualifi ed as experts on
child management because they deal more or less
successfully with their own children in groups rarely
exceeding three or four.
—LARRY LOCKE, “The Ecology of the Gymnasium:
What the Tourist Never Sees”
CHAPTER 5 Refl ective Teaching 69
How Do I Become a Refl ective Teacher?
Refl ective teachers are able to think critically about
the children and then adapt lessons, facilities, and
equipment to provide a productive and worthwhile
learning environment. In short, they are able to dif-
ferentiate their instruction for different classes and
children. Part 2 of the book provides thorough expla-
nations of the techniques used by refl ective teachers
as they develop their programs into meaningful learn-
ing experiences for their children. The key message in
this chapter is to recognize that all schools, classes,
and students are not identical and that you must be
willing to change your program over the years to in-
crease its effectiveness for youngsters of all abilities,
often in less than ideal teaching circumstances. The
chapters in Part 2 describe the skills that you will need
to become a refl ective teacher. But the fi rst step is to
Refl ective teachers are constantly observing their classes to deter-
mine the children’s needs, interests, and abilities.
accept the fact that no single prepackaged curriculum
or program works for all teachers in every school. If
you accept this premise, you are well on your way to
becoming a refl ective teacher.
The next step, as described in Part 2, is to continue
to build your repertoire of content knowledge. The
more a teacher knows the content, the more options
are available to change or adapt lessons to suit the
needs of individual students or different classes. When
a teacher only knows one game, or one way of intro-
ducing a task, it is extremely diffi cult to practice refl ec-
tive teaching. The refl ective teacher has countless ways
of presenting activities to youngsters to promote their
interest and keep them learning. As with any skill, it
takes years and years of practice before one can truly
claim to be a refl ective teacher.
Some inner-city youngsters often test their teachers
according to rules governing their street corner
behavior rather than by their teachers’ middle-class
rules and expectations. This testing by street corner
rules happens to teachers and administrators in inner-
city schools every day. And most of the teachers and
administrators neither realize nor understand what is
happening. Indeed, until you actually experience this
testing —when all your middle-class niceties do not
count a damn and you wonder why this kid is doing
that to you because you are not as prejudiced as the
others and you really want to help — it will be hard, if
not impossible, for you to understand what I am
talking about.
—HERBERT FOSTER, Ribbin’, Jivin’ and Playin ’
the Dozens
Summary
Six major variables necessitate the need for refl ective
teaching, or differentiated instruction: the values of
the teacher, class size, the number of class sessions
per week, facilities and equipment, student behavior,
and the context of the school. The refl ective teacher
considers the characteristics of each class and the
abilities of the individual students. A refl ective teacher
doesn’t expect all children to respond in the same
way or to achieve the same level of skill. Refl ective
teachers continually observe and analyze, a process
that enables them to revise their expectations and adapt
all the components of the program, thereby con-
stantly improving the effectiveness of the program.
The refl ective approach to teaching requires that
teachers constantly and accurately monitor as they
attempt to design and implement a physical educa-
tion program for a given school. Refl ective teachers
also have a wealth of content knowledge that allows
them to adapt and modify tasks for individuals of
varying abilities.
70 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. What is refl ective teaching? What are its basic
characteristics?
2. What does a linear approach to learning mean?
What is a prepackaged curriculum?
3. Provide three examples of how class size infl uences
the way a teacher teaches a lesson.
4. What factors, typically beyond the teacher’s control,
contribute to the dissimilarity of teaching situations?
5. Locate the standards for your state (or use the na-
tional standards). Select a grade level and indicate
which standards you would eliminate for that
grade level if you were teaching in a school that
had physical education only one day per week.
The standards can be found at www.pecentral.org /
professional/statestandards.html. Explain why you
would eliminate the standards you have chosen
from your program.
6. In your own words, explain the major implication
of refl ective teaching, or differentiated instruction.
References /Suggested Readings
Allen , D. 1975 . The future of education: Where do we go from here? Journal of Teacher Education 26: 41– 45 .
Borko , H. , and C. Livingston . 1989 . Cognition and impro- visation: Differences in mathematics instruction by ex- pert and novice teachers. American Educational Research Journal 26(4): 473 – 98 .
Foster , H. L. 1974 . Ribbin’, jivin’ and playin’ the dozens: The unrecognized dilemma of inner-city schools . Cambridge, MA: Ballinger .
Good , T. L. , B. J. Biddle , and J. E. Brophy . 1975 . Teachers make a difference . New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston .
Graham , G. 2008 . Teaching children physical education: Be- coming a master teacher . 2nd ed. Champaign IL: Human Kinetics .
Graham , G. , C. Hopple , M. Manross , and T. Sitzman. 1993 . Novice and experienced children’s physical edu- cation teachers: Insights into their situational decision- making. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 12: 197– 217 .
Graham , G. , M. Metzler , and G. Webster. 1991 . Specialist and classroom teacher effectiveness in children’s physical education: A 3-year study [monograph]. Journal of Teach- ing in Physical Education 4: 321– 426 .
Housner , L. D. , and D. C. Griffey. 1985 . Teacher cognition: Differences in planning and interactive decision making between experienced and inexperienced teachers. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 56: 56 – 63 .
Locke , L. F. 1975 , Spring. The ecology of the gymnasium: What the tourist never sees. Southern Association for Physi- cal Education of College Women Proceedings .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Education. 2002 . 2001 Shape of the nation report: Status of physical education in the USA. Reston, VA: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2004 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. 2nd ed. Reston, VA: NASPE .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2009 . Appropriate practices for elementary school phys- ical education. Reston, VA: NASPE . www.naspeinfo.org.
Rink , J. 1996 . Effective instruction in physical education. In Student learning in physical education, ed. S.J. Silverman and C.D. Ennis, pp. 171– 98 . Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Siedentop , D. , and D. Tannehill. 2000 . Developing teaching skills in physical education . 4th ed. Mountain View, CA: Mayfi eld .
Strong , W. B. , R. M. Malina , J. R. Bumkie , S. R. Daniels , R. K. Dishman , B. Gutin , A. C. Hergenroeder , et al. 2005 . Evidence-based physical activity for school-age youth. Journal of Pediatrics 146: 732 – 37 .
[USDHHS] U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2000 . School health index for physical activity and healthy eating: A self-assessment and planning guide for elementary school . Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . Available for free download from: www.cdc. gov/HealthyYouth .
71
C H A P T E R
6
Teaching Diverse Learners Movement is learning; movement is life. No matter how disabled a child, movement can make a
difference in his /her life. Movement can help a child become oneself. If a child can move, he /she
can become more a master of the environment rather than being controlled by it.
— JANE R. EVANS
72 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
A s a group of second graders enters the gym for
class on the fi rst day of school, Mrs. Thomas, the
physical education teacher, notices one child roll-
ing his wheelchair through the door and hears two other
children speaking an unfamiliar language. Mrs. Jones’s
heart begins to beat a little faster, and even though she
has several years of teaching experience, she feels a rush
of self-doubt and begins to question her ability to meet
the needs of all her students.
Although this may seem like an unusually diverse
group, it is more common now than ever before to
fi nd physical education classes across the country with
increasingly diverse groups of students. In addition to
over 6 million special education students (Olson 2004),
• With recent increases in the diversity of America’s school-
children, physical education teachers must be prepared to
provide a quality physical education experience to students
with a wide variety of abilities, needs, and interests.
• Inclusion is the philosophy that diverse learners —
including those with differences in mental and physical
ability, skill level, fi tness levels, gender, culture, language,
religion, class, and physical characteristics — are able
to learn and to develop skills in the regular physical
education program.
• It is the responsibility of the physical education teacher to
learn about the unique needs of each diverse learner and
the implications for physical education.
• By changing basic activity components and providing
students choice among appropriate tasks, the teacher
can challenge all students in ways that provide maximum
opportunities for learning and development of their
personal potential.
• Physical education is a direct, required service for all chil-
dren with disabilities under the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA) of 1990.
• The physical education teacher is a critical member of
the multidisciplinary team (M-Team) and should be in
attendance at all meetings that involve students he or
she teaches in physical education.
• It is at the M-Team that goals are established for the child
with disabilities and the environment most conducive to
meeting those goals is identifi ed.
• A top-down ecological model provides the template for
successful inclusion of children with disabilities: deter-
mine critical skills, analyze the existing program, and
design modifi cations.
Key Concepts
currently almost 40 percent of the total public school
population is minority students (NCES 2000). By the
year 2020, more than two-thirds of the school popula-
tion will be African American, Asian, Hispanic, or Na-
tive American, with Hispanic youths representing over
20 percent of the total 5- to 17-year-old population
(Meece and Kurtz-Costes 2001). Furthermore, physical
education teachers are working with more children at
low levels of fi tness than in years past because of in-
creased levels of obesity among American youths
(AOA 2002). Although fi nding ways to meet the needs
of all students in physical education can bring both
joy and challenge for everyone involved, in order to
make a difference we must commit ourselves to pro-
viding a physical education experience in which all
children can be successful.
This chapter will provide strategies to help physical
education teachers meet the needs of the increasingly
diverse population of children entering American
schools. Diversity is defi ned as the differences that exist
among people (Chappelle and Bigman 1998). For the
purposes of this chapter, diversity includes not only
differences in mental and physical ability, but also dif-
ferences in skill levels, fi tness levels, gender, culture,
language, religion, class, and physical characteristics.
Our goal is for all students to experience a sense of
empowerment and competence in physical education
that leads to lifetime participation in physical activity.
Therefore we will fi rst defi ne the philosophy of inclu-
sion and examine ways children can be different from
one another. Then we shift the focus to ways children
are alike and ways to include all students.
Inclusion Expanded
Traditionally, in terms of physical education, inclusion
has meant that students with disabilities are placed in
regular physical education programs (Block 2000).
However, to better represent the wide variety of stu-
dent abilities, needs, and interests resulting from the
increased diversity of America’s schoolchildren, and
because teachers today are faced with more than teach-
ing children with special needs, we have expanded our
philosophy of inclusion. It is time to support diverse
learners, in all their variety of forms, through a broad-
ened conceptualization of inclusion.
Inclusion is a philosophy that says that all children
can learn, that all children want to learn. It involves
teachers creating a healthy learning climate in which
all children feel physically and emotionally safe, suc-
cessful, motivated, and connected to others and have
a sense of ownership/autonomy (Morris, Stiehl, and
Sinclair 2006). In an inclusive environment, the question
CHAPTER 6 Teaching Diverse Learners 73
is not whether children are smart, but how they are
smart. The question is not whether they can develop
skills in physical education, but how they can develop
their skills. Perhaps Tomlinson (2003) put it best when
she explained that it is all in how you frame the ques-
tion. Rather than asking, “What labels do my students
have?” instead ask, “What are their particular interests
and needs?” Rather than asking, “What are my stu-
dents’ defi cits?” instead ask, “What are their strengths?”
Rather than asking, “How do I remediate students?”
instead ask, “What can I do to ensure that each student
works to the highest level of thought and production
possible?” Instead of asking, “How can I motivate
these students?” instead ask, “What releases the moti-
vation born in all humans?” As a whole, these questions
capture the essence of inclusion. Discovering children’s
abilities and helping them learn what they are good at
is critical to their success. Inclusion identifi es and nur-
tures each student’s unique abilities, recognizing that
all children do better when the emphasis is on strengths
(Oberti 1993). Remember, “There are no real disabili-
ties, but only different abilities” (T. Shriver in Block
2007, p. ix).
Physical education programs that include diverse
learners have the same basic goals and objectives as
any other quality program. However, strategies are
used to support program goals while taking into con-
sideration participant needs, interests, abilities, and
skill and fi tness levels. These strategies may include
implementation of modifi ed tasks, assistance for a
child as needed, and /or support for the teacher, such
as in-service training, working with a translator, or
team teaching with an adapted physical education
teacher. Inclusion does not mean placement of all chil-
dren in the general physical education setting with no
assistance and support for the teacher. However, inclu-
sion does mean creating conditions so the needs of
children are met and program outcomes are achieved.
Inclusion begins with a teacher willing to accept all
children; a teacher open and responsive to individuals
The individualization of instruction leads to success for all children.
and the unique needs of each; a teacher who cele-
brates children’s strengths and adjusts, accommo-
dates, and modifi es to provide maximum learning for
each child. Before learning specifi c strategies for in-
cluding diverse learners, it is important to fi rst focus
74 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Psychological Factors
• If children value an activity and feel competent and
satisfi ed while performing it, they are more likely to
engage in the activity.
• For children to persist at an activity, they must feel
competent and confi dent in their ability to reach a
specifi c goal (self-effi cacy).
Social Factors
• Parents and siblings infl uence physical activity be-
haviors of young children.
• In adolescence, peers are more likely to have a
greater infl uence on physical activity levels.
• Enthusiastic and knowledgeable physical education
teachers and coaches are more likely to infl uence
their students’ enjoyment of physical activity.
Environmental Factors
• Because of safety concerns in many neighborhoods,
children engage in indoor activities such as watch-
ing television, reading, or playing video games.
• Transportation can also be a barrier to participating
in group activities.
Specifi c implications for teaching overweight chil-
dren include the following:
• Emphasize enjoyable participation in a variety of
physical activities.
• Create a psychologically safe climate where children
feel successful and have choices of activities to help
them reach goals.
• Help children develop the knowledge, attitudes,
and skills they need to adopt and maintain physi-
cally active lifestyles.
• Keep all or most children active at the same time so
no one feels pressure to perform alone in front of
peers, because overweight children often have low
skill levels and would consider this humiliating.
• Use short bouts of high-intensity activities through-
out the class period. Knowing that the higher level
of intensity will not last long can help motivate less
fi t children.
• Use heart rate monitors with older students to help
them determine when they reach their target heart
rate (THR) zone. Overweight students often push
themselves well beyond the THR, thinking this is
what exercise feels like, when in reality they can get
the full benefi ts of exercise by participating at a much
lower and thus more comfortable intensity level.
• Modify activities so students have choices related to
intensity (see Creating Conditions for Inclusion
later in this chapter).
• Allow children to set individual goals related to
their own skill and fi tness improvement.
• Emphasize self-improvement and personal bests in-
stead of comparing children to each other.
on ways the children may be different. The better in-
formed we are about the diversity of our children, the
better we will be able to teach the child using strategies
we will discuss later in the chapter. Diversity and the
philosophy of inclusion, beyond children with dis-
abilities, includes overweight children, cultural differ-
ences, gender equity, religious differences, and children
of poverty.
Overweight Children
As mentioned in Chapter 4, childhood obesity rates have
reached epidemic proportions. In fact, obesity among
children has tripled in the last two decades. Children
and adolescents who are obese are more likely to be
overweight or obese as adults; overweight adults are at
increased risk for heart disease, high blood pressure,
stroke, diabetes, some types of cancer, and gallbladder
disease. Also, being overweight during childhood, and
particularly adolescence, is related to increased risk of
asthma, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, orthopedic com-
plications, and sleep apnea. Psychosocial effects such
as developing a negative body image and being sub-
jected to weight-related teasing, jokes, and potentially
hurtful comments by peers and family can have a pro-
found effect on children (American Obesity Association
[AOA] 2002).
Today’s youth are considered the most inactive
generation in history. Physical education teachers
can help overweight children build healthy bodies
and establish healthy lifestyles by teaching them
ways to include physical activity in their daily lives
(Chapter 4). Physical educators can play an important
role in the treatment and prevention of overweight
children by giving them the skills and confi dence
they need to participate in physical activity for a life-
time and educating children about the importance
of health-related fi tness concepts as outlined in
Chapter 4.
In order to help children increase their physical ac-
tivity levels it is important to know the factors that
infl uence physical activity levels among children. The
National Association for Sport and Physical Education
(NASPE 2005) lists the following factors:
Biological Factors
• Boys are generally more active than girls.
• Physical activity declines between the ages of
6 and 18.
• Obese children prefer low-intensity activities, and
obese children with obese parents view endurance
activities more negatively than do lean children
with lean parents.
• Only 20 percent of the variation in a person’s physi-
cal activity is explained by genetics.
CHAPTER 6 Teaching Diverse Learners 75
Cultural Differences
Culture serves as the fabric of one’s being and includes
language, beliefs, attitudes, and patterns of communi-
cation (Tiedt and Tiedt 1990). The 2000 census shows
that the United States is more ethnically, racially, cul-
turally, and linguistically diverse than ever before. To-
day the national portrait is being increasingly enriched
with Asian, Latino, and multiracial people (Singer
2004). A monolingual, English-speaking physical edu-
cation teacher is increasingly likely to face the chal-
lenge of teaching young children whose languages and
backgrounds are completely unfamiliar. Often in this
situation even the most well-meaning educators inad-
vertently reinforce children’s confl icting feelings about
their own culture and the majority culture (Cummins
1992). To become more culturally responsive and re-
fl ective teachers (Chapter 5), we must use the cultural
knowledge, prior experiences, and learning style pref-
erences of children from diverse cultures to make
learning more appropriate and effective for them. Cul-
turally responsive teaching is teaching to and through
the strengths of these students (Gay 2000).
The teacher plays a critical role in the success of
children from diverse cultures at school. Minority stu-
dents are often empowered or disabled as a direct re-
sult of their interactions with educators (Cummins
1992). The extent that each of the following character-
istics is implemented in the school setting can directly
affect the success of minority students:
• Minority students’ language and culture are incor-
porated into the school program.
• Minority community participation is encouraged as
an integral component of children’s education.
• Instruction is used to motivate children to use lan-
guage actively to generate their own knowledge.
(Cummins 1992)
Implications for building a culturally responsive in-
structional approach in physical education as outlined
by Sparks (1994) include the following:
• Build trust . A class climate that is perceived as trust-
ing and accepting is important. One way we can
build trust is by sharing information about ourselves
and our own cultural backgrounds. This helps chil-
dren begin to make connections with us that de-
velop the foundation for trust. Learning students’
names and how to pronounce them correctly in
their native language indicates we are interested
and want to get to know them as individuals. Physi-
cal education offers a perfect setting for breaking
social barriers through cooperative and competitive
as well as group and individual physical activities.
Each of these serves as a way to strengthen the bond
between teacher and students.
• Become culturally literate . Learn about the cul-
tural background of the children. This includes
learning about traditions, communication styles, or
social values of diverse cultures. We can increase our
cultural literacy by observing children outside of
the school setting, getting to know their families,
making home visits, and allowing children to share
cultural experiences in the curriculum. In addition,
when children’s home language is encouraged, they
get a sense of acceptance of themselves and their
cultural backgrounds. Challenge yourself to learn
and use greetings in many languages and never hes-
itate to ask children how to say basic expressions.
This validates the children and shows them that
teachers, like the children themselves, struggle with
new languages.
• Use a variety of teaching methods. Become aware
of the children’s learning styles. Some cultures use
more visual cues, while others prefer tactile or audi-
tory cues for learning. Physical education offers many
opportunities for explanation and demonstration of
skills. Peer teaching (Chapter 13) allows children to
assist each other in learning.
• Promote critical thinking. Although critical think-
ing and problem solving are important for all chil-
dren, they can be especially helpful to children from
diverse cultures. Critical thinking empowers children
to make their own decisions rather than always look-
ing to others for answers. This can help build self- esteem and confi dence. Developing original routines,
creating games (Chapter 31), and using mental imag-
ery are techniques that will challenge children to
think critically in physical education.
• Provide effective feedback. Make all feedback concrete
and specifi c. It is also a good idea to demonstrate
what you mean when giving corrective feedback. Be
sure that all children regardless of color, gender, or
ethnic origin receive feedback that is positive, spe-
cifi c, and of equal quality. Chapter 15 gives specifi c
information on providing student feedback.
• Analyze instructional materials. Be sure that all
instructional materials include perspectives from dif-
ferent cultural groups rather than just the majority
group within the class. Use materials that represent
diverse cultural groups and are not discriminatory
based on race, ethnicity, religion, or gender. Use the
rich heritage of physical activity and sport that has
evolved from cultures throughout the world to high-
light unique contributions.
• Establish positive home and community relations.
Create positive relationships with parents early in
the year. This can be done through visiting the home,
making phone calls, inviting parents to come to
physical education classes to see what their child is
learning, or simply sending home a letter introducing
76 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
yourself to parents. Remember that many parents
do not read English. For example, in many regions
of the United States, it is best to send home mate-
rials in English and Spanish (and required in some
school districts). Seek out resources in the school
district to help with translation of materials. Chil-
dren love having parents come to school to speak
to the class, demonstrate a skill, or do an interac-
tive activity.
In order to effectively build a culturally responsive en-
vironment we as teachers of physical education must
value the richness of diversity in our gymnasiums, in
our classrooms, and on our playgrounds. We must fos-
ter positive attitudes toward diversity in our classes,
and promote an environment in which all children
can be successful.
Gender Equity
In 1972, the United States Congress passed Title IX of
the Education Amendments, mandating gender equity
in all educational institutions receiving federal fund-
ing. One of the intentions of Title IX was to provide
equal opportunity for physical education instruction
to all students. Title IX also mandated coeducational
classes, which may begin the process of providing gen-
der equity but does not ensure an equitable environ-
ment (Napper-Owen et al. 1999). For example, educa-
tional research has shown that both male and female
teachers exhibit gender bias in elementary and middle
school programs. In particular, this research found
that teachers’ interactions with students favor male
students (Davis 1999). Title IX provided the founda-
tion and motivation for change, but teachers are the
key to developing these new attitudes (Davis 2003).
Many teachers treat children differently based on
gender without even realizing it. As a result, children
may not be getting an equitable educational experi-
ence. To develop gender fairness, physical education
teachers must create an environment in which both
sexes feel safe to explore and develop their abilities
in sport and physical activity (Hutchinson 1995).
Implications for creating a more gender-equitable
environment as outlined by Napper-Owen (1994)
include:
• Student grouping Use categories such as their birth
date, number of pets, color of clothing, or favorite
foods, rather than gender.
• Individualized instruction Group students for instruc-
tion by ability levels to ensure more individualized
instruction.
• Feedback Provide an equal amount of quality feed-
back to all students.
• Student helpers Ask equal numbers of boys and girls
to demonstrate skills, help with equipment, and an-
swer questions in class.
• Student names Call all students by their fi rst name.
• Inclusive language Use inclusive language, such as
“base player,” “player-to-player defense,” “straight-leg
push-ups,” “modifi ed push-ups” (rather than “boys’
push-ups” and “girls’ push-ups”), and “you” rather
than “you guys.”
• Activities Teach nontraditional activities.
• Teaching materials Use teaching materials that
show both boys and girls in traditional and nontra-
ditional roles.
• Modifi cation of activities Modify activities for maxi-
mize participation by all students. A great way to in-
crease awareness of gender equity is to videotape a
lesson and count how often boys and girls answer
questions, participate in activity, receive feedback, and
demonstrate skills. Chapter 12 provides additional
suggestions for checking gender equity awareness.
Religious Differences
The First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution granted
freedom of religion to all people over 200 years ago.
Today parents from diverse religious backgrounds en-
trust the education of their children to the teachers in
public schools. Therefore it is important that schools
be places where religion and religious conviction are
treated with fairness and respect. Public schools up-
hold the First Amendment when they protect the re-
ligious liberty rights of students of all faiths or none
(Haynes 1999). Because of the confusion that has sur-
rounded the topic of religion in public schools across
the years, this is perhaps easier said than done. One
of the best ways to respect the religious rights of all
children is for teachers and administrators to work
closely with parents and community members to ap-
ply the First Amendment fairly and justly (Haynes
1999). Kahan (2003) provides helpful information for
physical educators based on current understanding of
the law:
• Lesson content Children who object to lesson con-
tent on the grounds of religious beliefs should be
excused without punishment.
• Absences Schools are advised but not obligated to
set calendars around various religious holidays;
they are required, however, to provide opportuni-
ties for students who are absent for religious rea-
sons to make up missed work without any adverse
consequences.
• Dress and physical contact Children whose dress
refl ects their religious views or modesty should be
CHAPTER 6 Teaching Diverse Learners 77
allowed to wear such clothing. For example, Muslim
girls should be allowed to wear a hijab over their hair
and long pants under their shorts, and Sikh boys
should be allowed to wear turbans. In addition, ob-
servance of clothing customs and rules regulating
physical contact and modesty may prevent some
students from participating in activities such as
swimming and dance.
• Religious symbols Religious symbols may be used as
teaching aids (e.g., cross, crèche, menorah); however,
religious symbols should not be used as seasonal dec-
orations. Exercise restraint, plan inclusively, and con-
sider the context of displays. For example, a bulle tin
board with a winter scene of snow, snowmen, pre-
sents, holly, menorahs, Christmas trees, and Kwanzaa
candles may evoke general seasonal feelings and not
perceptions of endorsing any single religion and
would therefore be acceptable.
• Holiday lessons Special lessons or treats prepared
for the observance of holidays occurring during
the school year such as Halloween, Thanksgiving,
Valentine’s Day, and St. Patrick’s Day have indirect
roots in religious events, people, and symbols and
therefore may not suit the religious beliefs of all
children.
Overall, teaching children in one of the most religi-
ously diverse countries in the world requires additional
planning, communication, and fl exibility.
Children of Poverty
The ever-widening gap between socioeconomic levels
in the United States has resulted in a tremendously
large group of children with special needs. These are
the children of poverty. For some families the poverty
is situational, created by a loss of jobs, divorce, illness,
death, and other variables beyond the control of the
children or parents in the family. For other families the
poverty is generational, existing for such a long period
of time that neither the children nor the adults in the
family have ever known nonpoverty conditions. Chil-
dren of poverty live in apartments, in houses, in shel-
ters, on the streets, and in automobiles. They live with
single parents, with multiple families, and with no
parents. They exist in all ethic groups. What they have
in common is poverty — an existence below that nec-
essary for meeting the basic needs of food, clothing,
and shelter, an existence void of the basic components
of wellness.
Children of poverty:
• Have higher rates of lead poisoning
• Have poorer vision and poorer oral hygiene
• Have more asthma and more exposure to smoke
• Have poorer nutrition and less adequate pediatric
care
• Go to bed hungry or ill fed more often
• Have families who relocate more frequently and
must change schools several times within a single
year
• Watch more television and have less access to adults
who can read to them or talk to them in intellectu-
ally stimulating, enriching ways
The social class differences in academic potential
exist by the time children are three years old. Children
of poverty enter kindergarten with academic delays
and cognitive experiential defi ciencies. Many come to
us with developmental delays and motor defi ciencies.
The belief that children of low socioeconomic status
are naturally very skilled in sports and the belief that
excellence in sport will provide the avenue to success,
security, and the fulfi llment of all dreams are two of
the misconceptions for these children. They are skilled
in physical education, as in academics, only if they
have had the experiences for readiness in those skills,
the nurturing of caring adults, and good health to
overcome the environmental variables acting nega-
tively upon that health.
Our task as teachers of children of poverty is the
same as our task for all children:
• To provide physically, emotionally safe environments
for learning
• To assure that each child feels loved and feels
worthy
• To provide “hope for a signifi cant future”
We must believe that all children are capable of suc-
cess (Tipps 2006) and empower them with the tools
for success — in physical education, in the classroom,
and beyond their years in school— and believe in their
ability to achieve that success.
Children with Special Needs
People with disabilities are the largest minority group
in the United States (Block 2007). More than 50 per-
cent of students with disabilities are from backgrounds
“other than white” (USDE 2004). Diversity and dis-
abilities cannot be ignored in our schools or in our
society.
Public Law 94-142 (the Education for All Handi-
capped Children Act of 1975) and the Individuals
with Disabilities Education Act of 1990 and 2004
(IDEA) guarantee all children with disabilities from
ages 3 to 22 a free and appropriate education in the
least restrictive environment. That education includes
78 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
physical education as a direct service — one that
must be provided for all students. IDEA defi nes phys-
ical education as the de velopment of physical and
motor fi tness; fundamental motor skills and pat-
terns; and skills in aquatics, dance, games, and sports.
IDEA further states that, to the maxi mum extent
appropriate, children with disabilities are to be edu-
cated together with children without disabilities —
that is, in their home school, in the classroom, and
in the gymnasium that would be theirs if they had
no disabilities.
Early interpretations of “least restrictive environ-
ment” led to the mainstreaming of children with dis-
abilities for art, music, and physical education and to a
somewhat limited exposure to the classroom environ-
ment of their peers, with the remainder of the day
spent in a “special ed” classroom. Parents of children
with disabilities voiced concern at this separate but
equal approach to education at the same time that re-
search was questioning the benefi ts of the approach.
There was strong concern about the negative (and once
affi xed, everlasting) label of special education. Thus
began the gradual move from mainstreaming to a phi-
losophy of inclusion. With very few exceptions, the
education of children with disabilities is done in the
general program of physical education (PL 105-17,
IDEA Amendments, 1997).
Physical Activity and Fitness
Children with disabilities tend to be less physically
active than children without disabilities. This is due
to a number of factors: the nature of the disability it-
self, overprotective parents, and a lack of recreational
and play facilities that are accessible for those with dis-
abilities. Yet physical activity is extremely important
for children with disabilities. Through physical activ-
ity, skills are developed for recreational use through-
out life. In a physical activity environment, social
skills are learned and practiced, and self-confi dence
for social interaction is enhanced. Through physical
activity, fi tness is improved. Better fi tness brings in-
creased muscle tone for those prone to being less
mobile; muscle tone brings better posture, more control
of manipulatives, and thus increased independence.
A health-enhancing level of fi tness is important for
all children.
Many children with disabilities can participate in
the regular fi tness assessment program. However, for
some boys and girls, modifi cations in assessment will
be necessary. Box 6-1 provides information relative to
fi tness assessments designed especially for students
with disabilities.
Children with disabilities can successfully participate in physical
education.
Natural Proportions
During the early days of mainstreaming, children with dis-
abilities were often grouped together and placed in one
general physical education class, resulting in the class
increasing in number by as many as 5 to 10 children with
special needs. “Natural proportions” is the recommended
principle to match the philosophy of inclusion and maximize
learning for all students (Block 2007). The principle of
natural proportions means the normal ratio of persons with
disabilities will be the guideline for the placement of chil-
dren with disabilities in general classes. With approximately
10 to 15 percent of the school-age population having dis-
abilities, a general elementary physical education class of
20 to 25 youngsters would have 2 to 3 children with dis-
abilities. The principle of natural proportions creates a
physical education environment that promotes success
and positive experiences for all children.
CHAPTER 6 Teaching Diverse Learners 79
Disabilities, Impairments, and Disorders
Disabilities, impairments, and disorders include visual
and hearing impairments; a number of physical dis-
abilities; health-related disorders; emotional, behavior,
and social disorders; and intellectual and learning dis-
abilities. Each child with a disability, impairment, or
disorder has unique needs; successful inclusion, par-
ticipation, and learning are our goals for each child.
Visual Impairments
The two categories of visual impairment are blindness
and partial sight. Impairments range from blindness to
blurred /distorted vision, tunnel vision, and the ability
to see out of the corners of the eyes only. Children
with serious visual impairments may exhibit the fol-
lowing characteristics:
• Self-stimulating mannerisms — for example, stamp-
ing feet, rocking, clicking fi ngers, and turning the
head from side to side — often due to boredom and
lack of external stimulus
• Awkward, clumsy total-body movements and poor
motor skills from lack of experience and limited
sensory information
• Poor posture due to lack of visual modeling
• Developmental lag of at least one year, often due to
lack of stimulus and /or overprotective parents
• Lack of fi tness and a tendency toward being over-
weight because of sedentary lifestyle
• Diffi culty dealing with abstractions and a limited
conception of the “whole”
• Diffi culty in conceptualizing boundaries
The child with severe visual impairments needs au-
ditory and tactile stimulation. As teachers, we need to
encourage this child to venture beyond the known en-
vironment, to explore the gymnasium and the play-
ground. We need to promote social interaction with
peers as well as adults, and to maximize learning
through all the senses. Learning goals for children with
serious visual impairments focus on attention to sen-
sory abilities, spatial awareness, and mobility. Visually
impaired children need the maximum use of their pro-
prioceptive, auditory, haptic, and spatial perceptions.
For visually impaired children, proprioceptive per-
ception is important for maintaining balance. Body
awareness and proprioceptive perception can be in-
creased through activities that focus on the identifi ca-
tion of body parts and awareness of the relationship of
body parts to each other and of the body part’s posi-
tion in space. Children can be asked to move individ-
ual body parts when the body part is named and to
perform certain movements with the isolated body part,
for example, swing or tap (Chapters 16, 18). Teachers
can increase proprioceptive awareness by adding small
weights to body parts and then instructing children to
move the parts. The gymnastics skills of balancing on
different body parts and in different positions also help
this development.
Physical Fitness Test Package for Students with Disabilities
Additional information concerning specifi c physical fi tness
assessment for students with disabilities may be obtained from
the following source:
Brockport Physical Fitness Test Manual (1999), by
J. Winnick and F. Short.
Human Kinetics
P.O. Box 5076
Champaign, IL 61825-5075
www.humankinetics.com
Box 6-1
The senses are also used to establish spatial aware-
ness. Children who are blind have diffi culty perceiving
the relationship of objects in space and the spatial re-
lationship of themselves to objects. Lateral and direc-
tional activities, such as identifi cation of left and right
sides; movement away from self — left, right, up, down,
front, back; and positioning of self in relation to equip-
ment (for example, a table or a chair) help develop
this perception in children without the visual sense.
Ron, a child blind since birth, was mainstreamed into
a physical education class. The class was studying
balance —balance on different bases of support and
balance in inverted positions (Chapter 22). Ron was
working inde pendently in the space defi ned by the
boundaries of his gymnastics mat. Suddenly he cried
aloud; the entire class stopped and turned in his di-
rection. Nothing was wrong; Ron was experiencing
for the fi rst time the change in body position and per-
ception that accompanies being balanced in an in-
verted position on the hands only. Ron apologized for
disturbing the class, and activity continued. During
sharing time at the end of the class, Ron shared his
feelings of the experience and his enthusiasm for
more gymnastics.
80 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Auditory cues help these children determine distance
in space. Sound-emitting devices can be placed on sta-
tionary equipment and the equipment used with a
partner to help measure distance, location in space,
and pathways of travel. Young children can face sounds
made at different locations and thus determine near
and far. Older children can follow a bike rider by the
sound of cardboard on the spokes or copy the pathway
of a partner by changes in intensity of the sound.
One of the greatest disabilities of visually impaired
children is lack of mobility. A mobility training program
in the gymnasium, as well as the outdoor play area,
increases the child’s independence and thus the ability
and desire to participate fully. Three-dimensional models
of both the indoor and outdoor physical education
environments, including permanent equipment, give
visually impaired children the concrete, hands-on ex-
perience to develop a conception of the whole and the
ability to move within the physical education space.
The mobility training should also include a peer-guided
tour of the environment and time for personal explo-
ration of the environment, including full use of tactile
and auditory senses. The blind child should be free to
walk, crawl, and touch the gymnasium without the
embarrassment of a class of onlookers; the teacher,
parent, or a trusted adult should be present to answer
questions and ensure safety.
The inclusion of visually impaired children in phys-
ical education classes has implications for the teacher,
the environment, and the physical education equip-
ment. Specifi c implications for the teacher include the
following:
• Teach with manual guidance accompanied by ver-
bal directions.
• Remember that the visually impaired child relies
heavily on tactile perception. Manually guiding the
visually impaired child can serve as the demonstra-
tion of the skill for other children, thus benefi ting
the group as well as the individual.
• Provide specifi c and immediate feedback. For profi t-
able feedback, the teacher must thoroughly analyze
movement skills and provide the verbal cues for cor-
recting deviations.
• Use peer teaching to assist with the manual guid-
ance and verbal feedback.
• Involve visually impaired children in small-group
and partner activities rather than large-group
situations.
• Avoid activities that involve throwing and catching
with fast speed and travel.
• Progress from simple tasks in gymnastics and games
to sequentially more diffi cult tasks to develop motor
skill and cognitive complexity.
• Involve all children in the world of creative move-
ment experiences and dance. Creative dance comes
from the inner self; it is born of the senses. Vision is
necessary only for the observer.
Adaptations in the environment include:
• Ensure that the gymnasium is well lighted to help
the child with residual vision.
• Vary the texture of the boundaries for game areas —
dirt/grass for the play area, sand for the surrounding
area.
• Make pathways between targets or bases 3 to 4 feet
wide and of a different texture.
• Keep the outdoor teaching area and the gymnasium
well organized and consistent. Introduce new equip-
ment to visually impaired children by means of
three-dimensional models.
• Provide tactile markings on the fl oor as a reference
for teaching stations, the center for teacher direc-
tions, water fountains, and so on.
• Place guide ropes across the gymnasium or play-
ground to permit the practice of locomotor skills and
freedom of travel. Tie a series of knots in the ropes
to signal the approach of the boundary.
The inclusion of visually impaired children may
necessitate such special equipment as:
• Brightly colored balls and objects for children with
limited vision
• Sponge and foam balls for projectile activities
• Protection for the eyes; eyeglasses
• Audible beep balls for tracking and location
• Battery-powered electronic sound devices within
large marker cones to serve as bases
• A large gymnastics mat to serve as “personal space”
for balancing and transferring of weight activities
Contact the American Foundation for the Blind ( www.
afb.org ) for catalogs of special equipment.
We expect children with visual disabilities to par-
ticipate to their fullest potential in physical education,
trying not to let the child use the disability as an ex-
cuse to withdraw from activity and social interaction.
Game situations that involve constant contact with the
participants require the least adaptation. When new
activities are introduced, having children with visual
disabilities play in slow motion will help their orienta-
tion to the play environment and the rules. The use of
the buddy system also helps these children participate
in traveling activities. Note, however, that although
young children naturally hold hands with partners,
they need to know the correct way to assist a visually
impaired person. That is, the visually impaired person
should grasp the guide’s upper arm above the elbow,
CHAPTER 6 Teaching Diverse Learners 81
thus permitting the nonsighted person to maintain a
sense of control rather than being led as if helpless.
Falls, scratches, and bruises are a part of physical
education for children with serious visual impair-
ments. Visually impaired children need to be permit-
ted to recover on their own, to maintain their dignity,
and to attain maximum independence. The teacher
must discuss with all members of the class the danger
of being overprotective. With the exception of ball-
handling /striking activities, the visually impaired child
can function quite independently in physical education
classes. Following orientation and mobility training,
the teacher’s task is simply to help the child develop
skills and a belief in self.
Hearing Impairments
The term hearing impairment refers to hearing loss that
can range from mild to profound. The disability in-
cludes those who have trouble hearing normal speech
and those who can’t understand even amplifi ed speech.
The term deaf is rarely used to classify a hearing im-
pairment; most individuals labeled deaf have some
level of hearing, being able to understand speech with
the help of amplifi cation or by hearing combined
with watching the speaker’s lips, facial expressions,
and gestures. The danger of labeling a child deaf is
that it may cause peers to stop interacting with the
child and may actually make the child functionally
deaf as an adult.
The social domain is the greatest problem for chil-
dren with serious hearing loss. The hearing-impaired
young child doesn’t engage in play experiences with
other children; speech, if present, is garbled and com-
munication quite limited. Hearing-impaired children
don’t understand their role in the play experience and
often withdraw, thus denying themselves the social
interaction and development of motor skills that ac-
company play for young children. As children’s games
become more complex, the hearing-impaired child is
likely to be left out of the activities. Rules are devel-
oped as the game is played; instructions are shouted
in the midst of play. Without special assistance, the
hearing-impaired child is unable to comprehend all the
intricacies of the game. Thus the child fails to develop
the social skills learned through group interaction in
play. Withdrawal from activity causes a developmental
lag in motor skills.
The frustration of being unable to communicate, to
be understood by others, and to express emotions in
socially accepted ways often leads children with seri-
ous hearing impairments to express their emotions
through physical means. Aggressive behavior is often
the means of expressing negative emotions. Additional
characteristics of a child with a serious hearing impair-
ment may include:
• Slow development of inner and expressive language,
often leading others to mistake the child as intel-
lectually disabled
• Poor pronunciation; garbled speech
• Absence of laughter
• Diffi culty in dealing with abstractions due to slow-
ness in developing inner language
• Hyperactive appearance because of constant move-
ment to maintain visual contact
• Lack of good balance in some hearing-impaired
children caused by inner-ear damage
• Shuffl ing gait resulting from not hearing the sound
of movement
Most children with hearing impairments function quite
well in the regular physical education program. As a
rule, adaptations in equipment or environment won’t
be necessary. However, the physical education teacher
needs to modify certain aspects of teaching:
• Position yourself so the child with a serious hearing
impairment can read your lips; be conscious of not
turning your back when speaking; and be close
enough for lip reading.
• Face the sun when outdoors so that the hearing-
impaired child doesn’t have to face the sun.
• Let the hearing-impaired child move freely in the
teaching environment so that he or she can always
be in the best position for hearing.
• Visually and manually demonstrate skills; don’t rely
on verbal directions alone.
• Remember, the hearing-impaired child can’t read
lips or hear a whistle across the playing fi eld or gym-
nasium; accompany the auditory sound with large
hand signals.
• Learn the basic sign language needed for communi-
cation. Figure 6.1 provides specifi c signs for physical
education and basic communication.
Hearing-impaired children with a developmental lag
in motor skills need additional physical education to
We strongly recommend a course in sign language
for teachers with hearing-impaired children in their
classroom or gymnasium. Think of how much better
the hearing-impaired child will feel when greeted the
fi rst day of physical education by a teacher she or he
can communicate with!
82 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Signing For Physical Education
Name Sign
Easy (DM)
Thank You
Again
Wrong, Mistake, Error
Ready
Sit, Seat, Chair
Stand
Right
Left
What
Watch
Good
Girl Boy
Understand No
Yes
Bad
Fine
Please
Me You
Figure 6.1 Signing for physical
education.
Source: From C.B. Eichstaedt,
“Signing for Physical Education,”
JOPERD 19, no. 5 (1978):
20 – 21. Used with permission
from the Journal of Physical
Education, Recreation and Dance.
JOPERD is a publication of the
American Alliance for Health,
Physical Education, Recreation
and Dance, 1900 Association
Drive, Reston, VA 20191.
develop the motor skills and movement patterns
needed for successful participation in the regular pro-
gram. Those with balance problems and vertigo due to
damage to the inner ear need additional work in the
area of balance to develop maximum use of the visual
and kinesthetic cues for balancing activities. Tumbling
activities with rotation and climbing to heights on
large apparatus should be done only with close adult
supervision. Children who have poor motor skills and/or
diffi culty with balance are very conscious of how their
abilities compare with those of their peers; a private
place to practice can help overcome self-consciousness
in attempting skills.
Like many children with disabilities, the child with a
serious hearing impairment may be less skilled because
of a lack of experience. As teachers, we try to maxi-
mize strengths rather than focusing on the weakness,
the inability to hear. The child will have to experience
success in activities to build the self-esteem needed
for eager participation and social interaction. The di-
rections and simple activities that the class can grasp
easily may have to be carefully explained to the child
with a serious hearing impairment. Encourage the other
children to initiate conversation with the hearing-
impaired child to help the child understand class activi-
ties, but caution them not to patronize the youngster.
We need to educate all children in our classes to inter-
act with the hearing impaired, to accept their less-than-
perfect speech, and to involve them in both physical
education and play activities.
Physical Disabilities
Physical disabilities include conditions resulting in or-
thopedic impairments, such as cerebral palsy and spina
bifi da, the crippling diseases of arthritis and muscular
CHAPTER 6 Teaching Diverse Learners 83
1
7
2
8
3
9
4
10
5 6
=15+
Alphabet A
C
I
O
U V W X Y Z
P Q R S T
J K L M N
D E F G H
B
Wrestle Baseball
Football
Basketball
Exercise
Run
Begin, Start Play
Out
In
Fast
Under, Beneath
Across, Over
Off
On
Lay
Stop Go
Come
Crawl JumpHop
Walk
Figure 6.1 Continued.
dystrophy, permanent loss of limbs, and the temporary
disabilities caused by fractures. Other related health
factors that can mean limited or restricted physical ed-
ucation for children include hemophilia, severe burns,
congenital heart defects, and respiratory disorders.
Each child with a physical disability has different
physical and motor capabilities, so the learning goals
must be designed to meet individual needs. The child’s
physical education program will include two aspects:
(1) the exercises and activities to meet specifi c needs
and develop motor skills and (2) any adaptations in
the regular program of physical education. The follow-
ing procedure is recommended when planning the
program for children with physical disabilities:
1. Identify the child’s clinical condition.
2. Determine what activities would be contraindicated
based on medical recommendation.
3. Determine functional motor skills needed.
4. Select activities that will develop desired motor skills.
5. Adapt the physical education environment and
equipment as needed to provide the program.
It’s important to remember that the program will
be designed in consultation with a physician and a
physical therapist. As teachers of physical education,
we aren’t expected to make a clinical diagnosis or to
prescribe a program of individualized remedial exer-
cises without the assistance of trained medical profes-
sionals. The professionals familiar with the child’s
medical history will be valuable consultants to the
team developing the child’s program ( Box 6-2 ).
Cerebral Palsy Perhaps the most misunderstood of all children with disabilities are those with cerebral palsy.
Because of the language and auditory disabilities and the
lack of muscular control that often accompany cerebral
palsy, the child is often labeled intellectually disabled.
84 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Box 6-2
• Act naturally. Be you. We often have a tendency to either
ignore a disabled child or overattend. Like Goldilocks, pick
the amount of attention that is “just right.”
• Assume the child is bright. Talk as you would to any child
until you are told to do otherwise. It is better to “talk up” to
someone than to talk down.
• Talk to the child, not to the attendant, parent, or teacher.
• Establish eye contact. This may mean sitting down, comfort-
ably half-kneeling, or moving to one side (if the child cannot
look straight ahead). Avoid standing behind the wheelchair
and talking. Many children rely on facial cues, gestures, and
clear hearing to understand all that you are saying.
• Avoid simple yes /no questions. They make for dull, one-
sided conversation — for anyone! Instead, ask about family,
friends, activities. Don’t ask, “Did you enjoy the circus?” but
rather, “What did you see at the circus?” “Whom did you go
with?” and “Tell me about the elephants.”
• Wait for replies . . . patiently. Repeating a question too soon
may interrupt a child who is attempting to formulate an answer.
• Keep conversation about a child’s wheelchair to a mini-
mum, not because it is insulting (it isn’t), but because often
it is all people fi nd to talk about (e.g., “I bet you can zoom
around in that thing! I wish I had one. How fast does it go?
Can I ride? How long do the batteries last?”). A little wheel-
chair talk is OK, but move to other topics that are more
interesting to the child.
• It is fi ne to use phrases like “I have to run now” to a child in
a wheelchair, or “I see” to a child who is blind.
• Many children cannot help drooling. Saliva won’t kill you.
Don’t be hesitant to wipe someone’s mouth (with their per-
mission) or hold a hand that is wet.
• Yes, touching is OK. Holding hands, hugging, or a pat on
the back is appropriate if it is something you would do
with any child. A pat on the head is typically considered a
condescending gesture. Appropriateness is the key. Keep
in mind that some children are too affectionate and need to
learn proper social interaction.
• Roughhousing is great — provided you get clearance
(ask the parents). Being “thrown around” is part of
growing up!
• Ask permission before you help a child. Ask the parents,
too, if they are present —but ask the child fi rst.
• When lifting children, fi rst show them and then tell them
where they will be set down.
• A child with a disability can misbehave just like any other
child. Not to mince words: They can be snotty. Or they can
be nice. Don’t let yourself become so tolerant that you allow
clearly unacceptable behavior.
• Don’t feel as if everything you have to say needs to be funny
or light. Serious topics are welcomed. Some children ap-
preciate a break from laughing because they cannot control
that response very well.
Source: Dave Taylor, Project Active Newsletter 12, no. 1 (1991),
ed. Joe Karp, Northshore School District, Bothell, WA. Used with
permission.
What Do I Say? What Do I Do? Tips for Times with Children Who Have Disabilities
Social acceptance and recognition of strengths are
major obstacles for children with cerebral palsy. Cere-
bral palsy is a neurological impairment, an impair-
ment caused by incomplete development of, or injury
to, the central nervous system due to prenatal factors,
injuries during birth, or postnatal conditions such as
a serious childhood disease with a high fever or a
head injury. Characteristics associated with cerebral
palsy include:
• Disabilities in visual, auditory, and perceptual de-
velopment and in speech
• Lack of concentration, distractability, overexcitabil-
ity, and hyperactivity causing underachievement
and poor behavior
• Poor coordination and lack of balance, resulting in
awkward movements and frequent falls
• Diffi culty in coordinating eye movements
• Tendency toward seizures
Coordination with Classroom Teacher
One of the keys to successful inclusion of children with dis-
abilities is to promote the acceptance of those children by their
peers. Many children have never been around children with
disabilities and are hesitant about beginning conver sations with
them or engaging in activity. The physical education teacher
should coordinate efforts with the classroom teacher to orient
children to the nature of the disability, its correct name, any
limitations it imposes, and the potential for activity.
The lack of coordination associated with cerebral
palsy results in a delay in motor control. The child
with cerebral palsy will benefi t from the breakdown of
skills to basic components and sequential presentation
of those components. Due to either restricted or extrane-
ous movements, the child with cerebral palsy expends a
CHAPTER 6 Teaching Diverse Learners 85
great deal of energy when performing physical activity;
a decrease in endurance may result. The physical educa-
tion program for a child with cerebral palsy should con-
centrate on perceptual motor activities — locomotor
patterns, balance, response to rhythm, development of
ocular control, and form perception—as well as the de-
velopment of skills for successful participation.
For some children with cerebral palsy, the only ef-
fect is a slight speech impairment; others have a total
inability to control body movements. The physical
education teacher will benefi t from extensive reading
concerning the type of cerebral palsy and from discus-
sion with the physical therapist concerning special
needs and the adaptation of equipment and activities
for maximum participation.
Spina Bifi da Spina bifi da is a congenital condition in which the bony elements of the spine don’t close prop-
erly during development in the womb. In mild cases of
spina bifi da, the only effects may be weak muscles and de-
viations in posture. Because spina bifi da causes paralysis
in the legs and a loss of sensation in the lower limbs, chil-
dren with mild spina bifi da benefi t from weight-bearing
activities to stimulate bone growth and circulation in
the lower limbs, as well as from exercises/activities to
develop muscular strength in the upper body.
Children with spina bifi da have normal intelligence;
they have the same play and social needs as all children.
Adaptations in physical education will be those needed
to accommodate their mode of transportation—that is,
crutches or a wheelchair. In addition to the areas of
need noted above, it is necessary for children with spina
bifi da to develop skills for participation with their peers
With minimal teacher assistance, this child participates successfully
in the physical education program.
Teacher
I will know you.
I will touch you and hold you
And smell and taste and listen
To the noises that you make — and the words, if any.
I will know you.
Each atom of your small, lonely
Aching, raging, hurting being
Will be known to me
Before I try to teach you.
Before I try to teach
I must fi rst reach you.
And then, when I have come to know you, intimately,
I will insist, gently, gradually, but insist
That you know me.
And later, that you trust me
And then yourself.
Now, knowing each other, we will begin to know the world —
The seasons, the trees, animals, food, the other children,
The printed word, books,
The knowledge of what has gone before and been recorded.
Then as surely as I moved toward you
I will move away.
As I once insisted on being close to you,
Demanding entrance into your half wild world
Of fear and fantasy, refusing you aloneness.
So now, I move away.
As your words come and your walk quickens,
As you laugh out loud
Or read clearly and with understanding,
I stand behind you — no longer close —
Available, but no longer vital to you.
And you —you grow!
You are! You will become!
And I, the teacher,
I turn, with pride in you,
Toward my next child.
Mary MacCracken
Source: In Touch 1, no. 6 (July 1978). Used with permission
from the National Mental Health Association.
86 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Asthma Children are being affected in increasing numbers by asthma, an allergic reaction that results in
wheezing, coughing, tightening of the airways, and
accumulation of mucus in the bronchial tubes. An as th-
matic attack can be triggered by allergens, upper re-
spiratory infections, or even robust laughing. The most
common conditions we see in physical education are
reactions to changes in the weather (especially cold
weather) and to strenuous exercise (e.g., the distance
run for fi tness assessment).
All too often in the past, physical educators treated
lightly the asthmatic child who had a note, an excuse
from running, or a request for adaptation in activity.
Asthma is a serious health problem for millions of chil-
dren. Failure to attend to the condition can result in
serious and sometimes life-threatening consequences
for the child.
The following suggestions will be helpful in ensur-
ing maximum, healthy participation for children with
asthma:
• Scan health records in the fall, noting children with
asthma and /or serious allergies.
• Code your daily record system for individual
reminders.
• Notify children with asthma or allergies and /or their
parents before a day of especially vigorous activity.
• Encourage extra hydration during vigorous and /or
prolonged physical activity.
• Ask the child before the activity if he or she brought
an inhaler to physical education class.
• Consult with the parents of children with serious
asth matic conditions for any special safeguards or
procedures.
• On days when adaptation is necessary, make needed
modifi cations to provide maximum participation.
Diabetes Another health disorder that necessitates our attention is type 1 (insulin-dependent) dia betes.
Although we may experience only one or two children
with diabetes in our years of teaching, the child with
diabetes requires our having a thorough understanding
of the disorder, an awareness of the warning signs of
low blood sugar, and the knowledge to instigate imme-
diate emergency procedures.
The goal for a child with diabetes is to make the dia-
betes fi t into daily life, as opposed to daily life fi tting
into the diabetes treatment plan. Children with dia-
betes can be expected to participate fully in physical
education. If their physical education is scheduled be-
fore lunch or in the late afternoon, a snack may be
advised in anticipation of the physical activity. On
days of especially strenuous activity (e.g., the distance
run for fi tness assessment), an extra snack may be
in physical education and skills for lifetime sports and
activities in which they can be successful.
Like many children with disabilities, children with
spina bifi da benefi t from the socialization inherent in
physical education, in addition to learning and devel-
oping skills. Guiding this growth is perhaps the great-
est contribution we as physical educators can make in
educating children with disabilities.
Muscular Dystrophy Childhood muscular dystro- phy begins between the ages of two and six. Muscular
dystrophy is a progressive disease that affects the volun-
tary muscles—for example, legs and arms; involuntary
muscles, such as the diaphragm, aren’t affected. First af-
fected are the muscles involved in walking and standing;
the child with muscular dystrophy will begin to have
diffi culty maintaining posture, getting up from a chair,
or walking up stairs. The degenerative nature of the dis-
ease causes the general deterioration of the muscle tissue
and a replacement of muscle with fat. Thus the young
child with muscular dystrophy initially appears quite
healthy as the legs and arms maintain or increase in size.
The child with muscular dystrophy has a tendency to
tire easily. Fine manual dexterity is gradually lost, and
the progressive weakening of the muscles causes adverse
postural changes. The learning goals for the child with
muscular dystrophy should concentrate on exercises to
strengthen the muscles involved in the basic tasks of
daily living, walking patterns, posture control, and stretch-
ing of contractures. However, these exercises must be
selected in consultation with the child’s physician. The
child with muscular dystrophy should be kept actively
involved in physical education to the extent the condi-
tion permits; inactivity only increases the atrophy of the
muscles. Adaptations will be necessary as the child be-
comes dependent on crutches, braces, or a wheelchair.
Health-Related Disorders
Although not normally thought of as physical disabili-
ties, several other health-related disorders can affect a
child’s full participation in physical education. The
following disorders may require temporary adaptations
in the child’s environment or limitations in physical acti-
vity: juvenile arthritis, asthma, diabetes, heart defects,
sickle-cell anemia, severe burns, and respiratory disor-
ders. The physical educator should review health records
early in the school year, making note of any conditions
that require monitoring and/or temporary adaptations.
Open communication with the child’s parents, rapport
with the child, and an understanding of the particular
disorder and its effects will result in maximum partici-
pation for the child as well as trust among you, the
parents, and—most important—the child.
CHAPTER 6 Teaching Diverse Learners 87
provided by the parents. Children with diabetes react
emotionally as well as physically to daily insulin, ketone
checks, and a routine that is different from that of their
friends. Confi dence in self and acceptance by peers are
very important for these children. Success in movement
skills extends beyond the gymnasium to aid feelings of
self-worth and social acceptance.
Intellectual Disabilities
The term intellectual disabilities refers to intellectual
functioning that is signifi cantly below average, accom-
panied by defi cits in adaptive behavior. Children with
intellectual disabilities have problems of maturation,
learning, and /or social adjustment, which, to different
degrees, result in a degree of independence or social
responsibility lower than that expected for their age.
These characteristics manifest themselves during the
early developmental periods of life.
The physical skills of many children with mild or
moderate intellectual disability are average and above;
the diffi culties center around comprehending the in-
structions and following through to complete the as-
signment. The youngster with intellectual disabilities
can more easily understand and follow directions if we
remember the following:
• Keep verbal directions to a minimum; when possi-
ble use both visual and verbal instructions.
• Communicate in a direct, simple, and meaningful
manner.
• Present tasks within the child’s current level of
physical skills.
• Structure the environment for focus on tasks and a
minimum of distractions.
• Maintain a routine so that the child knows what to
expect.
• Provide repetition of experiences for overlearning.
• Minimize the number of variables to which the
child must attend; simplify the task.
• Present the lesson in short segments; restate the task
at regular intervals.
• Reinforce strengths with frequent praise; minimize
weaknesses.
Children with intellectual disabilities can perform sim-
ple gymnastics sequences and rhythmical routines and
participate in skill development activities. The teacher’s
attentiveness to task presentation and lesson design
will result in better learning, not just for children with
cognitive defi cits, but for all students.
Many children with intellectual disabilities are lack-
ing in areas of verbal expression and social interaction.
Physical education classes can provide excellent oppor-
tunities for growth in both these areas. The following
suggestions will help foster personal and social growth
for the child with intellectual disabilities:
• Engage the child in conversation. Ask questions; en-
courage a response.
• Be an attentive listener; listen when the child speaks.
• Create opportunities for cooperative activities that
actively involve the child.
• Recognize achievements; share them with the whole
class so that they can appreciate and share in the
child’s accomplishment.
• Encourage verbal expression of feelings.
Just as we as teachers must take an active role in inter-
acting socially and verbally with children with intellec-
tual disabilities, we must also teach their fellow students
to do the same. The child’s initial response to another
Physical activity is just as exciting to children with disabilities as it is
for those without disabilities.
88 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
child’s attempts at conversation or group participa-
tion may be silence; children with intellectual disabili-
ties may be unsure of themselves or not understand.
Remind the other children to repeat the question or to
reach out with a touch to include the child with dis-
abilities in the group.
Emotional Disturbance and Behavior Disorders
In increasing numbers, children come to us with be-
havior disabilities: emotionally disturbed, behavior
disordered, hyperactive, distractive, aggressive, impul-
sive, and socially unacceptable. Some may have been
diagnosed with attention defi cit disorder (ADD) or at-
tention defi cit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Children
classifi ed as emotionally disturbed or behavior disor-
dered have defi ciencies in at least one of the following:
characteristics that facilitate learning, characteristics
that promote interpersonal relationships, and charac-
teristics that foster appropriate behavior under normal
conditions. What classifi es children with these charac-
teristics as emotionally disturbed /behavior disordered
is the persistence of the behavior, its severity , and its
adverse effects on educational performance .
The role of the teacher is to control the learning
environment while helping the child gain control. The
following guidelines have implications for teachers of
physical education:
• Provide a sense of order, structure, and dependabil-
ity in the learning environment.
• Teach the child that verbal responses to frustration
and confl ict are acceptable, but that physical aggres-
sion is not.
• Make it clear to the child that he or she is accepted
even when the behavior is unacceptable.
• Establish short-range, achievable goals geared to the
child’s current level of functioning.
• Convey your expectations through your conduct
and consistent messages.
• Avoid overreacting to extreme behavior; an emotional
response from the teacher is counterproductive.
• Remember that what works for one child with emo-
tional disturbance or behavior disorders may not
work for another.
Physical activity has been shown to have a posi-
tive infl uence on children with behavior disorders or
disruptive behaviors. These children benefi t from physi-
cal education programs that emphasize fi tness, bal-
ance, and basic movement; many have great diffi culty
with competitive games and sports. Because of their
behavior, these children’s past experiences in physical
education have included less activity, more “time-out,”
and less skill development than other students have
experienced. The development of basic skills may
require attention. Programs such as Hellison’s re-
sponsibility model (Chapter 9) and programs with a
cooperative rather than a highly competitive focus
have been found to positively infl uence the develop-
ment of personal and social responsibility for these
at-risk students.
Social Interaction Disorders /Autism
Spectrum Disorder
Children with social interaction disorders or pervasive
developmental disorders include those with autism,
Asperger syndrome, and Rett’s disorder. Although each
disorder has its unique characteristics and varying de-
grees of severity, common to all are severe impairment
of communication and /or social interaction skills and
the presence of repetitive behaviors. These children
appear extremely shy, often withdrawn into their own
world. The indoor and outdoor environments of phys-
ical education can be a nightmare with loud sounds,
an abundance of visual stimuli, and constantly chang-
ing activity. Very often their recourse is to withdraw to
the inner world of self-movement (stimming) and self-
talk or to wander aimlessly in the midst of the physical
activity/instruction /play. Motor skills are often below
the level of their peers.
Children with social interaction disorders can more
easily function as members of our physical education
classes if we remember:
• Changes in routine and transitions in activity are
very diffi cult for these children.
• Visual cues are much more effective than auditory.
• Motor performance tests often underrepresent ability
because of the child’s failure to respond to auditory
directions.
• Skills should be developed in contexts (i.e., func-
tional patterns), not as isolated skills.
Major goals for children with social interaction dis-
orders are appropriate social behaviors and social /
verbal interactions. The physical education environ-
ment is rich in opportunities for this development.
For these children, such skills must be taught and
consistently reinforced.
Appropriate nonverbal and verbal social skills do
not develop naturally, nor do the children learn them
from modeling others. As with all children with di-
abilities, each child with a social interaction disorder is
unique; each disorder is unique to that child. Close
communication with the child’s consultant on the
multidisciplinary team will be invaluable as you work
toward the short- and long-range goals of the individu-
alized education program.
CHAPTER 6 Teaching Diverse Learners 89
Learning Disabilities
A specifi c learning disability is a disorder in one or
more of the basic processes involved in understand-
ing or using language. According to the U.S. Depart-
ment of Health and Human Services, the disability
may manifest itself as an imperfect ability to listen,
think, speak, write, spell, or do mathematical calcula-
tions. Children with learning disabilities have normal
intelligence but, unlike other children, are unable to
perform academically within the normal IQ range.
Children with learning disabilities are typically char-
acterized by hyperactive behavior, short attention
span, impulsiveness, poor self-concept, and often a
delay in play development.
The motor skills of children with learning disabilities
are diffi cult to categorize. Some children with learning
disabilities experience no motor delays; others demon-
strate a number of delays. The most common diffi culties
include visual-motor coordination, fi ne motor coordi-
nation, bilateral coordination, and balance. In the past,
learning goals for children with learning disabilities fo-
cused on perceptual-motor development; more recently
the focus has been on sensory integration. Selection of
the activities for meeting learning goals must be based on
assessment of the child’s defi ciencies. Not all learning-
disabled children have motor/perceptual delays; not all
have the same defi ciencies.
• Give clear, brief instructions; ask the child to repeat
the directions before beginning the activity.
• Use small learning steps, and praise the child’s ef-
forts and accomplishments. Remember, the attitude
of the learning-disabled child is “I can’t.”
• Use a positive behavior modifi cation program if
needed to increase appropriate and decrease inap-
propriate behavior (Chapters 9 and 10).
• End the lesson with a brief relaxation period.
Teaching children with learning disabilities can be a
most rewarding experience (see Box 6-3). Teachers can
help the youngsters develop socialization skills, motor
skills many didn’t know existed, and self-confi dence. We
believe that children with disabilities can benefi t from
physical education and from integration with others.
Remedial Physical Education
Although many children with disabilities have average
or above-average physical skills, others have physical
skills that are far below average because of a lack of
experience or as a secondary characteristic of the dis-
abling condition. For some children with disabilities,
the small-group physical education class can provide
the “extra” practice they need to succeed in the gen-
eral physical education class. For these children, the
remedial physical education class provides the envi-
ronment for learning the basic skills of physical educa-
tion that will enable them to participate successfully
in the gymnasium and on the playground. Disability Awareness
Children who have mild or moderate intellectual disabilities,
learning disabilities, or emotional disturbances but whose
physical appearance does not manifest the disability are
sometimes the least accepted by their peers. The class has
the same expectations of them as of the nondisabled, and
the class can become frustrated when the child with dis-
abilities does not behave or respond as expected. The class
response is usually due to the students’ lack of awareness
of the disability or knowledge of its characteristics. We as
teachers must educate our students regarding specifi c
disabilities. We must answer their questions, increase their
awareness of the disability, and thus increase their under-
standing and acceptance of all children.
Children with learning disabilities can be expected
to participate fully in all physical education activities.
Slight teaching modifi cations may be needed for indi-
vidual students:
• To reduce hyperactive tendencies, prepare the les-
son with several short activities in mind rather than
one lengthy period of concentration.
Atlantoaxial Subluxation
A number of children with Down syndrome have a condition
called atlantoaxial subluxation, a maladjustment of the cer-
vical vertebrae in the neck. Because of the possibility of
serious injury, people with atlantoaxial subluxation should not
participate in any activities that place stress on the head and
neck muscles. Down syndrome children with atlantoaxial
subluxation should not be actively involved in inverted
balances, rolling activities, or other gymnastics actions that
could place stress on the head and neck.
The content of the remedial physical education class
centers around three areas of physical/motor skill de-
velopment. The fi rst area of concentration is mobility,
balance, and muscular strength —hopping, jumping,
and running; stepping onto a low platform or climbing
the fi rst rung of a ladder; walking a low balance beam
or bench; and grasping a bar and lifting the body off
the fl oor, taking weight on hands and feet. These areas
90 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
contribute not only to success in physical education
but also to greater independence throughout life.
The second area of concentration is physical fi tness.
Although the child’s fl exibility is often very good, mus-
cular strength —both abdominal and upper body — and
cardiovascular endurance may be extremely poor. See
Box 6-2 for fi tness relative to students with disabilities.
The third content area is the basic manipulative skills
of physical education — throwing, catching, dribbling,
kicking, and so forth. Children who succeed in these
three content areas will participate meaningfully in
physical education, attain greater personal indepen-
dence, and improve their recreational/leisure skills on
the school playground and beyond.
Early testing of the motor skills of the children in
the remedial physical education class will help the
teacher develop the educational program for each child.
This program should be based on the child’s present level
of functioning and include goals for the year. Although
evaluation is ongoing, motor skills tests should be con-
ducted at least by midyear and again in the spring. Re-
cords of activities and achievements can be kept in
simple chart form. Remember, progress for these chil-
dren is often very slow and is measured in small incre-
ments; charting their progress will help you recognize
and praise achievements.
Resources: See Web sites pertinent to specifi c disabilities,
impairments, and disorders at the end of this chapter.
Creating Conditions for Inclusion
The question that still remains is, How do you create
an inclusive environment where all students meet pro-
gram goals through maximum learning and participa-
tion? At this point, the idea of meeting the needs of so
many different learners may feel overwhelming. How-
ever, rather than focusing on student differences, the
purpose of this section is to provide strategies for creat-
ing fi ve universal conditions needed to maximize stu-
dent learning and participation: students need to feel
competent, to belong, to feel useful, to have a sense of
ownership, and to feel optimistic (Sagor 2002).
Kids are sacred; activities or learning tasks are not. If
the learning tasks or activities you choose to teach do
not align with program goals or meet these fi ve basic
needs of all learners, you have three options: (1) con-
tinue to use the activity the way it has always been
done and thus not meet the needs of kids; (2) stop us-
ing the activity entirely and miss the benefi ts of the
activity; or (3) give the activity a make-over — modify
it by accentuating the positive features and minimizing
or eliminating the negative or inappropriate features
(Morris et al. 2006). The third option allows you to
take activities and modify them in ways that meet needs
specifi c to your own setting. Morris and his coauthors
point out that the three keys to making successful and
effective modifi cations are (1) change, (2) challenge,
and (3) choice.
Change
A teacher must be willing to make changes when learn-
ing tasks or activities do not meet the needs of all
learners. All activities are made up of basic categories
that can be changed ( Box 6-3 ). These categories can
include grouping (how learners are grouped — e.g.,
individually, in pairs, small groups, coed); organiza-
tional pattern (how learners are arranged — e.g., circle,
lines, scattered, in designated zones); equipment (any
objects, materials, or props — e.g., music, hoops, task
cards, ropes, balls); movements (e.g., crawl, walk, crab
walk, strike); and conditions (e.g., three minutes, with-
out hands, until everyone stops, four turns, or with
blindfold); (Morris et al. 2006). See Chapter 31 for addi-
tional strategies for changing games play for children.
Simple changes across such categories can make al-
most any activity more inclusive. When teaching stu-
dents at the precontrol level to catch by having them
learn to stop a rolling ball (Chapter 25), simply change
the equipment from a regular plastic ball to a larger,
slow-moving, sound-emitting ball so visually impaired
students can also learn to catch a rolling ball.
Changes can also alter the nature of student partici-
pation. For example, many students enjoy and even
beg at times to play elimination games (activities that
involve eliminating other students in order to win,
which are not promoted or included in Children Mov-
ing ). This creates a situation where the more skilled stu-
dents are allowed to dominate the activity while less
skilled students, who actually need more practice, are
sitting on the side and often feeling quite discouraged.
A traditional game of Four Square is an elimination
game. In the traditional game, a student who misses by
not being able to return the ball to an opponent is out
of the game. The game becomes nonelimination by
changing the elimination rule to having students count
how many in a row they can hit without missing, mak-
ing the game a cooperative activity, or by having stu-
dents earn as many individual points as they can in a
given time period (two minutes). These simple rule
changes exemplify best practices in physical education
by maximizing participation for all students.
Challenge
Changes across each of the categories in Box 6-3 also
can be made to challenge all students at an appropriate
level. It is important to monitor the success of students
closely. Children engaged in learning a new skill should
be successful approximately 80 percent of the time;
CHAPTER 6 Teaching Diverse Learners 91
Box 6-3
Grouping
Age
Coed
Mixed skill levels
Similar skill
Season of birthday
(fall /spring)
Favorite movies
Favorite fruit
Clothing colors
By drawing num-
bers or cards
Examples of Items and Choices in Activity Categories
Movements
Locomotor:
Power walk, push wheel
chair, run, skip, hop,
gallop, grapevine
Nonmanipulative:
Turn, twist, roll,
balance, stretch
Manipulative:
Throw, catch, volley,
dribble, strike, kick
(See the wheel in
Chapter 16 for more)
Other:
To music, to the beat of
a tambourine
Equipment
Nets, walls, rackets,
bats, scarves, ropes,
music, hoops, toss
rings, discs, scoops,
sticks, skates, bicycles,
heart rate monitors,
spots, mats, wedges,
balance beams, volley
birds, climbing harness
Conditions
One bounce, using a
wedge, four beats,
lower net, all must hit,
three-step rule, using
two points of balance,
may run to fi rst or third
base, until music stops,
without using feet,
within boundaries
Organizational
Pattern
Scattered, in lines, in
rows, with a partner, in
corners, back to back,
elbow to elbow with two
people, against wall,
across from your group
Creating Choices for Each Category
You may want to
combine with an-
other group or keep
your current group.
You can throw or hit
the ball over the line to
start the rally with your
partner.
You can choose to roll,
step, or jump over the
rope.
You may choose a
large hula hoop or a
smaller one (a larger
hula hoop is easier to
twirl around the waist
than a smaller one).
You may choose to
raise or lower the net
height. You may also
decide to hit over a line
on the fl oor.
You may choose to let
the ball bounce once
per side or use a no-
bounce rule.
For the fi rst four beats
of music you can either
do four quick single
jumps side to side or
do two double-count
jumps, one on the
right, one on the left.
You may choose to
work with a partner
or alone.
Source: G.S.D. Morris and J. Stiehl, Changing Kids’ Games, 2nd ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1999).
otherwise, consider modifying the task so it becomes
more or less diffi cult. (See Chapter 11 for more on stu-
dent success rates.) When a group of diverse learners is
learning a skill, it is not unusual for a task to challenge
some children at an appropriate level while others
seem almost bored with the task, and still others are
frustrated because the task is too diffi cult. To challenge
all students at a more appropriate level, the teacher
needs to utilize intratask variation (Chapter 11). Intra-
task variation is a technique in which the teacher de-
cides to modify a task for individuals or small groups
within the class; it is a private interaction between one
or more students and the teacher. The following are
examples of intratask variation for the activity travel-
ing to fl ee (Chapter 20).
The task is for students to spread out in space and, on signal, to fl ee from an imaginary chaser by walking
quickly.
1. Intratask variation used to make the activity more
inclusive for a visually impaired student:
“John, I would like you to use this guide rope (place
rope in the visually impaired student’s hand) to prac-
tice moving away from your imaginary chaser.” The
guide rope extends across the gym or playground to
permit the practice of locomotor skills and freedom of
travel. Tie a series of knots in the ropes to signal the
approach of boundaries. Other children are spread out
in space and practice fl eeing an imaginary chaser by
walking quickly.
92 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
2. Intratask variation to make the task more inclusive
for several very skilled students:
“See if the three of you can fl ee an imaginary chaser
while avoiding the hoops on the ground.” Other chil-
dren continue original task.
3. Intratask variation for a less fi t student:
“Sue, you can move away from the chaser slowly until
you feel ready to walk quickly again.”
Choice
When modifying activities to meet the needs of all
students, choice is the key (Morris et al. 2006). Offer-
ing children choice among appropriate challenges
(or tasks) not only creates a more inclusive environ-
ment but also empowers children by allowing them
to make decisions about how they want to partici-
pate. When students have choices, they are much
more likely to participate. This becomes increasingly
important for children in upper-elementary and
middle school. One way to offer students choice is
through teaching by invitation (Chapter 11). Unlike
intratask variation, teaching by invitation allows
students to decide what task they prefer to work
on. The following are examples of ways to give
children choices:
1. “Choose one of the objects in the hoops and keep
the object from touching the ground by hitting it
up using an underhand motion.” Place a variety of
objects in hoops around the play area. Suggestions:
Large bright items such as balloons and beach balls
are slow moving and easy to see, and therefore may
be appropriate for less skilled students. Medium-
size, softer items such as a volleyball trainer or an
inexpensive plastic ball may offer more challenge
for others. Students may also fi nd it motivating to
use a less traditional item such as a Volleybird just
to try something new.
2. Station teaching or learning centers are popular
instructional approaches among physical educa-
tion teachers. A typical lesson may involve asking
students to perform an exercise at each of several
fi tness stations. Jim Stiehl, a teacher of diverse
learners, advises that if you want to ensure that
students fail, provide only one way to do some-
thing. This one-size-fi ts-all approach in fi tness sta-
tions means requiring that everyone perform the
same thing at each station. To avoid this outcome,
set up each station to represent a health-related
fi tness component such as muscular fi tness, car-
diovascular fi tness, and fl exibility or body compo-
sition. At each station place three color-coded
plates (red, white, and blue). Tell students that red
represents the most diffi cult task, white represents
the medium-level task, and blue represents the
easiest task. Then place pictures and /or descrip-
tions of exercises under each plate. At each station,
students can choose to perform the red, white, or
blue exercise or a combination of all three. For ex-
ample, at a fl exibility station, the exercise under
the red plate (most diffi cult) might be, “While sit-
ting, touch your toes with both hands and hold for
10 seconds”; under the white plate (medium diffi -
culty), “While sitting, see if you can touch your toes
with both hands for 5 seconds”; and for the blue plate
(easiest), “While sitting, see if you can touch your
knees with both hands and hold for 10 seconds.”
Another set of plates may include red: straight-leg
push-ups; white: modifi ed push-ups (bend knees);
blue: wall push-ups.
3. It is also important to break ourselves of thinking
that games, dance, and gymnastic activities must be
done “the way they have always been done” or even
done according to their names. For example, when
playing a modifi ed striking and fi elding game, a stu-
dent with a disability came to bat and told the
pitcher (a preservice teacher) that he could not bat
but could kick, so he wanted the pitch rolled to him.
Amazingly, the idea of not participating because
he was unable to bat never crossed this student’s
mind. Instead he quickly thought of a modifi ca-
tion and insisted he could play as long as he had
the choice to kick a larger ball rather than hitting
a small ball. Less skilled students then created their
own adaptation by asking to have the larger foam
ball tossed to them so they could hit it with the
bat. Choice can be offered to students within the
same activity by keeping an open mind about how
a game or activity must be played and by allowing
student input.
In order to create more inclusive physical activity
environments, physical education teachers must
make deliberate attempts to provide choices. Karl
Rohnke (1989) reminds us to always offer choices be-
cause a coerced player is no longer a player. Choice
encourages participation, accommodates diversity,
and empowers students to make responsible decisions
about their own participation (Morris et al. 2006). A
quality, caring teacher will always struggle to meet
the needs of all students. However, by structuring the
environment in ways that provide choice, students
can make decisions about what works best for them.
Using the concepts of change, challenge, and choice
will enable us as teachers to create or modify any ac-
tivity to better meet the needs of learners and achieve
program goals.
CHAPTER 6 Teaching Diverse Learners 93
Meeting the Needs of Children with Disabilities
Meeting the needs of the child with disabilities is a
joint effort of school professionals, parents, and pro-
fessionals from related services. The physical educa-
tion teacher is a critical member of the professional
staff planning for and implementing the program for a
child with disabilities.
The Multidisciplinary Team
The appropriate education — both placement and
curriculum—for each student with disabilities is deter-
mined by a multidisciplinary team called the M-Team.
The M-Team is composed of all those involved in pro-
viding an appropriate education for the child: the class-
room teacher, special educators (physical education),
parents, and professionals from related services. Follow-
ing an educational assessment by the school psycho-
logist and other professionals as needed, the M-Team
designs the educational program for the child; identifi es
support services needed and services to be secured from
outside agencies; and establishes the educational goals
to be attained within the given school year.
Because physical education is a direct service for all
children with disabilities, the physical education teacher
is a vital member of the multidisciplinary team. As a
member of the M-Team, the physical education specialist
provides information about how the identifi ed disability
will affect the child’s performance in the existing pro-
gram of physical education; the child’s performance in
physical fi tness and basic motor skills and patterns of
physical education; and the support services needed to
meet the unique needs of this child and facilitate maxi-
mum learning in physical education. During the M-Team
meeting, short- and long-term goals are written for all
areas of the child’s learning, and the environment most
conducive to meeting those goals is identifi ed. As the
physical education professional on the M-Team, your in-
put is needed to establish the short- and long-term goals
relative to physical education and to identify the envi-
ronment most conducive to meeting those goals.
Physical education options may include full inclu-
sion, inclusion with a teacher assistant, or remedial
physical education in addition to the regular program.
The goal of the last is assistance in specifi ed areas for
better functioning /performance in the regular physi-
cal education program.
Individualized Education Program
Education for a child diagnosed with disabilities is for-
mulated through the individualized education program
(IEP). Generally, the IEP is limited to curricular areas of
special education and related services — instruction de-
signed to meet the unique needs of the child and the
related services necessary to help the child achieve
maximum success. The IEP includes:
• A statement of the present level of the child’s
functioning
• Annual goals
• Short-term instructional objectives with timelines
• An explanation of the extent to which the child will
not participate in the regular educational setting
(physical education program)
• Special services to be provided, including their du-
ration and extent
• Support services needed—personnel and equipment
• Plan for evaluation of annual goals
For some students with disabilities, full participa-
tion in physical education is possible; therefore the IEP
will not address physical education. For other students,
full participation is possible with support services, that
is, personnel and /or equipment; these services will be
identifi ed in the IEP. For still other students, the develop-
ment of skills for successful participation will require
modifi cation within the physical education curricu-
lum, perhaps an alternative when an activity is not
appropriate or is contraindicated. This alternative may
be participation in another physical education class or
work on a short-term physical education goal from the
IEP within the class setting.
Even at the elementary level, physical education for
children with disabilities should focus on the develop-
ment of functional and motor skills that lead to physi-
cal activity and successful recreational participation.
Short- and long-term goals for the child in physical
education will center around the skills needed for
meaningful participation in physical education, the
remediation of defi cient motor skills and fi tness com-
ponents, and the skills needed for successful participa-
tion in physical activities at recess and in after-school
play/recreational activities.
The IEP is a projection of what professionals and the
parents think the child can accomplish. If the annual
goals are inappropriate, the M-Team reassesses the
child’s curriculum and formulates new goals better
suited to the child’s needs.
Least Restrictive Environment
The least restrictive environment is the educational setting
that is most appropriate and most enabling for the child
with disabilities. To the maximum extent appropriate,
children with disabilities are to be educated with non-
disabled students—thus the philosophy of inclusion.
94 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Legal reasons aside, there are sound educational
reasons for educating children with disabilities in the
least restrictive environment. Research has shown
that placing these youngsters with nondisabled chil-
dren yields positive benefi ts in behavior and life skills.
Educators have long agreed on the effectiveness of
peer modeling in academics and skill acquisition
among children. Furthermore, the inclusive classroom
and gymnasium more closely mirror the real world
than does the classroom or physical education setting
that consists entirely of children with disabilities.
Most of the students with disabilities we see in our
public schools will reside and work within our com-
munities and participate in community activities. The
least restrictive, more enabling educational environ-
ment should give students with disabilities the same
opportunities to learn, to develop personal potential,
and to interact and mature socially that all other stu-
dents receive.
The Ecological Model of Inclusion
After the IEP has been written, it’s the responsibility
of all teachers working with the child with disabilities
to implement what is written in the program. It is the
responsibility of the physical education teacher to de-
sign instruction and to modify both teaching and
curriculum to meet the short- and long-term goals
written for physical education within the environ-
ment deemed least restrictive by the multidisciplinary
team. Implementation actually begins with the IEP
itself — the long- and short-term goals for the child
with disabilities. When planning for inclusion, we
suggest using a top-down ecological model * (Block
2000), as follows.
Step 1: Determine the critical skills the child with
disabilities will need to be successful in the present—
in physical education, on the playground—and in
future recreational settings. Observe the child’s
homeroom at recess. What activities do the children
choose to participate in during this time? What skills
are needed for the child with disabilities to success-
fully participate in activities at recess? What are the
skills he or she will need to be successful in the phys-
ical education program? What are the skills needed
for successful participation in recreational activities
outside the school setting? These are the skills that
should be contained within the goals for physical
education for the child with disabilities.
Step 2: Analyze the existing physical education pro-
gram to match the existing program to the long-
and short-term goals of the student’s IEP. Are the
skills taught within the general physical education
program consistent with the needs of the child with
disabilities? What existing activities within the pro-
gram will benefi t the child? What activities are not
appropriate for this child? An analysis of the exist-
ing curriculum will reveal areas of match between
goals and existing program and areas in which
modifi cations are needed. Ask yourself the follow-
ing questions: Where are modifi cations needed? What
modifi cations are needed in instruction (Chapter 13)?
What modifi cations are needed in curriculum
(Chapters 29 – 31)?
Step 3: Design modifi cations in your teaching and
curriculum to meet the needs of the child with dis-
abilities. Planning for inclusion in physical education
permits the child with disabilities to be physically
educated along with his or her peers. Implementation
of the IEP will be much easier and learning much
greater with planning for this special child and with
the design of a developmentally appropriate program
of physical education.
Whether the IEP specifi es full inclusion, inclusion
with support services, or inclusion plus a remedial pro-
gram, we can no longer be content with letting the child
with disabilities serve only as the scorekeeper. Neither
can we accept “token” participation. Our task is to de-
sign the program to develop each child’s skills in
*A top-down ecological model implies that planning is based on
the skills students need to achieve to be successful in the future.
We plan for the skills they will need as they leave elementary
school.
Essential Elements of Inclusion Programs
• A full continuum of placement options and services.
Placement and services must be determined for each
student by a team that includes all stakeholders and
must be specifi ed in the individualized education
program.
• Appropriate professional development, as part of normal
work activity, for all educators and support staff associ-
ated with such programs.
• Adequate time, as part of the normal school day, to en-
gage in coordinated and collaborative planning on behalf
of all students.
• Class sizes that are responsive to student needs.
• Staff and technical assistance that are specifi cally appro-
priate to student and teacher needs.
Source: NEA Today, July 1996. (Washington, DC: National
Education Association).
CHAPTER 6 Teaching Diverse Learners 95
gymnastics, games, and dance, and to provide oppor-
tunities for these students to reach the goals that have
been established for them.
Adaptations in tasks will permit any child to partici-
pate, to achieve, and to develop skills commensurate
with personal ability. With an understanding of ba-
sic concepts, an awareness of the children’s needs,
and knowledge of how to adapt the environment
and the curriculum, the teacher can create an en-
abling environment for children with special needs.
Children with disabilities can function in an elemen-
tary physical education environment that allows
individual response and fosters performance at the
individual’s skill level and that is taught by teachers
who observe, refl ect, and make changes in light of
children’s needs.
Implementing Inclusion
Even with a strong belief in the philosophy of inclu-
sion, initial attempts at implementation are often ac-
companied with feelings of apprehension. Can I meet
the needs of this child with disabilities? Can I meet the
needs of all the children in my class? The following
strategies will assist in implementing inclusion:
Prepare yourself
• Learn everything you can about the disability. Con-
tact your nearest medical library; the librarians will
be happy to provide information for you. Search the
Internet; the search will be limited only by the time
you can devote to the learning.
• Get to know the child and his or her family. Visit
with the child in the home environment. Invite
the parents to school to observe a physical educa-
tion class. Let the family and the child get to know
you. Discussion will be much easier if the child
and the parents are comfortable with you as the
teacher.
Prepare the class
• Discuss the disability in general terms with the class
the child with disabilities will be attending.
• Tell the class about the child —his or her likes and
dislikes, his or her strengths. Discuss things the class
can do to help the child in physical education —
things to help, not hinder, the child.
Become an active member of the M-Team.
• You are the expert in terms of the child’s motor
functioning and skill level. You are the key in the
design of goals for motor development and appro-
priate placement for the child. You are critical to the
discussion of assistance needed for the child in
physical education.
Plan for success
• Using the ecological model described above, make
the following decisions in your daily planning:
Is this lesson appropriate for the child with dis-
abilities? What modifi cations need to be made in
the tasks presented for the child with disabilities?
Is this a lesson that is not appropriate, and if so,
what goals from the IEP can be the alternative
activities for the lesson?
• The “ecological model” approach to planning plus
participation in the remedial physical education
class will greatly facilitate positive, successful physi-
cal education for the child with disabilities and for
the teacher.
Most importantly, remember inclusion is a philo-
sophy that refl ects a belief that all children, regard-
less of abilities or disabilities, are educated within the
same environment (Block 2007). It is a physical edu-
cation environment where each and every child has
their needs met. It is an environment where all chil-
dren are accepted, all are valued, an environment in
which we design, adapt, and modify experiences on
a daily basis to maximize individual learning.
A Final Thought
If we are to become teachers of all children — children
of diversity, children with disabilities —we must be
aware of and move beyond our individual biases,
beyond our preconceived expectations of students and
their potential (Timken 2005). We must value the rich-
ness of diversity and be responsive to the cultures,
needs, interests, and abilities of the children we teach.
We must know our students and know them well.
As we strive to provide maximum opportunities for
learning and development of personal potential in all
children, may the following student request be our
inspiration:
Please, my teacher, open up your . . .
Heart to care ever more deeply for us;
mind to think ever more creatively about ways of
helping us learn;
mouth to seek fresh ideas and feedback (including
from us!); and
classroom to join colleagues and parents in a
thriving community
where as teacher, parents and children together
we strive to reach our potential.
okay?
—Ronald F. Ferguson, August 2003
96 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Summary
Diversity in the United States is steadily increasing.
Diversity is defi ned as differences that exist among
people. Physical education teachers must be prepared
to teach all students, including those with differences
in mental and physical ability, skill level, fi tness level,
gender, culture, language, class, and physical charac-
teristics. It is time to support diverse learners through
a broadened conceptualization of inclusion that goes
beyond accommodating students with special needs.
Inclusion does not mean sitting on the sidelines
keeping score. Inclusion involves teachers in creating a
healthy learning climate where all children feel safe,
successful, motivated, and connected to others and
have a sense of ownership. When learning tasks or ac-
tivities do not meet these basic needs of all learners,
modifi cations must be made.
The concepts of change, challenge, and choice pro-
vide structure for making these modifi cations. Changes
can be made to any task or activity across fi ve categories:
grouping, movements, equipment, conditions, and orga-
nizational pattern. Teachers should make changes across
these categories in order to challenge all students at the
appropriate level. Another strategy for meeting the needs
of diverse learners is to create conditions that allow
students choice among appropriate tasks or challenges.
In addition to developing strategies for modifying
learning tasks, we should learn about the many ways
students can be different. This includes learning about
culturally responsive teaching, gender equity, religious
differences, children of poverty, teaching overweight
children, and teaching children with mental and physi-
cal disabilities. When a student with a disability or who
speaks another language enters our classroom, we should
educate ourselves about their unique needs through ex-
tensive reading, as well as communicating with qualifi ed
professionals, parents, and community members.
When working with diverse students, it is impor-
tant to know that integrating children with special
needs into regular educational settings is no longer a
choice for teachers and administrators. The Individu-
als with Disabilities Education Act of 1990 guarantees
each child with a disability a free and appropriate
education in the least restrictive environment. The
multidisciplinary team, commonly called the M-Team,
determines the placement that constitutes the least re-
strictive environment.
The child’s educational program, including annual
goals, support services, and any special services, is writ-
ten into the individualized education program (IEP).
The IEP includes physical education as a direct service
for all children with disabilities.
We need to educate all children concerning indi-
vidual differences and to orient them to the world of
diversity. By promoting the acceptance of all individu-
als and presenting a curriculum that focuses on the
development of skills commensurate with ability, we
can promote the acceptance of all children as contrib-
uting members of physical education classes.
Sample Web Sites for Disabilities,
Impairments, and Disorders
Attention-Defi cit /Hyperactivity Disorder
Attention Defi cit Disorder Association; www.add.org.
Children and Adults with Attention Defi cit /Hyperactivity
Disorder; www.chadd.org.
National Resource Center on AD/HD; www.help4adhd.org.
Autism, Asperger Syndrome
Autism Research Institute; www.autism.com.
Autism Society of America; www.autism-society.org.
National Institute of Neurological Disorders (Asperger Syn-
drome); www.ninds.nih.gov.
Blindness and Visual Impairments
American Foundation for the Blind; www.afb.org.
Cerebral Palsy
American Cerebral Palsy Information / 4MyChild;
www.cerebralpalsy.org.
Hearing Impairments
National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication
Disorders; www.nidecd.nih.gov.
Developmental Disabilities
Developmental Delay Resources; www.devdelay.org.
Diabetes
American Diabetes Association / For Parents & Kids / For
Schools; www.diabetes.org.
Learning Disabilities
Learning Disabilities Association of America;
www.ldaamerica.org.
Tourette Syndrome
Tourette Syndrome Association; http://tsa-usa.org.
CHAPTER 6 Teaching Diverse Learners 97
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. Defi ne diversity and provide three specifi c exam-
ples of diversity in physical education.
2. Explain the term inclusion expanded.
3. Explain what culturally responsive teaching is. Use
two specifi c examples of things a physical educa-
tor might do to become a more culturally respon-
sive teacher.
4. Describe three ways a teacher can create a more
gender-equitable environment.
5. Explain the purpose(s) or reasons for modifying
activities.
6. Name three categories that can be used to change
activities. For each category list one modifi cation
that could be made to decrease the diffi culty of a
task, and one modifi cation that could be made to
increase the diffi culty of a task.
7. Explain how choice can be used to accommodate
individual differences in physical education. Be
sure to include a specifi c example in your answer.
8. What is the Individuals with Disabilities Education
Act? What is its impact on physical education?
9. What is a multidisciplinary team? What is its func-
tion? Who serves on the M-Team?
10. Why is the physical education teacher an impor-
tant member of the multidisciplinary team?
11. What is an individualized education program?
What does it include?
12. What are the three steps in planning for inclusion?
Why is this planning important for inclusion of a
child with disabilities in physical education?
13. Choose one physically disabling condition and
explain its implications for physical education.
Discuss the adaptations involved in physical edu-
cation for this child — adaptations for the child,
adaptations for the whole class, and adaptations
for the teacher.
References /Suggested Readings
[AOA] American Obesity Association. 2002 . AOA fact sheets: Obesity in youth. Retrieved June 6, 2005, from www. obesity.org .
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Develop- ment. 2003 . Teaching all students. Educational Leadership 61(2).
Auxier , D. , J. Pyfer , and C. Huettig . 1997 . Principles and methods of adapted physical education and recreation. St. Louis, MO: Times Mirror/ Mosby .
Block , M. E. 2000 . A teacher’s guide to including students with disabilities in regular physical education. 2nd ed. Baltimore: Brookes .
Block , M. E. 2007 . A teacher’s guide to including students with disabilities in general physical education. 3rd ed. Baltimore: Brookes .
Block , M. E. , and C. Garcia , eds. 1995 . Including students with disabilities in physical education: A position statement. Reston, VA: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Rec- reation and Dance .
Chappelle , S. , and L. Bigman , with F. Hillyer . 1998 . Diver- sity in action. Hamilton, MA: Project Adventure .
Cummins , J. 1992 . The empowerment of Indian stu- dents. In Teaching American Indian Students, ed. J. Reyhnor, pp. 3 –12 . Norman: University of Oklahoma .
Davis , K. L. 1999 . Giving women a chance to learn: Gen- der equity principles for HPERD classes. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 70(4): 13 –15 .
Davis , K. L. 2003 . Teaching for gender equity in physical education: A review of the literature. Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal 12(2): 55 – 82 .
Evans , J. R. 1980 . They have to be carefully taught: A hand- book for parents and teachers of young children with handi- capping conditions. Reston, VA: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance .
Gay , G. 2000 . Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, re- search, and practice. New York: Teachers College Press .
Haynes , C. C. 1999 . A teacher’s guide to religion in the public schools. Nashville: First Amendment Center . Available for free download at www.freedomforum.org .
Hutchinson , G. E. 1995 . Gender-fair teaching in physical education. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 66(1): 42 – 47 .
Kahan , D. 2003 . Religious boundaries in public school physical activity settings (law review). Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 74(1): 11–13 .
MacCracken , M. 1978 , July. Teacher. In Touch 1(6).
Meece , J. L. , and B. Kurtz-Costes. 2001 . The schooling of ethnic minority children and youth. Educational Psycholo- gist 36(1): 1–7 .
Morris , G. S.D. , and J. Stiehl . 1999 . Changing kids’ games. 2nd ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Morris , G. S.D. , J. Stiehl . and C. Sinclair . 2006 . Change, challenge, choice: Creating strategies that include everyone. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
98 PART 1 Introduction and Content Overview www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Napper-Owen , G. E. 1994 . Equality in the elementary gymnasium. Strategies 8(3): 23 –26 .
Napper-Owen , G. E. , S. K. Kovar , K. L. Ermler , and J. H. Mehrhof. 1999 . Curricula equity in required ninth-grade physical education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Educa- tion 19: 2 –21 .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2005 . Physical education for lifelong fi tness: The physical best teachers guide. 2nd ed. Champaign, IL: Hu- man Kinetics .
[NCES] National Center of Educational Statistics. 2000 . The condition of education. Washington, DC: U.S. Depart- ment of Education, Offi ce of Educational Research and Improvement .
National Education Association. 1996 , July. NEA Today. Washington, DC: National Education Association .
Oberti , C. 1993 . Inclusion: A parent’s perspective. Excep- tional Parent 23(7): 18 –21 .
Olson , L. 2004 , Jan. 8. Enveloping expectations. In Qual- ity counts 2004: Count me in: Special education in an era of standards. Education Week on the Web. Retrieved Septem- ber 14, 2005, from www.edweek.org /sreports/qc04 .
Rohnke , K. 1989 . Cowstails and cobras II: A guide to games, initiatives, ropes courses and adventure curriculum. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt .
Sagor , R. 2002 . Lessons from skateboarders. Educational Leadership 60(1): 34 – 37 .
Sherrill , C. 2004 . Adapted physical activity, recreation, and sport. 6th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill .
Singer , A. 2004 , December. The changing face of America. eJour nal USA: Society and Values. Retrieved June 6, 2005, from usinfo.state.gov/journals/itsv/1204/ijse/singer.htm.
Sparks , W. G. III . 1994 . Culturally responsive pedagogy: A framework for addressing multicultural issues. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 65(9): 33 – 36, 61 .
Tiedt , P. L. , and I. M. Tredt. 1990 . Multicultural teaching: A handbook of activities, information, and resources. Boston: Allyn & Bacon .
Timken , G. L. 2005 . Teaching all kids: Valuing students through culturally responsive and inclusive practice. In Standards-based physical education curriculum development, ed. J. Lund and D. Tannehill, pp. 78 – 97. Boston: Jones & Bartlett .
Tipps , C. R. 2006. Kids at hope: All children are capable of success –No exceptions! JOPERD 77(1): 24 –26 .
Tomlinson , C. A. 2003 . Deciding to teach them all. Edu- cational Leadership 61(2): 7–11 .
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P A R T
99
Part 2 describes many of the teaching skills that teachers use to help
children learn and enjoy physical activity. Chapter 7, “Determining Generic
Levels of Skill Profi ciency,” describes a system for matching class activities,
or tasks, with the abilities of the children so that success rates can be high
and enjoyment frequent. As we know, neither age nor grade level is an ac-
curate indicator of a child’s physical abilities. Chapter 7 provides a system
for observing children that can enable the teacher to match the content of
the lessons (which are organized according to the generic levels) with the
children’s abilities.
Chapter 8, “Planning,” discusses lesson planning skills. A poorly
planned or inappropriately organized lesson often will fail, regardless of
a teacher’s ability to interact with children. Chapter 8 describes step-
by-step effective planning for the year and the day and covers such im-
portant points as how to record progress, design lessons, and actually
enjoy planning.
Chapters 9 to 11—“Establishing an Environment for Learning,” “Maintain-
ing Appropriate Behavior,” and “Developing the Content,” respectively —
discuss skills used in the instructional process. These skills all involve develop-
ing an environment in physical education that supports learning. Chapter 9
includes ideas for creating a positive learning environment in physical education. The chapter elabo-
rates on various ways to establish the proper attitudes, how to foster an atmosphere conducive to
learning in the gymnasium, and how to set up safety procedures.
Chapter 10 provides practical ideas on maintaining a productive environment, including ap-
proaches for working both with individual children and with entire classes. Specifi c examples from
actual teaching situations illustrate how to increase appropriate and decrease inappropriate be-
havior and how to maintain proper behavior. The teacher is shown how to interact positively with
the children; how to work with them one on one; how to apply “punishment,” such as time-outs
and desists; and how to follow worthwhile reward systems, such as class rewards and tokens.
2
Teaching Skills
100
Chapter 11 outlines the process of making decisions to de-
velop the content. Refl ective teachers constantly fi nd themselves
asking such questions as, Which tasks are appropriate for this
class of children? Will the children benefi t from a cue (refi ne-
ment), or should the task be changed to a harder or easier one?
This task is appropriate for the children, but they seem to be
getting bored —how can their interest be maintained? These are
the questions that we respond to in Chapter 11 as we explain a
process for developing the content and provide practical exam-
ples. This is an especially important chapter because all the
chapters in Parts 3 and 4 are based on this approach to content
development.
Chapter 12, “Observing Student Responses,” focuses on
observing children’s responses to movement tasks and in-
cludes a format for observing classes that includes safety,
on-task behavior, and the movements of the entire class and
individual children. Two observation techniques of back-to-
the-wall and scanning are suggested as effective ways in which
to observe.
Chapter 13, “Instructional Approaches,” provides an overview
of the pedagogy of skill themes by describing a variety of
different instructional techniques used to create active learning
experiences for children. This chapter explains a number of ap-
proaches that go beyond direct interactive instruction to indirect
instruction — for example, task sheets, stations, peer teaching,
cooperative learning, guided discovery, and child-designed
instruction. Each of these alternatives provides a more engaging
way for children to learn as well as more fully addressing the
cognitive and affective goals of our physical education classes.
The fi nal two chapters in Part 2, “Assessing Student Learning”
(Chapter 14) and “Understanding Your Teaching” (Chapter 15),
both focus on attempting to determine how well lessons are
going — for the children, and for you as a teacher. In recent years,
educators have started to use alternative methods of evaluating
children — commonly called assessment for learning. These tech-
niques are ongoing, rather being than a culminating experience at
the end of a series of lessons, and are designed by teachers to
assess specifi cally what they have been teaching. Chapter 14 in-
cludes some of these techniques, such as journals, exit slips,
student drawings, and displays. Additionally, scoring rubrics are
explained as a way to determine how well children have learned
what was taught.
Successful teachers not only assess children but also assess
their own teaching. Chapter 15 describes some of the techniques
teachers use to do so —by themselves or with the assistance of
students and /or colleagues. This chapter concludes by discuss-
ing the importance of support groups for teachers as one way to
provide encouragement and comfort in a challenging profession.
As in Part 1, useful reading comprehension questions and refer-
ences are provided at the end of each chapter.
101
C H A P T E R
7
Determining Generic Levels of Skill Profi ciency Where parents have a voice in physical education programs, they usually insist that the curriculum
includes the dances, games, and sports skills of their culture. At the elementary level these activities
are often preceded by the fundamental skills that are combined into more complex tasks as age
and skill levels increase. . . . Teachers are to concentrate on the process of learning by selecting the
appropriate content for whatever level of development the child demonstrates.
— VERN SEEFELDT
102 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
T hink about a group of your friends or maybe a
class you are teaching. If they were asked to drib-
ble a ball with their feet through a general space,
would they all be able to do it successfully? Would
some, perhaps those on a soccer team, be much more
profi cient than others? Would some keep losing con-
trol of the ball?
You probably answered yes to the last two questions.
Obviously age, or grade level, is not an accurate pre-
dictor of developmental level. If all fi fth graders had
identical motor skill abilities, this chapter would not
be necessary. Typically, however, in a fi fth-grade class,
there is a wide range of motor abilities — and that range
only increases with age.
One challenge of refl ective teaching (Chapter 5) is
matching a task (activity) to the ability of a child. If a
task is appropriate, not too hard and not too easy, the
child will typically be successful and therefore remain
interested, continue trying, and learn. If a task is too
easy, however, the child will become bored and lose
interest; too hard, and the child will want to do some-
thing else because of the frustration level. Matching
tasks to abilities is complicated drastically by the fact
that we don’t teach one child at a time —we typically
teach 25 or more in a class. And the range of abilities
within any class is typically a wide one. Some of the
children may never have tried an activity, whereas oth-
ers may have been playing it at home after school or
on a team for several years.
In writing this book, we knew from the outset that
describing and organizing activities according to the
children’s grade level would be inadequate. We dis-
cussed the possibility of organizing the curriculum ac-
cording to the categories of beginner, intermediate,
and advanced. We learned quickly, however, that even
among the three of us who had been working together
closely, there were different concepts of what consti-
tuted a beginning, an intermediate, and an advanced
level of ability. We needed a classifi cation system that
would help us communicate with one another — and
with you.
As we reviewed the literature, we came across a
classifi cation system developed by Sheila Stanley
(1977), which we found to be descriptive and helpful
in communicating the range of abilities related to a
skill. She proposed four levels, which we have termed
the generic levels of skill profi ciency (GLSP): precontrol,
control, utilization, and profi ciency. As we discussed
her system, we found that it was helpful to us and
allowed us to describe and understand the range of
motor abilities more accurately.
The term generic is synonymous with terms such as
universal , all-purpose , covering a broad spectrum . We
thought it would be too diffi cult and confusing if we
created a different classifi cation system for each skill
theme. Thus, we use the term generic to mean that the
same classifi cation system can be used to analyze
youngsters’ ability levels for all of the different skill
themes. Levels of skill profi ciency is the phrase we use to
identify children’s developmental level for each of the
skill themes. We are not suggesting that the GLSP are
precise, exact measures of motor ability. They are,
however, immensely helpful as a way to observe a class
of youngsters to quickly determine their overall ability
and make an informed decision about which task is
appropriate for the overall skill level of the class. The
GLSP system also enables the teacher to assess indi-
vidual youngsters quickly when attempting to manage
an entire class.
We have organized and sequenced the content in
the skill theme chapters by the GLSP. As you become
familiar with these terms, we think you, too, will fi nd
them more descriptive and helpful than the beginner-
to-advanced classifi cations. Before describing how we
have used the GLSP throughout the text, we fi rst need
to defi ne and describe each of the four skill levels.
• The generic levels of skill profi ciency (GLSP) provide a
relatively quick and easy way to assess the abilities of
entire classes of children.
• The GLSP apply to the skill themes, not the movement
concepts.
• The GLSP serve as a guide to matching the diffi culty of
a task (activity) to the ability of the students so they can
have success and yet still be challenged.
• Precontrol level is the beginner or novice level. At this
level, successful performances are typically accidents
and are rarely repeated.
• At the control level, tasks require intense concentration if
they are to be performed successfully. Learners at this
level are easily distracted.
• Learners at the utilization level are ready to combine sev-
eral skills together or practice in dynamic, un predictable
contexts.
• Profi ciency level is the expert, or mastery, level.
• It is unreasonable to expect children to advance from the
precontrol to the profi ciency level in a skill theme if they
practice that skill only during physical education classes.
• Adults can be at the precontrol level in skill themes they
have had little or no opportunity to practice.
Key Concepts
CHAPTER 7 Determining Generic Levels of Skill Profi ciency 103
Identifying Generic Levels of Skill Profi ciency
Observable characteristics of each generic level of skill
profi ciency are discussed below and listed in Box 7-1 .
Precontrol Level
The precontrol (beginner) level is characterized by lack
of ability to either consciously control or intentionally
replicate a movement. For example, a child at the pre-
control level who is bouncing a ball spends more time
chasing after the ball than bouncing it — the ball seems
to control the child. A child who tries to do a forward
roll may complete a revolution on a mat or may get
stuck, not rolling at all or rolling half forward and half
to the side and fi nishing fl at on the back. A child’s
efforts to strike a ball with a racket are characterized
by frequent misses, mishits, and an ineffi cient and
inconsistent striking pattern. Successful skill perfor-
mances are a surprise! Most preschool and kindergar-
ten children are at the precontrol level. By the time
children are in the fi rst grade, however, you’ll observe
some of them entering the control level.
Control Level
The control (advanced beginner) level is character-
ized by less haphazard movements — the body
appears to respond more accurately to the child’s
intentions. The child’s movements often involve in-
tense concen tration because the movements are far
from automatic. A movement that is repeated be-
comes increasingly uniform and effi cient. At this
level, a cartwheel the child performs is more or less
identifi able as a cartwheel; the child is able to travel
in a previously identifi ed direction while briefl y tak-
ing full weight on the hands. When the child tries to
Box 7-1
Precontrol Level
• Child is unable to repeat movements in succession; one
attempt doesn’t look like another attempt to perform the
same movement.
• Child uses extraneous movements that are unnecessary for
effi ciently performing the skill.
• Child seems awkward and frequently doesn’t even come
close to performing the skill correctly.
• Correct performances are characterized more by surprise
than by expectancy.
• When the child practices with a ball, the ball seems to control
the child.
Control Level
• The child’s movements appear less haphazard and seem to
conform more to the child’s intentions.
• Movements appear more consistent, and repetitions are
somewhat alike.
• The child begins to perform the skill correctly more frequently.
• The child’s attempt to combine one movement with another
or perform the skill in relation to an unpredictable object or
person is usually unsuccessful.
• Because the movement isn’t automatic, the child needs to
concentrate intensely on what he or she is doing.
Utilization Level
• The movement becomes more automatic and can be
performed successfully, with concentration.
• Even when the context of the task is varied (slightly at fi rst),
the child can still perform the movement successfully.
• The child has developed control of the skill in predictable
situations and is beginning to be able to move skillfully in
unpredictable situations. The child can execute the skill the
same way consistently.
• The child can use the skill in combination with other skills
and still perform it appropriately.
Profi ciency Level
• The skill has become almost automatic, and performances
in a similar context appear almost identical.
• The child is able to focus on extraneous variables — an
opponent, an unpredictable object, the fl ow of travel— and
still perform the skill as intended.
• The movement often seems effortless as the child performs
the skill with ease and seeming lack of attention.
• The movement can be performed successfully in a
variety of planned and unplanned situations as the child
appears to modify performance to meet the demands of
the situation.
Observable Characteristics of the Generic Levels of Skill Profi ciency
104 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
One Child, More Than One Level
Now that you have an understanding of the four levels
of skill profi ciency, we can expand our use of the term
generic. Once again, our jobs as teachers would be much
easier if every child had the same ability — not only
within a grade, but also for every skill. If this were so,
we could, for example, merely observe a child kicking
a ball at the utilization level and thereby determine
that the child was also at the utilization level in throw-
ing, balancing, and jumping and landing. As you
know, however, this is not the case. A child may be at
the utilization level in one skill and at the precontrol
level in another. It’s not uncommon for children in
our classes to be skillful (utilization-level) throwers
and catchers and be at the precontrol level in the non-
manipulative skills of rolling, balancing, and transfer-
ring weight. By generic, then, we mean that the terms
precontrol, control, utilization, and profi ciency are used to
describe a child’s ability in every skill we teach —we
don’t use a different set of terms to describe the skill
level for balancing, for example, and still another set
of terms to describe the skill level for volleying. The
hypothetical example in Figure 7.1 illustrates two
points: (1) the GLSP apply to all the skills we teach,
and (2) children are typically at different skill levels for
different skills.
Figure 7.1 also suggests that age is not an accurate
indicator of ability. If it were, all adults would be skillful
throw a ball at a target, the ball usually travels in the
direction of the target.
Some primary-grade children are at the control
level. You’ll begin to observe that a few children in-
volved in certain youth sports programs are at the next
level, the utilization level. This is true only for their
sport, however. For example, children involved in after-
school gymnastics programs may be approaching the
utilization level in the skill themes of rolling or trans-
ferring weight, but they may be at the precontrol level
for throwing and catching or kicking a ball.
Utilization Level
The utilization (intermediate) level is characterized by
increasingly automatic movements. A child at this
level is able to use a movement in a variety of ways
because he or she doesn’t need to think as much about
how to execute the movement. Dribbling a ball in a
game situation is appropriate for a child at the utiliza-
tion level. When children at the previous level (control)
try to dribble a ball, they spend more time chasing the
ball than dribbling because they’re unable to focus on
dribbling a ball while trying to travel away from an op-
ponent. A cartwheel, as one in a sequence of three
movements, is also an appropriate task for a child at
the utilization level.
As children get older, the gap between the skill lev-
els widens. Children in the fourth and fi fth grades who
are involved in youth sports programs are often at the
utilization level in the skill themes used in their sport,
but not necessarily in other skills. In the same class, how-
ever, it’s not uncommon to have children who have
remained at the precontrol level, primarily because of
their lack of activity beyond formally organized physi-
cal education classes.
Profi ciency Level
The fourth level, profi ciency (advanced), is character-
ized by somewhat automatic movements that begin
to seem effortless. At this level, the child gains con-
trol of a specifi c movement and is challenged by the
opportunities to employ that skill in changing en-
vironments that may require sudden and unpre-
dictable movements (open skill). The challenge of
repeating movements exactly and with ever-increasing
degrees of quality (closed skill) is also appropriate
for children at this level. Rarely are elementary school
children at the profi ciency level in a skill. In almost
every instance, their profi ciency is a result of their
extensive involvement in after-school youth sports
programs.
Proficiency
Utilization
Control
Precontrol
L e a p
in g
B a la
n c in
g
R o ll in
g
T ra
n sf
e rr
in g
w e ig
h t
T h
ro w
in g
C a tc
h in
g
P u n
ti n
g
S tr
ik in
g w
it h
a r
a c k e t
S tr
ik in
g w
it h
a b
a t
Figure 7.1 Hypothetical example representing a child’s varying
levels of profi ciency in different skills.
CHAPTER 7 Determining Generic Levels of Skill Profi ciency 105
at striking with a racket, for example, and we know this
isn’t true. We often observe fourth and fi fth graders at
the precontrol level when a new skill is introduced,
one they have never practiced. Generally, however,
because of their physical maturation and previous ex-
periences, they move from the precontrol level more
rapidly than the primary-grade children (although
there are always exceptions).
Using the Generic Levels of Skill Profi ciency in Teaching
The generic levels of skill profi ciency provide a broad
guideline for answering two important questions:
1. What is the ability level of this class?
2. Which tasks and activities work best for a class at
this GLSP?
Although there will be a range of skill levels within any
class, we as teachers make a judgment about the over-
all ability of the class. Then we modify the tasks for
individuals using teaching by invitation and intratask
variation, as discussed in Chapter 11.
Tasks that succeed with one class may need to be
changed (made easier or harder) to meet the needs of
the next class. The GLSP provide us with broad guide-
lines for doing so. For example, it is generally safe to
assume that most of the children in school through
fi rst grade will be at the precontrol level.
In the upper grades, however, we typically fi nd a
few children who are at precontrol level, a number at
control level, some at utilization level, and a few, espe-
cially in middle school, who might be at profi ciency
level: the higher the grade level, the greater the range
of skill levels within a class.
Note that we use the generic levels of skill profi -
ciency to describe a youngster’s profi ciency for each
skill theme — for example, kicking, jumping and land-
ing, or striking a ball with a bat. The skill levels do not
pertain to the movement concepts (Chapters 16 to 18),
because the concepts aren’t skills; they represent cog-
nitive understanding expressed through versatile and
effi cient use of the skill themes. As you read further,
this point will become clearer. For now, however, just
remember that the four levels of skill profi ciency apply to
the skill themes only .
As refl ective teachers we use the GLSP in two ways.
First, we observe the students to determine their over-
all skill level. Second, we attempt to match the tasks to
the skill level of the children in the class. For example,
if we determine that the majority of the children in a
class are at the precontrol level for the skill of kicking,
we would not ask them to play a profi ciency-level
game such as Alley Soccer or Cone Soccer (Chapter 24).
Instead, we would ask them to practice precontrol
tasks, such as kicking a stationary ball from a standing
position and then running to kick the ball.
Which Task?
As teachers gain experience and learn to use the GLSP,
they become able to assess the overall skill level of a
class rather quickly and determine which tasks will be
helpful to that group (Graham et al. 1993; Housner
and Griffey 1985). For those who are new to the skill
theme approach, or perhaps new to a school, it will
take time and experience to learn the tasks that “work”
with different grade and ability levels. Veteran teachers
who have been teaching by skill themes know which
tasks will work— and which will not. Beginning teach-
ers, in contrast, will learn with practice the tasks that
are most effective, and how to make them interesting
and appealing to children of various grade levels. As
you plan, especially when you start working with the
skill theme approach, we recommend being prepared
to deliver a series of tasks (10 to 15) in a lesson — not
just one or two! Extensive planning will also help you
learn the progression of tasks for each skill theme and
movement concept. The chapters on planning and ob-
servation techniques (Chapters 8 and 12) that follow
will also help you better understand how to plan for
skill theme lessons — and when to use a task and when
to change to a new one.
Finally, it is important to remember that there is no
single, correct way to deliver the tasks in a lesson. Some
teachers, for example, prefer to start at the precontrol
level (for a class at the control level) and quickly pro-
gress up the spiral with a series of tasks that serve as a
warm-up and review for the children. Others prefer to
start with a task or activity that most closely matches
that class’s GLSP. If a task is too hard and children have
high rates of failure and frustration, then a teacher
who has planned well can move down the spiral to an
easier task. That’s why it is so important to plan a series
of tasks rather than only one or two for a lesson.
How to Know If a Task Works
Chapter 12, “Observing Student Responses,” explains
in more detail how to know if a task works, but a quick
overview of the process will be helpful here. A task
works when youngsters are provided numerous chances
to be successful— and they want to keep doing the
task. Tasks that are too hard or too easy lead to frustra-
tion or boredom. The GLSP will help you match tasks
to the ability level of the majority of the class so that
106 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Personal Opinion
Age: Sex:
Answer the following questions:
1) What is the most important thing you have learned in flag
football?
2) Did you enjoy the unit? Why? Why not?
3) Is flag football appropriate to your age? Why?/Why not?
Figure 7.2 Sixth-grader’s evaluation of a
fl ag football unit.
children are not frustrated or bored. This is why we did
not organize the book by grade levels: there is such a
wide range of variance among classes at the same grade
level. As you increase your understanding of the skill
theme approach, you will fi nd that it is relatively easy
to change tasks and activities with classes.
When a class is required to play a sport or participate
in a predesigned game—that is, a game that has been
designed with no knowledge of the class of children be-
ing taught—the teacher implicitly assumes that all the
youngsters have the same abilities and interests. The
response of a sixth-grade boy to an opinion poll about a
“fl ag football” unit ( Figure 7.2 ) provides one potent ex-
ample of how some children feel when they are all re-
quired to play a sport that requires profi ciency-level
skills. It also suggests why teaching the prerequisite skills
for successful game playing, as opposed to playing games,
is so important at the elementary school level— especially
for those youngsters who have not reached the utiliza-
tion or profi ciency level.
Insights about the Generic Levels of Skill Profi ciency
Now that you’re familiar with the four levels that con-
stitute the GLSP, you need to be aware of four insights
that will enhance your understanding of the levels and
help you apply them in your teaching situation.
Multiple Skill Levels in a Class
The fi rst insight is that in the upper-elementary and
middle school grades, you can expect to have children
in the same class at three different levels: precontrol,
control, and utilization. Your challenge as a teacher is
CHAPTER 7 Determining Generic Levels of Skill Profi ciency 107
to determine the predominant skill level and then
make adjustments for individuals, through teaching
by invitation or intratask variation (Chapter 11) and
task sheets (Chapter 13), for example. In the preschool
and primary grades, in contrast, many children will be
at the precontrol and control levels — although there
will always be an exception or two.
Control Level in Two Days a Week
The second insight we can offer is that in programs of
elementary school physical education, in which chil-
dren have physical education classes only once or
twice a week, the children will reach the utilization
level of most of the skill themes only if they do some-
thing outside of class (Graham, Metzler, and Webster
1991). Unfortunately, an increasing number of chil-
dren today are not physically active after school and
on weekends. It is our observation that, along with the
decline in physical activity beginning in the middle
school years (Chapter 1), children are also experienc-
ing a decline in their skill levels from past years. The
implication, of course, is that it is not uncommon for
a teacher to use control-level tasks for children in the
fourth and fi fth grades —because the majority haven’t
developed their skills beyond that level. If we develop
lessons using utilization- and profi ciency-level tasks,
we end up frustrating these children and convincing
them that physical activity is not enjoyable because
they are so inept.
Profi ciency Level Is Rare
Our third insight is that children who are at the profi -
ciency level in a skill are the exception. Remember that
the GLSP apply to skills, not ages. Thus anyone, re-
gardless of age, can be at the precontrol level. The stan-
dards or criteria for each of the skill levels apply across
the board to all skills and all ages. Consequently, we do
not see many children at the profi ciency level. In fact,
it seems unlikely that many children can reach pro-
fi ciency level simply by participating in a physical
education program —unless that program is a quality,
daily program. Typically children reach the profi ciency
level in a skill because they’ve been involved in an
after-school sports program in which they practice the
skill frequently or because a parent or older sister or
brother is involved in a sport and the child consequently
spends a lot of time practicing and receiving instruc-
tion in the backyard.
Overall, however, we do not observe children at
profi ciency level very often. For this reason, you will
probably use the profi ciency-level tasks we have listed
in each of the chapters more as part of teaching by
invitation and intratask variation (Chapter 11) than
with entire classes of children. This does not mean, of
course, that some of the children don’t want to per-
form the profi ciency-level tasks, especially the games.
Children who are new to the skill theme approach,
particularly those in the upper-elementary and middle
school grades, constantly ask the question, “When do
we get to play the real ‘offi cial’ game?” Our standard
answer is, “At recess. At home. On the weekends.” In
time, as the children become accustomed to the skill
theme approach and we’re able to individualize the
program to a greater extent, they no longer ask the
question — at least, not as often.
Unfortunately, some teachers succumb to the pres-
sure from the children to “play the game.” In the long
run, the children end up shortchanged, just as they do
when their diet consists primarily of unhealthy snacks
and fast food. Although it may not be as much fun as
playing games such as kickball and dodgeball, a focus
on learning and improving has the potential to help
children eventually derive the benefi ts of regular in-
volvement in physical activity (Malina 2001). Failure to
help children develop the prerequisite skills may mean
that the children, as they age, come to feel inadequate
and incompetent in physical activity. Just as it’s easier
for parents to let their children sit in front of the tele-
vision for fi ve or six hours a day, it’s easier for teachers
to let the children play kickball and dodgeball every
day. But it’s not better for the children!
Assessment Using the GLSP?
As you will see in Chapter 14 on assessment, we do not
suggest that the generic levels of skill profi ciency be
used to assess the progress of children in physical edu-
cation. After reading this chapter, you can understand
why. Change from one level to another (e.g., control
to utilization) is primarily dependent on copious
amounts of practice and experiences using the skill
themes. Unfortunately, in too many programs of phys-
ical education, there is simply not enough time to rea-
sonably expect children to progress from one skill level
to another over a semester or even a year. For this rea-
son, we assess what children can reasonably learn in
the time allotted for physical education, as you will see
in Chapter 14. Thus our fi nal insight to conclude this
chapter is that the GLSP are immensely helpful for
determining the overall skill level of a class and the
ability level of individual children. It seems unreason-
able, however, to expect that we will see dramatic
changes in skill level from year to year if children
practice the skills only during physical education
class. For this reason, we do not recommend that the
GLSP be used to assess, or grade, the progress of indi-
vidual students.
108 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Summary
Organizing curriculum by grade level or age is con-
venient. Yet because of the range of skills found at
any grade level or age, age and grade level are inade-
quate indicators of children’s skill levels. We have
adopted the concept of generic levels of skill profi -
ciency (GLSP). Assessing children’s skills in terms of
these levels is a basis for planning appropriate acti-
vities. The four generic levels of motor skill profi -
ciency are (1) precontrol, (2) control, (3) utilization,
and (4) profi ciency.
Children at the precontrol level are unable to con-
sciously control or replicate a particular movement.
At the control level, the child’s body appears to re-
spond more accurately to the child’s intentions, and
movements become increasingly similar. Movements
are even more automatic and refl exive at the utiliza-
tion level; children can use a movement in a variety
of contexts. At the profi ciency level, the child has
gained control of a movement and is challenged
by the goal of repeating movements exactly or using
movements effectively in dynamic, unpredictable
situations.
The generic levels of skill profi ciency are task
related — that is, a child at the utilization level in one
skill may be at the control level in another skill. Age
and skill level are not necessarily related.
Proficiency
Utilization
Control
Precontrol
1 5 6 7 8 92 3 4 10
10 Skills
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. What is the purpose of the GLSP? How are they
used?
2. In your own words, explain the differences between
the four levels of skill profi ciency.
3. What do we mean by generic?
4. Why isn’t age an indicator of motor skill
profi ciency?
5. Describe how the GLSP serve as a guide for selecting
and matching tasks to the abilities of children
within a class. Pick a skill theme, and describe how
you would use the GLSP to help you make your de-
cisions about which tasks to present.
6. Figure 7.1 shows a hypothetical example of a child’s
profi ciency level at several skills. Use the following
form to create your own graph. Select 10 of the skill
themes that represent your range of abilities. Graph
your skill levels. Which skill themes do you need to
work on most? Why are you less advanced at these
CHAPTER 7 Determining Generic Levels of Skill Profi ciency 109
References /Suggested Readings
Graham , G. , C. Hopple , M. Manross , and T. Sitzman. 1993 . Novice and experienced children’s physical education teachers: Insights into their situational decision-making. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 12(2): 197–214 .
Graham , G. , M. Metzler , and G. Webster . 1991 . Specialist and classroom teacher effectiveness in children’s physical education: A 3-year study [monograph]. Journal of Teach- ing in Physical Education 4: 321– 426 .
Housner , L. D. , and D. C. Griffey. 1985 . Teacher cognition: Differences in planning and interactive decision making
between experienced and inexperienced teachers. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 56: 56 – 63 .
Malina , R. M. 2001 . Adherence to physical activity from childhood to adulthood. Quest 53: 350 .
Seefeldt , V. 1979 . Developmental motor patterns: Implica- tions for elementary school physical education. In Psychol- ogy of motor behavior and sport, ed. C. Nadeau, W. Halliwell, K. Newell, and C. Roberts. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Stanley , S. 1977 . Physical education: A movement orientation. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill .
skills than at the others? Did you rate yourself at the
profi ciency level for any of these skills? If so, why
do you think you attained the profi ciency level for
that skill? Answer the same questions if you’re at
the precontrol level for any of the 10 skills you
selected.
7. In Figure 7.2, a sixth-grade boy responds to three
questions about a fl ag football unit. Why do you
think he responded as he did? What do think his
GLSP were for throwing, catching, chasing, and
fl eeing? What would you do if he were in your class
to assist him to enjoy the “unit”?
110 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
110
C H A P T E R
8
Planning “Will you please tell me which way I ought to go from here?”
“That depends a good deal on where you want to get to,” said the Cat.
“I don’t care much where,” said Alice.
“Then it doesn’t matter which way you go,” said the Cat.
— LEWIS CARROLL
If you don’t know where you are going, you will be lost when you get there.
— YOGI BERRA
If you want kids to learn to skip, teach them the essential components of skipping, let them practice
skipping, and then assess how well they can skip.
—NASPE 2004, P. 3
CHAPTER 8 Planning 111
T his and the next seven chapters focus on many
of the techniques or skills that successful teachers
use when they teach children. The fi rst teaching
skill we want to discuss is planning. Some of the mate-
rial in this chapter will be new to you—and it won’t be
explained until later in the book. You will probably
want to review this chapter again after you have read
the content chapters (Parts 3 and 4), when the examples
will probably make more sense to you.
We think it is important to start at the beginning.
Any good program begins with a good plan. For many
teachers, however, planning is one of the least enjoy-
able aspects of teaching. And yet it’s essential, because
failure to plan appropriately can lead to lessons that
are disastrous. Disorganization and spending an exces-
sive amount of time on management characterize the
lessons of the teacher who hasn’t planned effectively.
Inappropriate planning can also have long-term im-
plications. One important task of physical education is
to provide a variety of learning experiences that give
children a broad foundation of movement abilities
(Stodden et al. 2008). Children who are skillful in only
a few activities, typically games, may be the products
of programs characterized by ineffi cient planning. In-
structors who don’t plan are likely to teach only what
they know well and what the children enjoy, which
often results in an unbalanced program over the years.
Because planning is typically done during the teach-
er’s own time rather than during school time, there are
strong temptations to avoid it. It can be much more
pleasant to watch television, go to a ball game, or just
go to bed early. But planning, even though you may
consider it as onerous as homework, is necessary.
The benefi ts of effective planning include classes
that run more smoothly with less interruption and
confusion; tasks that are interesting, enjoyable, and
worthwhile; and, in some instances, less off-task be-
havior. In short, well-planned classes assist children to
learn the concepts and skills that are being taught.
Refl ective Planning
If all schools, all children, all facilities, all teachers, all
communities, and all equipment were the same, we
could simply provide you with a book of prepackaged
lesson plans that would be successful with every class
you teach, no matter the situation. As you know, how-
ever, that isn’t the case. Experienced teachers are able to
plan lessons—and entire programs—that consider the
various unique characteristics of their teaching situa-
tion (Graham et al. 1993; Housner and Griffey 1985).
The refl ective planner considers many factors when
trying to devise the best lessons possible under the
circumstances. Planning can’t be reduced to an exact
formula, but certain factors will always infl uence the
effectiveness of a lesson. Each factor is important, and
all interact to determine the teaching environment
for which the refl ective teacher must plan. When
planning, we consider class size, frequency of class
meetings, available equipment and facilities, personal
characteristics of the children, and children’s skill
levels and interests.
Class size often determines the amount and types of
information that can be presented. For example, a class
of 15 children will accomplish signifi cantly more in a
year’s time than a class of 60 (Glass et al. 1979).
Frequency of class meetings is the second factor. Classes
that meet once or twice a week accomplish far less than
classes that meet daily, because you can’t present as
much material in one or two days as you can in fi ve
(Kelly 1989). And children, particularly the younger
ones, tend to forget what they learned a week earlier.
To learn and understand a concept or skill, a child
needs a multitude of experiences with a particular
task or challenge. When the amount of available
equipment and facilities is limited, each child has fewer
opportunities to use the equipment. One result is
that children learn more slowly than they would
• Refl ective teachers plan and revise their plans over the
course of a career as they continue to strive to provide
the most productive and enjoyable learning experiences
for children.
• Planning is divided into four parts in this chapter. The fi rst
part is the development of a curriculum scope that out-
lines the content to be taught for several years.
• The second planning step is to decide how many lessons
will be devoted to each of the skill themes and movement
and fi tness concepts during a year.
• The third step is the development of benchmarks or as-
sessments that allow the refl ective teacher to determine if
the children are learning what is being taught.
• The fi nal step is the development of daily lesson plans
that are interesting and benefi cial to youngsters.
• Ideally, lessons encourage students to be physically active
during the majority of the lesson. Typically this occurs
when children are able to be successful and to consider
the lesson fun.
• Just because a lesson is fun does not mean that it is a
productive learning experience for children.
Key Concepts
112 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
with adequate equipment that would increase learn-
ing opportunities.
Equipment also dictates which experiences can be
presented. In gymnastics, for example, children who
have progressed beyond the initial stages of skill devel-
opment need apparatus—tables, beams—that allow
them to work off the fl oor, because only with such
equipment will they continue to be challenged. Simi-
larly, nylon hose rackets are appropriate for children
who are just beginning to learn to strike with imple-
ments. But foam paddles or actual rackets are essential
if the children are to remain interested in and chal-
lenged by the skill theme of striking with implements.
Facilities also infl uence planning. Kicking can be
studied briefl y in a limited indoor space. But children
can learn much more about kicking when they can
practice it outdoors in a larger area. Thus lack of ade-
quate outdoor facilities may prevent you from devoting
as much time as you’d like to a particular skill theme.
Similarly, the kind of available indoor space infl u-
ences planning. Most teachers, for example, prefer to
teach dance indoors. Hallways, classrooms with furni-
ture pushed aside, school foyers—all these indoor areas
can be used for teaching. But these aren’t ideal settings
for teaching many skill themes. It’s extremely diffi cult,
for example, to teach locomotor activities in a crowded
classroom. However, you can effectively teach the move-
ment concepts of symmetrical and nonsymmetrical
shapes in a crowded indoor area.
How responsible are the students? Children’s ability
to function in a variety of environments also infl uences
planning (see Chapters 9 and 10). During the fi rst
few meetings of a class, you can gather observations
about the children’s characteristics; this information is
useful when you plan lessons for a particular class.
Some classes and some individual children can coop-
erate with others and work well in less than optimal
circumstances.
The four factors just mentioned are easier to assess
than children’s skill levels and interests. You must have
this information, though, to decide what tasks are
appropriate and how to present those tasks. You want
to challenge the students but not overwhelm them,
so they will continue to be interested and will want
to learn.
If you decide that your class needs to be introduced
to the concept of levels (Chapter 16), many factors,
including the children’s ages and abilities, will deter-
mine your plan for this lesson. Young, unskilled chil-
dren often enjoy the challenge of taking different body
parts into different levels—for example, “Can you
move your elbow into low level?” “Can you move an
ankle into high level?” Children in the intermediate
grades might be bored by that task and so would
probably learn more effectively if challenged to catch
or strike a ball at low or high levels.
When teaching children in the upper grades, it’s im-
portant to consider the types of movement experiences
to which they’ve already been exposed. You’ll want to
take advantage of skills learned in earlier experiences,
and you’ll also want to avoid repetition of material
with which students are already familiar. For example,
if the children are profi cient in the skills used in soft-
ball, you may decide to minimize the amount of time
spent on the skill theme of striking with bats.
A Four-Step Planning Process
Although there are several ways teachers plan either
alone or as a group when they develop a curriculum,
we suggest a four-step planning process that provides
children with a progression of learning experiences
over several years. At this point in the book, much of
the terminology will be new to you. Our recommen-
dation is that you continue to read with the under-
standing that you’ll return to this chapter after reading
more of the book, when the examples we provide to
illustrate the four parts of the planning process will
make more sense to you. Don’t be frustrated, however,
Effective teachers use many resources to plan successful lessons.
CHAPTER 8 Planning 113
if you don’t understand the meaning of every term we
use—the defi nitions are in future chapters. At this
point, it’s important that you understand the process
itself—the four steps that describe one way to develop
an overall plan for a physical education program. The
four steps are:
Step 1: Develop a curriculum scope and sequence
for the entire fi ve or six years of the program.
Step 2: Develop a yearly plan from the program
scope and sequence, deciding approximately how
many days you will devote to the various movement
concepts and skill themes for each grade taught
that year.
Step 3: Decide which part of each of the skill themes
and movement and fi tness concepts you’ll focus on,
with special attention to the cues or refi nements
(see Chapter 11) that you will be emphasizing. These
are referred to as benchmarks or checkpoints.
Step 4: Write daily lesson plans.
An analogy may help explain the process. Imagine
that you and a friend are going on a trip. You are
planning to drive several thousand miles. You would
prob ably ask and answer questions similar to the four
steps:
1. Where do we plan to end up? What do we plan to
visit along the way?
2. How many days do we plan to stay in each location?
3. What will we use as our performance indicators (or
benchmarks) along the way to determine how well
our plan is working?
4. How will we organize each day?
Effective teachers ask, and answer, essentially the same
four questions as they plan their programs. The plan-
ning process used by teachers employing a skill theme
approach—one of asking and answering these four
questions—is described (with examples) in the follow-
ing sections. We caution you that the process may
appear complex, but, just as with a long journey, taking
it step by step makes it much easier.
Step 1: Developing the Scope and Sequence
The fi rst step is deciding what you will include in your
curriculum—and what you will not include. This is
the scope of the curriculum. Teachers in Florida, for
example, would probably not focus on ice skating or
snow skiing, whereas teachers in Alaska and Minnesota
might. Reviewing the curriculum scope tells us what is
included—and what is not.
Just as in your imaginary trip with a friend, you will
need to decide the sequence of your journey—where
Table 8.1 Sample of Movement Concept Scope and
Sequence for Grades K– 5 (Step 1 in Planning)
Movement Concept K 1 2 3 4 5
Space Awareness
Self-space X X
General space X X X
Levels X X X
Directions X X X
Pathways X X X
Extensions X X
Effort
Time /speed X X X X X
Force X X X X
Flow X X X X
Relationships
Body part identifi cation X
Shapes X X X
Relationships with objects X X X X
Relationships with people X X X X
Notes: This chart is intended only as an example. Refl ective teachers will want
to adapt this chart for their school.
X denotes that a movement concept is the major focus of lessons at a
grade level. Concepts are studied at other grade levels but not as the primary
focus of the lesson.
you will go fi rst, second, and so on. The curriculum
sequence provides an overview of the order in which
the content will be taught, and at what grade levels. In
the skill theme approach, the movement concepts
( Table 8.1 ) are emphasized in grades K–2 (visited fi rst)
and the skill themes (Table 8.2) in grades 3–5. This
does not mean that fi rst graders never throw or kick in a
skill theme approach, but rather that the lesson focuses
not on learning to throw or kick, but on using move-
ment concepts to enhance the effectiveness of those
skills. In contrast, a concept like pathways is important
as fourth and fi fth graders participate in small-sided
games in which they try to escape (fl ee) or catch. At the
upper grades, however, the children have already learned
the concept of pathways, so we incorporate straight,
curved, and zigzag pathways into their games, dance,
and gymnastic routines to make them more interesting
and challenging.
As we have discussed in previous chapters, Chil-
dren Moving focuses on youngsters learning the fun-
damental motor skills (Stodden et al. 2008) used in a
variety of sports and physical activities, but not the
offi cial, adult versions (rules) of the sports (Chapters 2,
3, and 31). Consequently, our organizing themes are
not sports, but skill themes and concepts (movement,
fi tness, and wellness). Tables 8.1 and 8.2 provide ex-
amples of a scope and sequence for movement con-
cepts (Table 8.1) and skill themes ( Table 8.2 ). These
114 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Table 8.2 Sample Skill Theme Scope and Sequence for
Grades K– 5 (Step 1 in Planning)
Skill Theme K 1 2 3 4 5
Traveling
Walking X X
Running X X
Hopping X X X
Skipping X X X
Galloping X X X
Leaping X X X X
Sliding X X X X
Chasing, Fleeing, Dodging X X X X X
Jumping and Landing X X X X X X
Balancing X X X X X
Transferring Weight X X X X
Rolling X X X X X X
Kicking X X X X
Punting X X
Throwing X X X X
Catching X X X X
Volleying X X X
Hand Dribbling X X X X
Foot Dribbling X X X X
Striking with Rackets X X X X
Striking with Long-Handled Implements
Bats X X X
Golf clubs X X X
Hockey sticks X X X
Notes: This chart is intended only as an example. Refl ective teachers will want
to adapt this chart for their school.
X denotes that a skill theme is the major focus of lessons at a grade level.
Concepts are studied at other grade levels but not as the primary focus of the
lesson.
Table 8.3 Sample Yearly Overview of Number of Lessons
for a Two-Day-a-Week Program: Grades K, 2, and 4
(Step 2 in Planning)
Concept / Theme /Activity K 2 4
Establishing a Learning Environment 6 4 3
Space Awareness 10 4 2
Effort 4 4 3
Relationships 6 4 3
Traveling 10 3 1
Chasing, Fleeing, Dodging 3 5 3
Jumping and Landing 4 4 3
Rolling 2 4 4
Balancing 4 4 4
Transferring Weight 2 3 4
Kicking and Punting 4 4 4
Throwing and Catching 4 6 6
Volleying 0 2 4
Dribbling 1 2 3
Striking with Rackets 2 4 4
Striking with Hockey Sticks 0 1 2
Striking with Golf Clubs 0 1 2
Striking with Bats 0 1 2
Fitness / Wellness Concepts 5 7 10
Field Day and Other Events 5 5 5
Total Days per Year 72 72 72
Note: Numbers represent days per year that a concept theme will be the major
focus of a lesson. Numbers are intended for discussion only; the overview will
differ from teacher to teacher.
examples are organized by grade levels to be consistent
with the National Association for Sport and Physical
Fitness’s National Standards (NASPE 1995, 2004). The
grade levels merely serve as a general indicator, how-
ever; the decisions about what to teach and when are
based on observing the actual classes of children we
teach (Chapters 7 and 12). So when you develop the
scope and sequences for your own program, the fi rst
two questions you will need to answer as a refl ective
teacher are:
1. What do I want to include in my curriculum
(scope)?
2. At what grade levels will I emphasize the various
concepts and skills (sequence)?
Step 2: Devising a Yearly Overview
Continuing the analogy of a trip with a friend, the
next step would be to decide how long you plan to
spend at each destination. You will visit some places
only briefl y; at others you will spend several days. In
curriculum development, once you have decided
your scope and sequence, the next step is to develop
a yearly overview. How many days do you plan to
spend teaching the movement concept “levels” to
kindergarten children? How many days will you
spend teaching your fourth and fi fth graders to strike
with paddles?
Table 8.3 exemplifi es the overview of a teacher who
sees children twice a week (72 days a year) for physical
education. It uses the kindergarten, second-, and
fourth-grade levels to be consistent with the National
Standards and provides one example of how many days
a teacher might spend on the various concepts and
skills in a given year.
Find Your State Standards
In recent years, many states have revised or developed
state standards based on the National Standards. If you
are interested in locating your standards, go to PE Central
( www.pecentral.org ). You will fi nd the state standards listed
under the “Professional Information” link on the front page.
CHAPTER 8 Planning 115
As you review Table 8.3, two facts should strike you:
• There aren’t enough days for youngsters to learn
everything recommended in most curriculum guides
or state or national standards.
• The primary-grade emphasis is on the movement
concepts; the upper-grade emphasis is on the skill
themes.
Like Tables 8.1 and 8.2, Table 8.3 is for illustrative
purposes only. As a refl ective teacher, you will want to
ask and answer the following question based on your
specifi c teaching situation: “How many days a year
will I be able to allocate to teaching each concept and
skill theme?”
Once you have developed a yearly overview for your
program, you’ll need to translate it into a yearly calen-
dar. Essentially, this involves deciding which skill
themes or concepts you’ll emphasize during which
days of the school year. Most school districts provide
planning calendars, and preparation of the yearly cal-
endar can be done rather easily at the beginning of the
school year during planning days. Figure 8.1 shows
one type of planning calendar.
Based on what we know about how children learn,
it seems wise to distribute the throwing lessons over the
year rather than to mass them together (Rink 1996). If,
for example, a teacher planned to teach throwing for
three days of the year, two of the throwing lessons
might be scheduled in September, the third in March.
A teacher with a three-day-a-week program might have
a total of nine throwing lessons. In such a case, the
teacher might decide to devote three lessons in a row
to throwing, but it’s still better to spread the total num-
ber of lessons throughout the year. Continuing to re-
visit lessons helps the children better remember the
key points; spending several days on a skill or concept
and then not reviewing it for another year is much less
effective. Again, it’s important to emphasize that the
children will actually practice throwing in more classes
than just the ones that focus primarily on throwing.
For example, the sessions dedicated to catching will
typically offer many opportunities to throw. In these
Week 1
M
T
W
T
F
Week 7
M
T
W
T
F
Week 13
M
T
W
T
F
Week 19
M
T
W
T
F
Week 25
M
T
W
T
F
Week 31
M
T
W
T
F
Week 2
M
T
W
T
F
Week 8
M
T
W
T
F
Week 14
M
T
W
T
F
Week 20
M
T
W
T
F
Week 26
M
T
W
T
F
Week 32
M
T
W
T
F
Week 3
M
T
W
T
F
Week 9
M
T
W
T
F
Week 15
M
T
W
T
F
Week 21
M
T
W
T
F
Week 27
M
T
W
T
F
Week 33
M
T
W
T
F
Week 4
M
T
W
T
F
Week 10
M
T
W
T
F
Week 16
M
T
W
T
F
Week 22
M
T
W
T
F
Week 28
M
T
W
T
F
Week 34
M
T
W
T
F
Week 5
M
T
W
T
F
Week 11
M
T
W
T
F
Week 17
M
T
W
T
F
Week 23
M
T
W
T
F
Week 29
M
T
W
T
F
Week 35
M
T
W
T
F
Week 6
M
T
W
T
F
Week 12
M
T
W
T
F
Week 18
M
T
W
T
F
Week 24
M
T
W
T
F
Week 30
M
T
W
T
F
Week 36
M
T
W
T
F
Figure 8.1 Yearly planning calendar.
116 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
sessions, however, the teacher will focus on the way the
children catch, not on the way they throw. Obviously,
children don’t become effective throwers in three les-
sons a year—it takes much more time and practice. It is
possible for them to learn parts of the overhand throw,
however, in three lessons a year. It is reasonable to ex-
pect, for example, that they can learn to step with the
foot opposite the throwing hand or turn their non-
dominant side toward the target (see Chapter 11).
The beginning teacher will have to experiment
with devising the lesson sequences. This process of
sequencing lessons to enhance learning movement
concepts or skill themes is a valuable one. With prac-
tice, you’ll learn to predict, with increasing accuracy,
the appropriate emphasis that you should place on a
theme or concept in a given class. And experience
helps you adjust the sequence of the lessons to ac-
count for individual differences within a class and
among classes. Once you have outlined a sequence,
you can rearrange that sequence without losing sight
of the intended direction or progression of the skill
theme or movement concept.
Here are helpful guidelines for developing your
yearly overviews:
• The fi rst time you introduce a concept or theme, the
children will need several lessons in a row to grasp
the major ideas. Later in the year, they’ll need less
time. Mass the practice in the beginning of the year;
distribute it later (Schmidt and Wrisberg 2008).
During weeks 4 and 6, for example, you may devote
four lessons to jumping and landing. For the re-
mainder of the year, jumping and landing are the
major focus of the lesson for only two days in a row.
This same principle applies to any skill theme or
movement concept: massed practice during initial
learning, distributed practice later.
• The older the children, the longer they’re able to re-
main on the same skill theme. For example, children
designing games or dances typically need several
days in a row for this task. As the children become
more skilled, you’ll notice that it becomes easier to
remain on a skill theme than it was initially.
• It isn’t very effective to focus on a skill once a year
and then never revisit it. Three weeks of practice in
February on the skill theme of rolling, for example,
probably won’t lead to the long-term learning that
three weeks of practice—one week each in October,
February, and April—will.
• To get you started, a major task is generally appro-
priate for the focus of a day’s lesson. If you think the
children will fi nd a single task too strenuous or un-
interesting, you may want to combine a major task
from two different chapters. For example, you may
want to combine the ideas under the heading Jump-
ing a Turned Rope (Chapter 21) with the major task
Traveling in Different Pathways (Chapter 19). This
will give the children variety. Although most of our
lessons focus on one major movement concept or
skill theme, there’s no reason not to focus on two
themes or concepts in a single lesson.
Our experience has been that it’s often diffi cult for
beginning teachers to develop a daily calendar. In an
attempt to make this process easier (and better), we
have provided four sample daily calendars in the Ap-
pendix in this book. Two calendars are for classes that
have physical education fi ve times a week (180 days a
year); two are for classes that meet twice a week (72 days
a year). Two of the calendars are for kindergarten through
grade 2, and two are for grades 3–6.
You’ll want to change these calendars as you plan
your year, but they’re a helpful start. To the right of each
activity is a page number, which indicates where in
Children Moving you can fi nd a thorough explanation of
each task and how it can be presented to children.
Once you’ve written your outline, use it only as a
guide and change it as often and as much as the par-
ticular situation requires. You will want to write your
outlines in pencil, leaving plenty of space for changes.
Learning is not totally predictable. If the study of a
particular topic is going especially well, we don’t
change simply because the daily outline tells us to
change. If several lessons on a particular topic have
proven ineffective, it’s possible to change to a different
focus even though the daily outline calls for teaching
three more lessons on that topic.
The children’s needs and interests are the guide for the
lessons to be presented. No outline, however theoreti-
cally sound it may be, can unfailingly refl ect the prog-
ress and the interests of all the children being taught.
Step 3: Determining Benchmarks (Performance
Indicators or Checkpoints)
Now that you and your friend have decided where you
want to go on your imaginary trip and how long you
plan to spend at various sites along the way, your next
step is to determine performance indicators (bench-
marks or checkpoints) that you constantly check to be
certain you are on the right road headed in the desired
direction—in other words, to ensure that you don’t
get lost. In most cases, especially if you are not on an
interstate highway, you would constantly check your
map, highway signs, and anything else that would as-
sure you that you are headed in the proper direction.
Good teachers do the same thing. They develop
checkpoints to be sure the children are learning what
they want them to be learning—and then constantly
assess their progress along the way. These teachers
don’t wait until the fi fth grade, for example, to assess
CHAPTER 8 Planning 117
what the children have learned (or not learned). They
continually check to be sure the children are “getting
it” before moving on—and revisit areas that have not
been clear to the children.
The fi rst edition of the National Standards for Physical
Education (NASPE 1995) included a comprehensive
listing of sample benchmarks designed to serve as guides
to what students are expected to be learning in our
physical education programs. They are intended to
serve as checkpoints along the way, assuring us that we
are on the right course in guiding youngsters in the
process of becoming physically active for a lifetime.
They represent the “learnable pieces” that, when com-
bined, result in skillful performance and the develop-
ment of a positive sense of self-effi cacy. Often the
benchmarks are the critical elements or cues for vari-
ous skills. Thus once a teacher makes the decision to
spend a certain number of days on the skill of catch-
ing, for example, she will need to decide what the
students are going to learn about catching—that is,
the critical elements of catching. Remember that the
students will not be able to become profi ciency-level
catchers in one year, but they can learn one or more
catching cues that year. Table 8.4 provides one exam-
ple of how a teacher might defi ne the various critical
elements of catching that will be emphasized from
year to year. Assume that a teacher decides to teach
the four catching cues in Table 8.4. (This is one ex-
ample of Content Standard 2 of the National Standards,
which states, “Demonstrates understanding of move-
ment concepts, principles, strategies and tactics as they
apply to the learning and performance of physical
activities” [NASPE 2004, p. 11].) The teacher could
then decide which cues to emphasize each year to
serve as benchmarks of student progress. These four
phrases would provide a checkpoint to be sure that
the children were actually remembering and applying
these cues, which would assist them on their journey
to becoming competent and confi dent catchers.
For younger children, the teacher might teach the
difference between symmetrical and asymmetrical
movements, as described in the chapter on space
awareness (Chapter 16). If the teacher wanted to adapt
the assessment example from Content Standard 1 of
the National Standards —“Demonstrates competency in
motor skills and movement patterns needed to per-
Table 8.5 Sample Performance Outcomes for Catching,
Grades K– 5
Grade Range Performance Outcomes
K– 2 Drops a ball and catches it at the peak of the
bounce
3 – 5 Catches a fl y ball using mature form (e.g.,
has eyes on ball, moves to position, reaches
with hands, catches with hands only rather
than trapping the ball, bends elbows to pull
ball into chest to absorb force)
Source: NASPE 2004, pp. 16 –17.
Table 8.4 Sample Critical Elements (Cues) for Assessing
Progress in Catching
Grade Critical Element (Cues)
2 Eye contact (track the ball)
3 Ready position (quick feet)
4 Hand and arm position (hands up)
5 Absorption of force (give)
Table 8.6 Sample Performance Outcomes for Balancing,
Grades K– 8
Grade Range Performance Outcome
K– 2 Discovers how to balance on different body
parts, at different levels, becoming “like a
statue” while making symmetrical and
nonsymmetrical shapes
3 – 5 Balances with control on a variety of objects,
such as balance board, large apparatus,
skates
6 – 8 Designs and performs gymnastic (or dance)
sequences that combine traveling, rolling,
balancing, and weight transfer into smooth,
fl owing sequences with intentional changes
in direction, speed, and fl ow
Source: NASPE 2004, pp. 16 –18.
form a variety of physical activities”(NASPE 2004)—
into a series of yearly benchmarks, they might look
like the items in Table 8.5 .
Again for Content Standard 1, but including older
children, the teacher might want to use the criteria for
assessment suggested in a gymnastics example related
to balance from the National Standards for Physical Edu-
cation (NASPE 2004, pp. 16–18) and in Chapters 19, 22,
and 23 of Children Moving. He might develop the perfor-
mance indicators or benchmarks shown in Table 8.6 .
The fi rst three steps of the planning process involve
long-range planning and some diffi cult decisions. For-
tunately, however, you can make these decisions over
a summer, for example, or over a year as you “pilot,” or
try out, a curriculum. Ideally, you make these deci-
sions along with your fellow teachers as you talk about,
refl ect, and design a curriculum that will be successful
for you in your district. The last step in the planning
process, however, is one you do on your own: translat-
ing the scope and sequence completed in Step 1, the
yearly outline completed in Step 2, and the benchmarks
identifi ed as part of Step 3 into a daily lesson plan.
Just as on your imaginary trip with your friend, as
a refl ective teacher you will need to decide on the
benchmarks that fi t your program. You will see that in
118 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Parts 3 and 4 of Children Moving, along with the tasks
and activities, we have included the cues or critical ele-
ments that we emphasize in our teaching. These cues
are consistent with the National Standards for Physical
Education and will allow you to develop your own set
of benchmarks to measure the progress of your chil-
dren on their journey to becoming physically active
for a lifetime. Thus the question we suggest you ask
and answer for Step 3 of the planning process is this:
“What are the benchmarks or checkpoints that I will
use to assess the progress my students are making?”
For example, if a teacher wants students to know how
to position their hands correctly to catch a ball above
the waist, or below the waist, most of them should be
able to demonstrate this cue correctly. If, however,
most of them still cannot demonstrate the proper way
to position their hands, then the teacher needs to re-
teach the skill so the students can eventually become
successful softball or basketball players.
as you gain experience and knowledge of children’s abil-
ities and interests, you will fi nd that you can be less de-
tailed. In the beginning, however, detailed planning of
the sort we suggest here is an excellent way to under-
stand how to teach the skill theme content.
Short-term planning is typically done during plan-
ning periods, after school, and in the evenings. This
is the step in which you take into account the specifi c
variations among individuals and classes. Long-term
planning (Steps 1– 3) is typically done before the
school year begins, before you know the individual
children you’ll be teaching. Thus it is in daily lesson
planning (Step 4) that you can accommodate indi-
vidual variations.
You can generate lesson ideas from a number of
sources, including notes from classes, your own and
others’ observations, books, the Internet, workshops,
conferences, articles, and discussions. Planning for les-
sons involves sifting through sources and then designing
lessons to match the needs and characteristics of a par-
ticular class to help them learn the benchmarks devel-
oped in the previous step of the planning process. We’ve
found few, if any, prepackaged lessons that worked for
us as they supposedly worked for their authors. So in-
stead of including specifi c lesson plans in Children Moving
(with the exception of Box 8-1), we provide tasks for deve-
lopment to encourage you to develop your own plans.
To plan effectively, you need to consider the vital in-
formation in Box 8-1, which is useful for planning les-
sons and for improving teaching. It is presented here
only as a guide; you may want to change it or adapt it to
your particular style of lesson planning. This is the for-
mat that is also used in On the Move (Holt/Hale 2010).
We have intentionally included more detail than a typi-
cal plan contains so that we can provide a better under-
standing of how we develop the content in a lesson.
The sample lesson plan in Box 8-1 has 12 parts. Each
part, along with suggested modifi cations, is discussed
in the order in which a plan is typically completed.
1. Class Name This part isn’t necessary for a class-
room teacher. Physical education specialists may
want to make a plan for each of their classes or,
when their teaching load is particularly heavy, list
the grade level (e.g., second /third grade) as a gen-
eral guide. Another alternative is just to list the
skill level of the class. Teachers with heavy loads —
for example, 30 different classes in a week—use
the same basic plan for each grade level and then
make individual notes about different classes as
suggested at the end of this form (part 12).
2. Skill Level This provides a reminder of the skill
level of the class. The information is based on ob-
servations and assessments.
Less Is More
“Less is more” is a popular saying that refers to the fact that
we often try to do more than we have time for. This is espe-
cially true in planning your curriculum. Many physical educa-
tion programs “expose” children to a variety of motor skills
and sports, but there is little, if any, learning that occurs as a
result of this exposure. As you design your curriculum, keep
this in mind. The classroom teacher easily describes what the
children have learned in math or reading for that year. How
will you respond if asked what the children have learned in
your program? That response is quite different from simply
explaining what you “did” in physical education that year.
Step 4: Detailing Daily Lesson Plans
The fi nal question a teacher asks as part of the plan-
ning process is, “What tasks and cues will I teach each
day in my lessons?” On your imaginary trip with your
friend, you will also need to plan each day by answer-
ing questions like these: How far do we plan to drive?
Where will we stop along the way? What will we see
and do there? Where will we stop for the night? And,
of course, each day’s plan will often not work out ex-
actly as imagined — for many reasons.
The same is true for teachers. Although daily learning
plans rarely work out exactly as designed, you will want
to develop them based on the decisions you made in the
fi rst three steps of the planning process. To assist you, we
have included in Box 8-1 an example of a lesson plan for
use with a skill theme approach. The plan is quite de-
tailed because we think the detail is especially helpful to
teachers planning to use a skill theme approach. In time,
CHAPTER 8 Planning 119
Box 8-1
Catching
Class Name Skill Level
Lesson Length
Number of Meetings per Week
Focus: Catching
Subfocus: Spatial awareness, underhand throwing
Objectives: At the end of this lesson the children will
have learned to
1. Move their arms in front of the body
(elbows fl exed) in preparation for catching
the ball or beanbag
2. Extend their arms to catch the ball or
beanbag
CUES: Hands ready
Extend
Materials / Various types of large, lightweight balls
Equipment: (plastic, beach balls, Nerf )
Tennis balls, whiffl e, yarn, small Nerf balls for
stations
Net, 6⬘ ⫻ 8⬘ (found in decorative section of
drugstore)
Small incline surface with sides (slide from
backyard jungle gym; long box with sides,
ends removed)
Organization / Children in self-space
Management: Children throw against a wall
Stations: See diagram
Introduction
The skill we are working on today is actually one-half of a
two-part skill — throwing and catching. We are going to focus
on catching — catching the ball with hands only. The skill of
catching is important in many games we play as well as in
junior high and high school sports like basketball, football,
and softball.
Scattered around the room are different types and sizes of
balls. Some are large, some are small, but all are lightweight so
they will not hurt if they hit you when you are trying to catch.
Spread out in general space and begin to toss the ball to
yourself and catch it.
Task Development
1.0 As I observed you warming up, I noticed several of you
were having trouble tossing the ball upward. Some balls were
going far from your space; others were going back over your
heads. Let’s review the toss for a moment.
Cue Hold the ball slightly in front of you with both hands.
Toss the ball by lifting your arms upward, stopping the
lifting when your arms are at shoulder height.
T Practice again, tossing the ball only slightly above your head.
T The toss looks much better. Now we are ready to
concentrate on the catch. See if you can catch the ball
with your hands only. Sometimes it helps to let it bounce
one time before you catch it. ( Model. ) Toss, bounce,
catch. Ready? Begin.
Cue Remember, bend your arms as you are getting ready for
the catch. Think, “Hands ready.”
T Toss the ball higher this time so the bounce will go as high
as your head.
Cue Reach for the ball. Don’t wait and catch it against your
body.
2.0 Stand approximately 6 to 8 feet from the wall. Remember
the bubble of your self-space and your neighbors’— don’t
stand too close. Toss the ball to the wall and catch it after it
bounces one time.
T Throw the ball just hard enough for it to rebound to you.
Too much force will send it over your head.
T Practice a couple of times more as I observe your readiness.
T You appear to be ready to catch the ball as it rebounds
from the wall without the bounce. When you feel
comfortable, try this skill.
T Return to your self-space scattered about the room. Toss
the ball upward and catch it before it bounces.
C See if you can catch the ball fi ve times without a miss.
C I will time you for 30 seconds, Try to toss and catch in
your self-space without dropping the ball. (Older students:
If we are 100% successful, I will never hear a ball touch
the fl oor.)
Sample Lesson Plan for Skill Theme Approach
Teacher
1
2
4
3
120 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Box 8-1 (continued)
Children at the precontrol level of skill development need mass
practice and revisitation to the theme often. Station practice
as revisitation will be enjoyable and benefi cial.
Stations for Practice: Four stations are set up for practice of
the skill we have been learning — catching. The stations are
for fun, but will give us additional practice of our catching.
Even professional athletes spend lots of time practicing the
skill of catching.
Station 1: (Suspend a net approximately 6 feet above the
fl oor, with the back corner higher than the front edge so
the ball will roll off. Use 8½⬙ plastic balls.) Toss the ball
above the net. It will slowly roll down the net and drop off.
Catch it before it bounces.
Station 2: (Use tennis balls, whiffl e balls, yarn balls, Nerf balls.)
Select a ball. Toss and catch it fi ve times; you may let it
bounce if you wish. After fi ve catches, try another type of
ball. Continue until you have used all the different types.
Station 3: (Use slide with raised edges, back against wall,
slight incline; playground or plastic ball.) Toss the ball up
the slide. It will come back toward you quickly. Catch it fi rst
after one bounce, then before.
Station 4: Partner toss. Face your partner. First catch after
a bounce and then without the bounce. When you are
successful, you may take one step back if you wish.
Use this station to note individual visual tracking of the ball,
hands /arms in ready position, and reaching for the ball.
Closure
Our lesson today focused on throwing and catching. Which
part were we concentrating on?
Do we catch with hands only or against the chest?
Show me the correct arm position for catching: correct, arms
extended with elbows slightly bent.
Refl ection
Do the children get their arms /hands in ready position in
preparation for the catch?
Do they extend their arms when they catch or do they still trap
the ball against the chest?
Source: Adapted from Shirley Ann Holt /Hale, On the Move:
Lesson Plans to Accompany Children Moving, 8th ed. (New York:
McGraw-Hill, 2010).
3. Length of Lesson (Time) This refers to the length of
a class—for example, 10:00 to 10:30, or 30 minutes.
4. Number of Meetings per Week This information
is especially helpful for specialists who meet cer-
tain classes a different number of times per week
from others.
5. Major Focus and Subfocus The major focus of the
lesson will be based on what you did in Step 2 of the
planning process, when you decided which concepts
and skill themes would be taught on which days of
the school year. This provides you with the focus and
purpose for that lesson or lessons. The subfocus also
indicates which additional concepts and skill themes
will be reinforced within that lesson. In the sample
lesson plan in Box 8-1, the children will spend most
of their time throwing and catching, but the teacher
will emphasize their catching skill. In addition,
they’ll need to be aware of self-space and levels
(Chapter 16), although these concepts will not be
the major focus of the lesson because they have al-
ready been taught in previous lessons. In this lesson,
throwing (Chapter 25) will also be a subfocus.
6. Objectives The objectives for the lesson describe
what the children are to learn during the lesson,
rather than what they are to do. For example, stating
that the children will throw and catch a ball in self-
space is not an objective—it is a task. “The children
will learn to catch a ball” is an objective. Unfortu-
nately, this objective cannot be accomplished in a
30-minute lesson; it will take many lessons, perhaps
thousands of practice catches, before a child can be
said to be truly able to catch a ball.
The objectives, then, are “learnable pieces”
based on the benchmarks—something a child has
a reason able chance to learn in a single lesson. In
the sample lesson in Box 8-1, the teacher will focus
on two aspects (critical elements) of successful
catching: teaching the children (1) to move their
hands into a ready position before catching the
ball and (2) to extend their arms to avoid trapping
the ball against their body. The teacher decided on
these two cues after reading the chapter on catch-
ing (Chapter 25) and the sample benchmarks in
the fi rst edition of the National Standards for Physi-
cal Education (NASPE 1995, p. 20). The teacher will
not simply provide chances to practice catching
but will demonstrate and provide individual
feedback related to using the hands and arms
appropriately to catch a ball or an object. During
the lesson, she will continually pause and remind
CHAPTER 8 Planning 121
the children of the cue they need to work on.
Sometimes she will demonstrate the cue. Sometimes
she will pinpoint other youngsters as they use the
critical elements in their catching (Chapter 11). As
the children practice, the teacher will also move
among them and provide feedback about how well
they are using the cues. You will hear her con-
stantly remind individual children to “get their
hands into the ‘ready’ position” or to “reach for
the ball.” When the teacher observes individual
children and then provides an analysis of how
they are using a cue, the technique is called spe-
cifi c, congruent feedback (Chapter 11). Cues are ex-
tremely important; they are what the children can
actually learn during a lesson—the learnable piece
(Graham 2001).
7. Materials/Equipment This section of the lesson
plan is simply a list of equipment and materials
that will be needed for the lesson. It serves as a
handy checklist to make certain that everything is
available before beginning the lesson. Given the
hectic schedules of elementary schools, it’s easy to
forget a piece of equipment; the checklist is de-
signed to prevent this from occurring.
8. Organization/Management This section of the
plan provides the teacher with a place to write
down the different organizations and formats that
will be used during a lesson. Although this may not
be necessary for experienced teachers, it’s very
helpful for beginning teachers; it leads them to
think through the organizational formats that they
might use during the lesson, thereby avoiding some
of the problems that might occur—for example,
when a teacher hasn’t thought about how the chil-
dren will move from throwing against a wall to
fi nding a partner to throw and catch with. If not
planned for carefully, these transitions can lead to
wasted time, confusion, and even misbehavior.
9. Introduction This extremely important part of
the lesson sets the tone by providing the chil-
dren with a cognitive scaffolding for what they’ll
learn—and why! Some teachers introduce the
lesson as soon as the children arrive; others pre-
fer to provide children with a chance to move for
a few minutes fi rst (instant activity) (Graham
2001). The “why” part of the introduction is es-
pecially important for the older grades and chil-
dren in middle school (Graham 2001).
10. Task Development The section of the lesson plan
that includes the tasks and activities for the lesson
is referred to as the task development section. How-
ever, it includes much more than simply tasks or
activities. In the sample lesson plan in Box 8-1,
we’ve provided a typical task development section
that includes not only tasks (denoted by T ), but
also challenges (denoted by a C symbol). After
you read Chapter 11, the meaning of each of these
will become clearer to you as a way you can pro-
vide a sequence of tasks throughout a lesson. To
provide a better feel for how teachers develop tasks,
we have written the sample lesson in Box 8-1 as a
teacher might actually speak it to the children. In
your plan, you’ll want to abbreviate the format pre-
sented here. Chapter 11 provides a more concise
format for planning the task development section
of the lesson.
11. Closure The closure, or conclusion, typically lasts
no more than two or three minutes. The teacher
calls the children together and quickly reviews the
key points (the learnable pieces) of the lesson that
were stated in the lesson objectives and empha-
sized throughout the class. As the sample lesson
in Box 8-1 indicates, the teacher can phrase the
closure in the form of questions. This is an espe-
cially important time to remind children of what
has been emphasized throughout the class. It can
also provide the teacher with important insights
about whether the children have attained the lesson
objectives (Graham 2008).
12. Refl ection In a perfect world, there would be
time at the end of every lesson for a teacher to
refl ect on the lesson just completed. Did I accom-
plish my objectives? Which tasks worked well?
Which needed to be changed? What do I need
to emphasize the next time I teach catching to
this class?
The Kids Love It
One of the comments often heard from teachers whose goal
is to keep youngsters “busy, happy, and good” is that the kids
“love” the game or activity. Although it is certainly desirable for
youngsters to enjoy an activity, it is not our sole criterion. For
example, some children would “love” to eat ice cream or
doughnuts or potato chips for every meal. Obviously, however,
it would not be in the best interest of these children if that were
all they ate. The same is true for the classroom. There are many
fun reading, math, and science games. But the successful
teacher always evaluates these games or activities to be
certain that if the children play them, they actually lead to
better reading, more effective computing, or understanding
science concepts. So when we hear that youngsters “love” a
game or an activity, we can’t help but wonder: Are the children
really learning something? Is the activity truly a learning experi-
ence? Should the fact that kids love it be the sole, or major,
criterion to determine the success of a lesson? Our goal is to
keep youngsters “busy, happy, and good”—but also learning!
If they aren’t learning, then what are we teaching them?
122 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
In the real world, however, the teacher rarely has
time to refl ect on the lesson that was just taught—one
class follows another, often with no break. However,
the teacher usually has a few minutes in the day to jot
down a few notes about what the children did or didn’t
accomplish. We suggest guiding the refl ection by asking
questions related to the objectives for the lesson. Realis-
tically, the teacher often refl ects about several classes
that have been taught in a row and thus makes the best
guess about what the children in those classes have
learned and what might be changed in future lessons.
A well-developed plan can be somewhat lengthy,
especially for beginning teachers. For this reason,
many teachers fi nd it helpful to write a brief outline on
a 5-by-8-inch card that they carry with them during
the lesson as a handy reminder.
As you review these 12 steps for the lesson plan,
you may fi nd that certain steps are unnecessary for your
situation. This is to be expected. We suggest that you
adapt this format to meet your needs and then make
plenty of copies for the year.
Making Planning Enjoyable
Planning is hard work. It takes time and energy to
plan effective lessons that are exciting and interesting
to children. Teachers who fail to plan well are tempted
to return to old standbys—kickball, dodgeball, and
Four Square—that contribute minimally to children’s
physical education.
You’ll always be able to fi nd something to do that is
more interesting than planning lessons. So it’s a good
idea to devise ways to make planning easier and more
fun. We’ve found the following ideas helpful:
• Set aside some time each day specifi cally for plan-
ning. Then you won’t be constantly trying to fi nd
time to plan. Some people fi nd that planning at
school before they leave for home is effective; oth-
ers prefer to arrive at school early to plan the day.
• Try to become excited about your plans. When
you’re excited about trying to present an idea in a
new and interesting way, planning is fun, and you
communicate your enthusiasm to your students.
Reading books and journals, attending conferences,
talking to colleagues, and searching the Internet are
some of the ways that you can fi nd new and inter-
esting ideas to incorporate into your plans. Remem-
ber, however, that less is more, so be sure to take
something out for every new activity you add into
your scope and sequence.
• Don’t hesitate to experiment. The worst that can
happen is that a lesson won’t work as planned.
When this happens, we tell the children we were
trying a new idea and it didn’t work. Children un-
derstand and sometimes make worthwhile sugges-
tions about how the idea might be improved.
When you set aside appropriate amounts of time,
discover new ideas, and attempt to make lessons ex-
citing, planning becomes more enjoyable. And your
attitude toward teaching will be affected. Most of us
experience uncertainty when beginning a lesson (or
anything else) for which we’re unprepared. When
you’ve planned a lesson thoroughly, the assurance
and enthusiasm you feel can be contagious.
Recording Progress
A refl ective teacher will want to record the progress that
a particular class, group, or individual makes during a
lesson. An elementary school physical education spe-
cialist may teach 8 to 12 classes a day. Each group and
each student will progress to a different degree and in a
different way. A refl ective teacher, whose approach takes
these differences into consideration, will need notes on
which to base the next day’s (or week’s) lessons.
You can write brief comments in a standard plan-
ning book or on index cards. Some teachers use hand-
held computers or a tape recorder. Notes summarizing
what was accomplished during a lesson help you plan
the next day’s lessons. Ideally, the day’s schedule will
include 5 or 10 minutes between classes; you can use
this time for recording observations and, if necessary,
arranging equipment for the next class. Teachers who
use handheld computers to keep track of their students’
progress have the advantage of easily downloading the
information into a computer for ease of use and future
reference. Whether you use note cards, a tape recorder,
a handheld computer, or some other technique, it will
certainly help you plan more effi ciently. What seems
clear at 9 a.m. is often opaque by 4 p.m.
Lesson Design
If children are to develop into skillful movers, they
must do more than play games. Children need oppor-
tunities to practice skills in contexts that are meaning-
ful and enjoyable to them. A successful teacher creates
practice situations that are enjoyable, that are appro-
priately designed, and that allow for maximum par-
ticipation. The teacher who can design interesting and
exciting practice situations will rarely hear the ques-
tion asked so often by highly skilled, unchallenged
children, “When do we get to play a game?”
CHAPTER 8 Planning 123
Interesting Lessons
Many children, particularly younger ones, don’t un-
derstand the need to practice to become more skillful.
Children typically are interested only in the present
and have little concern about years later. Thus young
children more easily accept and enjoy lessons with
immediate meaning. For example, we wouldn’t teach
second graders how to turn on one foot (pivot) by
having them perform a mass drill, because such an ex-
ercise would have little meaning or interest to them.
We might, however, have them jog around the gym
and instruct them, “Spin around on one foot when you
hear the drum and then continue jogging.” On the
next drumbeat we might say, “Pivot on the other foot”
or “Spin in the opposite direction.” Later, when the
children are able to travel dribbling a ball, we might
say, “Spin on the drumbeat while continuing to dribble
a ball.” We don’t teach skills as if all children really
want to learn the skill because they intend to play on a
varsity team in high school—they don’t.
Variety in a lesson also makes the lesson more en-
joyable. We try to give children a number of related
practice opportunities in a single lesson rather than
having them practice the same skill the same way the
entire lesson. And the only way to accomplish this
goal is through extensive and thorough planning.
Appropriate Lessons
Children want to be challenged and successful at the
same time. The ideal task is diffi cult enough so that the
child can’t do it as intended every time, yet easy
enough so that the child is successful much of the
time. If small children try to shoot a basketball through
a 10-foot-high basket, their success rate may be so low
that they’ll quickly lose interest. If the same children
are given options—for example, shooting at a basket
7 feet high or shooting through a hoop suspended
from a pole—their interest will remain higher for longer
periods, and their skills will therefore improve.
Maximum Participation
One of the clearest differences between more effective
and less effective teachers is that the students of more
effective teachers actually spend more time practicing
than do the children of less effective teachers (Rink
1996; Siedentop and Tannehill 2000). The value of
practice may seem obvious, yet practice is frequently
neglected, particularly in teaching games. When a class
of 30 children practices a skill such as throwing or
catching and uses only three or four balls, the chil-
dren’s skills will improve less than the skills of children
whose teacher designs the same lesson so that there is
a ball for every two children in the class.
Remember, though, that not all children have
learned to practice on their own. Making more equip-
ment available doesn’t guarantee increased practice
time. In fact, we’ve observed instances in which the
children in a class actually practiced more when there
were only three or four balls available because most of
the students in the class hadn’t yet learned to work on
their own.
One study (Graham et al. 1993) that compared
student teachers with experienced teachers found
that veteran teachers provided children with far fewer
tasks than the novice teachers. The novices believed
that they had to “get through all of the tasks in their
plan.” In contrast, the veteran teachers were focused
on the children. If a task was “right,” they stayed with
it for long periods of time.
Parting Thought
The planning process described above no doubt seems
complex, time consuming, and maybe even unneces-
sary. It’s not! Think again about planning your trip.
Time spent planning can heighten the enjoyment
dramatically. Being lost, confused, or in the wrong
place at the wrong time is no fun. Neither are poorly
planned lessons that are uninteresting, dominated by
a few highly skilled children (unless, of course, you are
one of the highly skilled), or simply unproductive. If
you want to become a highly successful teacher, it is
going to take a lot of work—and the journey starts
with planning.
Summary
Planning is a crucial part of the teaching process.
Successful teachers plan effectively—not only their
daily lessons, but also the entire program, as well as
each year of the program. Plans are guides, not cast
in stone. As you learn more about the school, the
children, and the context of the teaching situation,
plans change!
This chapter described four steps in the planning pro-
cess. Step 1 is the development of a scope and sequence
for all of the grades you will be teaching. Essentially,
124 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
the fi rst step answers the questions “What will I teach?”
and “In what grades?” Step 2 involves making the diffi -
cult decisions about how many days you will be able to
focus on various skills and concepts—and which ones
should receive more or less emphasis. Benchmarks
(learnable pieces) are formulated in Step 3 as you deter-
mine when and how you will check to see what your
children are learning. Step 4 is the creation of daily les-
son plans. Twelve different parts of a lesson plan are
described, along with examples to illustrate the pro-
cess of planning daily lessons. The chapter concludes
with ideas for creating lessons that are interesting and
appropriate and that provide for maximum participa-
tion and success for the children.
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. What is meant by the term refl ective planning? Think
about your elementary school: Which contextual
factors infl uenced the program and the way the
teacher planned?
2. What might happen when a teacher does not bother
to do Steps 1 and 2 in the planning process and
only plans day to day?
3. Tables 8.1 and 8.2 present sample scope and se-
quences for the movement concepts and skill themes.
In your own words, explain why some concepts and
skills are not taught at various grade levels. Use spe-
cifi c concepts and skills in your explanation.
4. Using Table 8.3 as a guide select fi rst, third, or fi fth
grade and do a yearly overview for that grade.
Then write a brief analysis explaining what you
changed from the grade before and after. So, for
example, if you choose third grade, explain how
your guide is different from those for second and
fourth grades.
5. Use the guide for planning daily lessons (Box 8-1) to
plan one of your own lessons. Use one of the move-
ment concept or skill theme chapters as a guide, but
do not use the skills of throwing and catching.
6. Veteran teachers typically spend less time planning
than do beginning teachers. Why might this be the
case?
7. Explain how the concept “less is more” applies to
developing a curriculum. What happens when a
teacher attempts to jam too many skill themes into
a year for the time allotted?
References /Suggested Readings
Glass , G. V. , L. Cahen , M. Smith , and N. Filby . 1979 , April–May. Class size and learning. Today’s Education 68(2): 42–44 .
Graham , G. 2008 . Teaching children physical education. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Graham , G. , C. Hopple , M. Manross , and T. Sitzman . 1993 . Novice and experienced children’s physical education teachers: Insights into their situational decision-making. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 12(2): 197–217 .
Holt/Hale , S. 2010 . On the move: Lesson plans to accompany Children Moving. New York: McGraw-Hill .
Housner , L. , and D. Griffey . 1985 . Teacher cognition: Dif- ferences in planning and interactive decision making between experienced and inexperienced teachers. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 56: 56–63 .
Kelly , L. E. 1989 . Instructional time: The overlooked factor in PE curriculum development. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 60: 29–32 .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 1995 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. St. Louis, MO: Mosby .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2004 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. 2nd ed. Reston, VA: National Associa- tion for Sport and Physical Education .
Rink , J. E. 1996 . Effective instruction in physical education. In Student learning in physical education, ed. S. Silverman and C. Ennis, pp. 171–98 . Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Schmidt , R. A. , and C. A. Wrisberg . 2008 . Motor learning and performance . 4th ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Siedentop , D. , and D. Tannehill. 2000 . Developing teaching skills in physical education. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill .
Stodden , D. F. , J. D. Goodway , S. J. Langendorfer , M. A. Roberton , M. E. Rudisill , C. Garcia , and L. E. Garcia . 2008 . A developmental perspective on the role of motor skill competence in physical activity. Quest: 290–306 .
125
C H A P T E R
9
Establishing an Environment for Learning A well run lesson that teaches nothing is just as useless as a chaotic lesson in which no academic
work is possible.
— WALTER DOYLE
126 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
M any would argue that this is a chapter about
management — about doing things to make sure
youngsters do what we want them to; about
having children “behave” the way we want. Techni-
cally, it probably is, but we have a bit of a different take
on management. For us, management is the creation,
development, and utilization of processes resulting in a
gymnasium or playground conducive to learning. You
can arrive at the result, a classroom for learning, using
multiple approaches, but regardless of the approach,
several key variables need to be addressed (see Box 9-1).
As you read this chapter, decide what approaches you
prefer and what kind of teacher you want to be.
To teach effectively, it’s necessary to establish an en-
vironment in which learning is supported and allowed
to take place. Such an environment is a necessary,
though not suffi cient, condition for learning. Establish-
ing the learning environment has been called a fi rst-
base skill—you can’t get to home without getting on
fi rst, but getting to fi rst is only the initial step to scoring
a run (Rink 1987). Without such an environment, there
is little chance learning will occur; with it, learning is
still not possible unless instructional activities are car-
ried out. Establishing a learning environment involves
using both managerial and instructional techniques to
place students in contact with — and to keep them in
contact with — the subject matter at a high success rate
for as long as possible. For us, the learning environ-
ment is the simultaneous working of two parts or com-
ponents: one instructional and the other managerial.
Others have analogized these components to “sys-
tems,” and, similar to a smoothly operating piece of
machinery, both must be present for the classroom to
operate (Tousignant and Siedentop 1983). Regardless of
the term used, both instructional and managerial struc-
tures must be present in order to establish an environ-
ment that has the potential for learning. One without
the other is not adequate. You can manage without
teaching, but you cannot teach without managing.
A component can be defi ned as a regular pattern of
practices used to accomplish the functions of a class.
The managerial component refers to the non–subject-
matter activities necessary for a class to run smoothly
and effi ciently over a period of time. The instructional
component refers to the subject-matter activities de-
signed to see that children learn what is desired by par-
ticipating in physical education. Both components need
to be developed when establishing a learning environ-
ment. All too often, physical education teachers establish
a managerial aspect (Mowling et al. 2004) but neglect to
focus on an instructional aspect or component. This
chapter and Chapter 10 are about the managerial com-
ponents of the learning environment. Chapters 11, 12,
and 13 are about the instructional components.
For each of these components, certain teacher prac-
tices ensure that the component achieves what the
teacher desires. A well-operating component, either
managerial or instructional, establishes and maintains
student responsibility for appropriate conduct, task in-
volvement, and learning outcomes (see Chapter 11 and
The Instructional Component in this chapter). The prac-
tices that accomplish this are known as accountability
measures (Doyle 1980; Hastie and Siedentop 2007).
Whether personal or imposed, these accountability
measures are so important that without them both the
instructional and managerial components become lax
and may not even operate (Doyle 1980). Traditional
accountability measures in physical education include
tests, grades, attendance, teacher reprimands, and puni-
shment. Those types of accountability measures are
now thought to be largely inappropriate if student learn-
ing is the intended outcome of physical education. In
fact, they undermine learning and communicate to the
• A learning environment is the condition created in a class-
room by the teacher that supports (or hinders) learning by
the students.
• A learning environment consists of two components, a
managerial component and an instructional component,
both of which are necessary if physical education is to
reach its full learning potential.
• The managerial component establishes the structures
that allow the classroom to function effortlessly.
• The instructional component refers to the subject matter
activities that allow students to learn physical education
content (see Chapter 11 for aspects of the instructional
component).
• The development of a managerial component is a neces-
sary, but not suffi cient, condition for student learning.
• As part of the managerial component, effective teachers
develop protocols including both rules and routines that
ensure smooth existence in the gymnasium and on the
playground.
• Rules are general expectations for behavior that cover a
wide variety of situations; routines are procedures for
accomplishing specifi c duties within a class.
• Rules and routines are most effective when they refl ect
a positive environment while teaching children to be
responsible for their own behavior.
• The development of protocols is an integral and critical
part of maintaining a safe environment.
Key Concepts
CHAPTER 9 Establishing an Environment for Learning 127
public that physical education has little to teach
other than to dress and show up for class. This chap-
ter will introduce you to a variety of other teacher
practices that serve as accountability measures in
establishing the managerial and instructional com-
ponents necessary for a smoothly running class in
which learning occurs.
Although the development of a component sounds
quite rigid and sterile, the type of component devel-
oped and how it is implemented refl ect what we be-
lieve not only about physical education but also about
education, children, and society. It mirrors what we
feel is important about our school, our gymnasium,
our students, and ourselves. All components must
accomplish certain things — the smooth and consistent
operation of the gym —yet it is how the component is
put into action that says who we are. For example, a
managerial component that is solely teacher devel-
oped and directed indicates a belief that student input
or helping students learn to make decisions isn’t
important. On the other hand, the complete lack of a
managerial component could indicate an abdication
by the teacher of all responsibility and a belief that it
doesn’t make any difference what we do (Ennis 1995).
However, components that help students learn to
make decisions about managerial (noninstructional)
situations and instructional (learning) situations in-
dicates that we value students and have taken the re-
sponsibility not only to teach psychomotor content,
but also to teach the larger goals of personal and so-
cial responsibility (Helion 1996; Parker, Kallusky, and
Hellison 1999; Parker and Stiehl 2005). The National
Standards indicate that one of the goals of physical
education is to develop students who demonstrate
responsible personal and social behavior in physical
activity settings (NASPE 2004). Although the account-
ability and managerial literature have largely devel-
oped from behavior management and business, where
effi ciency is paramount, there are models in which
the development of responsibility and self-direction
are important (Hellison 2003). In these models, al-
though initial effi ciency may be slightly compromised
and the teacher must be willing to relinquish some
control, students gradually move toward more inde-
pendent learning and responsibility.
It is our belief that physical education is child cen-
tered and that students should develop increasing
responsibility for their own behavior, attitudes, and
learning. Therefore the prevailing philosophy of this
chapter is the development of components designed
to accomplish the goals of self-directed learning and
behavior. In other words, just like fi tness and motor
skill development, responsibility is part of the content
with which students must stay in contact.
Gymnasium Atmosphere
When the weather forecaster announces an impend-
ing low-pressure system, we know what it will feel
like —heavy, humid, and often accompanied by rain or
snow. Similarly, with high-pressure systems, we know
to expect fair weather and dry air. The atmosphere of
the gym is much the same except it is created by the
teacher, not by weather systems. Regardless of the
component — managerial or instructional— the atmo-
sphere in the gym needs to be emotionally safe and
positive. If this atmosphere is not created, then the
remainder of this book is probably useless.
As discussed in Chapter 5, of all the teacher prac-
tices involved in establishing a positive learning envi-
ronment, one of the most important pieces is also one
of the least tangible and most easily compromised:
teacher attitude or approach to teaching and children.
This is essentially the translation of a teacher’s beliefs
into practice. The teacher’s self-image and feelings
about teaching, about physical education, and about
children all infl uence atmosphere. The enthusiastic
teacher conveys this attitude to the children and as a
result heightens their enthusiasm for physical educa-
tion. The teacher who views physical education as a
time for learning and work communicates this feeling
to the children in the way he or she demands that all
the children adhere to certain criteria for behavior.
Likewise, the teacher who believes that children are
vessels to be molded and should be compliant with
teacher expectations, whether they seem reasonable or
not, communicates to children that they are not ca-
pable of making signifi cant decisions.
Even though children’s motivation for participation
in physical education changes with age (Xiang, McBride,
and Guan 2004), it has been said that, at any age, in
order for children to be motivated to learn, they need to
belong and feel competent, useful, potent, and optimistic.
When those needs are met, people commit whole-
heartedly to an endeavor (Sagor 2002). The study of
physical activity settings has yielded similar fi ndings
(Deutsch 1999; Herbel and Parker 1995; Galvan 2004).
It is the teacher – student relationship that is at the heart
of this notion of class management/atmosphere that
supports student learning. In looking at thousands of
Classroom management helps run an effective class-
room, but doesn’t solve the social problems.
— DON HELLISON
128 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Box 9-1
Components: The Learning Environment and
Instructional Strategies
Appropriate Practice
• Physical educators systematically plan for, develop, and
maintain a positive learning environment focused on
maximizing learning and participation, in an atmosphere
of respect and support from the teacher and the peers
of the child.
• The environment is supportive of all children, and
promotes the development of a positive self-concept.
Children are given chances to try, to fail, and to try
again, free of criticism or harassment from the teacher
or other students.
• Programs are designed to guide children to take responsi-
bility for their own behavior and learning. Emphasis is on
intrinsic, rather than extrinsic, incentives.
• Fair and consistent classroom management practices
encourage student responsibility for positive behavior.
Students are often included in the process of developing
class rules /agreements.
• Bullying and inappropriate student remarks and behaviors
are dealt with immediately and fi rmly.
• Physical educators make every effort possible to create a
safe learning environment for students (e.g., safety consid-
erations and plans are a part of every daily lesson plan).
Routines and rules are developed with safety in mind.
• Activities are carefully selected to ensure that they match
the ability level of the students and are also safe for all of
the students regardless of their ability level.
• Facilities and equipment are maintained and closely in-
spected daily for safety hazards (e.g., free of glass, proper
ground cover under equipment).
• The physical educator creates an environment that is inclu-
sive and supportive of all students regardless of their race,
ethnic origin, gender, sexual orientation, religion, or physical
ability. These differences are acknowledged, appreciated,
and respected.
• All children (boys and girls, all skill levels) have equal
opportunities for participation and interaction with the
teacher (e.g., leadership, playing “skilled” positions, teacher
feedback).
• All children, regardless of developmental level and ability,
are challenged at an appropriate level.
• Both boys and girls are encouraged, supported, and
socialized toward successful achievement in all of the
content that is taught in physical education (e.g., dance
is for everyone).
• Physical educators use gender-neutral language
(e.g., students).
• Clear goals and objectives for student learning and per-
formance are communicated to students, parents, and
administrators.
• Physical educators form pairs, groups, and teams in ways
that preserve the dignity and self-respect of every child
(e.g., randomly, by fi tness or skill level when necessary,
or by a class system such as birthdays, squads, colors,
numbers).
Inappropriate Practice
• The environment is not supportive or safe. As a result,
some children feel embarrassed, humiliated, and generally
uncomfortable in physical education class (e.g., teacher
makes degrading or sarcastic remarks).
• Only the highly skilled or physically fi t children are viewed
as successful learners. Students are overlooked and /or
ignored by the teacher and peers if they are not highly
skilled or physically fi t.
• Children behave appropriately because they are fearful of
receiving a poor grade or other “punishment” if they do not
follow the rules of the teacher.
• The rules are unclear and may vary from day to day.
• Verbal or nonverbal behavior that is hurtful to other children
is overlooked and ignored.
• Teachers allow or ignore unsafe practices that occur in their
classes. Children are permitted to ignore the safety of oth-
ers in the class (e.g., pushing, shoving, or tackling children
in ball games) or use equipment unsafely (e.g., swinging
bats in close proximity to others).
• Human target games (dodgeball) and /or drills that allow
aggressive behaviors toward other students are permitted.
• No regular facility safety inspection occurs. Dangerous,
broken, or outdated equipment is used.
• The physical education environment supports highly skilled
children more fully than children who have less skill devel-
opment (e.g., posters on display are predominantly of male
professional athletes from the “major” sports).
• Teachers inadvertently promote exclusion by allowing
student captains to pick teams or by arbitrarily separating
teams by gender or skill level (e.g., popular or highly skilled
students are chosen fi rst and cliques are evident).
Source: National Association for Sport and Physical Education,
Appropriate Practices for Elementary School Physical Education:
A Position Statement of the National Association for Sport and
Physical Education, 3rd ed. (Reston, VA: NASPE, 2009). Reprinted
with permission.
Selected Appropriate and Inappropriate Physical Education Practices
CHAPTER 9 Establishing an Environment for Learning 129
teachers, Marzano and Marzano (2003) found three
aspects that contributed to the teacher – student rela-
tionship. First, teachers who had positive relationship
with youngsters displayed teacher dominance. While
sounding negative, this is actually a positive trait,
meaning that teachers provide a clear purpose and
strong guidance in content and behavior by establish-
ing clear expectations and consequences as well as
clear learning goals and the assertive behaviors to
accomplish those goals. Second, appropriate levels of
cooperation (characterized by strong feelings of mem-
bership, engagement, and commitment; Wehlage et al.
1989) were documented in classrooms where real
learning occurs. To create these levels of cooperation,
the teacher provided students with fl exible learning
goals, took a personal interest in students, and used
positive and equitable (not equal) classroom behaviors.
Finally, the teacher – student relationship was enhanced
by the teacher’s awareness of high-need students (in-
cluding those who were passive-aggressive, had atten-
tion problems, were perfectionists, or were socially in-
ept). It is this atmosphere that we must create in the
gym if we want all children to be attracted to being
physically active for a lifetime.
It is our belief that few teachers would argue with the
notion of creating an environment that empowers chil-
dren; however, the act of doing it is more diffi cult. Sev-
eral strategies may help make your gym a place that
attracts children to physical activity for a lifetime while
helping them become self-directed, responsible learners.
1. Change, challenge, choice. Stiehl, Morris, and Sinclair
(2008) employ the practices of change, challenge,
and choice as a way to differentiate instruction and
to ensure that the gymnasium is a place where all
learners feel competent, useful, potent, optimistic,
and empowered. Though slightly modifi ed here, the
premise of their work is that any aspect of an activity
can (and should) be changed so that the learner is
allowed to be successful at the appropriate level. For
example, equipment, space, or the task itself can be
modifi ed (see Chapter 11 for intratask variation ex-
amples). The challenges listed in Chapters 19 through
28 allow tasks to be adapted so as to more appropri-
ately challenge all children. Choice empowers and
intrinsically motivates children by allowing them in-
put that meets their needs (Mowling et al. 2004).
Choice can be offered in anything from the type of
equipment used to how far apart partners stand. The
technique of teaching by invitation (Chapter 11) pro-
vides a mechanism for allowing choice in activities.
2. Use positive interactions. This means that positive
reinforcement and praise need to dominate interac-
tions with children. Unfortunately, the reverse is
usually true. Subtle nagging statements such as: “I
am waiting for you to be quiet,” and “Anytime
now” are more often heard than “I like the way you
came in and began your warm-up,” or “Thanks for
listening; it makes my job easier.”
3. People are not for hurting. Children should be psy-
cho logically safe as well as physically safe in physical
education. Hurting refers to everything from physi-
cal safety to inappropriate practices, such as games
that pinpoint and demean (e.g., dodgeball and the
like) to name-calling and making fun.
4. Never use sarcasm. As adults we have become used
to sarcasm. Children take it literally. It has no place
in the gym.
5. There are no stupid questions. As a friend of ours
puts it, “It is OK not to know, but it is not OK to
continue not knowing” (Stiehl 2002). The implica-
tion is that we need to make our gymnasiums places
where children are free to ask questions.
6. Physical education is for everyone. Sports are for
those who choose to participate in them. They are
usually dominated by the highly skilled and aggres-
sive children. Physical education is an educational
activity that is designed for every child of every skill
level. This means multiple forms of equipment,
multiple types of games at the same time, and inter-
task variation (see Chapter 11).
7. Walk your talk. We chose to be teachers. We are
role models.
8. Decorate. For many, the gym is a scary place. Make
your gym an attractive place to be — decorate the
walls, paint with bright colors, keep the gym spar-
kling clean, and make sure the lights are bright.
It is wise to check yourself regarding these practices on
a weekly basis to make sure that you haven’t slipped
into an unproductive pattern.
Some educators use the terms developing a learning
environment and discipline as if they were synonymous,
but we don’t. Creating a learning environment is pro-
active; discipline is reactive. Discipline is required
when a child’s behavior is disruptive and the teacher
needs to prevent the disruption from occurring again
(see Chapter 10). When establishing a learning envi-
ronment, the teacher focuses on fostering acceptable
behavior and creating an atmosphere appropriate for a
physical education class. Some discipline may be re-
quired in a physical education class, as in any class.
However, an established, consistent, positive environ-
ment in the gymnasium and appropriate tasks allow
students to know exactly what is expected of them,
reduce the need for discipline, and stimulate enthusi-
asm for learning. The remainder of this chapter deals
with ways teachers have been successful in developing
130 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
both managerial and instructional components to esta-
blish a productive learning environment. Remember,
you can’t maintain a learning environment if it has not
been established.
The Managerial Component
The managerial component establishes structures or
protocols through which the physical education class
becomes predictable and operates smoothly (Rink
2006; Siedentop and Tannehill 2000). The managerial
component essentially consists of two aspects: the
creation of the learning environment (this chapter)
and the maintenance of the learning environment
(Chapter 10). The creation involves the development
of protocols, the rules and routines that allow the gym-
nasium to function.
When they begin school, most children have few
preconceptions about how a physical education learn-
ing environment will be structured. Within a short
time they learn to function according to the teacher’s
expectations. The managerial component establishes
the limits for behavior and the teacher’s expectations
for the students. Because of our belief in children de-
veloping responsibility for themselves and our dislike
for constantly feeling as if it is our job to “control”
students, the managerial components we develop
focus not only on establishing an appropriate learning
environment, but also on having students take more
and more responsibility for that environment. If young-
sters are allowed to develop unacceptable behavior in
physical education class, the teacher will fi nd it in-
creasingly diffi cult to alter their behavior. For this rea-
son it’s crucial that teachers establish an appropriate
learning environment during their very fi rst lessons
with the students. How well they do this sets the tone
for the remainder of the year. We’ve found the follow-
ing techniques helpful in developing and holding
students accountable for managerial components.
Developing Protocols
Research indicates that effective teachers develop gym-
nasium protocols that help their gyms run smoothly
and minimize disruptions, thus maximizing students’
learning time ( Jones and Jones 2007). These protocols
consist of both rules and routines. Rules identify gen-
eral expectations for behavior that cover a variety of
situations. Though rules are intended to address both
acceptable and unacceptable behavior, they quite of-
ten focus on inappropriate behavior. A concept that
some teachers have found useful in changing to a pos-
itive focus is explaining rules as guidelines to help
children examine their behavior and attitudes as they
affect themselves and others ( Jones and Jones 2007).
Routines are procedures for accomplishing specifi c
duties within a class. They are different from rules in
that they usually refer to specifi c activities and are
usually aimed at accomplishing tasks rather than for-
bidding behavior. Evidence has shown that effective
teachers spend the fi rst few days of the year teaching
protocols to their classes (Brophy and Good 1986; Fink
and Siedentop 1989).
Protocols generally stay in effect for the school year
(unless you fi nd one that isn’t working or discover that
something has been neglected). It is frustrating and
time consuming to repeat the protocols for new stu-
dents or for students who were absent when they were
taught. Thus we have found it valuable to videotape
the lessons at the beginning of the year when proto-
cols are presented and taught. When a new student
joins the class, the videotape can be used either at
school or at home to orient that student to the proto-
cols of your gymnasium. The tape is also a useful re-
source to share classroom procedures with parents at
parent – teacher meetings or, if needed, to document
the teaching of safety procedures, rules, and routines
to a class. This is also a good way to remind students of
safety procedures.
Establishing Rules and Expectations That
Refl ect a Positive Environment
The establishment of rules does more than provide
the “laws” of the gymnasium; it also sets the general
atmosphere of the gym and conveys the teacher’s be-
liefs about control and responsibility. If, for example,
all the rules are developed by the teacher, are written
as a series of “don’ts,” and are narrow and punitive,
this sends the message that the teacher is the ultimate
control fi gure and children are merely people to be
control led. If, however, children provide input and
the rules are guiding and broader, allowing children
some part in the decision making, then the message
is that children are people learning to be responsible;
they are capable of making decisions and have self-
worth. These messages may appear subtle, but they
are powerful to students. Therefore our choice in the
development of rules and routines is to be broad and
guiding rather than narrow and restricting. They are
essentially guidelines by which our classes have
agreed to operate.
Children who understand the expectations within
which they are to function are less likely to test the
teacher’s fl exibility and more likely to cooperate. A
few rules stated clearly and adhered to consistently
by the teacher can be helpful to everyone. One set of
CHAPTER 9 Establishing an Environment for Learning 131
the whole idea of trying hard (even when you might
not want to), giving 100 percent, and similar ideas.
Interestingly enough, these two guidelines alone en-
compass most of the rules we are accustomed to seeing
in the gymnasium. The third and fourth guidelines in
Figure 9.1 provide an extension that we consider im-
portant in our teaching. The third indicates that stu-
dents should be able to work on their own, without
the teacher’s constant attention — a concept most of us
relish. The fourth is one of our ultimate goals — that
students care for and help each other. This can include
actions as small as handing stray balls back to their
owners or as broad as helping another student learn a
skill. We have found that when we establish these
types of guidelines and constantly adhere to them, stu-
dents learn to manage themselves and develop the
concepts of personal and social responsibility that we
desire as outcomes of our programs. With such a man-
agerial compo nent developed and in place, we fi nd
that we are “managing” less, have more time for teach-
ing, and have more fun teaching because we do not
need to behave like police offi cers.
Rules are necessary for group well-being and devel-
opment. The picture on page 138 shows another set of
gymnasium rules that teachers have found successful
in eliciting the learning environment they desire. You
Responsibility Levels
Level I: Respecting the Rights and Feelings
of Others
Self-control
The right to be included
The right to peaceful confl ict resolution
Level II: Participation and Effort
Exploring effort
Trying new things
A personal defi nition of success
Level III: Self-Direction
On-task independence
Personal plan
Balancing current and future needs
“Striving against external forces”
Level IV: Caring about and Helping Others
Prerequisite interpersonal skills
Compassion
Contributing member of the community and beyond
Without rewards
Level V: Going Beyond
Being responsible at home and school, with friends
Positive role model
Source: D. Hellison, Teaching Responsibility through Physical
Activity, 2nd ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2003). Used
with permission.
Box 9-2 Gymnasium Rules
Be nice to classmates, the teacher,
and the equipment.
Try everything——and try hard.
Do what you are supposed to do,
even when the teacher isn’t looking.
Help others.
Figure 9.1 Translation of Hellison’s (2003) responsibility levels
into rules.
guidelines that we have found effective — that help
children examine their behaviors and attitudes — is an
adaptation of Hellison’s fi ve levels of responsibility
(Hellison 2003; see Box 9-2 ). These guidelines are broad
enough to encompass the aspects necessary for safe
group survival in the gym while guiding students well
beyond simple compliance into responsibility.
Figure 9.1 shows how these guidelines can be trans-
lated into class rules. A discussion of the guidelines
can cover many things that are normally included in
narrower rules. For example, respect for the rights and
feelings of others can include all aspects of pushing,
stopping and looking when the teacher talks, sports-
personship, interrupting, use of equipment, and the
like. Participation and effort is broad enough to include
132 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
may wish to establish different rules; if so, the follow-
ing general guidelines may help you:
• Explain why the rules are necessary. Children are far
more cooperative with rules that make sense to them
than with seemingly arbitrary regulations. In some
cases, children can help make the necessary rules.
• State rules positively. Whenever possible, avoid using
the words don’t, not, and no. In essence, it is more
productive to tell children what to do than what
not to do.
• Keep the number of rules to a minimum. A good
guide is to state no more than fi ve rules.
• Post rules in an attractive fashion so they can be
seen and read easily.
• Make sure the children understand the rules. To
teach rules most effi ciently, fi rst describe and dem-
onstrate the desired behavior, then have the chil-
dren rehearse the correct behavior (this usually takes
more than one rehearsal), and fi nally provide feed-
back, especially the fi rst time you ask the children
to use a routine (the fi rst days of school).
• Design, teach, post, and practice the consequences
of breaking the rules.
• Especially in the beginning, prompt students to-
ward appropriate behavior, and reinforce appropri-
ate behavior. Let students know when they’ve done
something correctly.
One of the obvious questions, although students
don’t always ask it, is, What happens when one of the
rules is broken? No matter how well we teach, some
of the children will break some of the rules, so we fi nd
it helps at the outset of the year to describe the conse-
quences for breaking a rule. These consequences are
for relatively minor offenses; major offenses are dis-
cussed in Chapter 10.
The teacher needs to develop consequences ap-
propriate to the particular teaching situation. Many
teachers use a series of consequences similar to the
following, which allow children to fi rst take responsi-
bility for their actions before the teacher does.
1. The fi rst time a child violates a rule — for example,
the child fails to stop and listen — give the child a
verbal prompt.
2. The second time a child violates a rule in the same
class period, ask if the child “needs to sit out for a
while.” The child’s response to this question is usu-
ally amazingly honest, and the question places the
responsibility on the child for his or her actions.
The child can reenter class when ready without
consulting the teacher.
3. The third time a child violates a rule, tell the child
to take a time-out. As in the previous step, the child
may reenter class when he or she feels ready.
4. The fourth time a child violates the same rule,
have the child sit out until a personal plan can be
developed regarding his or her actions (see Chap-
ter 10). This usually means the remainder of the
class. Although sitting out the remainder of the
class may seem a bit harsh, as teachers we need to
be able to teach. A continually disruptive child
takes our attention away from other children who
deserve it just as much. Be aware that some lapse
in following rules may be minor or a nonproblem,
whereas other actions are major problems that can
escalate. Be sure not to overreact to minor prob-
lems so that children do not respect the actions
taken. See Chapter 10 for further discussion of main-
taining the learning environment.
As much as possible, the consequences for violating
a rule should be noninterruptive. We try to deliver a
consequence with a word or two and avoid interfering
with the learning experiences of the rest of the class.
One fi nal comment about time-outs: Time-outs are
effective when the children fi nd the lesson interesting.
If the lesson is uninteresting, dull, or inappropriate for
a child, then the time-out becomes a reward rather
than a consequence for off-task behavior.
Establishing Gymnasium Routines
Routines are protocols designed to help the gymna-
sium run smoothly and effi ciently. Remember, rou-
tines are specifi c ways to accomplish certain tasks
within a lesson; they should remain consistent as
much as possible. Routines also refl ect what we feel
is important. Here are key areas in which physical
education teachers fi nd routines to be effective: entry
to and exit from the gymnasium /playground; ways
to obtain, handle, and return equipment; signals for
attention and starting and stopping activity; the use
of space; boundaries for work spaces; and “house-
keeping” items such as going to the restroom, getting
drinks, and leaving the room.
Routines do much to refl ect what we think of stu-
dents and what we believe about them and thus send
clear messages to students. By the nature of how they
are implemented, routines can tell students that they
are competent and capable or dependent and not to
be trusted. Martinek (1988) found that teachers devel-
oped learned helplessness in students by creating low
expectations for them. Conversely, Herbel (1996)
found that students, when given and taught seem-
ingly high expectations for things such as responsibil-
ity and their own learning, lived up to them. Although
some of the actions may be subtle, the difference in
the two scenarios appears to center around how much
perceived control the students have over some basic
CHAPTER 9 Establishing an Environment for Learning 133
decisions. Routines that rob students of basic deci-
sions or allow no alternative seem to cause resentment
and let the students transfer responsibility for their
actions to the teacher. Alternatively, routines that al-
low students some fl exibility and decision making
seem to empower them. You might want to use some
of the following suggestions as routines are developed
for your classes.
Entering and Leaving the Gym We have found it benefi cial to have a standardized way of entering
and leaving the gym. It is helpful to have the class-
room teacher bring students to the gym, and to have
a set routine when the students get to the gym. Some
teachers have children sit on the center circle or line;
others post an initial activity; still others have chil-
dren in predetermined groups go to a predetermined
part of the gym to warm up on their own. Children
need to have something to do when they arrive or
they will make something up themselves. Exiting
should be the same as entering. Most schools re-
quire that students walk quietly in lines to and from
places in the school. It is helpful if teachers pick their
classes up.
Stopping and Listening Skills In a successful learning environment, noise rarely exceeds a reason-
able level that can be thought of as “productive noise.”
Hollering, shrieking, and yelling, although appropri-
ate at recess, are not appropriate in physical education.
The children shouldn’t be expected to be silent, but
they should be able to hear a teacher speaking in a
reasonable tone, considerably below a shout.
One of the seemingly hardest routines to teach chil-
dren in physical education is to stop activity quickly
and listen to the teacher. When a teacher must spend
time quieting the children so that the entire class can
hear an explanation or comment, the amount of time
left for activities is decreased. Thus it’s imperative that
children learn to respond quickly and appropriately to
the teacher’s signal for quiet. We have seen teachers
use a variety of signals, including dimming of the
lights, verbal cues such as “freeze,” turning music off
and on, a hand drum or tambourine, or simply the
raising of a hand. Regardless of the signal, it should be
clear what the students are to do when the signal is
given —hands on knees, eyes on teacher, equipment
on fl oor, and the like. Listening games ( Box 9-3 ) can be
used to teach children to listen as they move and to
respond quickly to the teacher’s signals.
You might initially assign a criterion of fi ve sec-
onds as a reasonable amount of time for the children
to stop and listen after they hear the stop signal. If
the entire class stops and listens in fi ve seconds or
less, praise them. If they don’t, explain that taking
more than fi ve seconds is too slow and have them
practice again. Gradually raise the standard as the
children become more profi cient. The children often
view these races against the clock as fun games and
delight in praise from the teacher when they perform
well. They also enjoy trying to beat their own records.
This approach provides far more time for activity and
instruction. As the children learn the value of spend-
ing less time on management tasks, you can elimi-
nate these races against the clock. Teachers must be
clear, concise, and to the point. As a general rule,
once a class has begun, we try to keep our verbal ex-
planations to less than one minute. Although this
isn’t always possible (or even appropriate), it does
help to increase the children’s willingness to stop and
listen to us.
Equipment Getting and putting away equipment seems to be one of the biggest issues in class. We have
found several things to be helpful. Have equipment
ready before class starts and available in various loca-
tions. For example, hula hoops create great storage
areas for balls, but be sure to have multiple locations
so that all children are not going to one place to get
equipment. It is also important that youngsters walk
to get equipment rather than running and pushing.
The same is true for returning equipment at the end
of activity; they need to walk and place it in its spot —
not shoot from the center of the gym. Another
method is to have selected groups of students — all
those wearing red, for example — go to get equipment,
and then other groups go. The two least effective ways
to get equipment are to hand it out individually and to
have it all in one place.
Once children get equipment, they need to know
what to do with it. Tell them, for example, “Walk, get
a paddle and ball, carry it to your space, and wait for
directions,” or “Walk, get a ball, carry it to your space,
and begin throwing and catching by yourself.” As with
entering the gym, if you don’t tell them what to do,
children will make it up themselves, and it usually is
not what you had in mind.
The fi nal aspect of equipment is what to do with it
when the teacher is talking. Children, like adults, have
a hard time holding on to equipment without playing
with it. Many teachers will ask students to place the
ball on the fl oor, to hold it like a pro under one elbow,
or even to hold it on their heads. Regardless of the
technique, they need to have something to do with
the equipment when the teacher is talking.
Partners and Groups When choosing partners or teams, the more we as teachers choose partners
for children, the more we disenfranchise them. It is
important to have children learn how to appropriately
134 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Box 9-3
While using movement concepts and skills as the physical
activity, these listening games are really management activities
designed to help the children learn to stop and listen quickly.
As you use them, do not single out children who are slow to
respond, and don’t use penalties as a form of discipline. Em-
barrassment and punishment are both counterproductive; you
want children to enjoy exercise, not to think of it as unpleasant.
Remember, learning management protocols takes the same
practice as learning motor skills.
Stop and Go
Children travel in general space in a scattered formation. Once
the children are able to (1) walk without touching others and
(2) stay far away from others as they walk, you can begin to
play Stop and Go. When you say “Stop,” the children should
stop and freeze instantly. When you say “Go,” they should begin
to travel again. Don’t shout the signals —speak them, so the
children become accustomed to listening for your voice at a
reasonable level. Vary the time of each movement segment,
usually keeping the movement time to no more than about
10 seconds. This should be a very lively activity.
Hocus Pocus
One of the cleverest variations of Stop and Go that we have seen
recently was the use of the phrase “hocus pocus” by Jessica
Segura and Cristian Sarmento. Whenever students were prac-
ticing and heard the phrase “hocus pocus,” they responded with
“time to focus,” put their equipment on the fl oor, hands on knees
and eyes on the teacher. Youngsters seemed to love saying
“time to focus,” and the protocol worked like a charm.
Body Parts
This game focuses on the different body parts. Once the chil-
dren have adjusted to Stop and Go, they enjoy the challenge
of touching the fl oor with different body parts — elbow, seat,
knee, wrist, waist, left hand, or right foot — as quickly as they
can when you say “Stop.”
Traveling
Once the children have learned to travel using different loco-
motor patterns, variations in these patterns are appropriate.
Call out different ways of traveling — skipping, hopping, crab-
walking, galloping — and challenge the children to change from
one to another as rapidly as possible. You can increase the
challenge of this game by combining traveling and the concept
of direction — for example, gallop backward or hop to the right.
Listening Games
Shapes
This game can be played on a painted playground surface or in
a gymnasium. Before class, draw circles, triangles, squares,
and so on the ground. The object is for the children to move
as quickly as possible to the shape you name; for example, if you
call out “circle,” the children stand on a circle as quickly as
possible. You can use colors instead of or in combination with
shapes if the surface you’re using is painted various colors. The
terms you use will be determined by your pupils’ knowledge of
colors and shapes.
Numbers
In one version of this game, the children stop with the appro-
priate number of body parts touching the ground. For example,
if you call out “three,” the children should stop with three body
parts touching the ground.
In a second version, the children stop in groups. The num-
ber the teacher calls determines the size of the group. This
game is helpful when you want the children to form into groups
of three, four, or fi ve in a hurry.
Combinations
As children learn each variation, they fi nd it challenging and fun
to play several games at once. For example, you might call out
a body part or a color or a locomotor pattern or a number.
Children thrive on increasingly diffi cult games.
Switch and Rotate
The purpose of this game is primarily to teach listening, but it’s
more appropriate for older children. The object of the game is
to stay so close to a partner that when the teacher says “Stop”
and the players freeze, the follower can still touch the leader.
When the teacher says “Switch,” the partners change roles,
and the follower becomes the leader.
You can make this game more diffi cult by increasing the
size of the group to three, then four, then fi ve. The object of
the game remains the same: each child should be able to
touch the person in front as soon as you say “Stop.” When
you add the challenge “Rotate,” the leader goes to the end of
the line and becomes a follower. Children fi nd the challenge of
listening and responding instantly while trying to remain close
to the children in front of them fascinating. You can make this
game more challenging by varying the locomotor patterns —
for example, from walking to skipping to hopping to galloping
to running.
CHAPTER 9 Establishing an Environment for Learning 135
choose their own partners. Box 9-4 has routines for
choosing partners that have worked for us.
Other Routines Other helpful routines involve
getting water, responding to accidents, using the
bathroom, and dressing appropriately. Table 9.1 com-
pares gymnasium routines that enable and don’t en-
able students to show responsibility. Any decisions
we can help students learn to make on their own
build independence, competence, self-worth, and
confi dence, thus reducing behavior problems. Taking
away decisions students are capable of making fosters
dependence and usually creates behavior problems.
The key factor is fi rst teaching students to make deci-
sions competently. The net result of this instruction
is that we as teachers are freed from trivial decisions
that detract from our ability to teach — and we have a
classroom that manages itself.
Getting Off to a Good Start
Typically, the fi rst day a class meets, the teacher goes
over the logistical and organizational rules and proce-
dures she or he feels are essential for effective class
functioning. Many times we’ve seen this done only in
the fi rst lesson via a lecture; the rules and procedures
are never taught and never reviewed again unless
something goes wrong.
It has become increasingly obvious how important
the fi rst few days of school are (Brooks 1985; Brophy
Box 9-4
Though the days of having a class divide into two teams and play
against each other are largely over in physical education, on many
occasions children need to form partners or small groups. In
some classes, the act of fi nding a partner creates many behavior
problems. Children argue over who is going to be whose partner,
other children are left out, the time used in deciding partners takes
longer than the task itself, and then children want to change part-
ners. The same problems occur, even more so, when dividing
children into groups. We’ve found the following techniques helpful
in avoiding such problems as much as possible.
Getting Partners
• Put a time limit on how long children can take to choose
partners, such as “by the time I count from fi ve to one.”
• Put restrictions on who may be partners—for example, “some-
one you’ve never worked with before,” “the person sitting next
to you,” “the person who sits next to you in class,” or “some-
one you know you can work with in a productive manner.”
• Decide ahead of class who’ll be partners.
• Hand out color codes (pieces of paper, stickers, or
marking-pen marks on the hand) at the beginning of
class; the children who match up are partners.
Dividing into Groups
• Have children choose partners; then put one partner on
one group and one on another. This works well for making
groups equal.
• Assign each student a color or number (the number of
colors or numbers equals the number of groups you
desire) at the beginning of the year or month. When
groups are to be formed, simply say, “Reds here,” “Blues
here,” “Purples here,” and “Greens here.” (This is also
an effi cient way to take roll in your class.) Be sure to
change colors or numbers by grading period so the
groups are varied.
• Divide teams by certain generic characteristics, such as
eye color, month of birth, number of siblings, or number of
letters in fi rst name.
• Divide groups ahead of time.
• Create a deck of cards that has the number of groups you
desire. For example, if you want groups of four, confi gure
the deck so that you use four aces, four kings, four queens,
four jacks, and four 10s. Pass out the cards randomly and
have the four that match become a group.
Whatever you do, don’t take more than 60 seconds and, most
important, don’t alienate anyone. Under no circumstances
should selecting partners or dividing children into groups be a
popularity contest.
Forming Partners or Groups
Students don’t need to be fearful of teachers to listen
to them.
— MARK MURDOCK , practicum student,
after his fi rst time teaching sixth grade
136 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
and Good 1986; Krouscas 1996): The fi rst days estab-
lish the environment for the entire year. The students
learn what behavior and attitude are appropriate in
the gymnasium and what will be expected of them in
physical education. It is then that they learn the class
rules, both stated and unstated. When a situation arises
and is consistently treated the same way, the students
know the teacher means what has been said. This es-
tablishes the behavior and attitude that will typify a
class for the remainder of the year. We’ve found the
following suggestions helpful for getting off to a good
start, and Figure 9.2 provides a checklist to ensure that
you’re ready for the beginning of the school year. For
those of you who are reading this book and are about
to begin a fi eld experience, your beginning of the year
is the fi rst day you see your students. While you will not
want to vary much from what your cooperating teacher
does, you can use the same suggestions for letting stu-
dents know that you know what goes on in the gym.
• Ready the gym Be certain that your gymnasium and
materials are ready before the beginning of the year. • Plan protocols Even if it is your plan to have stu-
dents provide input into the rules and routines of
the gymnasium, decide before you meet your stu-
dents what general rules and routines are important
and necessary for you. What is the general atmo-
sphere you wish to create? In what ways can you
guide students? Teachers who have the students
decide on protocols often come prepared with
Table 9.1 Routines That Promote (and Don’t Promote) Decision Making
Task Promotes Doesn’t Promote
Getting equipment Spread equipment and have students walk to Hand out equipment.
pick it up.
Entering the gymnasium Post initial activity; students begin to practice Students line up, waiting for the teacher.
as soon as they enter.
Choosing partners Students choose partners with whom they can Teacher assigns partners.
practice productively.
Dress Students choose appropriate clothing that allows Students wear uniforms.
them to participate freely.
Getting water/bathroom Students get a drink or use the restroom when Drinking and /or restroom use is permitted only
they need it, if no one else is at the drinking before or after class.
fountain or in the restroom.
Spreading equipment out and
providing equipment options are
two routines that promote student
responsibility.
CHAPTER 9 Establishing an Environment for Learning 137
generic guidelines (such as participation; treatment
of others—students and teachers; safety; equipment)
for operation of the gym. Students can then form
specifi c rules within those guidelines. If you decide
to develop the rules of the gym yourself, determine
what proce dures students need to follow for your
gymnasium to run smoothly; decide what behav-
iors are acceptable and unacceptable; and develop a
list of rules before the students’ arrival. Regardless of
how the rules are established, post them.
• Establish consequences As with rules, consequen ces
need to be established for appropriate and in appro-
priate behavior. These, too, can be developed jointly
or independently. They need to be communicated
to students and followed through on consistently
(see the next section for more about rules and
consequences).
• Plan beginning-of-school activities Develop activi-
ties for the fi rst few days of physical education that
will involve students at a high success rate and have
a whole-group focus (see Chapter 13). This gives
you an opportunity to see who follows directions
and to reinforce appropriate behavior and attitudes.
Don’t begin independent work until you are certain
that individuals know what is expected of them.
Teach the rules of behavior and expected attitudes,
as well as classroom routines (e.g., what to do when
arriving in class; how to take out, set up, and take
CHECKLIST FOR THE BEGINNING OF SCHOOL
Item
Check When Done Notes
Are your teaching areas and equipment
ready?
Have you decided on your class protocols?
Are you familiar with the parts of the school
that you may use (halls, cafeteria, multi-
purpose room, etc.) and any procedures
associated with their use?
Do you have complete class rosters for each
class you teach?
Do you have file information on your
students, including any comments from
previous teachers and information on
health problems?
Do you know if you have any students with
disabilities who should be accommodated
for in your instruction?
Do you have an adequate amount of
equipment for your students?
Have you established the procedure for the
arrival and departure of the students from
the physical education area?
Are the children's name tags ready? Do
you have some blank ones for unexpected
students?
Do you have your first day's plan of
activities?
Do you have rainy-day activities planned?
Have you inspected all facilities for safety
issues?
Do you have a letter ready to send home to
the parents with information about the
school year and expectations?
Do you know how to obtain assistance from
school staff members (e.g., school nurse,
office personnel, and the custodians)?
Figure 9.2 Checklist for the
beginning of school.
Source: Adapted from C. Evertson,
E. Emmer, and M. Worsham,
Classroom Management for
Elementary Teachers, 7th ed.
(Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2009).
138 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
down equipment; what to do in a fi re drill). You can
most easily do this by planning what the routines
will be, designing situations that allow students to
practice the routines, and teaching those routines
“in the gym.” Spending time teaching behavior and
attitudes at the beginning of the school year allows
you to spend more time during the rest of the year
teaching skills and much less time repeating what
should already have become habit.
• Communicating with parents Many teachers fi nd it
valuable to communicate via a written newsletter or
fl yer the expectations of physical education class as
well what to expect in terms of learning in the gym.
The newsletter can include what themes will be
taught and when, a bit about special events, the safety
rules of the gym and playground, and how to contact
you. Some teachers leave a place for comments on
the fl yer and request that a signed copy be returned.
• Developing strategies for potential problems Antici-
pate problems both in terms of content (e.g., what
will be too hard for some students) or gymnasium
routines (e.g., how might students potentially mis-
understand a certain routine), and develop ways to
prevent or reduce those problems.
• Monitoring In the early days, routinely check with
students individually to determine how they’re settling
in and to gain other information that may be relevant
to the physical education and school setting.
• Creating accountability Develop procedures that
help students learn to be responsible for their work
(Chapter 14) and their actions (Chapter 10).
Teaching Skills for Establishing a Learning Environment
The preceding sections emphasized the importance of
a managerial component, as well as the tasks necessary
to create it. A number of generic teaching skills are also
used by effective teachers to help create and maintain
a component. Such skills include teaching the proto-
cols, setting performance standards, and maintaining
consistency.
Teaching Protocols
When children are learning psychomotor skills, we
commonly give them much practice, and when they
make mistakes, we provide feedback. We would never
think about punishing a child who did not learn to
throw correctly, especially after one try. The same is
true with teaching rules and routines. For children to
learn rules and routines, you should teach them just as
you would teach content —using the same effective
teaching skills. The following four aspects are some of
the most important when teaching protocols.
1. Describe, demonstrate, and expect the desired
behavior. Some people call this setting performance
standards. Effective teachers set high but reasonable
expectations for students and communicate them
to the children. We’ve found that an easy way to
do this is to teach with a critical demandingness
(Brophy and Evertson 1976), which means that we
set standards and consistently adhere to them so
that the children know exactly what is expected.
For example, we’ve established performance stan-
dards for many of the daily management tasks, such
as putting away equipment or lining up to go back
to the classroom. Performance standards are really a
way for teachers to communicate exactly what they
expect. When these expectations are clear, the chil-
dren understand what the teacher desires.
You should use both words and actions to convey
what specifi c behaviors are acceptable. For example,
do not simply tell children you want them to display
good sportspersonship, but tell them what good
means—say thank you to others, walk to get equip-
ment, put equipment down and listen when the
Attractively posting classroom rules is an effective way to guide
children’s actions.
CHAPTER 9 Establishing an Environment for Learning 139
Teaching Protocols with Group Practice: Ring the Bell
Equipment
For an average-size class:
• Four sets of large cards, each with a protocol practice
activity written on one side (see below). Each set of cards
should be a different color.
• Four medium bells.
• Any equipment necessary to practice the card
activities.
Organization
After protocols have been explained and demonstrated,
divide the class into four groups. Give each group a color
to match the cards. All cards are spread out facedown
in the middle of the gym and mixed. When instructed,
one member of each group retrieves a card for his or her
group, takes it to the group, and they complete the
activity. One member then returns to the middle, rings the
cowbell, hands the card to the teacher, and retrieves
another card. The activity continues until all cards have
been completed.
Sample Card Activities
• At the regroup area, fi nger-spell your fi rst name.
• Go get a drink of water. One at a time, please.
• Go to the blue neighborhood and do 10 push-ups of
any kind.
• Go to the planning-time area (see Chapter 10) and review
the rules with each other.
• Measure the length of the gym using your bodies. Lie
down on the fl oor head-to-toe.
• Go to the bathroom pass area and show your group your
favorite safe balance.
• Go to the red neighborhood, get a ball, and dribble it
15 times with your right hand and 15 times with your left
hand.
Assessment
This would be an opportune time to check for understanding
by using a student drawing or an exit slip (see Chapter 14)
asking about one or two protocols.
Source: Adapted from material by Chet Bunting, Riverside
Elementary School, Thornton, CO. Used with permission.
Box 9-5
teacher or others are talking, walk around others to
retrieve lost equipment. Second, demonstrate what
each behavior looks like. Many children will have a
different idea than you do about what walking means.
Setting performance standards helps defi ne the at-
mosphere of the classroom and maintain safety.
2. Practice the behaviors. Practice serves to help chil-
dren learn the appropriate behavior and at the
same time allows you the opportunity to see if the
youngsters understand and can follow a procedure.
Box 9-5 gives an example of a practice activity for
rules and procedures. Note that the primary pur-
pose of this activity is to help students learn the
protocols of the gymnasium by performing a vari-
ety of activities. All the activities involve working
together productively as a group, which focuses on
the atmosphere of the gym itself.
3. Provide feedback. Protocols, just like motor skills,
are learned, and children don’t often get them right
the fi rst time. After students have successfully prac-
ticed the protocol for the fi rst time, be sure to tell
them they did it correctly and then praise them. If
improvement is needed, tell them exactly what is
needed and practice again. Even after youngsters
seem to know a protocol, be prepared to prompt
and give feedback if they forget.
4. Maintain Consistency. When establishing a class-
room atmosphere, to avoid slippage (letting the
children become lax as the year progresses), it’s im-
portant that teachers be consistent in what they
expect from one day to the next.
Students learn best when the gymnasium is a
predictable place to be. Rules and routines must be
followed in a habitual fashion. For example, if chil-
dren are allowed to take out equipment mats by
dragging them across the fl oor on one day, but on
the next day four people are required to carry each
mat, what Doyle (1979) calls ambiguity exists: the
students really don’t know what is expected of them
and are actually confused. Therefore, after behav-
iors have been described and taught (performance
standards set), the protocols practiced, and feedback
given, you must be consistent with your actions as
teacher if youngsters are to really understand the
expectations.
The Instructional Component
It is not enough to create a reasonable place in which stu-
dents are able to learn; we must also teach so students can
learn. Learning motor skills and fi tness concepts is the
unique goal of physical education. It provides the focus
that guides our actions as teachers and directs student
140 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
attention as well as participation and attitudes. Student
learning is therefore an important consideration in how
we organize and maintain order in the gymnasium. Stu-
dents are more likely to learn when expectations about
organization, management, and learning are communi-
cated. Although many of us are accustomed to these
expectations as part of the managerial component, they
also are a component of the instructional component.
Simply, more learning occurs when students understand
and value learning goals; when the task is appropriate
and has a defi nite aim or focus; and when content is
made personal, concrete, and familiar.
If students are to be held accountable for learning
expectations that we have set, it is essential that they
accomplish the task as intended. Accountability in a
managerial component is clear: if a student is asked to
walk and instead runs, he or she is asked to start over
again and walk. Accountability also exists with motor
performance, but the strategies differ. Typically we
have used testing as the major accountability compo-
nent for learning in physical education. Unfortunately,
testing occurs infrequently and only at the end of a
unit. Alternative assessment practices have helped al-
leviate that problem (see Chapter 14). Yet, to truly
learn and understand, students need ongoing account-
ability components. Effective teachers utilize a variety
of accountability practices to create effective instruc-
tional components that keep students on task, focused,
and motivated to improve their performance. These
are thoroughly developed in Chapter 11, and they are
summarized here to reinforce the interrelatedness of
the learning environment.
Varying the type of task builds accountability into
the instructional task. The use of challenges on a regu-
lar basis gives students the opportunity to focus their
work, as well as informally assess their learning be-
tween tests. Though there is no magic number or mix,
we have found that a varied pattern of tasks works
well. It has been our fi nding that appropriate, chal-
lenging content eliminates about 90 percent of the po-
tential behavior problems in class.
Learning cues also provide students with an instruc-
tional accountability mechanism. Cues are simply
short phrases or words that focus the learner on the
critical elements of the skill to be practiced. Usually
one cue is all that students can remember at one time.
If for every task presented, the last thing the teacher
did was to repeat the cue(s) for the task, many students
would be highly focused. Major cues are provided at
the beginning of each control- through profi ciency-
level task in the skill theme chapters.
Providing specifi c congruent feedback about students’
performance increases the accountability for learning.
Specifi c congruent feedback means feedback that is
directly related to the cues given with the task and noth-
ing else. If a teacher provides such feedback, student per-
formance is then more directed and focused.
Whatever the strategy, in order to learn, students must
have a focus for the activity and be held accountable for
realizing the focus. Without focus and accounta bility,
students will lack motivation, will not learn the intended
content, and will begin to behave inappropriately.
Safety
Although teaching safety procedures could logically
be included within the managerial component, it is
so important that we have chosen to address it sepa-
rately. We discuss it in generic terms here, but we also
include specifi c safety aspects in each skill theme
development chapter: these are coded with the safety
icon .
A major responsibility of every physical education
teacher is to provide students with a safe learning envi-
ronment, both physically and psychologically ( Siedentop
and Tannehill 2000). You as a teacher are entrusted with
the safety of students in your class. The legal terminol-
ogy is “in loco parentis.” In other words, when a child is
with you, you act in place of the parent. The commonly
accepted defi nition of this type of responsibility is that
while a child is in a teacher’s care, the teacher should act
in a reasonable and responsible manner with respect to
the child’s welfare and safety. Reasonable behavior has
been interpreted by the courts as what one would expect
of a person with ordinary intelligence, ordinary percep-
tion, ordinary memory (Koehler 1987), and specifi ed
academic and professional credentials. This means that
teachers are held to the standard of the reasonably pru-
dent “teacher” with all the pertinent credentials and ex-
perience that this teacher possesses (that is, if teacher X
has more than the basic knowledge, certifi cations, and
so on, teacher X is held accountable for that knowledge).
Teachers are held to the standard of the reasonably pru-
dent teacher, not that of just any adult.
Elements of Negligence
When a teacher does not act in a reasonably prudent
manner, negligence can occur. Negligence has four
separate elements — duty, breach of duty, proximate
cause, and injury — that all must be met to prove that
someone is liable.
Duty The fi rst element is established duty. This in-
volves the relationship that exists between a teacher
CHAPTER 9 Establishing an Environment for Learning 141
and students. By virtue of being a teacher, we have a
duty to the students in our classes.
Breach of Duty Duty requires that teachers main- tain a certain standard of care regarding the students
in their classes. A teacher is required (1) to anticipate
foreseeable risk in any activity; (2) to take reasonable
steps to prevent injury; (3) to provide a warning that
risk is inherent in the activity; (4) to provide aid to the
injured student; and (5) to prevent an increase in the
severity of the injury. This standard of care is arrived at
through expert testimony and other information that
sets standards of practice. If an incident goes to court,
the defendant’s behavior will be compared to what the
“reasonably prudent teacher” would have done in
those circumstances to see if there was a breach of the
standard of care. This is a critical issue because all ex-
perts in a fi eld may not always agree upon the accepted
standard of care. For example, most would say that
children should be warned and taught about the dan-
gers of raising hockey sticks above the waist, but what
about playing dodgeball as part of the physical educa-
tion curriculum? Breach of duty, or of the standard of
care, is the second element of negligence.
Proximate Cause The third element of negligence is proximate cause, meaning that the teacher’s behavior
was the cause of the injury. An example might involve
a student who has a documented medical problem
that precludes participation in certain activities. The
teacher requires the student to participate anyway,
and the student suffers an injury directly related to
the medical problem. What the teacher did was the
main factor in the injury.
Injury Injury is the fi nal element of negligence. This element requires that the injury must have oc-
curred because of the breach of duty. For example, if a
student falls from gymnastics equipment that has no
mats under it and breaks a leg, an injury has occurred.
If, however, a student falls under the same circum-
stances and no injury has occurred, then there is no
case for negligence.
Areas in Which Negligence Might Occur
The four elements of negligence might occur in a vari-
ety of situations, but the three most common involve
facilities and equipment, the conduct of the activity,
and supervision.
Facilities and Equipment Two major areas in which facilities and equipment are subject to negligent
behavior are (1) upkeep and general safety of the equip-
ment, and (2) facilities and the appropriateness of the
equipment for the child. All students have the right to
participate in an environment that is safe and develop-
mentally appropriate. Keeping facilities and equipment
safe and in “good working order” is the obvious aspect of
this domain. Standards for equipment and facilities are
available from most school districts as well as the Ameri-
can Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation
and Dance (NASPE 2009). Grounds should be inspected
regularly for potential hazards such as sprinkler heads,
holes, rocks, and ants. If a faci lity or equipment needs
attention, it can only be attended to if reported. Make
sure the right people know what needs to be repaired
and follow up on it. The less obvious aspect of this do-
main is that equipment should be matched to the child,
or, in educational terms, it should be developmentally
appropriate. All equipment must be of the appropriate
size and weight for the child. Thus in one class you may
have multiple types of balls or rackets available to chil-
dren. For example, to ask most six-year-olds or beginners
of any age to use a regulation bat is not appropriate.
Supervision The teacher must be in the room or on the playground with the class and must be paying at-
tention, and there must be enough supervisors for the
participants present. This implies that you do not leave
during class to do something else, even if it is to get
equipment out of the equipment room. When present,
teachers must actively observe the class (see Chapter 12)
and be cognizant of what is occurring. If misbehavior,
off-task behavior, or unsafe behavior exists, teachers
have the obligation to respond to such behavior. Have
all equipment out before class, and answer phone calls
on breaks. In many schools, teachers going outdoors
with children now carry walkie-talkies and /or cell
phones for emergencies.
Conduct of Activities The conduct of the activ- ity may be the least obvious negligence area. Four
aspects are important here: (1) how children are
taught to perform the skill, including proper progres-
sion; (2) how they are instructed to use equipment;
(3) what safety precautions are taken by the teacher;
and (4) whether the inherent risk is explained to the
children and whether emergency medical procedures
and protocols are developed. The last two aspects of
safety and risk are the two that are most often the
focus of teachers.
Safety precautions need to be stated as part of the
general instructions to the children for every activity
they undertake. These can be as simple as having stu-
dents wait until everyone has thrown at a target before
142 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
collecting the equipment and reminding them to walk
around groups when collecting stray equipment; or
safety instructions can be more formal, such as posting
specifi c safety rules for activities that involve hockey
sticks. Children and parents also need to know the
risks involved in physical education classes. This can
be done by sending communications home at the be-
ginning of the year so that parents can inform teach-
ers of medical conditions of which they should be
aware. General safety procedures can easily be taught
at the beginning of the school year by incorporating
them with other gymnasium rules and routines. These
safety procedures must be explained and then taught,
as well as practiced.
We’ve found that special safety procedures, ones
that deal with specialized equipment or unique situ-
ations, are most effectively taught at the time that
situation arises. Again, the procedures shouldn’t be
glossed over; students should thoroughly understand
them before you proceed. When specifi c safety rules
are presented and taught, it is again a good time to
videotape the teaching — for students who may be
absent, for those who tend to forget, or in case of
legal action.
It’s benefi cial to explain why selected behaviors are
inappropriate and why safety procedures are necessary.
Explaining the possible harmful consequences of ac-
tions helps children understand the need for stated
practices. As with all ongoing gymnasium rules, the
consequences of breaking safety rules must be stated;
they might easily be included in the general rules for
behavior. The children need to understand that safety
is their responsibility as well as the teacher’s when ac-
tivity begins. Student safety should be the fi rst thing
the teacher observes for when the children begin a task
(see Chapter 12).
The fi rst and second aspects regarding the conduct
of activities —how children are taught to perform skills
and how they are taught to use equipment — are
equally critical. First, children need to be taught the
appropriate use of all equipment in class. For example,
jump ropes are for jumping over and using as nets, but
not for slinging around the head as they are picked up.
When equipment is not used appropriately, the risk of
injury is far greater. It cannot be assumed that all chil-
dren know the appropriate use of equipment.
Finally, all children are entitled to instruction that is
appropriate. Proper task progressions are critically im-
portant to the safety of students. A student must pos-
sess all the prerequisite skills before beginning a new
task. A teacher who skips from the precontrol level to
the profi ciency level when students are still at the pre-
control level, or from tasks to challenges without
teaching critical cues, has not followed a proper pro-
gression. The teacher, in this case, is simply asking for
safety and legal problems. Accurate records of lesson
and unit plans allow teachers not only to establish
proper progressions, but also to document them. Di-
rections should be clear and thorough to the point
that students know exactly what they are to do and
how, but not to the point of giving so much informa-
tion that children are confused. Critical cues need to
be provided for each task given, accompanied by an
unambiguous demonstration.
Students need to behave safely in a safe environ-
ment. They also need to feel safe about what they are
doing in class. Students who feel comfortable about
what they are doing and are willing to participate fully
by experiencing appropriate task progressions tend to
behave safely, because they are challenged by the task
at hand yet feel able to accomplish it.
This is a brief overview of some of the safety and
legal issues teachers face. It is not intended as a com-
pendium source. For more information, you may want
to read Sport, Physical Activity, and the Law (Dougherty,
Goldberger, and Carpenter 2007) or Law for Recreation
and Sport Managers (Cotton, Wolohan, and Wilde 2007).
Be sure to check with your school district regarding its
safety policies and procedures.
As physical educators, we have always been conscious
of safety, but in today’s world of increasing legal action
against teachers, we simply have to become more cau-
tious and thorough in all that we do. To do anything
less risks student injury as well as legal action.
Summary
The establishment of a learning environment is the
fi rst thing a teacher must do to have an effective
physical education program. The learning environ-
ment consists of two components: the managerial
component and the instructional component. The
managerial component involves all those activities
that are noninstructional, and the instructional com-
ponent involves all activities that are designed to
increase student learning. The teacher’s attitude and
beliefs permeate both components. The types of com-
ponents that are set up are a direct refl ection of the
teacher’s attitudes and beliefs about children, educa-
tion, and physical education. Figure 9.3 may help you
to visualize the components of establishing a learning
environment. Designing components that (1) involve
students in decision making, (2) view children as
CHAPTER 9 Establishing an Environment for Learning 143
Sample Web Site
PE Central A physical education Web site with a plethora of
information on all aspects of physical education, including
classroom management ideas; www.pecentral.org.
Atmosphere
Managerial Instructional
Establishing a learning environment
Rules Routines
Post Start/stop Enter/ leave
Equipment Etc. Minimum positive
Consequences
Beginning of year
Teaching skills
Describe and demonstrate
Practice Provide
feedback Maintain
consistency
Bathroom
Maintaining a learning environment
Development/teaching of protocols
Figure 9.3 Establishing a
learning environment.
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. What is meant by the phrase “Management is a
neces sary, though not suffi cient, condition for
learning”?
2. What are the two major components in the estab-
lishment of a learning environment, and how do
they differ from each other?
3. What is discipline? How does discipline differ from
establishing a learning environment?
4. How do teachers’ beliefs about children impact the
learning environment?
5. What is the role of atmosphere in the establish-
ment of a learning environment?
6. Describe and explain the three aspects that contrib-
ute to a productive teacher – student relationship.
What are your thoughts as to their importance and
seemingly contradictory nature?
7. What are protocols? What two aspects make up
protocols, and how do they differ?
8. What are three activities you can use to teach chil-
dren to listen in a physical education environment?
capable and able, and (3) are consistent with clear
learning expectations and appropriate tasks usually
creates an environment that is conducive to student
learning and eliminates much off-task behavior. The
teacher is able to teach and does not have to be a
police offi cer.
144 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
References /Suggested Readings
Brooks , D. M. 1985 . The fi rst day of school. Educational Leadership 42(8): 76 –78 .
Brophy , J. , and C. Evertson. 1976 . Learning from teaching: A developmental perspective. Boston: Allyn & Bacon .
Brophy , J. , and T. Good . 1986 . Teacher behavior and stu- dent achievement. In Handbook of research on teaching. 7th ed. M. Wittrock, pp. 328 –75 . New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston .
Cotton , D. J. , J. T. Wolohan , and T. J. Wilde . 2007 . Law for recreation and sport managers. 4th ed. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/ Hunt .
Deutsch , D. 1999 . The coaching club. Master’s thesis, Uni- versity of North Dakota, Grand Forks.
Dougherty , N. J. , A. S. Goldberger , and L. J. Carpenter . 2007 . Sport, physical activity, and the law. 3rd ed. Champaign, IL: Sagamore Publications .
Doyle , W. 1979 . Making managerial decisions in class- rooms. In Classroom management: Seventy-eighth yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part 2, ed. D.L. Duke. Chicago: University of Chicago Press .
Doyle , W. 1980 . Student mediating responses in teaching effectiveness. Denton: North Texas State University . (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 187 698.)
Ennis , C. 1995 . Teachers’ responses to noncompliant students: The realities and consequences of a nego- tiated curri culum. Teaching and Teacher Education 11(5): 445 – 60 .
Evertson , C. , E. Emmer , and M. Worsham . 2009 . Class- room management for elementary teachers . 7th ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon .
Fink , J. , and D. Siedentop. 1989 . The development of routi nes, rules, and expectations at the start of the school year. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 8(3): 198 – 221 .
Galvan , C. 2004 . Investigating the impact of a service learn- ing course on teacher candidates and underserved youth. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Northern Colorado, Greeley.
Hastie , P. , and D. Siedentop . 2007 . The classroom ecology paradigm. In Handbook of physical education , ed. D. Kirk, D. Macdonald, and M. O’Sullivan, pp. 214 –25 . London: Sage .
Helion , J. 1996 . If we build it, they will come: Creating an emotionally safe physical education environment. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 67(6): 40 – 44 .
Hellison , D. 2003 . Teaching personal and social responsibility through physical activity. 2nd ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
Herbel , K. 1996 . Youth, basketball, and responsibility: A fairy tale ending? Unpublished master’s thesis, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks.
Herbel , K. , and M. Parker. 1995. Same story, different set- ting: A case study of a program for at-risk youth. Paper presented at the Northern Rocky Mountain Educational Research Convention, Jackson Hole, WY.
Jones , V. , and L. Jones. 2007 . Comprehensive classroom management. 8th ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon .
Koehler , R. W. 1987 . Law, sport activity and right management. Champaign, IL: Stipes .
Krouscas , J. 1996 . No substitute for the fi rst day of school. Strategies 10(1): 5 – 8 .
Martinek , T. 1988 . Confi rmation of the teacher expec- tancy model: Student perceptions and causal attributions of teacher behavior. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 59: 118 –26 .
Marzano , R. J. , and J. S. Marzano. 2003 . The key to classroom management. Educational Leadership 61(1): 6 –13 .
Mowling , C. , K. Eider , S. Brock , and M. Rudisill . 2004 . Stu- dent motivation in physical education. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 75(6): 40 – 45⫹ .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2004 . Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. 2nd ed. St. Louis, MO: Mosby .
[NASPE] National Association for Sport and Physical Edu- cation. 2009 . Appropriate practices for elementary school physical education. 3rd ed. Reston, VA: National Associa- tion for Sport and Physical Education .
Parker , M. , J. Kallusky , and D. Hellison . 1999 . High impact, low risk: Ten strategies to teach responsibility in physical education. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 70(2): 26 –28 .
9. List fi ve guidelines for establishing rules of behav-
ior in the gymnasium.
10. What four things can a teacher do to help students
learn protocols?
11. Why are the fi rst lessons of the year so important?
List fi ve suggestions for those lessons.
12. Identify and describe three aspects of teaching
protocols.
13. Defi ne accountability measures. List three account-
ability measures for each of the components in
physical education.
14. What are the four aspects of negligence, and in
what areas of teaching are they most likely to
occur?
CHAPTER 9 Establishing an Environment for Learning 145
Parker , M. , and J. Stiehl . 2005 . Personal and social respon- sibility. In Standards-based physical education curriculum, ed. J. Lund and D. Tannehill, pp. 130 –53 . Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett .
Rink , J. 1987 . The learning game: A baseball theory of teacher effectiveness. Unpublished manuscript.
Rink , J. 2006 . Teaching physical education for learning. 5th ed. St. Louis, MO: Mosby .
Sagor , R. 2002 . Lessons from skateboarders. Educational Leadership 60(1): 34 – 38 .
Siedentop , D. , and D. Tannehill . 2000 . Developing teaching skills in physical education. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill .
Stiehl , J. 2002 . Course outline SES 444: Teaching diverse populations . Greeley, CO: University of Northern Colorado, School of Sport and Exercise Science .
Stiehl , J. , G. S. Morris , and C. Sinclair. 2008 . Teaching physi- cal activity: Change, challenge, choice. Champaign, IL: Hu- man Kinetics .
Tousignant , M. , and D. Siedentop. 1983 . The analysis of task structures in physical education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 3(1): 45 –57 .
Wehlage , G. G. , R. Rutter , G. Smith , N. Lesko , and R. Fernandez . 1989 . Reducing the risk: Schools as communities of support. Philadelphia: Falmer Press .
Xiang , P. , R. McBride , and J. Guan . 2004 . Children’s moti vation in elementary physical education: A longi- tudinal study. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 75(1): 71– 80 .
146 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
146
C H A P T E R
10
Maintaining Appropriate Behavior The thing that worries me is my lesson may not be good enough and students will get bored and be
disruptive.
The only thing I am anxious about is if they [the students] decide to go berserk.
I am most worried that the students won’t want to work as a team, that they will want to just mess
around.
I am most worried that the students won’t give full participation —won’t listen — and I will revert
back to the typical militaristic-like style.
I am anxious about discipline.
—UNIVERSITY STUDENTS BEFORE TEACHING SIXTH GRADE FOR THE FIRST TIME
CHAPTER 10 Maintaining Appropriate Behavior 147
T he concerns expressed by the students in the
statements that introduce this chapter probably
refl ect what many teachers feel: Will I be able to
handle my students? Will they do what is right? What
will I do when they don’t?
Helping children learn to be accountable for their
behavior can be considered to be one of the least en-
joyable tasks of teaching, but it is something that all
teachers must do. The notion that only poor teachers
have to hold children accountable is simply not accu-
rate. Yet holding children accountable is less likely to be
a problem when effective managerial and instructional
task components are in place.
• The maintenance of the established learning environment
is something that must be consciously cultivated.
• Appropriate behavior is not the mere absence of inappro-
priate behavior.
• If a learning environment is not effective, before blaming
the students, assess your teaching behaviors to see if
your actions have contributed to the nonfunctioning
environment.
• Three hierarchical aspects are paramount to maintaining
a learning environment: increasing appropriate behavior,
decreasing inappropriate behavior, and dealing with
whole-class problems.
• Both proactive and reactive strategies can be used to
increase appropriate behavior.
• Proactive strategies include positive interaction with
children, prompting correct responses, and eliminating
differential treatment of students.
• Behavior problems can be classifi ed as a nonproblem,
minor problem, major problem, or escalating problem.
• Ignoring inappropriate behavior when it is inconsequential
or a nonproblem, keen use of nonverbal interactions, and
person-to-person dialogue are strategies that allow
teachers to appropriately react to student behavior.
• To decrease inappropriate behavior, teachers can use
desists, positive practice, time-outs, planning time, be-
havior contracts, letters to parents, and, as a last resort,
can involve the principal.
• Entire class behavior can be maintained by developing
personal and social responsibility, class rewards, and
token systems.
• A variety of teaching strategies can be used to maintain
the class environment.
Key Concepts
Consistently maintaining the environment de-
signed and established for the class is second only to
establishing it. Some call this discipline, but the word
discipline has so many varied, and mostly negative,
connotations that we have chosen to avoid it. Disci-
pline most often implies punishing some type of inap-
propriate behavior. That, for us, is the last resort. From
our viewpoint, the establishment and maintenance of
an environment supportive of learning is a more posi-
tive and appropriate perspective. We follow a positive
approach to dealing with behavior and attitudes that
are inappropriate, an approach that lets a teacher both
create a positive atmosphere and teach students appro-
priate behavior for the gymnasium. In such a situa-
tion, the teacher’s primary tasks are, fi rst, to employ
techniques that create the likelihood of appropriate
behavior and, second, to use techniques that reduce
inappropriate behavior.
We defi ne appropriate behavior as student behavior
that is consistent with the educational goals of a speci-
fi c educational setting (Siedentop and Tannehill 2000)
Appropriate behavior is not the mere absence of inap-
propriate behavior; rather, it is itself a set of behaviors
or actions. These positive behaviors or actions must
replace the inappropriate behavior.
It’s normal for all teachers to be concerned about
how to hold students accountable for what they are
“supposed” to do. Our experiences with beginning
and experienced teachers, as well as our own teaching
experiences, suggest that most teachers ask themselves
questions about responding to student behavior. The
difference between so-called good teachers and poor
teachers is not their concern about holding children
accountable — all teachers encounter deviant and dis-
ruptive behavior and must fi nd ways of dealing with
it. Rather, the more successful teachers are able to
minimize the amount of time they devote to dealing
with inappropriate behavior and to do so in a largely
positive manner.
Even the teacher who develops managerial and in-
structional components, establishes and explains rules
of behavior, prompts and provides feedback for appro-
priate behavior, and teaches with a critical demanding-
ness can’t be sure that a class will perform as expected.
In many classes, there will be some children who fi nd
it diffi cult to function in a school environment, not
only in physical education, but in other classes as well.
Occasionally an entire class has diffi culty adhering to
the behavioral boundaries that have been established.
Whether it is one, several, or most of the children
who are unable to abide by the rules, your fi rst response
might well be to examine your performance as a teacher.
When children react in unexpected ways, you may,
upon refl ection, fi nd that their reactions are justifi ed.
148 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
Children are incredibly honest. A teacher may not want
to know or believe that a lesson is a dud, but the chil-
dren will let the teacher know. Occasionally it’s the
teacher’s behavior, rather than the children’s, that
needs to be changed. For example, when children have
problems with equipment or don’t understand or hear
the teacher’s directions, rather than ask for help, they
will participate at their own level, “doing their own
thing.” Likewise, if a task is too boring or involves a
practice situation that might provide better practice if
changed (e.g., number of hits before switching roles),
children will often change the task to meet their needs.
Therefore it doesn’t look like the task that the teacher
gave, and the children will be perceived as off task.
The class proceeded through its parody of education,
following a formula validated in a thousand class-
rooms I have visited and countless thousands I have
not. The fi rst step in the formula is an assumption, an
untested hypothesis which becomes valid merely be-
cause (and as soon as) it is assumed. Children who
do not easily take the imprint of their teacher’s own
education and values, who are not ductile enough to
be drawn wire-thin so that they may slip through tradi-
tional holes in the fabric of society — these are not
“promising children” and the best that can be hoped
for from them is good behavior (silence) and early
withdrawal (dropout). Since silence is their most posi-
tive attribute, they should be left unmolested during
the class hour so long as they practice that virtue.
Perhaps worst of all the many dreadful aspects of
this assumption is that the children know it. They
know — and will tell you, as they told me, if they are
asked — that a few of them are regarded as “good
material” and the rest are nothing: “ever’ time I go to
her class, she make me feel like I was nothin’.” Snapper,
Rubbergut’s half brother, said it. He said it for all the
children who drown in the well of silence.
—DANIEL FADER, The Naked Children
If you determine that the lesson is appropriate and
your performance as a teacher is satisfactory, you can
then look for other causes for disruptive behavior. Try
not to view disruptive behavior as a personal affront. A
fi rst step is to assess the behavior. Evertson, Emmer,
and Worsham (2009) describe four possible categories
of disruptive behavior: nonproblem, minor problem,
major problem but limited in scope and effects, and
escalating or spreading problem.
A nonproblem is a behavior that any attempt to re-
act to it would consume too much energy and interrupt
the lesson and detract from the classroom atmosphere.
Such things as brief inattention, a little talking while
others are talking, and short pauses while working are
nonproblems.
A minor problem includes those things that run
counter to classroom protocols but do not, when occur-
ring infrequently, disrupt the class activities or seriously
interfere with other students’ learning. An example
would be excessive talking during group work. These
behaviors are minor irritants as long as they are lim-
ited to a few students and are brief, and we would not
give them much attention except that, unattended,
they might persist and spread. Not responding might
cause an appearance of inconsistency and potentially
undermine the management component, and student
learning might be adversely affected.
A major problem includes activities that interfere
with the learning of others. The occurrence may be
limited to a single student or perhaps a few students
not acting in concert. Chronically off-task behavior,
constant movement around the space, or refusal to do
any work would fi t here. This category also includes
violations of school rules or any kind of behavior that
involves striking another student.
Major escalating problems constitute a threat to the
learning environment. Roaming around at will, con-
tinual calling out or interference, and refusal to coop-
erate are examples.
Having assessed the behavior, you can deal with it
in two phases: reacting appropriately in the short term
and seeking to understand the cause in the long term.
The remainder of this chapter is largely about short-
term responses, as the behavior must be addressed
before a long-term solution can be sought. Once short-
term behaviors are addressed, effective teachers will
individually address long-term causes and solutions, if
needed, in an effort to create a learning environment
that is student centered.
Comparing a referee’s or an umpire’s job with the
teacher’s need to hold children accountable places a
teacher’s job in perspective. Those referees respected
by players and coaches share the following characteris-
tics: they’re fair, consistent, accurate, and not emo-
tionally involved. As teachers, we should keep these
good characteristics in mind as we refl ect on how to
help children work within our guidelines.
Although a referee’s job is less enjoyable than a player’s
or coach’s, it’s an important aspect of organized sport.
Similarly, maintaining the learning environment is an
important role for a teacher. In physical education, as in
sports, there will be violations and infractions.
Our goal is to help children become intrinsically
motivated so that they can benefi t from and enjoy
physical activity. In some situations this motivation
CHAPTER 10 Maintaining Appropriate Behavior 149
comments about their behavior. Catching them in the
act of doing something right and praising them for it
can dramatically change their behavior (Siedentop and
Tannehill 2000).
But praise shouldn’t be contrived and meaningless,
offered with no genuine feeling, as is often the case.
Give praise frequently but not so profusely that it seems
trivial. And give it only when a child actually displays
appropriate behavior. All children are capable of receiv-
ing some type of praise— catch them being good!
This sounds like common sense, but research and
our experiences have shown that this isn’t the preva-
lent mode of operation in the gym. In 1984, Siedentop
and Taggart wrote that “punitive and corrective inter-
action” were the most frequent forms of communication
(p. 105). Almost 20 years later, it was found that although
teachers espoused a positive form of classroom man-
agement, they relied almost exclusively on rewards
and punishment (Kulinna, Cothran, and Garrahy
2002). In other words, little has changed. You can
stand at many gymnasium doors and hear statements
like these: “I’m waiting for you!” “Ssshh!” “Ben, when-
ever you sit down, we’ll start,” or “Kari, carry the ball.”
Although these statements aren’t openly negative,
they in fact reinforce the inappropriate behavior of
certain children and ignore the appropriate behavior
of a large majority of students. They are what might be
called nagging behaviors. The following list includes
examples of positive verbal and nonverbal interac-
tions. For an idea of how you’re doing, have a student
make a simple tally of your interactions or videotape a
class and critique your own behavior.
Verbal Positive Nonverbal Positive
Statements Interactions
Good High fi ve
Terrifi c Smiling
Right Clapping
Nice job Thumbs up
Way to go Winking
That’s it Pat on the back
Thank you Shaking hands
Great Giving an OK sign
You did it this time
Beautiful
Excellent
Nicely done
OK
All right
Eliminating Differential Treatment Often a stranger can walk into a classroom and after a few min-
utes pick out the “discipline problems” or the “really
good ones” in a group of children he or she has never
will occur naturally, and thus few of the techniques
described will be necessary. In other teaching situa-
tions, however, many of the techniques will be needed.
In either case, the goal is to use fewer and fewer of
these techniques so that the children participate in
physical education because they like it and feel it is
valuable rather than because of an external reward or
motivator. Our explanation of effective techniques for
helping children work within our guidelines is divided
into three steps: increasing appropriate behavior, de-
creasing inappropriate behavior, and maintaining
whole-class appropriate behavior. Remember, your ac-
tion as a teacher should match the magnitude of the
problem. Overreacting will soon result in a negative
class atmosphere and be similar to “calling wolf”—
children will cease to respond. Underreacting creates
an atmosphere of physical and psychological unsafety
and nonlearning.
Increasing Appropriate Behavior
When behavior doesn’t conform to the expectations
established for the specifi c setting, a teacher’s fi rst strat-
egy would likely be to increase appropriate behavior. Six
techniques teachers have found useful for increasing
appropriate behavior are positive interaction, eliminat-
ing differential treatment, prompting, ignoring inap-
propriate behavior, nonverbal teacher interactions, and
person-to-person dialogue. Most of these techniques
would be considered “soft skills” as they are noninva-
sive and subtle in nature. Three of the techniques are
proactive—that is, they are to be used in the absence of
inappropriate behavior. The other three are reactive, to
be used in response to inappropriate behavior.
Proactive Strategies
Teachers can do many things to increase the likelihood
of students’ behaving appropriately. And many of
these things can be done proactively to increase the
likelihood that appropriate behavior will prevail.
Positive Interaction As discussed in Chapter 9, one of the most powerful things a teacher can do to
create an environment in which students want to be is
to make the gymnasium a positive place. One of the
most convincing means of creating a positive environ-
ment is to interact with students in a positive way
when they behave in an appropriate manner. In es-
sence, this approach emphasizes the positive rather
than the negative. Many children who are known
throughout the school as “discipline problems” have
become accustomed to hearing nothing but negative
150 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
seen before. Frequently these are the children whose
names the teacher is constantly calling out: “Rico, are
you listening?” “Sarah, sit down, please,” or “Brady,
that’s great,” “Abby, you’re awesome.” It is not uncom-
mon to see the same children singled out repeatedly.
Typically these children are masters of their craft — they
know exactly how far they can go without actually be-
ing held accountable or conversely exactly what to do
to gain the teacher’s praise. Because they covet adult
attention, these children persist in their behavior (and
as long as we reinforce their behavior by acknowledging
it, they become even more skilled at it). So, avoid sin-
gling out these children whenever possible.
complete your tallies, if you fi nd that you single out
the same few children and /or interact either positively
or negatively with a select few, you know you need to
take steps to change your teaching behavior.
Prompting Prompting is a teacher behavior that re- minds students what is expected of them. Some teach-
ers fi nd themselves prompting appropriate behavior
only after inappropriate behavior has occurred. This,
however, is not the most effective way to use prompts.
Prompts should be used as a positive tool as often as
possible rather than as a negative interaction. For ex-
ample, it is more benefi cial to say, “Remember to walk
as you go to pick up equipment” than “I told you to
walk!” or even “Can’t you remember by now that you
are supposed to walk?” Used as in the fi rst statement,
prompting is a proactive response rather than a reac-
tive response. Remember, many of the behaviors you
want students to demonstrate are learned (just like
motor skills), so initially you should prompt students
quite frequently about what behavior is appropriate;
later, you will probably need to prompt only when a
new or different situation arises.
Juan
Sue
Rich
Jesse
Don
Billie
Name called Reprimand Positive Interaction
Figure 10.1 Chart for identifying differential treatment of students.
Talking to Equipment
A teacher recently shared with us a creative and effec-
tive way to prompt students toward appropriate use of
equipment — talking to the equipment. When a youngster
fi nds it hard to hold equipment still or place it on the fl oor,
the instructor simply picks up the piece of equipment and
directs the appropriate behavior and his comments toward
the equipment. For example, he might pick up the hockey
stick and say, “I thought we agreed that you were supposed
to be on the fl oor while I was talking. So that others can
hear and I can talk, I really need you to be on the fl oor. Do
you understand?” He says the children think he is a bit
crazy, but it works.
Reactive Approaches
Interacting positively, eliminating differential treat-
ment, and prompting are all proactive strategies for
increasing appropriate behavior and thus are a means
of preventing inappropriate behavior before it hap-
pens. The three strategies that follow are reactive
strategies designed to increase appropriate behavior.
They are intended for use after the inappropriate be-
havior has occurred — as a means of reacting to it.
Ignoring inappropriate behavior and using nonverbal
interactions and person-to-person dialogue are strat-
egies teachers can use as responses to inappropriate
behavior; each is designed to increase appropriate
Every person needs recognition. It is expressed
cogently by the lad who says, “Mother, let’s play
darts. I’ll throw the darts and you say ‘Wonderful.’ ”
—DALE BAUGHMAN
One way to spot differential treatment of students
in your classes is to audio-record a few lessons. This
can be done by placing an audio recorder in the gym-
nasium, attached to your arm, or in a pocket. (This ob-
servation and analysis technique is discussed further
in Chapter 15.) After you’ve taped several lessons, lis-
ten to the tapes and record the number of times you
call each child’s name and the number of reprimands
or desists as well as positive comments you issue to
individual children.
A simple way to record your tally is to use a copy of
the class roster that has three columns to the right of
the names (Figure 10.1). The fi rst column is a tally for
each time you call a child’s name; the second column
is a tally for each time you reprimand or interact nega-
tively with a specifi c child; and the third column is for
tallying positive comments or interactions. After you
CHAPTER 10 Maintaining Appropriate Behavior 151
behavior, especially when the problem is a nonproblem
or minor problem.
Ignoring Inappropriate Behavior The opposite of emphasizing appropriate behavior with positive
interactions is ignoring inappropriate behavior. Many
of us fi nd that praising appropriate behavior is hard but
that ignoring inappropriate behavior is even more dif-
fi cult. Inappropriate behavior can be ignored as a non-
problem when it meets the following three criteria:
1. It is of short duration and is not likely to spread or
persist.
2. It is a minor deviation.
3. Reacting to it would interrupt a lesson or call
attention to the behavior.
Student behaviors that could be ignored in a physi-
cal education setting include occasional calling out
during discussions, brief whispering, short periods
of inattentiveness or nonpractice, and occasional
continuation of activity after the stop signal. Unless
a behavior is harmful to other students, causes a
safety problem, or seriously disrupts other students,
reacting to it would consume too much of your en-
ergy, interrupt your lessons constantly, and detract
from your classroom climate.
To be completely effective, teachers should ignore
minor inappropriate behavior and simultaneously
praise appropriate behavior. Yet, when we’ve become
accustomed to saying, “Ssshh!” “Hurry up!” “I’m wait-
ing for you to get quiet,” or “Tommy!!!” it’s not easy to
change to phrases such as, “Jody was quiet when she
heard the stop signal,” “Terrifi c, you were ready to go in
10 seconds today,” and “Jimmy, you showed thought-
fulness when you helped Jay up after he fell down.”
Such interactions, which can create appropriate be-
haviors in children, imply, for many of us, that the
teacher is letting Tommy or the students who aren’t
yet quiet get away with inappropriate behavior. For
many of us, this is a risky action because the perceived
implication is that our control is in jeopardy. In reality,
the teacher who ignores simple inappropriate behavior
while praising appropriate behavior is teaching children
what desired behavior is while creating an atmosphere
that is warm and conducive to learning.
There’s a subtle message about what merits attention
in this scenario of praising appropriate and ignoring
inappropriate behavior. If a teacher instead used both
sets of examples (praising appropriate behavior and re-
acting verbally to inappropriate behavior) described in
the previous paragraph, what message would the stu-
dents receive? The answer is confusion. Students would
assume they could receive reinforcement and adult atten-
tion for either appropriate or inappropriate behavior.
Ignoring inappropriate behavior is for many of us
an uncomfortable and awkward act. A good way to
assess your skill in praising the good and ignoring the
inappropriate is to audio-record your lessons and count
how often you say something positive and the number
of times you say something negative. Remember that
even little things such as “Hurry up!” and “Ssshh!”
count as negative interactions. Don’t be surprised at
what you fi rst discover about your behavior; look at it
as an opportunity to improve.
Nonverbal Teacher Interactions A number of sim- ple nonverbal techniques are often suffi cient to prompt
appropriate student behavior when the behavior is a mi-
nor problem. Sometimes just the physical proximity of
the teacher will solicit the desirable behavior from some
students. For example, when giving directions or speak-
ing to the class as a whole, the teacher merely stands
near the student displaying inappropriate behavior. An-
other technique for increasing appropriate behavior is to
borrow the equipment the student is using for purposes
Person-to-person dialogue allows a teacher to know students on an
individual basis.
152 PART 2 Teaching Skills www.mhhe.com /graham8e
of demonstration. Finally, even less obvious actions of-
ten work. For example, simple eye contact or a signal,
such as nodding the head, will redirect the student.
Person-to-Person Dialogue Another successful technique for increasing appropriate behavior with
minor problems is the person-to-person dialogue.
Arrange a time to meet with a child away from the
class (though not immediately before or after). You
might say to the child, “Robby, you don’t seem to be
enjoying our physical education class. I’d like you to
come to my offi ce after school today so that we can
talk about it.” The purpose of this meeting is to try to
determine the reasons for the child’s behavior in your
class. This is not a time for a lecture; instead, it should
be an open and honest conversation between the
teacher and student. We’ve found that a statement
such as the following enables many children to begin
a discussion of their concerns: “Robby, I’d like to talk
to you about physical education class. Is there some-
thing I do that bothers you?”
This statement takes the focus from the child and
places it on the teacher. Many children are quite candid
about what’s bothering them. Remember, this is a dia-
logue. Explaining to the child something about how
and why you teach is constructive and often produc-
tive. Lecturing the child about behavior or threatening
the child with future punishments is counterpro-
ductive. This dialogue is not teacher-to-child but
person-to- person. Often the temptation to lecture, ac-
cuse, or blame a child is strong, but succumbing to this
temptation is the quickest way to destroy any rapport
between student and teacher. If a child trusts you
enough to talk candidly about personal concerns and
you threaten or lecture, communication ceases. Many
children — especially those who need individual atten-
tion the most —have been betrayed before, so they’re
likely to be sensitive and wary. Use of teacher power in
this situation reinforces a child’s belief that teachers
are untrustworthy and that being honest only gets him
or her into more trouble.
Some children never want to participate in physi-
cal education class. A person-to-person dialogue is of-
ten helpful here, as is a conference with the child’s
other teachers. Some children may be afraid of par-
ticipating in physical activity because they’ve already
had unsatisfactory experiences at home or on the play-
ground. Other children may have “issues” with class-
mates that are easily manifested in activity-oriented
settings. Still others may be unmotivated and antiso-
cial. Regardless, if a child has a legitimate reason, we
respect the child and attempt to create a satisfactory
alternative. Further, if a child is unmotivated and/or anti-
social, person-to-person dialogue can act as a beginning
point for seeking a solution to something that may be
a problem beyond physical education. Transferring
the child to another physical education class or arrang-
ing a one-to-one teaching situation often leads, in
time, to participation with the regular class. Forcing a
child to participate in physical education classes with-
out fi rst understanding the reason for the reluctance
may not be in the child’s best interests. Once you un-
derstand why a child is reluctant to participate, you
can make an informed decision about the most ap-
propriate action.
Decreasing Inappropriate Behavior
Although our fi rst approach in dealing with inappro-
priate behavior is to attempt to increase appropriate
behavior, this doesn’t always work. At times, with major
problems or with those behaviors that may escalate into
major problems, a teacher must decrease inappropriate
behavior. When this is necessary, the teacher should
have a repertoire of strategies— often called hard skills as
they are deliberate and obvious—available. Teachers in
physical education have found the following techniques
useful: positive practice, desists, time-outs, planning
time, behavior contracts, letters to parents, and involv-
ing the principal. Note that many of the techniques fi t
the psychological de fi nition of the term punishment—
they decrease the likelihood of an inappropriate behav-
ior recurring by applying undesirable consequences to
the behavior. These techniques should not be emotion-
ally laden, associated with acts of anger, or said in a
raised voice. Also, any action the teacher takes to de-
crease inappropriate behavior should be accompanied
by actions to build appropriate behavior.
Nowhere in our discussion will you fi nd strategies
that advocate physical exercise as a technique to re-
duce inappropriate behavior. Physical activity (sit-ups,
push-ups, running laps, etc.) should never be used as a
technique to hold children accountable for their
behavior. Besides being deemed an inappropriate prac-
tice by professional organizations like the National
Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE
2009), the use of physical activity as punishment is
counterproductive to what we want to happen as a
result of physical education. Our goal is that children
acquire the skills and the desire to be physically active
