Fusco & Peña in The Couple in the Cage

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W E R E N O T O U R S

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Wh e t h e r its p r i m a r y intent has been to escape t h e s t r i c t u r e s of t h e a r t m a r k e t , to break with t h e t r a d i t i o n of appreciating finely m a d e objects, to explore e x t r e m e forms of behavior, or to d r a w the aesthetic experience back into the sphere of c o m m u n a l ritual, p e r f o r m a n c e art is nearly always centered o n the body, o r m o r e specifically, t h e artist's body. Often involving the use of nudity, sexually explicit c o n t e n t a n d tests of physical e n d u r a n c e , this g e n r e of a r t m a k i n g is associated with challenges to the body's phys- ical limits a n d affronts to established cultural sensibilities. T h e degree t o w h i c h such con- frontational aesthetic strategies are perceived as t h r e a t e n i n g t o social o r d e r has fluctuated in r e l a t i o n t o t i m e , p l a c e , p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e s a n d / o r t h e perceived i m p a c t on t h e social. While critical E u r o p e a n p r e c u r s o r s t o p o s t - w a r p e r f o r m a n c e art such as Dada a n d Surrealist live a c t i o n s a n d t h e a t e r were the objects of p u b l i c scandal a n d ridicule in the first half of the 20th century, for example, the marginality of the h a p p e n i n g s a n d early p e r f o r m a n c e s of t h e 1960's and 70's in relation t o a b u r g e o n i n g A m e r i c a n art m a r k e t encouraged a limited p u b l i c p e r c e p t i o n of t h e m as relatively i n n o c u o u s .

M e o r e recently, however, p e r f o r m a n c e art a n d performative uses of the b o d y in high art a n d p o p u l a r culture have b e c o m e t h e targets of well orchestrated venom from special interests g r o u p s p e r f o r m i n g the role of the public. The Christian Right's p r u d i s h attacks on the uses of the b o d y in t h e past six years are largely d u e to a resurgence of anti-intellectualism a n d social c o n s e r v a t i s m in m a i n s t r e a m A m e r i c a n life. These attacks have been carried o u t in the n a m e of t h e sanctity of the white, nuclear family; the

B L A C K P E R F O R M E R S , B L A C K P E

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critics have l a m b a s t e d gays as " b a d " m e n a n d labeled w o m e n p h o - t o g r a p h e r s w h o take pictures of their families as ill fit m o t h e r s a n d " p o r n o g r a p h e r s " . Even liberal sectors of t h e A m e r i c a n a r t w o r l d have taken t o labeling t h e performative t r a d i t i o n of using s h o c k as " i r r e - sponsible", f a v o r i n g i n s t e a d t h e p o t e n t i a l i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y o f p e r f o r m a n c e ( a n d p u b l i c a r t ) as social w o r k . These punitive, disci- p l i n a r y a c t i o n s are n o t c o l o r b l i n d . T h e invectives a g a i n s t performative uses of t h e b o d y in c o n t e m p o r a r y A m e r i c a n art have p a i d d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e a t t e n t i o n to representations b y a n d of black p e o p l e , especially black m e n .

In 1989, it was R o b e r t M a p p l e t h o r p e ' s image of a black m a n ' s p e n i s e m e r g i n g from an u n z i p p e d fly, A n d r e s Serrano's b o d y of C h r i s t o n a crucifix i m m e r s e d in u r i n e a n d D r e d Scott's flag t u r n e d r u g for b o d i e s t o step over t h a t incensed conservative c o n g r e s s m e n a n d set off a wave of censorship of t h e a r t s in t h e U S . Shortly t h e r e - after c a m e t h e PBS controversy over M a r l o n Riggs' a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l film a b o u t his life as a black gay m a n , Tongues Untied. W i t h i n t h e d o m a i n of p o p u l a r e n t e r t a i n m e n t , this p e r i o d was m a r k e d by legal controversies over t h e sexually explicit b o d y language a n d "inflam- m a t o r y " lyrics of black r a p p e r s s u c h as 2 Live C r e w a n d Ice T. T h e wave of criticism of these w o r k s was b o u n d by its reliance of n o t i o n s of instrumentality, literalism in relation t o a r t m a k i n g (i.e. an image of s o m e t h i n g c a n only b e w h a t it a p p e a r s t o b e a n d will only b e i n t e r p r e t e d t h a t w a y ) , a n d a peculiar a s s u m p t i o n that b l a c k speech is s o m e h o w m o r e likely t o b e linked t o a c t i o n t h a n t o r e m a i n w i t h i n a n aesthetic d o m a i n . T h e scrutiny t o w h i c h these r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s have b e e n s u b m i t t e d bespeaks t h e links b e t w e e n censorship of a r t in t h e present a n d a h o s t of o t h e r forms of social c o n t r o l a n d coercion t h a t w h i t e p o w e r structures have levied against black b o d i e s i n t h e past.

This scrutiny is n o t just white o n black, b u t black o n black. At t h e s a m e t i m e as t h e a b o v e m e n t i o n e d controversies were taking place, t h e film that b r o u g h t t h e black gay s u b c u l t u r e of v o g u i n g t o t h e p u b l i c eye, Paris is Burning, was t h e subject of an i m p a s s i o n e d critical d e b a t e b e t w e e n whites a n d blacks over t h e extent t o w h i c h t h e d o c u m e n t a r y exploited, colonized o r e m a n c i p a t e d its subject(s). W h i l e t h e film grossed large s u m s of m o n e y , several of t h e black p e r - f o r m e r s filed suit against t h e w h i t e director, Jennie Livingston, for "unlawful" (i.e. u n r e m u n e r a t e d ) u s e of t h e images of their w r i t h i n g bodies. Just before this, d u r i n g t h e 1990 D e c a d e Show, black artist Robbie M a c C a u l e y scandalized t h e Studio M u s e u m of H a r l e m b y s t r i p p i n g n u d e d u r i n g h e r p e r f o r m a n c e , a gesture t h a t t h e staff c l a i m e d its c o m m u n i t y was n o t p r e p a r e d for, h a v i n g already d e m a n d e d t h a t w o r k s selected for t h e exhibition dealing w i t h sexu- ality n o t b e exhibited at t h e i r institution. A n d w h e n m a n y black c u l t u r a l activists w e r e highly critical of t h e recent "Black M a l e " exhi- bition's b e i n g p r e s e n t e d in Los Angeles, o n e of t h e sorest p o i n t s of c o n t e n t i o n was t h e s u p p o s e d p r e p o n d e r a n c e of images of n u d e , allegedly objectified a n d eroticized black m e n .

It has b e c o m e q u i t e c o m m o n p l a c e t o i n t e r p r e t these interracial a n d intraracial m o d e s of c o n t r o l of t h e black b o d y as indistinguish- able, in p a r t because t h e y share an historical m o m e n t . I w o u l d argue, however, t h a t there are a h o s t of factors that m a k e t h e responses o n either side of t h e racial divide quite different. T h i s essay is a n a t t e m p t t o analyze t h e difference b e t w e e n o n t h e o n e h a n d , w h i t e , right w i n g conservatism a n d its c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e c o n t r o l of black b o d i e s for t h e p u r p o s e of e c o n o m i c a n d sexual exploitation a n d , o n t h e other, t h e h i s t o r y of reticence a b o u t exposing t h e black b o d y w i t h i n black A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e .

To u n d e r s t a n d w h a t t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e black b o d y signifies i n t h e here a n d now, o n e m u s t take i n t o a c c o u n t its t h e h i s t o r y of its representation. W h i l e conceptualism's critique of art's c o m m o d i f i c a - t i o n m a y have b e e n t h e driving force b e h i n d t h e various forms of a r t m a k i n g involving t h e b o d y for t h e w h i t e a v a n t - g a r d e in t h e '60's a n d '70's, black debates a b o u t exploitation ( b o t h physical a n d eco- n o m i c ) of African-American b o d i e s b e g a n l o n g before this p e r i o d .

A d r i a n Piper, The Mythic Being, I/You/(Her), 1974, Photo, ink and paper.

Opposite: Lyle A s h t o n Harris, Construct #13, 1989, b&w silver mural print, courtesy: Jack Tilton Gallery, New York.

Patricia T u r n e r n o t e s in h e r s t u d y of African A m e r i c a n r u m o r , I Heard it Through the Grapevine, t h a t references t o violence against individual black b o d i e s i n black colloquial speech c o n s t i t u t e an i m p o r t a n t allegorical m e a n s of describing t h e c o n d i t i o n of black p e o p l e i n w h i t e society. Debates a m o n g black intellectuals have c o n - sistently i n v o k e d t h e m e m o r y of slavery a n d m i n s t r e l s y as performative archetypes t h a t symbolize t h e historical p o s i t i o n i n g of t h e black b o d y viz a viz whites. Art historian Judith Wilson has n o t e d a self-conscious reticence t o w a r d t h e depiction of n u d e s in 19th a n d early 2 0 t h c e n t u r y African-American p a i n t i n g a n d s c u l p t u r e w h i c h , s h e suggests, is related t o a collective m e m o r y of physical, sexual a n d c o m m e r c i a l exploitation of black b o d i e s . In these discussions, t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p of nudity, enslavement a n d p u b l i c display of t h e black b o d y is typified first by t h e spectacle of t h e a u c t i o n b l o c k a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y b y t h a t of lynching. Robbie M a c C a u l e y m a d e strategic u s e of t h e symbolic i m p a c t of t h e a u c t i o n block image in h e r piece, Aunt Sally's Rape (1989-91), in w h i c h at o n e p o i n t , she a p p e a r e d o n a elevated stage, fully n u d e , while a white w o m a n p e r f o r m e r (Jeannie H u t c h i n g s ) engaged t h e a u d i e n c e in an historical r e e n a c t m e n t of a slave a u c t i o n b y calling o n t h e m t o b i d for "Sally's" body. M a c C a u l e y u n d e r s c o r e d t h e continuities between past a n d p r e s e n t a n d b e t w e e n personal a n d collective h i s t o r y by placing stress o n t h e b l o o d tie b e t w e e n herself a n d h e r great-great a u n t , w h o as a slave o n President T h o m a s Jefferson's estate, served as o n e of his mistresses, a n d b o r e several of his children. T h i s tale of sexual violence t h a t links a w h i t e F o u n d i n g Father t o his black c o n c u b i n e b e c o m e s MacCauley's way of p r e s e n t i n g racialized a n d g e n d e r e d oppression as f o u n d a t i o n t o A m e r i c a n n a t i o n a l identity.

Historical accounts of t h e a u c t i o n block a n d lynching often n o t e how, b e y o n d their p r a g m a t i c function, they served as public e n t e r t a i n m e n t for whites. This m o d e of exploitation was s u p p o r t e d b y t h e p u n i t i v e practices of s t r i p p i n g , beating, a n d otherwise v i o - lating black b o d i e s i n p u b l i c as signs of w h i t e p o w e r a n d o w n e r s h i p .

J o u r n a l of C o n t e m p o r a r y African Art • F a l l / W i n t e r Downloaded from http://read.dukeupress.edu/nka/article-pdf/1996/5/28/446946/0050028.pdf by UNIV OF WA user on 22 December 2020

To this regard, critic Elizabeth Alexander h a s m a d e a n e l o q u e n t claim for t h e existence of a t r a u m a t i z e d collective historical m e m o r y a m o n g African-Americans c o m m u n i t y of w a t c h i n g t h e black b o d y b e subjected t o p a i n for p u b l i c c o n s u m p t i o n . Alexander argues t h a t t h e highly publicized 1954 m u r d e r of E m m e t t Till, a black teenager from t h e N o r t h w h o was accused a n d lynched for whistling at a w h i t e w o m a n while visiting a relative i n t h e s o u t h is a m o d e r n version of an a r c h e t y p e e m b e d d e d in black consciousness, as is t h e 1991 tele- vised b e a t i n g of R o d n e y King. In b o t h instances, t h e conventional way in w h i c h t h e performative lines of p o w e r w o u l d b e d r a w n - i.e. w h i t e voyeur's desire legitimates suffering black b o d y o n display •— was subverted b y blacks' reclaiming their possession of these scape- goated m e n ' s b o d i e s . In t h e case of E m m e t Till, his m o t h e r ' s insistence o n a n o p e n casket, highly public funeral together w i t h t h e p h o t o g r a p h of h e r son's disfigured b o d y in t h e p o p u l a r black m a g a z i n e Jet t h a t t r a n s f o r m e d his b o d y i n t o a s y m b o l of t h e i m p a c t of A m e r i c a n a p a r t h e i d . Nearly forty years later, t h e signifi- cance of t h e televised b e a t i n g of R o d n e y Ring's body and the all- white jury's interpretation of the event would be reworked by a collective black and Latino response that challenged the entrenched racial supremacy the King beating had come to rep- resent.1

C o n t e m p o r a r y black artists frequently refer t o these a r c h e - typal black b o d i e s in t h e i r w o r k , d r a w i n g o n t h e e m o t i o n a l a n d political p o w e r of s u c h s y m b o l i c a l l y l a d e n i m a g e s . V i d e o a r t i s t P o r t i a C o b b ' s No Justice, No Peace, for e x a m p l e , w h i c h layers i m a g e s f r o m King's televised b e a t i n g while a serene voice says "56 t i m e s in 87 seconds - o n videotape", p o e t i - cally suggests t h a t t h e G l e n n L i g o n , Notes on the Margin of the Black Book, 1 9 9 3 , i m p a c t t h a t it h a d o n elation and Max Protetch Gallery, New York, t h e collective s u r - passes t h e actual event. Accused/Blow Torch/Padlock 1986 — Pat W a r d Williams m i x e d m e d i a piece in w h i c h a Life Magazine p h o t o of a lynched black m a n is framed b y h a n d w r i t t e n q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e origin of t h e image a n d t h e ethical i m p l i c a t i o n s of acting as a witness also delves i n t o similar s e n t i m e n t s . I n a n o t h e r o n e of W i l l i a m s ' pieces, 32 Hours in a Box and Still Counting, a h o m a g e t o t h e slave w h o p u t himself in a b o x a n d mailed himself across state lines t o freedom, t h e subject's e m a n c i p a t i o n is c o n n e c t e d t o self-conscious m a n i p u l a t i o n of his s t a t u s as a n object, forcing his w a y o u t of slavery t h r o u g h the re-possession of his o w n body. Early w o r k s b y D a v i d

H a m m o n s also link t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e black b o d y t o t h e African-American c o n d i t i o n . I n Injustice Case (1970), t h e i m a g e of H a m m o n s gagged a n d b o u n d t o a chair recalls t h e s a m e actions taken in real life against Black P a n t h e r Bobby Seale d u r i n g t h e trial of t h e Chicago Eight. F r a m e d by t h e edges of t h e A m e r i c a n flag, H a m m o n s chilling image of his c o n t o r t e d b o d y is eerily r e m i n i s c e n t of a p h o t o g r a p h i c negative o r x-ray, as if t h e artist, b y s o m e u n k n o w n process h a d p e n e t r a t e d t h e p a t r i o t i c b a n n e r t o c a p t u r e a d e e p e r t r u t h w i t h i n it.

T h o u g h m a n y c o n t e m p o r a r y black artists have delved i n t o t h e archeology of abject images t o represent t h e c o n d i t i o n of blacks in t h e U S , t h e legacy of forced e x h i b i t i o n i s m h a s e n g e n d e r e d responses from t h e larger b l a c k c o m m u n i t y t h a t have t e n d e d m o r e t o w a r d ret- icence. Critics such as H e n r y Louis Gates a n d bell h o o k s have n o t e d

t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h b l a c k s h a v e p r o t e c t e d their cultural practices by e n s h r o u d i n g t h e m in secrecy, o r b y m a s k i n g m e a n i n g s w i t h ever- shifting c o d e s a n d h e a v y d o s e s of irony. N o t only w o u l d rituals a n d idiolects have t o b e p r o t e c t e d , b u t so w o u l d t h e b o d y h a v e t o b e s h i e l d e d t o a v o i d a h o s t of p a i n f u l , e v e n d a n g e r o u s , a s s o c i a - t i o n s . T h e h i s t o r y o f b l a c k p e o p l e ' s i d e n - t i t i e s h a v i n g b e e n r e d u c e d t o b o d i e s t h a t w e r e i n h a b i t e d b u t n o t o w n e d , a n d o f t h o s e b o d i e s h a v i n g b e e n classified as i n f e r i o r , d e g e n e r a - t i v e , o r o t h e r w i s e a b e r r a n t could n o t o t h - erwise b e countered, n o r could their being treated as curiosities b e justified. Furthering this need was t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of mass e n t e r t a i n m e n t that d e p e n d e d heavily o n t h e c o m m e r c i a l exploita- t i o n of t h e black body, b e g i n n i n g in t h e p e r i o d of minstrelsy a n d going t h r o u g h t o t h e G o l d e n

Installation view (detail), courtesy: The Bohen Foun- A g e ° f H o l l y w o o d a n d

b e y o n d . I n M a r l o n Riggs' v i d e o d o c u m e n -

t a r y Ethnic Notions, for e x a m p l e , d a n c e r L e n n y Sloan d r a m a t i z e d t h e tragic story of Bert Williams, an early 20th c e n t u r y black e n t e r t a i n e r w h o accepted p e r f o r m i n g in blackface so as t o speak t o t h e violence of racist projections, a n d t h e i m p a c t of racist caricature o n black society. T h e sensitivity t o t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of p e r f o r m i n g for w h i t e a u d i e n c e s d i d n o t arise, t h e n , o u t of essentialist willfulness b u t r a t h e r as a defense against t h e real existence of abuse of p o w e r t h a t was c o n - t i n u o u s l y u n d e r s c o r e d by performative scenarios. Black p e r f o r m e r s were ( a n d s o m e w o u l d argue, still are) repeatedly c o m p e l l e d t o enact a d r a m a of d e g r a d a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n of negative stereo-

of C o n t e m p o r a r y African Art * F a l l / W i n t e r 1 9 9 6 Downloaded from http://read.dukeupress.edu/nka/article-pdf/1996/5/28/446946/0050028.pdf by UNIV OF WA user on 22 December 2020

t y p e s . A p r i m e e x a m p l e of this forced exhibi-

t i o n i s m is t h e H o t t e n t o t Venus w h o , while her genitals were b e i n g s t u d i e d by early 19th c e n t u r y E u r o p e a n scientists, was also exhibited as a n object for w h i t e voyeuristic c o n s u m p t i o n . T h e H o t t e n t o t V e n u s ' n u d i t y , like t h a t of t h e t h o u s a n d s of Africans w h o a p p e a r e d in late 19th a n d 20th c e n t u r y e t h n o g r a p h i c p h o t o g r a p h s , was a taken as a sign of uncivilized exhibi- t i o n i s m t h a t " g o o d " blacks in A m e r i c a w o u l d have t o distance themselves from. T h e case of t h e H o t t e n t o t Venus h a s c o m e t o s t a n d for h o w E u r o p e a n colonial fan- tasies converge w i t h a 19th c e n t u r y p s e u d o scientific obsession w i t h m e a s u r i n g sexu- ality b y t h e size of people's b o d y p a r t s . T h e s a m e positivist a p p r o a c h t o i n t e r p r e t a t i o n e n a b l e d w e s t e r n o b s e r v e r s t o a t t r i b u t e u n i n h i b i t e d eroticism t o t h e fact that black Africans, in art a n d life, exposed m o r e flesh t h a n m o s t E u r o p e a n s . Josephine Baker's stylized faux primitif 1920's stage p e r s o n a capitalized o n these m i s p e r c e p t i o n s . While scores of E u r o p e a n a n d A m e r i c a n artists a n d critics in t h e early m o d e r n p e r i o d i m p u t e d erotic character t o t h e African fig- ures that fascinated t h e m , it is still the case that N a t i o n a l G e o g r a p h i c reigns as t h e soft core p o r n o g r a p h y of choice for u n d e r a g e white males. T h e imag e of t h e oversexed black b o d y t a p s i n t o w h i t e desires for a n d fears of black power, w h i c h can be m a r - shaled w h e n n e e d e d t o justify violent forms of c o n t r o l . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , after several decades of q u e s t i o n i n g b y black artists of t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s of t h e H o t t e n t o t Venus' case, t h e single m o s t p u b - licized recreation of that h i s t o r y has t u r n e d o u t t o b e a recent play a b o u t h e r by Susan Lori Parks in w h i c h t h e p r o t a g o n i s t a p p e a r s n o t only t o b e complicit in h e r exploitation b u t enjoying it.

T h e h i s t o r y of c o n s u m e r tastes in this c e n t u r y , r a n g i n g f r o m t h e i n t e r e s t in " t h i n g s black" of t h e '20's, t o t h e craze over "jungle m u s i c " in t h e '50's a n d o n w a r d indicates t h a t t h e desire for black b o d i e s a n d p e r c e p t i o n s of t h e m as repositories of transgressive energies c o r r e s p o n d e d t o a r e c u r r i n g sense of t h e excessive rationality, repression a n d spiritual e m p t i n e s s in white society. This m o r e b e n i g n , r o m a n t i c , b u t essentially similar view of black p e o p l e as m o r e in t o u c h w i t h their b o d i e s a n d e m o - t i o n s h a s b e e n integral t o c o n c e p t s of avant-garde a r t practice in E u r o p e a n d A m e r i c a t h r o u g h o u t this century. In The Predicament of Culture, h i s t o r i a n James Clifford e x p l a i n s h o w m o d e r n i s t s a n d e t h n o g r a p h e r s of the early 20th c e n t u r y projected c o d e d p e r c e p t i o n s of t h e black b o d y as i m b u e d with vitalism, r h y t h m , m a g i c a n d erotic p o w e r . 2 For t h e Dadaists

a n d Surrealists, for e x a m p l e , t h e celebra- t i o n of such qualities was p a r t of their anti-rationalist search for ways of t a p p i n g i n t o u n c o n s c i o u s m e n t a l processes. In this p a r a d i g m , t h e black b o d y acts as m e d i u m ; it is a b o d y t h a t is c o m p e l l e d t o p e r f o r m involuntarily, by its very n a t u r e .

T h e artists of t h e N e g r i t u d e m o v e - m e n t s of m i d - c e n t u r y t h e n theorized t h e i r v e r s i o n of a n o r i g i n a r y black c u l t u r e , largely basing it o n their u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e a r c h e t y p e s c h a m p i o n e d b y t h e S u r r e a l i s t s . L e o p o l d S e n g h o r ' s p r i m a r y a r g u m e n t i n h i s essay, " N e g r i t u d e : A H u m a n i s m for t h e Twentieth C e n t u r y " was t h a t a l t h o u g h E u r o p e a n s m a y n o t have u n d e r s t o o d t h e source of their fascination with black African art, t h e y were d r a w n t o a real difference w h i c h was m a d e manifest i n t h e r e n d e r i n g of t h e black b o d y in sculp- t u r e a n d p e r f o r m e d in bodily m o v e m e n t . W h i l e s o m e c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s b l a c k A m e r i c a n intellectuals a n d artists t o o k n o t e of t h e faddish n a t u r e of t h e E u r o p e a n m o d e r n i s t s ' a t t r a c t i o n t o black cultures, others stressed that s u c h p o p u l a r i t y s h o u l d b e taken advantage of by black A m e r i c a n artists, a n d even agreed with its u n d e r l y i n g a s s u m p t i o n s . W r i t e r s of t h e H a r l e m Renaissance such as Z o r a Neale H u r s t o n a n d Alain Locke looked o n black p o p u l a r d a n c e a n d gesture as intrinsically p o e t i c a n d saw t h e m as f o u n d a t i o n a l characteris- tics of " t h e race". 3

T h o s e of the H a r l e m Renaissance w h o m a d e s u c h c o m m e n t s were reflecting o n t h e characteristics of " t h e race" of w h i c h t h e y were p a r t b u t s t o o d a p a r t from. F r o m t h e earliest f o r m u l a t i o n s of such writers as Alain Locke, t h e q u e s t i o n for t h e black artist was p o s e d as h o w t o m a k e m e a n - ingful a n d a u t h e n t i c for black p e o p l e , as o p p o s e d to furthering a f o r m of p o p u l a r cultural p e r f o r m a n c e by a s s u m i n g t h e role of the minstrel for w h i t e audiences. Since t h a t p e r i o d , black artists a n d intellectuals have c o n t i n u e d to debate whether, h o w , a n d h o w m u c h black vernacular p e r f o r m a - tivity could be integrated i n t o black a r t w i t h o u t r e c a p i t u l a t i n g s t e r e o t y p e s o r r e p r o d u c i n g exploitative p a r a d i g m s .

In t h e 1960's, the i n t e g r a t i o n of ver- n a c u l a r performativity was m o s t a p p a r e n t in politically charged uses of c u l t u r e of t h e Civil R i g h t s m o v e m e n t . T h e f o r e m o s t e x a m p l e of such w o r k is the Free S o u t h e r n T h e a t r e led by J o h n O'Neal. A n integrated e n s e m b l e f o u n d e d at Tougalou College in 1963 in Mississippi b y F r e e d o m M o v e m e n t activists, t h e g r o u p used storytelling a n d p o p u l a r theater strategies a n d developed a variety of w o r k s dealing w i t h racism a n d t h e recovery of black cultural forms. F r o m t h e u r b a n contexts c a m e a resurgence of colloquial p o e t r y relying heavily o n oral

p r e s e n t a t i o n t o create its i m p a c t d u r i n g t h e Black Power era. T h e performative p e r s o n a was a streetwise stud, a m a l e trickster w h o language p r o t e c t e d h i m from a t t e m p t s by t h e law t o e n t r a p his body. Paintings such as Barclay L. H e n d r i c k s ' North Philly Niggah (1975) c a p t u r e t h e sensibility a n d social significance of such p e r s o n a e . T h e w o r k of t h e g r o u p T h e Last Poets, for e x a m p l e , integrating politics, d r u m m i n g , p o e t r y a n d performative vocal t e c h n i q u e s is b o t h p a r a d i g m a t i c of this style a n d is a critical predecessor of b o t h the rap a n d p e r f o r m a n c e p o e t r y of t h e 1980s.

It is in t h e 1970's t h a t a few black visual artists involved in p e r f o r m a n c e a n d visual m e d i u m s relying o n performative gesture begin t o d r a w o n p o p u l a r cultural materials a n d p e r s o n a e . Early in his artistic career David H a m m o n s m a d e his m a r k w i t h a politically charged piece that critic Kellie Jones characterized as a performative g e s t u r e . 4 For his b o d y p r i n t s series of 1970, H a m m o n s placed his o w n b o d y in c o n t a c t w i t h p a p e r treated with fatback, m a r g a r i n e a n d o t h e r forms of grease. T h e poses h e a s s u m e d reflected t h e increasingly strident a n d a b u n d a n t activism of the late sixties a n d early seventies, t h e m o s t famous of w h i c h , Injustice Case, shows us a b o u n d a n d gagged Black P a n t h e r . H a m m o n s w o u l d later m o v e o n t o a d o p t i n g street p e r - sonae, staging v e r n a c u l a r critiques of art's c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n with such p e r f o r m a n c e s as Blizzard Ball Sale, in w h i c h h e sold s n o w - balls in C o o p e r Square a n d Pissed Off, d u r i n g w h i c h h e u r i n a t e d o n R i c h a r d Serra's Tilted Arc a n d was u n c e r e m o n i o u s l y cited by a police officer.

D u r i n g t h e early 70's, conceptual artist A d r i a n P i p e r b e g a n u n d e r t a k i n g u n a n - n o u n c e d p e r f o r m a n c e s in N e w York a n d t h e n in M a s s a c h u s e t t s . 5 I n t h e m , she r e w o r k e d t h e D u c h a m p i a n s t r a t e g y of t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e artist's p e r s o n as an aes- thetic gesture, instead d r a m a t i z i n g t h r o u g h m a s q u e r a d e h o w social forces project racial m e a n i n g o n t o bodies. For Mythic Being (1972-75), in w h i c h she engaged in v a r i o u s f o r m s of anti-social b e h a v i o r in p u b l i c a n d tested a u d i e n c e responses, Piper i m p e r s o n - ated a n inner-city black m a l e wearing an afro wig, d a r k glasses a n d a m o u s t a c h e . W h i l e t h e focus of h e r a c t i o n s was o n exploring h e r M y t h i c Being as an " e m b l e m of alien confrontation," t h e specific c h a r - acter she a d o p t e d allowed h e r t o inhabit t h e identity of a w o r k i n g class, visibly black m a l e , t h e personification of t h e c o m m u - n i t y so often invoked in debates a b o u t black identity a n d art. F r o m 1983 to 1986, Piper u n d e r t o o k her p e r f o r m a n c e , Funk Lessons, a c o m b i n a t i o n lecture o n funk m u s i c a n d live d e m o n s t r a t i o n involving h e r audiences at w h i t e cultural institutions.

J o u r n a l of C o n t e m p o r a r y A f r i c a n A r t • F a l l / W i n t e r 1 9 9 6 Downloaded from http://read.dukeupress.edu/nka/article-pdf/1996/5/28/446946/0050028.pdf by UNIV OF WA user on 22 December 2020

Marlon Riggs, Still from Tongues Untied, 1989, courtesy: Frameline, San Francisco.

Rather t h a n e m b o d y i n g an abject social type, she engaged in a d y n a m i c t h a t forced h e r audiences t o face their o w n p r e c o n c e p - t i o n s a b o u t a p o p u l a r black d a n c e t h e y feared their o w n b o d i e s could n o t e m u l a t e . Piper t h e n c o n t i n u e d h e r e x p l o r a t i o n of p e r c e p t i o n a n d racial codification, u n d e r - taking reactive p e r f o r m a n c e , My Catling Card ( 1 9 8 6 — ) i n social situations in w h i c h p e o p l e did n o t identify her, being light- skinned, as black. To t h o s e w h o w o u l d u t t e r a racist c o m m e n t o r jokes, she w o u l d slip a card with t h e following i n f o r m a t i o n :

D e a r friend, I a m black.

I a m sure y o u did n o t realize this w h e n y o u m a d e / l a u g h e d at/ agreed w i d i t h a t racist remark...

I regret any discomfort m y presence is causing y o u , just as I a m sure y o u regret t h e discomfort y o u r racism is causing m e .

Sincerely y o u r s Adrian M a r g a r e t S m i t h Piper

W h i l e t h e m o r e conceptually o r i e n t e d black visual artists of the 70's a n d 80's c o n - c e n t r a t e d o n h o w racialized p e r c e p t i o n is c o n s t r u c t e d , o r h o w they are p r o p a g a t e d by t h e media, others w o r k i n g d u r i n g this p e r i o d were t r y i n g t o recast t h e n a t u r e a n d function of their practice by d r a w i n g o n sources o u t s i d e t h e confines of w h a t t h e y perceived as a E u r o c e n t r i c , elitist c a n o n . S o m e t u r n e d t o p e r f o r m a n c e as a way of integrating a n Afro-centered concept of a r t object's f u n c t i o n a l i t y i n t o t h e creative process, a n d actively s o u g h t o u t black a u d i - ences as a symbolic rejection of t h e black p e r f o r m a t i v e p a r a d i g m s t h a t r e q u i r e d

"legitimation" by w h i t e viewers. Art histo- r i a n Lowery Stokes Sims, for e x a m p l e , suggests t h a t Faith Ringgold's i m p r o v i s e d p e r f o r m a n c e s u s i n g h e r s o f t - s c u l p t u r e m a s k s a n d telling stories retrace t h e role of t h e m a s q u e r a d e r i n African society. As Ringgold m o v e d from telling h e r stories t o inviting o t h e r s t o j o i n i n w i t h their o w n in No Name Performance #2 (1982), Sims explains, t h e artist's p e r f o r m a n c e format, " as in t h e African context, b e c a m e t h e m e d i a by which t h e audience (i.e. c o m m u n i t y ) e x p e r i e n c e s p i r i t u a l a n d a e s t h e t i c catharsis." 6 . T h a t sense of a need t o create m o d e l s for o n g o i n g i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n c o m m u n i t i e s a n d p e r f o r m a n c e artists is e c h o e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e m u l t i c u l t u r a l debates of t h e 1980's. Performance a r t of t h e p e r i o d , i n c l u d i n g t h a t of African- American artists, was m a r k e d b y a shift away from focus o n t h e physicality of t h e b o d y a n d o n process t o a r e n e w e d c o n c e r n for social issues, a widespread use of a u t o - b i o g r a p h i c a l m o n o l o g u e a n d t h e f o r e g r o u n d i n g of t h e voices a n d experi- ences of t h o s e marginalized by b o t h t h e a v a n t - g a r d e c a n o n .

A m o n g t h e m o r e p r o m i n e n t trajecto- ries of d e v e l o p m e n t of this p e r i o d are p e r f o r m a n c e w o r k s d o n e by collectives, r o o t e d in oral histories of c o m m u n i t i e s o u t s i d e t h e m a i n s t r e a m . T h e search for an alternative t o t h e m i n s t r e l s t r u t t i n g his stuff for outsiders led m a n y artists t o t h e a r c h e t y p e of t h e griot, an i n t e r p r e t e r of c o m m u n i t y h i s t o r y w h o s e i d e n t i t y a n d function i n integral t o h i s / h e r g r o u p . As p a r t of a b r o a d e r resurgence of regionalism in the arts, s o m e p e r f o r m a n c e artists devel- o p e d w o r k s b u i l t a r o u n d p o p u l a r

storytelling t r a d i t i o n s a n d testimonial n a r - ratives. T h e interracial Los Angeles Poverty D e p a r t m e n t showcased t h e tales of h o m e - less m e n a n d w o m e n from Skid Row. N e w York-based R o b b i e M c C a u l e y ' s projects focusing o n race riots in Buffalo (1990), voter registration in Mississippi (1992) a n d b u s i n g a n d desegregation in Boston (1993) b r o u g h t t h e artist i n t o p r o l o n g e d contact w i t h c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s , a n d yielded p e r f o r m a n c e s t h a t synthesized collective m e m o r y a n d offered a n experience of dis- tilled h i s t o r y as a w a y of r e n e w i n g c o m m u n a l b o n d s . Keith M a s o n a n d t h e Hittite E m p i r e have also developed several pieces based of oral histories a n d recent events in black history, such as t h e 1992 Los Angeles i n s u r r e c t i o n . P e r h a p s t h e b e s t k n o w n p e r f o r m e r w o r k i n g in this vein is A n n a D e v e a r e S m i t h , w h o s e creative process involves r e i n c a r n a t i n g d o z e n s of subjects she interviews a n d weaving their stories together. T h e stress in this w o r k is o n s u b j e c t - h o o d r a t h e r t h a n objectifica- t i o n , o n the artist as a receptacle of cultural m e m o r y for a collective body. N o t all black artists w o u l d suppress their individuality, however, in favor of standing for the collec- tive. For s o m e , the use of m o n o l o g u e accorded m o r e space t o t h e personal a n d allowed for differences within g r o u p forma- t i o n s . T h i s w o u l d p a v e t h e w a y for a r e e v a l u a t i o n of t h e c u l t u r a l n a t i o n a l i s t " g r a n d narrative" of a unified "community", a n d of the limitations of t h e imperatives of early of generations to create resolutely "positive" images of blackness.

While m a n y artists t u r n e d personal experience i n t o the materials for g r o u p aes- t h e t i c c o n s u m p t i o n , o t h e r s e x t e n d e d a critique of t h e role of institutions in t h e for- m a t i o n of culture a n d the c o n c o m i t a n t positioning of t h e black b o d y within it. Artists Fred Wilson a n d Daniel Tisdale have created site-specific performances as cri- tiques these processes. In 1991, Fred Wilson d o n n e d m u s e u m g u a r d attire a n d gave guided tours discoursing o n t h e political a n d racial history of t h e W h i t n e y Museum's p e r m a n e n t collection, as p a r t of his ongoing m u s e o l o g i c a l i n q u i r y . D a n i e l Tisdale's directed his analysis t o the ideology of cor- p o r a t e culture a n d black aspirations w i t h i n it in his 1992 p e r f o r m a n c e as a salesman for Transitions, Inc., a fictitious c o m p a n y selling p r o d u c t s that eliminate the visible signs of ethnic difference.

T h e c o n c e r n w i t h t h e p o s i t i o n i n g of (political c o n d i t i o n ) of blacks did n o t just take place w i t h i n t h e realm of t h e aesthetic b u t also in relation t o t h e social, p a r t i c u - larly t h r o u g h exploring g e n d e r roles a n d stereotypes a n d h o w t h e y are sustained o u t s i d e a n d w i t h i n black c o m m u n i t i e s . L o r r a i n e O ' G r a d y ' s 1980 p e r f o r m a n c e

of C o n t e m p o r a r y A f r i c a n A r t • F a l l / W i n t e r 1 9 9 6 Downloaded from http://read.dukeupress.edu/nka/article-pdf/1996/5/28/446946/0050028.pdf by UNIV OF WA user on 22 December 2020

character, Mile. Bourgeoise Noire, w h o cir- culated in t h e N e w York a r t s milieu, was a satirical s e n d - u p of t h e assimilationist aspi- r a t i o n s a n d sexist v a l u e s of t h e b l a c k m i d d l e class. O ' G r a d y created h e r perfor- m a n c e at t h e high p o i n t of a wave of black feminist literature reviewing t h e p a t r i a r - chal u n d e r p i n n i n g s of t h e black p o w e r m o v e m e n t a n d c u l t u r a l n a t i o n a l i s m . Searching for a way t o convey t h e style a n d substance of t h e i r experience, o t h e r black w o m e n p e r f o r m e r s such as R h o d e s s a Jones a d o p t e d w h a t Lowery Sims calls t h e ver- n a c u l a r performative strategy of "acting out", a forceful u n i o n of b o d y language a n d e n e r g e t i c c o m m e n t a r y d e p l o y e d in r e s p o n s e t o p r o v o c a t i o n . (7) R h o d e s s a Jones' The Legend of Lily Overstreet, based o n h e r o w n experiences as a n erotic d a n c e r a n d t e s t i m o n i e s of o t h e r s , forces viewers t o confront social t a b o o s s u r r o u n d i n g black female exhibitionism. E m b r a c i n g socially u n d e s i r a b l e b o d y t y p e s , T h u n d e r t h i g h Revue's stories focus o n t h e d i s c r i m i n a t o r y force of ideals of f e m i n i n e b e a u t y a n d g e n d e r d y n a m i c s a m o n g blacks.

These feminist cultural debates laid t h e g r o u n d w o r k for a creative o u t p o u r i n g of b o d y a r t w o r k a b o u t t h e c o n d i t i o n of black gay m e n b y t h e late 1980's. R u n n i n g t h r o u g h t h e w o r k of these artists is t h e will t o b r e a k w i t h b o t h t h e h i s t o r y of abject representations of t h e black b o d y a n d t h e conservative silence a b o u t its p o t e n t i a l for sensual pleasure a n d play. T h e anxiety a n d even repressive m o r a l i t y t h a t m a r k s t r e a t - m e n t of t h e s e issues a m o n g earlier g e n e r a t i o n s of black artists a n d i n b l a c k o r g a n i z a t i o n s h a s catalyzed y o u n g e r black a r t i s t s , m a n y of w h o s e ' b r e a k t h r o u g h " pieces as e m e r g i n g creators deal directly w i t h t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e black b o d y b y w o r k i n g t h r o u g h t h e interplay of t h e conservatisms of b o t h t h e w h i t e p o w e r s t r u c t u r e a n d black c o m m u n i t i e s .

I n t h e s a m e w a y t h a t S u r r e a l i s m served as a focal p o i n t for black artists of t h e N e g r i t u d e m o v e m e n t , so n o w d o e s t h e reevaluation of M a p p l e t h o r p e ' s stylized m o d e r n i s t p o r t r a i t u r e ' s objectification of t h e black m a l e b o d y b e c o m e s a critical site from w h i c h t o engage w i t h t h e n a t u r e of b l a c k gay desire. I n d e e d , K o b e n a Mercer a n d Isaac Julien's g r o u n d b r e a k i n g essay "True Confessions" in w h i c h t h e y e x a m i n e t h e i r a m b i v a l e n t a t t r a c t i o n t o M a p p l e t h o r p e ' s images of black m e n , in a sense, gave a n a m e t o a n e w locus of black cultural activity. Following in t h i s vein, a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l videos of T h o m a s H a r r i s s u c h as Splash (1990) a n d Black Body (1992), a n d t h e performative self-portraits of his b r o t h e r , Lyle A s h t o n H a r r i s , stress t h e performative, a n d g e n d e r - a m b i v a l e n t c h a r - acter of t h e i r masculinity. Also pivotal t o

this m o m e n t is G l e n n Ligon's Notes from the Margins of the Black Book ( 1 9 9 1 - 1 9 9 3 ) , a r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of R o b e r t M a p p l e t h o r p e ' s p h o t o s of black m e n , w h i c h h e copied a n d j u x t a p o s e d a g a i n s t t r a n s c r i b e d c o m m e n t s a b o u t t h e w o r k b y t h e p h o t o subjects a n d a h o s t of black critics.

W h i l e m a n y artists p u r s u e a creative e x p l o r a t i o n of b l a c k b o d y a n d desire, t h e y d o so against a back- d r o p of o n g o i n g o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n a n d w i t h i n c o n t i n u i n g d e b a t e s a b o u t t h e p o w e r relationships in w h i c h black p e r f o r m a - tive acts are i m b e d d e d . I n a r e c e n t essay, A n g e l a D a v i s reflects o n h o w she was corn- m o d i f i e d i n t h e p o s t m o d e r n age as t h e i m a g e of h e r Afro from t h e Black P o w e r e r a . This facile s u b s t i t u t i o n

of S t y l e for politics, s h e D a v i t | Hammons, Blizzard Ball Sale, 1991, Performance by the artist, courtesy: 3ack explains, erases a h i s - n i t o n , New York, t o r y of w h a t s u c h a hairstyle m e a n t at o n e t i m e , a n d h o w it b e c a m e a s y m b o l of rebellious criminality t h a t e n d a n g e r e d t h o s e w o m e n a n d m e n w h o chose t o a d o p t it. Such depoliticizing processes d o n o t necessarily r e q u i r e t h e lapse of t i m e . W h i l e scholars a n d critics cel- e b r a t e d r a g a n d v o g u i n g as r a d i c a l gestures, invariably invoking a h o s t of black e x a m p l e s f r o m R u P a u l t o V e n u s Xtravaganza, little is said a b o u t t h e actual social a n d e c o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n s of t h e o v e r w h e l m i n g majority of black d r a g p e r - f o r m e r s w h o struggle t o survive i n a milieu t h a t offers m i n i m a l r e m u n e r a t i o n for a few.

T h e extraordinarily high level of a n x - iety regarding t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e black b o d y i n t h e a r t s a n d m e d i a is o n e of t h e m o s t visible, lasting effects of an historical black experience in t h e diaspora. It affects nearly all f o r m s of black cultural expres- sion. I n t h e p r e s e n t day, t h e m o s t direct i m p a c t of this legacy is felt in t h e realm of t h e performative, particularly t h o s e f o r m s of p e r f o r m a t i v i t y b e n t o n social a n d aes- t h e t i c t r a n s g r e s s i o n — r a p m u s i c , p e r f o r m a n c e art, a n d s t u d i o p o r t r a i t u r e . Both have b e c o m e key critical stages for t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n of cultural a n d sexual differ- e n c e , issues t h a t m a i n s t r e a m society is

p u s h i n g t o t h e m a r g i n s w i t h increasing fervor. T h e y are as m u c h a b o u t w h a t w e c a n c o n t r o l a b o u t o u r identities a n d b o d i e s as w h a t w e c a n n o t .

Notes 1. Elizabeth Alexander, "Can you be Black and look at this?: Reading t h e R o d n e y King Videos", in Black Male: Representations of Masculinity in Contemporary American Art (New York: Whitney Museum, 1994), p p . 91-110. 2. James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988). 3. See for example Zora Neale Hurston's "Characteristics of Negro Expression" in Voices from the Harlem Renaissance, ed. N a t h a n Irvin Huggins, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976/1995), p p . 224-236. 4. Kellie Jones, "The Structure of Myth a n d the Potency of Magic" in David Hammons, Rousing the Rubble, catalogue for PS 1, Institute for C o n t e m p o r a r y Art, 1991, p p . 16-17. 5. Judith Wilson, "In M e m o r y of t h e News a n d of Ourselves: T h e Art of A d r i a n Piper," in Third Text, n o . 16-17, Autumn/Winter, 1991, pp. 39-64. 6. Lowery Stokes Sims, "Aspects of Performance in the Work of Black American W o m e n Artists" in Feminist Art Criticism, eds. Arlene Raven, Cassandra Langer, Joanna Frueh, (Ann Arbor: U M I Research Press, 1988), p. 210. 7. Ibid, p. 208. 8. Judith Wilson, "Getting D o w n to Get Over: Romare Bearden's Use of Pornography and the Problem of the Black Female Body in Afro-US Art", in Black Popular Culture, ed. Gina Dent, (Seattle: Bay Press, 1992), pp. 112-121.

Coco Fusco is a New York based artist and writer. She is the author of English is Broken Here: Notes on Cultural Fusion in the Americas, New Press, New York, 1995.

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