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GDP.ppt
4
CHAPTER
MEASURING GDP AND ECONOMIC GROWTH
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Objectives
After studying this chapter, you will able to
- Define GDP and use the circular flow model to explain why GDP equals aggregate expenditure and aggregate income
- Explain the two ways of measuring GDP
- Explain how we measure real GDP and the GDP deflator
- Explain how we use real GDP to measure economic growth and describe the limitations of our measure
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An Economic Barometer
What exactly is GDP?
How do we use it to tell us whether our economy is in a recession or how rapidly our economy is expanding?
How do we take the effects of inflation out of GDP to compare economic well-being over time?
And how do we compare economic well-being across countries?
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Gross Domestic Product
GDP Defined
GDP or gross domestic product is the market value of all final goods and services produced in a country in a given time period.
This definition has four parts:
- Market value
- Final goods and services
- Produced within a country
- In a given time period
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The main challenge in teaching this topic is generating interest in it. Many teachers are bored by it and not surprisingly, they bore their students. If you are one of the many who lean toward boredom, start by recalling just how vital it is that we measure the value of production with reasonable accuracy. Such a measure is the basis of measurement of the standard of living, economic welfare, and international comparisons.
Final goods versus intermediate goods. The distinction between final and intermediate goods is one of the key points in this first section. Use some standard examples to make the key point—tires and autos, chips and computers, and so on. Also, if you want to spend a bit of time on this topic, tell your students about the Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) revision in the treatment of business spending on software. The BEA began a major revision in 1998 and published the first revisions to reclassify software from intermediate to final good status in 1999.
When the 1996 GDP was recalculated to include software, it increased by $115 billion, or 1.5 percent of GDP.
Gross Domestic Product
Market value
GDP is a market value—goods and services are valued at their market prices.
To add apples and oranges, computers and popcorn, we add the market values so we have a total value of output in dollars.
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Gross Domestic Product
Final goods and services
GDP is the value of the final goods and services produced.
A final good (or service) is an item bought by its final user during a specified time period.
A final good contrasts with an intermediate good, which is an item that is produced by one firm, bought by another firm, and used as a component of a final good or service.
Excluding intermediate goods and services avoids double counting.
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Gross Domestic Product
Produced within a country
GDP measures production within a country—domestic production.
In a given time period
GDP measures production during a specific time period, normally a year or a quarter of a year.
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Gross Domestic Product
GDP and the Circular Flow of Expenditure and Income
GDP measures the value of production, which also equals total expenditure on final goods and total income.
The equality of income and output shows the link between productivity and living standards.
The circular flow diagram in Figure 4.1 illustrates the equality of income, expenditure, and the value of production.
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Gross Domestic Product
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This slide and the next two provide an alternative way of building the circular flow model in the classroom.
It starts with a simpler picture than Figure 4.1—just households and firms and just income, consumption, saving, and investment. Then add the government and the flows of government purchases and taxes. Finally add the rest of the world and the export and import flows.
You can explain that we’re simplifying things in the picture but are not omitting anything that leads us into a wrong conclusion. For example, we could add business tax payments. The picture envisages all the income being paid to households and households paying all the taxes. Nothing is lost and clarity is gained by this device.
Emphasize that the blue flows are incomes and the red flows are expenditures on final goods and services. (The expenditures on intermediate goods and services are omitted from the circular flow model.) And emphasize that the green financial flows are not part of the circular flow of expenditure and income and are shown in Figure 4.1 only so that the student can see what happens to the money that isn’t spent and how spenders get the money that they’ve not earned as income.
To use this alternative approach, click Slide Show, Hide Slide on slides 9, 10, and 11. You can hide slides 12 to 23 the same way--or just delete them--if you wish.
Gross Domestic Product
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Gross Domestic Product
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Gross Domestic Product
The circular flow diagram shows the transactions among households, firms, governments, and the rest of the world.
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Gross Domestic Product
These transactions take place in factor markets, goods markets, and financial markets.
Gross Domestic Product
Firms hire factors of production from households. The blue flow, Y, shows total income paid by firms to households.
Gross Domestic Product
Households buy consumer goods and services. The red flow, C, shows consumption expenditures.
Gross Domestic Product
Households save, S, and pay taxes, T. Firms borrow some of what households save to finance their investment.
Gross Domestic Product
Firms buy capital goods from other firms. The red flow I represents this investment expenditure by firms.
Gross Domestic Product
Governments buy goods and services, G, and borrow or repay debt if spending exceeds or is less than taxes.
Gross Domestic Product
The rest of the world buys goods and services from us, X, and sells us goods and services, M—net exports are X - M
Gross Domestic Product
And the rest of the world borrows from us or lends to us depending on whether net exports are positive or negative.
Gross Domestic Product
The blue and red flows are the circular flow of expenditure and income. The green flows are borrowing and lending.
Gross Domestic Product
The sum of the red flows equals the blue flow.
Gross Domestic Product
That is: Y = C + I + G + X - M
Gross Domestic Product
The circular flow demonstrates how GDP can be measured in two ways.
Aggregate expenditure
Total expenditure on final goods and services equals the value of output of final goods and services, which is GDP.
Total expenditure = C + I + G + (X – M).
Gross Domestic Product
Aggregate income
Aggregate income earned from production of final goods, Y, equals the total paid out for the use of resources, wages, interest, rent, and profit.
Firms pay out all their receipts from the sale of final goods, so income equals expenditure,
Y = C + I + G + (X – M).
Gross Domestic Product
Financial Flows
Financial markets finance deficits and investment.
Household saving, S, is income minus net taxes and consumption expenditure, and flows to the financial markets;
Y = C + S + T,
income equals the uses of income.
Gross Domestic Product
If government purchases exceed net taxes, the deficit
(G – T) is borrowed from the financial markets (if T exceeds G, the government surplus flows to the markets).
If imports exceed exports, the deficit with the rest of the world (M – X) is borrowing from the rest of the world.
Gross Domestic Product
How Investment Is Financed
Investment is financed from three sources:
- Private saving, S
- Government budget surplus, (T – G)
- Borrowing from the rest of the world (M – X)
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How investment is financed. Don’t skimp on this topic. It provides the foundation for what the student will meet in Chapter 23 (Chapter 8 in the macro text).
Gross Domestic Product
We can see these three sources of investment finance by using the fact that aggregate expenditure equals aggregate income.
Start with
Y = C + S + T = C + I + G + (X – M)
Then rearrange to obtain
I = S + (T – G) + (M – X)
Private saving S plus government saving (T – G) is called national saving.
Gross Domestic Product
Gross and Net Domestic Product
“Gross” means before accounting for the depreciation of capital. The opposite of gross is net.
To understand this distinction, we need to distinguish between flows and stocks in macroeconomics.
A flow is a quantity per unit of time; a stock is the quantity that exists at a point in time.
Gross Domestic Product
Wealth, the value of all the things that people own, is a stock. Saving is the flow that changes the stock of wealth.
Capital, the plant, equipment, and inventories of raw and semi-finished materials that are used to produce other goods and services, is a stock.
Investment is the flow that changes the stock of capital.
Depreciation is the decrease in the capital stock that results from wear and tear and obsolescence.
Capital consumption is another name for depreciation.
Gross Domestic Product
Gross investment is the total amount spent on purchases of new capital and on replacing depreciated capital.
Net investment is the change in the stock of capital and equals gross investment minus depreciation.
Gross Domestic Product
Figure 4.2 illustrates the relationships among capital, gross investment, depreciation, and net investment.
Gross Domestic Product
Gross profits, and GDP, include depreciation.
Similarly, gross investment includes that amount of purchases of new capital goods that replace depreciation.
Net profits, net domestic product, and net investment subtract depreciation from the gross concepts.
Investment plays a central role in the economy. Increases in capital are one source of growth in potential real GDP; fluctuations in investment are one source of fluctuations in real GDP.
Measuring U.S. GDP
The Bureau of Economic Analysis uses two approaches to measure GDP:
- The expenditure approach
- The income approach
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The low cost of economic data. You might like to tell your students that measuring real GDP is actually very cheap. The BEA (in the Department of Commerce) employs fewer than 500 economists, accountants, statisticians, and IT specialists at an annual cost of less than $70 million. It costs each American less than 0.25¢ (a quarter of a cent) to measure the value of the nation’s production. For some further perspective, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (also in the Department of Commerce), whose mission is to “describe and predict changes in the Earth’s environment, and conserve and manage wisely the nation’s coastal and marine resources so as to ensure sustainable economic opportunities,” employs more than 11,000 scientists and support personnel at an annual cost of $3.2 billion!
Most of the income data used by the BEA comes from the IRS. Expenditure data comes from a variety of sources.
Creative accounting and GDP measurement. In recent years, the first estimates of GDP, which are based on companies’ reported profits, have been revised downward when data on company profits as reported to the IRS became available. Enron-style accounting has contaminated the initial estimates of GDP but not the final estimates.
You can make a nice point with one example of creative accounting. For some years in its reports to stock holders AOL recorded its advertising expenditure as investment and amortized it over a number of years.
First, you can explain that the correct treatment of this item is as an expenditure on intermediate goods and services by AOL and as a charge against AOL profit. The expenditure on AOL services is the value of AOL’s production. And AOL’s expenditure on advertising is part of the value of the production of the advertising agencies used by AOL. You can go on to explain that AOL accounting practice would misleadingly swell GDP by causing some double counting. On the expenditure approach, AOL’s advertising expenditure shows up as investment in the national accounts. On the income approach, because the expenditure is not a cost, it swells profit, so AOL’s corporate profit increases by the same amount as its “investment.” If AOL filed its income tax return in this same way, the national income accounts wouldn’t get corrected. But if when AOL files its tax returns it calls its advertising a cost and lowers its profits by that amount, the BEA picks up these numbers from the IRS and the national accounts get adjusted appropriately.
Measuring U.S. GDP
The Expenditure Approach
The expenditure approach measures GDP as the sum of consumption expenditure, investment, government purchases of goods and services, and net exports.
Table 19.1 in the textbook shows the expenditure approach with data for 2001.
Measuring U.S. GDP
The Income Approach
The income approach measures GDP by summing the incomes that firms pay households for the factors of production they hire.
Measuring U.S. GDP
The National Income and Product Accounts divide incomes into five categories:
- Compensation of employees
- Net interest
- Rental income
- Corporate profits
- Proprietors’ income
The sum of these five income components is net domestic income at factor cost.
Measuring U.S. GDP
Two adjustments must be made to get GDP:
- Indirect taxes minus subsidies are added to get from factor cost to market prices.
- Depreciation (or capital consumption) is added to get from net domestic product to gross domestic product.
Table 19.2 in the textbook shows the income approach with data for 2001.
Real GDP and the Price Level
Real GDP is the value of final goods and services produced in a given year when valued at constant prices.
Calculating Real GDP
The first step in calculating real GDP is to calculate nominal GDP, which is the value of goods and services produced during a given year valued at the prices that prevailed in that same year.
Real GDP and the Price Level
The table provides data for 2002 and 2003.
In 2002, nominal GDP is:
Expenditure on balls $100
Expenditure on bats $100
Nominal GDP $200
| Item | Quantity | Price |
| 2002 | ||
| Balls | 100 | $1.00 |
| Bats | 20 | $5.00 |
| 2003 | ||
| Balls | 160 | $0.50 |
| Bats | 22 | $22.50 |
Real GDP and the Price Level
In 2003, nominal GDP is:
Expenditure on balls $80
Expenditure on bats $495
Nominal GDP $575
| Item | Quantity | Price |
| 2002 | ||
| Balls | 100 | $1.00 |
| Bats | 20 | $5.00 |
| 2003 | ||
| Balls | 160 | $0.50 |
| Bats | 22 | $22.50 |
Real GDP and the Price Level
The old method of calculating real GDP was to value each year’s output at the prices of a base year—the base year prices method.
Suppose 2002 is the base year and 2003 is the current year.
| Item | Quantity | Price |
| 2002 | ||
| Balls | 100 | $1.00 |
| Bats | 20 | $5.00 |
| 2003 | ||
| Balls | 160 | $0.50 |
| Bats | 22 | $22.50 |
Real GDP and the Price Level
Expenditure on balls in 2003 valued at 2002 prices is $160.
Expenditure on bats in 2003 valued at 2002 prices is $110.
Real GDP in 2003 (base-year prices method) is $270.
| Item | Quantity | Price |
| 2002 | ||
| Balls | 100 | $1.00 |
| Bats | 20 | $5.00 |
| 2003 | ||
| Balls | 160 | $0.50 |
| Bats | 22 | $22.50 |
Real GDP and the Price Level
The new method of calculating real GDP, which is called the chain-weighted output index method, uses the prices of two adjacent years to calculate the real GDP growth rate.
This calculation has four steps described on the next slide.
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Chain-weighted output index method. If you don’t want to bother with the chain-weighted output index method of calculating real GDP and prefer to limit your discussion to the traditional base-year prices method, you can draw a line half way down the first column of page 96 and define the number we compute in Table 19.5 as real GDP. The section on calculating the price level flows fine with this measure of real GDP.
But I suggest that you do explain the chain-weighted method. The textbook has stripped the explanation down to the bare bones and makes the approach intelligible to any student willing to make a small amount of effort.
Real GDP and the Price Level
Step 1: Value last year’s production and this year’s production at last year’s prices and then calculate the growth rate of this number from last year to this year.
Step 2: Value last year’s production and this year’s production at this year’s prices and then calculate the growth rate of this number from last year to this year.
Step 3: Calculate the average of the two growth rates. This average growth rate is the growth rate of real GDP from last year to this year.
Step 4: Repeat steps 1, 2, and 3 for each pair of adjacent years to link real GDP back to the base year’s prices.
Real GDP and the Price Level
We’ve done step 1.
2002 production at 2002 prices (GDP in 2002) is $200.
2003 production at 2002 prices is $270.
The 2003 growth rate in 2002 prices is 35 percent.
| Item | Quantity | Price |
| 2002 | ||
| Balls | 100 | $1.00 |
| Bats | 20 | $5.00 |
| 2003 | ||
| Balls | 160 | $0.50 |
| Bats | 22 | $22.50 |
Real GDP and the Price Level
Step 2.
2002 production at 2003 prices is $500.
2003 production at 2003 prices (GDP in 2003) is $575.
The 2003 growth rate in 2003 prices is 15 percent.
| Item | Quantity | Price |
| 2002 | ||
| Balls | 100 | $1.00 |
| Bats | 20 | $5.00 |
| 2003 | ||
| Balls | 160 | $0.50 |
| Bats | 22 | $22.50 |
Real GDP and the Price Level
Step 3.
The 2003 growth rate in 2002 prices is 35 percent.
The 2003 growth rate in 2003 prices is 15 percent.
The average of these two growth rates is 25 percent.
Real GDP in 2003 with 2002 as the base year is $250.
| Item | Quantity | Price |
| 2002 | ||
| Balls | 100 | $1.00 |
| Bats | 20 | $5.00 |
| 2003 | ||
| Balls | 160 | $0.50 |
| Bats | 22 | $22.50 |
Real GDP and the Price Level
Step 4.
Because we’re calculating real GDP in 2003 at 2002 prices, step 4 is completed!
Real GDP in 2002 is $200.
Real GDP in 2003 is $250.
| Item | Quantity | Price |
| 2002 | ||
| Balls | 100 | $1.00 |
| Bats | 20 | $5.00 |
| 2003 | ||
| Balls | 160 | $0.50 |
| Bats | 22 | $22.50 |
Real GDP and the Price Level
Calculating the Price Level
The average level of prices is called the price level.
One measure of the price level is the GDP deflator, which is an average of the prices of the goods in GDP in the current year expressed as a percentage of the base year prices.
The GDP deflator is calculated in the table on the next slide (and in Table 19.7 in the textbook).
Real GDP and the Price Level
Nominal GDP and real GDP are calculated in the way that you’ve just seen.
GDP Deflator = (Nominal GDP/Real GDP) 100.
In 2002, the GDP deflator is ($200/$200) 100 = 100.
In 2003, the GDP deflator is ($575/$250) 100 = 230.
| Year | Nominal GDP | Real GDP | GDP deflator |
| 2002 | $200 | $200 | 100 |
| 2003 | $575 | $250 | 230 |
Real GDP and the Price Level
Deflating the GDP Balloon
Nominal GDP increases because production—real GDP– increases.
Real GDP and the Price Level
Deflating the GDP Balloon
Nominal GDP also increases because prices rise.
Real GDP and the Price Level
Deflating the GDP Balloon
We use the GDP deflator to let the air out of the nominal GDP balloon and reveal real GDP.
Measuring Economic Growth
We use real GDP to calculate the economic growth rate.
The economic growth rate is the percentage change in the quantity of goods and services produced from one year to the next.
We measure economic growth so we can make:
- Economic welfare comparisons
- International welfare comparisons
- Business cycle forecasts
Measuring Economic Growth
Economic Welfare Comparisons
Economic welfare measures the nation’s overall state of economic well-being.
Real GDP is not a perfect measure of economic welfare for seven reasons:
1. Quality improvements tend to be neglected in calculating real GDP so the inflation rate is overstated and real GDP understated.
2. Real GDP does not include household production, that is, productive activities done in and around the house by members of the household.
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Omissions from GDP. A discussion of omissions from GDP can arouse students’ interest. For example, you might point out that if one of your students mows her/his own lawn, the value of the student’s production doesn’t show up in GDP. But if you hire the student to mow your lawn (and if your student reports the income earned correctly to the IRS), the value of the student’s production does show up in GDP.
Why don’t we measure all lawn mowing as part of GDP? Some reasons are cost of collecting data and the degree of intrusiveness we’d be willing to tolerate. But note how little we spend on collecting the GDP data and how relatively inexpensive it would be to add some questions about domestic production to either the Labor Force Survey or the Family Expenditure Survey.
The inclusion of the imputed rental of owner-occupied houses, but not owner-used cars and other durables, is a good example.
You might like to explain how the omission of illegal goods and services also leads to some misleading comparisons. For instance, the day before prohibition ended, the production of (illegal) beer was not counted as part of GDP. But the day after prohibition ended, the production of (now legal) beer counted. Ask your students to suggest two good reasons why illegal goods and services are omitted. First, the data are hard (but not impossible) to obtain. Second, there may be the moral position that illegal activities should not be included in GDP. This latter observation can lead to an interesting discussion. Ask the students if they think that the production of, say, marijuana should be included in GDP. Some, maybe even many, of them will see no problem with this. Then ask about the production of murder-for-hire. The response, we hope, will be significantly different. Does such a good have any value?
Measuring Economic Growth
Economic Welfare Comparisons
Economic welfare measures the nation’s overall state of economic well-being.
Real GDP is not a perfect measure of economic welfare for seven reasons:
3. Real GDP, as measured, omits the underground economy, which is illegal economic activity or legal economic activity that goes unreported for tax avoidance reasons.
4. Health and life expectancy are not directly included in real GDP.
Measuring Economic Growth
Economic Welfare Comparisons
Economic welfare measures the nation’s overall state of economic well-being.
Real GDP is not a perfect measure of economic welfare for seven reasons:
5. Leisure time, a valuable component of an individual’s welfare, is not included in real GDP.
6. Environmental damage is not deducted from real GDP.
7. Political freedom and social justice are not included in real GDP.
Measuring Economic Growth
International Comparisons
Real GDP is used to compare economic welfare in one country with that in another.
Two special problems arise in making these comparisons.
Real GDP of one country must be converted into the same currency units as the real GDP of the other country, so an exchange rate must be used.
The same prices should be used to value the goods and services in the countries being compared, but often are not.
Measuring Economic Growth
Using the exchange rate to compare GDP in one country with GDP in another country is problematic because prices of particular products in one country may be much less or much more than in the other country.
Using the exchange rate to value Chinese GDP in dollars leads to an estimate that U.S. real GDP per person was 69 times Chinese real GDP per person.
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International comparisons and PPP prices. Students sometimes see estimates of GDP per person in developing nations. Most such estimates are extremely low, and students often ask how people can live on such low incomes. Point out that the estimate is biased downward in two ways. First, in poor nations, more transactions do not go through a market than in rich nations. For example, transportation services in developing nations include a lot of walking, which is not counted as part of GDP. In richer nations, people ride a bus or subway and pay a fare, which is counted as part of GDP. Second, many locally produced and consumed goods and services have extremely low prices in poor nations. For example, a haircut that costs $20 in New York might cost $1 in Calcutta. (You might get a better haircut in New York, but probably not one that is 20 times better!) Converting Indian GDP into U.S. dollars at the market exchange rate leaves this bias in the data. Using purchasing power parity prices to convert India’s GDP into U.S. dollars avoids this bias.
Measuring Economic Growth
Using purchasing power parity prices leads to an estimate that per person GDP in the United States is (only) 12 times that in China—see Figure 4.4.
Measuring Economic Growth
Business Cycle Forecasts
Real GDP is used to measure business cycle fluctuations.
These fluctuations are probably accurately timed but the changes in real GDP probably overstate the changes in total production and people’s welfare caused by business cycles.
THE END
4
CHAPTER
MEASURING GDP AND ECONOMIC GROWTH
