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Gender and Sexuality in Critical Animal Studies

Edited by Amber E. George

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Nonhuman animals have endured centuries of abuse because their bodies fail to conform to the “normalized” versions of bodies and minds. Even human bodies perceived as “abnormal,” such as those with visible disabilities and those who defy the gender/sex binary, receive more acceptance than nonhu- man animals. Of those who resist identity binaries, intersex is one that has gained attention in recent years as it is believed intersex people make up as much as 1.7 percent of the human population born (Fausto-Sterling, 2000). “Intersex” is a term used to describe a broad range of biological traits that lie between the traditional binary classification of “male” and “female” sex varia- tion. Despite being a condition that is not so rare, this population is underrep- resented and misunderstood. Like humans, nonhuman intersex individuals are often met with disdain and repulsion by cultural attitudes that suggest being born with “ambiguous” reproductive organs is inherently problematic. This chapter investigates the ableist, speciesist, and intersexist values that inform nonhuman animals’ harm and abuse. This analysis seeks to disrupt the medi- cal community’s preference to surgically correct intersex conditions through invasive medical procedures that erase intersex traits and injure bodily auton- omy. Instead, individuals born with natural variations in their sex characteris- tics should not be forced to conform. Rather than focusing on individualized bodies as isolated in their own “abnormality,” this chapter also highlights the systemic social forces that oppress bodies that fall outside the norm.

Specifically, this analysis uses news media to explore the stigmatizing ide- ologies that describe intersex nonhuman animals. While there are no official statistics to demonstrate how often animals such as cats and dogs are born with intersex conditions, a brief Google search yielded over a dozen stories

Chapter 9

Intersex Inclusion Indeterminant Sex and Gender

Acceptance for Nonhuman Animals

Amber E. George

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from the past five years of “unusual” domesticated pets. There are some non- human animal species that have reproductive organs of both sexes already integrated into their bodies upon birth, and while these species are interest- ing, this analysis studies those who are not biologically programmed to have both. For clarity, this chapter does not engage in an in-depth analysis of pet- keeping, despite the importance of such research. Furthermore, this analysis does not critique pronoun use; all pronouns correspond to each news story’s usage. Likewise, despite the continual reference to the term “hermaphrodite” in the news stories, this analysis uses “intersex” to replace the outdated and insensitive term (Ray, 2017). Moreover, intersexuality should be described with sensitivity in the media, not sensationalism.

This analysis supports the notion that intersex individuals have a valid existence aside from undergoing nonconsensual, painful often unsuccessful, cosmetic surgical measures. Rather than adopting oppressive medicalized perspectives, humans should resist pathologizing intersex into disability-like conditions. When an individual is pathologized as being diseased and requir- ing a cure or rehabilitation, their ability to live freely becomes compromised. Assuming that intersex individuals will be social outcasts or unrecognizable as fully functioning beings is predicated on irrational fears about what is perceived as “natural.” This social construction of “natural” has far-reaching implications for classifications of intersex, disability, and animality. The deviation from “normality” is not a problem that resides within the intersex individual themselves; rather, the problem is attitudes of people who take an alarmist stance toward “abnormal” body types, refusing to accept that all body types are valid and natural (Intersex Society of North America, 2018).

DEFINING INTERSEX AND DISABILITY

Loosely defined, intersex is a condition that arises from genetic variations among chromosomal and/or hormone composition. There are several dozen variations of intersex conditions, all of which get lumped under the intersex umbrella of definitions (Dreger et al., 2005). When offspring are born in most cultures, one of the first questions is whether it is a boy or a girl. In other words, what is sought is clarification on whether one’s genitals typify male or female characteristics. However, as with all body types, nature is never this simple, and many variations exist. Consider the case of a three-year-old tabby cat initially named Rex/Regina who was surrendered to the SPCA because his human companion could not handle his incessant spraying and howling. The veterinarian indicated that “he has caused quite a sensation” because he has both “male and female reproductive organs” (SPCA, 2017). The article describes him as “a very rare hermaphrodite cat” whose condition is caused

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by a chromosomal “abnormality.” Variation from the “norm” is often equated with “abnormal” and something that needs correction.

The definitions of males and females in Western society are varied and diverse, leaving many scientists, biologists, and medical professionals to stumble with being consistent and clear about an already arbitrary sex/gen- der classification system. Since these definitions are arbitrary, not everyone agrees on which characteristics designate certain sex categorizations, leaving much to be determined by the discretion of doctors, veterinarians, and other medical practitioners. Western culture generally expects only two sex varia- tions, forcing those who do not fit evenly to be forced into one category or the other. As was true for Rex/Regina, and as the article states, “The biggest challenge for his/her new human companions will be what to call him/her, and whether to refer to him/her as a boy or a girl” (SPCA, 2017). Thus, what is most troublesome about intersex conditions is not one’s “atypical” genitalia but rather how humans respond to those who exist outside the traditional sex/ gender binary. This results in identifying one as an object rather than a living being.

Like intersex, disability is also defined using an umbrella-type approach, as evidenced by the World Health Organization’s (WHO) definition of dis- ability as:

an umbrella term, covering impairments, activity limitations, and participa- tion restrictions. An impairment is a problem in body function or structure; an activity limitation is a difficulty encountered by an individual in executing a task or action; while a participation restriction is a problem experienced by an individual involved in life situations. (WHO, 2018)

In this instance, the disability is rooted primarily in the person’s body, resulting in a limitation or lack without considering how environmental and social barriers impede one’s freedom. The WHO definition also applies to intersex designation because many medical professionals regard intersex peo- ple as impaired with a disordered body structure. In 2006, a group of medical practitioners collectively decided to call intersex conditions “Disorders of Sex Development” or DSD in an attempt to gain clarity and move away from the term “hermaphrodite” and intersex altogether (Hughes et al., 2006). There once was a time when “hermaphroditism” was a regular staple in circus side- shows, along with “freak” exhibits that featured so-called half-men and half- women. Their very presence in society signaled what Wendy Bashant refers to as “an inability to control and categorize,” that which was deemed dan- gerous (1995, p. 19). Those with disabilities were also considered “freaks” and placed on display. The same is true for nonhumans, as animals are also displayed against their will for profit in zoos, circuses, and other exhibitions.

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Even today, nonhuman animals with intersex traits have their organs on dis- play, as evidenced by are put on display as evidenced by the star veterinarian of the American reality show “The Incredible Dr. Pol.” As Dr. Pol explains, “The most unusual thing I’ve ever seen was just recently: I was doing surgery on a Belgian stallion and I pulled out a uterus! It was intersex! . . . I saved that uterus in formaldehyde in the clinic among my souvenirs” (Haviland, 2020).

It is still customary to typify animals with intersex conditions as having her- maphroditic features within the sciences (Dreger et al., 2005). Similar to how “handicapped” is used as an outdated medicalized term for denoting disability status, hermaphrodite is equitable with being inferior. Identifying intersex as a disorder makes it a medical issue, although most intersex individuals do not require medical intervention; instead, they need social acceptance. Often classified as having a sex development disorder, intersex encompasses struc- tural impairments stemming from one’s genitals, gonads, chromosomes, or other related reproductive structures. To quell the dangers embodied by the “hermaphroditic” body, many nineteenth-century medical practitioners who were men sought physical evidence to solidify the two sexes into a gender binary for sexual distinction. As Alice Dreger states, “Many men of science, following the footsteps of the great Charles Darwin, wrote with confidence and enthusiasm about the natural and profound differences of the male and female types” (1998, p. 26). Dating back to these times, when medical men encountered an intersex individual, they felt compelled to determine that person’s sex regardless of the consequences that such a decision might bring. Classifying individuals with intersex conditions as disordered is stigmatizing and incorrect because most people born with this condition do not require medical attention and are often indistinguishable from others who are not intersex (Tamar-Mattis & Diamond, 2007; Diamond & Beh, 2008).

Media outlets often frame intersex conditions as unfavorable, emphasiz- ing the notion that individuals can be made whole again through corrective surgery to fix abnormalities. The role that “framing” plays is best described by Erving Goffman (1974) as a means of perceiving, identifying, and labeling information in unconscious ways (p. 21). News journalists bor- row frames from popular culture to allow the readership to process facts and comprehend them quickly. Thus, when frames are stigmatizing or oppressive, they are perpetuated without hesitation. Consider the case of a cockapoo puppy, Kennedy, initially considered female when purchased for $1,000 by a woman in Florida from an alleged puppy mill. Upon its first trip to the veterinarian, the woman discovered her pet was also male. The news coverage described how angry the distraught woman was for “being duped” into purchasing an “(im)perfect” dog that required costly cosmetic surgery to be made perfect. The human companion wanted to warn other consumers that they should be careful before buying a dog. She said, “It

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was overlooked by the pet store, it was overlooked by the breeder, it was overlooked by me” until she shaved the pup down and noticed “something that looked a little odd in her private parts” (Amaro, 2013). This person pur- chased what was most likely a “puppy mill” puppy from a pet store known for their questionable breeding and selling practices. Dr. Kelly Farrell with First Coast No More Homeless Pets said that “It is not possible to just look at a puppy and see these defects right on the first exam” (Amaro, 2013). In this case, Kennedy was purchased like property and viewed as being “defec- tive” or broken and needing correction. The medical model of disability also presents disability within this “cure rhetoric” that necessitates that one must be rehabilitated, cured, or fixed to conform. Without this therapy, a being with a disability, or in this case, intersex traits, may never be whole or have intrinsic worth. This curing rhetoric erases traits and a whole culture of shared experiences that fall within the disability and intersex community for humans and nonhumans alike. The medical model of disability and the traditional notion of hermaphrodism have power in common; socially constructed historical concepts that keep groups oppressed while being shrouded in scientific objectivity (Oliver, 1990). The goal, then, is to upend the assumption that disability and intersex traits must be cured of their so- called deficiencies.

Kennedy’s story raises questions about the history of cosmetic surger- ies applied to domesticated animals like cats and dogs. Actions such as tail docking and ear cropping, declawing, debarking, and even the placement of testicular prosthetics post-neutering are options that some veterinarian clin- ics offer human guardians. While the ethics of neutering remains outside this analysis’s focus, of concern is whether medically unnecessary cosmetic procedures to recreate a nonhumans’ anatomy are ethical. One company, Neuticals, has sold over 500,000 sets of silicone testicular implants for ani- mals ranging from dogs to elephants to bulls and pretty much any species that can be neutered (Wells, 2018). This has linkages with human anxiety surrounding the emasculation of their pets. The implants do not require FDA approval, and their safety for animals remains questionable. The creator of Neuticals has said, “Let’s face it, the pet owner is the one who writes the check, so it’s more for the pet owner” (Wells, 2018). Critical animal studies (CAS) scholars and activists are opposed to surgeries performed on animals to meet breed standards or correct supposed imperfections. These proce- dures are unacceptable because of the suffering and potential disfigurement they cause individual animals bereft of benefit. It makes sense for certain animal breeds like French bulldogs and pugs to have surgical alterations to relieve painful situations and breathing difficulties due to impaired anatomy. However, inflicting unnecessary pain on an animal for the sole purpose of cosmetic enhancement is immoral.

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When such immoral acts are presented in a news article, the focus tends to be on that which appears odd or unusual to selectively highlight information accordingly (Gitlin, 2003). The words used to describe the reactions to these conditions include “stunned,” “special,” “shocked,” and in “awe.” Media frames are used by journalists to silence or broadcast certain narratives. Journalists routinely select words that reinforce prevailing views among the readership and slant the stories to favor them. The news is often “constructed with a systematic bias in favor of reporting what is novel, bizarre, sensational, or odd” (Paul & Elder, p. 281). In the news story with the headline, “Mum who bought female puppy for daughter’s Christmas gift shocked after find- ing out it has both private parts” (Warrander, 2017), the dog was described as “special” and “rare.” The experience of being deemed special or unique is not uncommon for people with disabilities. As the Center for Disability Rights (CDR) suggests, “Today, the vast majority of articles written about disability or disabled people are harmful, in part, because they use stigmatiz- ing language” (CDR, 2020).

In another news story, “Pet Human Companion Left Stunned After Vet Discovers Her FEMALE Dog Has Male Private Parts Too” (Warrander, 2018), words like “stunned” are accentuated to reinforce the sensationalism presumed in the story. This story concerned Saira, a Staffordshire bull terrier, who became female after successfully undergoing sex reassignment surgery. Human companion John Conchie said Saira went in for a routine check-up at the veterinarian’s office and was “stunned” to learn she was a “hermaph- rodite.” Veterinarian and operating surgeon Richard Weston said he had never encountered a “canine hermaphrodite” in his thirty years in practice. Mr. Weston’s son, James, who assisted with the operation, was reported as saying, “It was completely bizarre. I’ve never seen anything like it” (Byrne, 2012). In another example, Marbles the cat was featured, whose headline read, “Meet Marbles the hermaphrodite cat who is both male AND female.” Marbles’s owners, Tom Minns and Claire Gidley, were “shocked to discover Marbles is a rare hermaphrodite” (Smith-Squire, 2015). Mr. Minns stated, “The one good thing is we called it Marbles. At least we won’t need to change the name.” These examples demonstrate how the media can frame a distorted view of nonhuman intersexuality. While intersex conditions may be uncom- mon, there is no need to describe such individuals as dramatic, odd, or weird nor keep their body parts on display. Furthermore, failing to use the correct definition or terminology can be just as impactful to one’s representation.

Just as animals and humans with physical disabilities are often rescued and put on display for charity or sociopolitical causes, some intersex ani- mals are also forced into this role. In 2016, a silver pit bull mix arrived at the Detroit Dog Rescue in a sickly and malnourished state as the victim of neglect and abuse by its previous owners. At first, the dog was listed as a

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male named Cody, but upon closer examination, the pup had both male and female external genitalia. The executive director of the Detroit Dog Rescue, Kristina Rinaldi, turned this situation into a media story by making Cody the spokesperson for LGBTQIA awareness and made the following statement:

We also may want to use Cody to talk to teens who maybe are going through the same things, we want to reach out to Affirmations in Ferndale and maybe we can use Cody as an example that there’s nothing wrong with you, it’s not strange, it happens to the best animals and the best people. . . . Maybe Cody can help some other people deal with some feelings they may be dealing with. (CBS, 2016)

Affirmations is a Metro-Detroit-based community center for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people. Using Cody in this fashion echo the long- standing way that people with disabilities, people who are transgender, and others have been put on display as “poster children” for social orga- nizations and charities. Whether by force or coercion, no one should face public exposure without consent. This issue is not just about privacy and publicity concerns; rather, it is about upholding the dignity of the individuals involved. Using Cody to evoke sympathy, compassion, or pity on account of perceived biological differences does not represent these human’s best attempts at benevolence or good intentions. Forcing Cody into the role of a therapy dog for the disenfranchised could reinforce what disability scholars call “inspiration porn,” a type of representation that suggests they are victims of circumstance, tragic figures that deserve pity (Grue, 2015). Exposing any vulnerable population to being on display, whether they have intersex traits, are transgender, or have a disability, devoid individuals the ability to share on their own terms. Furthermore, the humans responsible for Cody’s care should not own the pup’s consent; rather, they should be merely entrusted with it. In other words, Cody’s best interests need to be considered by all those involved. While there should be support for various organizations that sup- port disenfranchised groups, such as Affirmations mentioned above, it should be an inclusive enterprise that welcomes and destigmatizes all involved as equitable partners in the bid to change perceptions and increase empower- ment, not as objects to evoke pity.

As it turned out, Cody was not sent to be a therapy dog at Affirmations but was instead sterilized and studied for sexual abnormality at Michigan State University (MSU). It is unknown whether Cody was used for invasive, painful experimentations while at MSU. Once the MSU study was complete, Cody was adopted by attorney Dana Nessel and her wife, Alanna Maguire. Nessel is known for her advocacy for same-sex marriage. Nessel represented April DeBoer and Jayne Rowse, who challenged Michigan’s same-sex mar- riage prohibition and won a Supreme Court appeal, resulting in marriage

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equality throughout the nation. “We weren’t interested in his sex organs or whether he was a male or female,” Nessel said. “We just wanted a dog that needed a home and the boys just loved this dog” (CBS, 2016). In this case, Cody’s new human guardians did not view intersex as shameful and therefore avoided surgical correction. However, CAS scholars would still take issue with the sterilization and medical experimentation on Cody.

It is not uncommon for “animal models” to be used in science to study human health disorders. Some scientists justify using nonhuman animals in experiments because they are not like humans; therefore, harming them dur- ing the experimentation process becomes morally justifiable. However, as CAS scholars would agree, this line of reasoning is inherently contradictory: there is no point in using nonhumans if they are not like humans. They are very much like humans; hence the reason animals are used in experiments.

Cody’s story also exemplifies how animals are often “found” for scientific research. Animals are routinely obtained from animal shelters, pet stores, the streets, and even stolen from people’s backyard. Meanwhile, other institu- tions own and operate “biological supply companies” or breeding farms where animals such as cats and dogs are purposely bred for scientific dissec- tion (Festing & Wilkinson, 2007). CAS scholars are quick to point out that technological advancements have ushered in a whole host of non-sentient alternative methods for teaching and learning. There are interactive computer software programs, lifelike human and animal models, and other educational, safe tools for teaching the most basic to advanced biological principles and procedures without using invasive and potentially deadly animal experimen- tation (NAVS, 2020).

Several news articles presented a predominant concern that the animals with intersex conditions surrendered to the shelter may not have been adopted. Consider the story of a kitten named Bellini born with a mix of male and female genitalia. Bellini, initially classified as male, was taken to the Cats Protection Center in Saint Helens, Merseyside, United Kingdom, along with the rest of their litter. The veterinary staff at the shelter ordered further diagnostic tests to determine Bellini’s biological sex. They feared this kitten, described as loving, unique, and likely to bring joy to whomever he went to, would not be adopted due to his ambiguous appearance. One volunteer at the center said, “I was pretty stunned. It’s so unusual. I have seen over 3,000 cats during my time at Cats Protection and only seen one other hermaphrodite cat. I certainly never thought I’d see two” (Cats Protection, 2016). In nearly every article surveyed for this chapter, at least one person mentioned they never thought they would see an animal displaying an intersex condition. This dem- onstrates that intersex conditions may be a bit more common than most would presume. Another article, “A hermaphrodite dog has undergone surgery to make her female and boost the chances of her finding a new home,” implied

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that intersex conditions generated fear and avoidance among adopters. This was precisely the reason why there was some reluctance to adopt Georgie, a stray Staffordshire bull terrier. As Manager Lisa Graham said, “Georgie received a lot of interest but when people found out she had both male and female organs they backed away” (BBC News, 2010).

Another puppy from Lincolnshire, England, Little Lola, began growing a penis after about one year of age. When Lola was spayed, they discovered testicles where her ovaries should have been. Lola’s owner said that her appearance in public generated a range of cruel and intolerant comments from people, including remarks that the owner had gotten “two for the price of one” or that she should “put her down, she’s a weirdo.” The human com- panion commented that when people made these remarks, it hurt her feelings. Many well-intentioned people fall privy to the social pressures that dictate normality versus abnormality. However, this particular human companion did not succumb to prejudice and fear. She shared that “It’s ridiculous. She’s just a normal everyday dog, which I don’t think people realize. But to me she’s just Lola, I don’t see her as this dog with a problem” (Howson, 2015). As Lola’s companions reported, “We won’t remove her penis as this would be too much of a dangerous operation for her. So she’ll be staying how she is now!” (Howson, 2015). This sentiment reflects that surgical intervention is generally unnecessary, and there are people prepared to love animals as they are born.

Often overlooked issues are variation within intersex conditions and questions about genetic modification. Bijuo, a healthy French bulldog, was brought to a veterinarian’s office for a routine vaccination when the vet became alarmed by the size of the dog’s clitoris, which was characterized as “larger than normal” (Live Science Staff, 2011). The article suggests that veterinarians should prevent people from breeding “hermaphrodite puppies” because “it’s likely that at least half of their litters will be carriers of the mutant genes” (Live Science Staff, 2011). Bijuo was perceived as a “freak” of nature. Inherent in this case are several assumptions based on the notion that intersex individuals have inferior, defective genes that should be erased from future existence.

There are several issues at stake with this particular case, including that, like humans, nonhumans have ordinary sexual interests and desires. CAS scholars are deeply concerned about the reproductive freedom of animals. In this sense, Bijuo should be free to engage in sexual activity that could result in pregnancy. This entails exercising his full sexual capacity through his own will, provided it does not harm himself or others. One must inquire into what harm entails in this context. Perhaps the veterinarian believes that they must restrict Bijuo’s reproductive capacity based on the assumption that copula- tion could harm him, his mate, or his offspring. Does harm mean reproducing

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potentially genetically abnormal offspring? Moreover, is there any harm that could arise from preventing Bijuo from copulating in the first place?

From a CAS perspective, the reproductive and sexual repression of ani- mals based on genetic differences is immoral and contestable. Additionally, forced, unnecessary sterilization could harm Bijuo’s reproductive health. History has proven the immorality of eugenic programs carried out on so- called undesirables under the guise of preventing harm to future generations. Eugenics supports the notion that some individuals’ genes are inferior to oth- ers based on an arbitrary understanding of normality. Preventing harm and reinstating “normal” under eugenic policies was motivated by racism, sexism, and ethnic and religious oppression, and not actual physical or mental harm. Returning to Bijuo, should any harm come to him, his partner, or the potential offspring due to copulation, then involuntary sterilization would be neces- sary. Furthermore, one might argue that any animal could encounter harm from copulation, regardless of intersex conditions. Why single out healthy intersex nonhumans for sterilization in such a case? Nevertheless, harm in Bijuo’s case is not predicated on speciesist beliefs but instead on genuine concern for Bijuo and his mates’ well-being.

In many cases, intersex conditions can be diagnosed prenatally and described as a “genetic defect” that results in pregnancy termination by selectively aborting a fetus deemed “undesirable” (Blackshaw, 2020). In other cases, technology now allows parents to use preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) to select which embryo to implant and which to terminate. While deciding to discard an embryo or fetus with a disability is common, preventing a pregnancy based on intersex undesirability is relatively new. Prenatal diagnostic testing capabilities are concerning for disabled and inter- sex individuals because many clinicians and genetic counselors recommend termination based on prenatal testing outcomes alone, which are often hypo- thetical and inaccurate (Orr, 2015). Using these genetic technologies is to “select against traits that we consider human variations reproduces the very prejudices—like intersexism, ableism and queerphobia—that oppress living people” (Orr, 2015). Just as with humans, suggesting that this technology be used on nonhumans to eliminate “imperfect” or “unviable” beings indicates that those with bodily variations have pitiable existences (Orr, 2015). Using genetic technologies to select against intersex individuals is particularly problematic because it reinforces the inadequate sex binary. By extension, it suggests that nonheterosexual or queer perspectives are somehow wrong. Preventing the birth of intersex individuals is immoral and counterproductive to challenging intersexism oppression. It does nothing to stop the violence and mutilation that intersex individuals encounter because of society’s inabil- ity to accept biological differences from the norm. Societal perceptions are what need to change, not the mutilation of intersex bodies.

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Adrienne Asch (2000) argues that a central problem with prenatal testing for congenital anomalies is as follows:

It is a clear case of first impression, and as with any such impression, it is [incomplete]; when followed by selective abortion of discarding an otherwise implantable embryo, that first impression includes a decision never to learn about the rest of who that embryo or fetus could become after its birth. (p. 235)

The issue arises when clinicians and parents conflate difference with disease, assuming that an individual born with a specific condition will suffer or be impaired. Under these influenced assumptions, parents terminate viable preg- nancies based on fear mongering, social anxiety, and the desire for the perfect baby. Concern should center on the attitudes, presumptions, and unrealistic expectations placed on parents and nonhuman pet guardians to conform to a nonexistent sense of normalcy that renders disabled and intersex bodies broken or wrong.

Many of the issues outlined in this chapter could be addressed by adopt- ing some facets of the social model of disability in relation to intersex experiences. The social model has been hailed as beneficial for people with disabilities because it calls for dismantling the binary between biology/ medicine/impairment and disability. However, one must not dismiss the notion that some individuals have medical conditions that cause severe and chronic illness requiring medical treatment. There are cases when individu- als with intersex conditions can legitimately identify as having a disorder or disability, such as those who cannot perform essential functions of waste elimination or menses. Assuming that these individuals need social justice to alleviate their medical needs could be insulting, and simply not enough. Thus, medical intervention and therapy should be accepted and recognized as a legitimate path. However, the vast majority of those born with these condi- tions typically endure very little by way of pain, suffering, or disruption in everyday bodily functioning that would require a medical model approach. Medical practitioners often pressure humans to obtain elective cosmetic surgery for their dog’s or cat’s genitalia to make it look “more normal” and make the human guardian feel less embarrassed. These unnecessary surger- ies often go wrong, causing scar tissue, pain, and years of trauma from being a medical oddity constantly on display. It is often the case that those with intersex conditions experience serious physical and mental trauma from the medical interventions meant to “correct” the condition (Human Rights Watch, 2017). In the human realm, research by Amnesty International has determined that these forced surgeries constitute a human rights violation, especially for children who are too young to meaningfully decide or consent for themselves (Amnesty International, 2017). These violations infringe upon

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their interests to receive the highest attainable standard of health and bodily integrity.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

The sheer number of intersex combinations found in the animal kingdom proves that nature does not only create male or female watertight taxo- nomic categories. Humans construct this reality for convenience and cope with the endless variations of sex and gender designations found in many species. Since Western notions of binaries are not culturally universal, it should not be difficult to imagine alternative gender and sex constructions that dismantle mutually exclusive hierarchical categories. However, this call to dismantle dualistic models does not mean simply creating a model that has three sexes (male, female, or intersex). Some scholars have sug- gested adopting indigenous peoples’ understanding of a third-gender such as Two-Spirit and Indian Hijra categories (Lugones, 2006). Meanwhile, scholar Anne Fausto-Sterling challenged the physiological sex binary to suggest “five sexes” (2000; 2018). These paradigms prove fruitful for chal- lenging long-standing heteronormative notions of sex and gender, but still reinforce categorizing bodies into social constructs that may fail to capture the diversity of experiences. This system of designating bodies into two, three, or five gender/sex categories reinforces a power structure that main- tains hierarchical division. Regardless, these examples help accentuate the failings of the sex/gender system of identification with the hopes of creating solutions in areas related to inclusion, social justice, and social change for nonhumans and beyond.

My solution to move beyond the gender and physiological sex binary is to think about the concepts of “both-and.” One can have both male and female anatomy while feeling like neither a man nor a woman, for instance. Gender and sex identity should be perceived as a continuum or spectrum informed by cultural understandings of gender and sex identities. I imagine these identifiers to be vast, changeable, and learned through socialization. Rather than present gender and sex distinctions as easily classifiable, fixed, and undisputable, cultural perception should move toward accepting models that exist beyond dimorphic constructs. One’s identity claims would be cre- ated and validated through social exchanges that allow individuals to express their identities not simply through labels, but also through their character and actions. This must occur because no one’s identity exists in a vacuum; we need to express ourselves and recognize another using familiar symbols and language. For nonhumans animals, humans must communicate messages about gender and sex using inclusivity and equity.

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The takeaway point is this: individuals are not fixed beings with fixed natures and should be recognized in the media and elsewhere. Individuals from all species are at once beings who develop over time due to complex relations among their biology, culture, and positioning in nature. Variation to the norm is beautiful and natural. There is an imminent variety of bodies that should be valued not for their difference, but just for their existence, with no conditions or qualifiers. Furthermore, consumers of media must notice the ignored implications and whether messages are empowering. In cases where intersex conditions are discussed in an unfavorable light, people must men- tally correct the information that reflects a bias toward the unusual, dramatic, and sensational by putting them into perspective or discrediting them alto- gether. For instance, a recent news story coming out of New Zealand entitled, “Discovery of a female cat with testicles among weirdest pet claims” serves as an excellent example of how to counteract the sensationalism surround- ing Cameo’s experiences as a cat with intersex traits (Preston, 2019). If one shared this story on social media, they could note the speciesist and inter- sexist language used to reinforce Cameo’s condition as “strange,” “weird,” “shocking,” “perplexing” (Preston, 2019). Furthermore, one might encourage veterinarians to be more accepting and feel less “bamboozled” by this “suspi- cious” discovery (Preston, 2019).

There is a positive value in allowing individuals to be autonomous and privy to a good quality of life and bodily care. In practice, this means that a policy of noninterference for any atypical features must be adopted, espe- cially for those that prove more troubling to animal guardians than to the animals themselves. While the appearance-based features of intersex condi- tions are of primary concern, there are other types of corporeal anomalies to which such a stance could apply. For instance, consider a guardian choosing to purchase cochlear implantation for their deaf dog or cat so that they can auditorily hear. Among disability rights advocates, using cochlear implants to “cure” hearing disabilities has proven controversial. Consider the case of five deaf white kittens age 12 and 24 weeks, who were used as scientific models to conduct studies on human deafness. This experiment promoted the erasure of disability experience and used non-consenting kittens to test hearing appara- tuses, which was not without risks to their health, in a scientific laboratory for the furtherance of scientific progress that benefited humans (Kretzmer et al., 2004). Despite this example not touching upon intersex issues, CAS scholars could rally against experimentation on the grounds of speciesist and perhaps even ableist claims. I would hope that they would also renounce instances that reinforce intersexist practices against animals as well.

Humans must also pay attention to intersex narratives that explore how med- icine, however well-intentioned in its traditional approach, has failed to meet their needs. Ultimately, the moral concerns recognized for one species should

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inform one’s moral concerns for another species. However, whether about reproductive technologies or surgical intervention, one’s right to bodily choice should also be protected. Since obtaining consent from nonhuman animals is impossible, humans must intervene with concern, care, and consent based on medical needs. I hope that intersex activists will turn their attention toward securing protection, which includes freedom from cruel treatment, in joining the struggle for affirming intersex nonhuman animals’ needs. Furthermore, intersex individuals, groups, and allies must take ownership of the sex/gender categorization process. Humans could best serve nonhuman intersex indi- viduals by preventing the misguided medical community from dominating the discourse about intersex experiences. Rather than reducing individuals’ lives down to their anatomies and attempting to “fix” or eliminate intersex bod- ies, everyone’s time would be better served by valuing bodily variation. This involves unlearning prejudices, ceasing with harmful surgical practices, and rethinking notions about what is normal relative to the happiness shown by those who proudly proclaim intersex, disability, and nonhuman status.

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