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Managing Positive Change: Emotions and Communication Following Acquisitions Riikka Harikkala-Laihinen  Published online: 23 Jun 2022

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ABSTRACT This article takes a positive organizational scholarship lens to change management and explores what is the

relationship between emotions and communication in managing positive change. Through an abductive study, it

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relationship between emotions and communication in managing positive change. Through an abductive study, it

suggests a framework of positive post-acquisition change, which centres on interaction in the generation of positive

emotions. The framework is built based on a Finnish – German merger completed in late 2013 and substantiated

through a German – Finnish acquisition completed in early 2017. Based on the �ndings, positive emotions can

enhance employee identi�cation with the post-acquisition organization as well as increase motivation and

engagement in change. Conversely, negative emotions are likely to cause protectionist, change-resistant behaviour.

Whereas top-down communication is essential in ensuring day-to-day functions, interaction enables the creation of

positive emotions and thereby engages employees in change-congruent behaviour.

MAD statement

Generating positive emotions rather than merely alleviating negative emotions can signi�cantly enhance change

outcomes. Practitioners have the ability to encourage the emergence of positive emotions through di�erent

communication means. Traditional communication, i.e. ‘information sharing’, ensures day-to-day functionality and

can help alleviate worries, but does not engage employees in change. Instead, participation and interaction create a

sense of ownership, generating positive emotions and motivating employees to work toward change.

 KEYWORDS: Change positive emotions communication interaction mergers and acquisitions

Introduction

Despite decades of research, change management literature to date lacks a detailed understanding of the

emergence and in�uence of emotions (Zietsma et al., 2019). In order to explore the link between change

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emergence and in�uence of emotions (Zietsma et al., 2019). In order to explore the link between change

management and emotions, this article asks; what is the relationship between emotions and communication in

managing positive change. In this article, positive change is de�ned as a�rmative as opposed to harmful in terms of

employee responses and organizational outcomes (Avey et al., 2008). With regard to emotions and communication,

particular attention is given to the emergence of positive emotions and the communication practices likely to trigger

them. This focus is driven by three interrelated shortcomings detected in previous literature.

First, this paper follows Diener et al. (2020) in de�ning emotions as componential experiences, which consist of a

triggering event, cognitive appraisal, action readiness, psychological signals, subjective sensations and behavioural

outcomes. Previous research clearly indicates that positive emotions surrounding change are bene�cial (e.g.

Canning & Found, 2015; Dixon et al., 2016). Still, particularly the facilitation of positive emotions at work necessitates

further research (Allen & McCarthy, 2016). This indicates the need to explore how positive emotions emerge at

work, particularly during change periods.

Second, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, communication refers to conveying or exchanging information.

Previous research reveals that communication enables creating the abovementioned positive climate around

change (Ashkanasy & Daus, 2002). Yet, the e�ciency of communication as a means to overcome potential con�ict

necessitates further research (Angwin et al., 2016; Weber & Drori, 2011). Moreover, managerial involvement in the

relationship between communication and emotion remains underexplored (Zagelmeyer et al., 2016). This highlights

the importance of identifying the communication means, which increase positivity and harmony during change

periods.

Third, this article adopts the notion that managing positive change occurs through managerial tactics for generating

positive subordinate reactions (cf. Ouakouak et al., 2020). Yet whereas the bene�ts of a positive change climate are In this article

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positive subordinate reactions (cf. Ouakouak et al., 2020). Yet whereas the bene�ts of a positive change climate are

widely acknowledged, how to manage change in a positive way requires further exploration (Canning & Found,

2015; Dixon et al., 2016). Despite the knowledge that positive emotions and communication are linked to positive

change, managing collective emotions (Huy, 2012) continues to puzzle academics and practitioners alike. This

advocates exploring active emotion management during organizational change periods (Steigenberger, 2015).

To explore this phenomenon in practice, this article examines the post-acquisition change context, i.e. integration.

While previous acquisition research most often focuses on negative employee reactions (Graebner et al., 2017),

empirical evidence proves that change can also trigger positive experiences (e.g. Kusstatscher, 2006; Raitis et al.,

2017). Similarly, previous research con�rms communication as a key means for creating positive emotions (e.g.

Harikkala-Laihinen et al., 2018), yet a gap exists in determining how speci�c communication practices in�uence post-

acquisition change (Graebner et al., 2017). Thus, this context is �tting for the purpose of this article.

This article contributes to three aspects of change management: positive emotion elicitation, communication, and

emotion management. The �ndings reveal that both traditional, top-down communication (i.e. conveying

information) and engaging interaction (i.e. exchanging information) are necessary for optimal change results.

Traditional communication can alleviate worries, but interaction is the key to positive emotion elicitation.

Consequently, these two communication means also function as collective emotion management tools.

The Post-Acquisition Change Context and Key Concepts

Research Context

For approximately three decades now, the mergers and acquisitions literature has paid increasing attention to the

human side of acquisitions (e.g. Sarala et al., 2019). This has encouraged researchers and practitioners alike to

2 In this article

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human side of acquisitions (e.g. Sarala et al., 2019). This has encouraged researchers and practitioners alike to

consider acquisitions as softer, human processes (Cartwright & Cooper, 1995). A typology of post-acquisition

integration as the combination of task and human aspects (Birkinshaw et al., 2000) has become increasingly

in�uential, and acquisition scholars have identi�ed problems in sociocultural integration as a key cause for

acquisition failures (e.g. Datta, 1991; Marks & Mirvis, 2011; Raitis et al., 2018). Within this body of literature,

acquisition scholars have looked into how emotions play a role, for example, with regard to managers’ emotional

reactions, collective emotion regulation, employee behaviour, organizational culture and attitudes toward change

(Clarke & Salleh, 2011; Durand, 2016; Fink & Yolles, 2015; Gunkel et al., 2015; Reus, 2012).

Despite the growing body of literature, acquisition results remain unsatisfactory, indicating the need to understand

post-acquisition integration dynamics (e.g. Graebner et al., 2017). In particular, the discussion on emotions remains

relatively inconsistent and undertheorized (Reus, 2012; Zagelmeyer et al., 2016). Unfortunately, previous acquisition

research largely considers emotions to be problematic, causing poor organizational outcomes. Accordingly, most

existing studies focus on negative emotions (Graebner et al., 2017). In contrast, a focus on positivity could greatly

enrich understanding (Stahl et al., 2013), because acquisition-related emotions can also be positive and can have

positive outcomes (e.g. Harikkala-Laihinen et al., 2018). For example, positivity can help strengthen employee

identi�cation with the post-acquisition organization (Raitis et al., 2017; Zagelmeyer et al., 2016).

The Power of Positivity

To highlight the importance of positive emotions in overcoming potential con�ict during post-acquisition

integration, this article adopts a positive organizational scholarship (POS) lens, emphasizing positive communication

as a driver for organizational success (Cameron, 2012). A key concern in POS literature is the generation of positive

emotions (Cameron et al., 2003), as they can lead to increased thought spectrums, enhanced creativity and

improved information-processing ability (Fredrickson, 2001; 2013). In addition, positivity can ease organizational In this article

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improved information processing ability (Fredrickson, 2001; 2013). In addition, positivity can ease organizational

change by increasing employee engagement (Avey et al., 2008) and positive behaviour (Luthans & Youssef, 2007).

Change management is often geared towards �ghting expected negative reactions, i.e. change resistance

(Rosenbaum et al., 2018; cf. Piderit, 2000). Indeed, in order to learn from mistakes, change management literature

often examines change failure (Burnes & Jackson, 2011; Fuchs & Prouska, 2014; Rosenbaum et al., 2018). Thus, POS

is a fruitful addition to change management literature, as it enables identifying mechanisms that bring about

positive deviance, in order to enhance the quality of organizational life (Roberts, 2006). Indeed, POS can be

particularly bene�cial in committing employees to organizational change (Allen & McCarthy, 2016; Caza & Caza,

2008). While identifying and dissolving threats to the organization remains at the core of research, a POS lens can

push theory and practice beyond neutralizing threats to increased �ourishing (Roberts, 2006). Moreover, positive

change experiences are likely to increase change success (Fuchs & Prouska, 2014). Thus, this article adopts a POS

lens in highlighting the means for and bene�ts of positive change management above and beyond the neutralizing

stance.

Emotions

Emotions are distinctive a�ective phenomena, stemming from the higher level concept, a�ect (Guerrero et al., 1996).

Core a�ect refers to a dynamic, continuous, subjective experience of whether we feel pleasure or displeasure on the

one hand, and activation or deactivation on the other hand (Russell, 2003). Prolonged core a�ect can turn into

moods, which re�ect our attitude towards our surroundings. Moods do not have an identi�able root; we can

sometimes feel bad or good without knowing exactly why (Guerrero et al., 1996). What sets emotions apart is the

necessity of an object; emotion is always about something. This is why emotions are also interpretations, making

emotions highly personal and subjective: they only arise about topics or situations, which carry some personal value

for us (Nussbaum, 2004). In this article

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for us (Nussbaum, 2004).

Due to their subjective nature, emotions are dynamic experiential processes, where a trigger, response, and

representation can be identi�ed (Scherer & Moors, 2019). The trigger is often an event or situation in our immediate

surroundings, the response refers to our evaluation of the bene�t or detriment of that event in terms of our own

wellbeing based on our past experience, and the representation re�ects a labelled outcome of the evaluation (e.g.

Fredrickson, 2013; Lazarus, 1991). In e�ect, emotions are most often considered through the category labels, which

re�ect a set of discrete states (Scherer & Moors, 2019). Therefore, in our everyday lives, labels such as love,

happiness, sadness or anger refer to emotions.

While much research has been directed at discovering and exploring labelled emotions, studies focusing on the

dynamics of emotion elicitation in organizations are scarce (Scherer & Moors, 2019). Although previous research

highlights the bene�t of positivity in terms of driving organizational change (e.g. Canning & Found, 2015; Dixon et al.,

2016), how to encourage the emergence of such positivity at work is yet unclear (Allen & McCarthy, 2016). Similarly,

while the importance of management actions in creating positivity is acknowledged, just how to manage collective

emotions (Huy, 2012) in order to create positive change (Canning & Found, 2015; Dixon et al., 2016) remains unclear.

Thus, this paper focuses on how positive emotions emerge and can be managed in organizations during post-

acquisition integration.

Communication

Communication is a key means through which organizations can in�uence employees (Roundy, 2010), including

their emotions (Harikkala-Laihinen et al., 2018). Communication is particularly important during change periods

(Barrett, 2002), as it can help employees cope with uncertainty, thereby increasing productivity. To this end,

communication should be clear, reliable and considerate, and delivered through a variety of channels (Angwin et al.,

2016; Appelbaum et al., 2000). E�ective communication is informative, educational and motivating (Barrett, 2002), In this article

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2016; Appelbaum et al., 2000). E�ective communication is informative, educational and motivating (Barrett, 2002),

and helps manage employee reactions, guiding perceptions about change towards assurance instead of uncertainty

(Lotz & Donald, 2006). In contrast, ine�ective communication can lead to higher ambiguity and lower commitment

(Angwin et al., 2016).

While communication is a key tool during integration (Sarala et al., 2019), previous acquisition literature tends to

focus on the rationality of communication, generally disregarding the emotional element (Zagelmeyer et al., 2016).

Similarly, when communication-related emotions are considered, the focus tends to be on negative experiences

such as uncertainty, anxiety and anger (Graebner et al., 2017; Zagelmeyer et al., 2016). Despite some recent

developments, evidence regarding the relationship between communication and emotion during post-acquisition

integration is scarce, and the role of managerial involvement remains underexplored (Zagelmeyer et al., 2016). Yet,

previous research indicates that communication is essential in creating a positive change climate (Ashkanasy &

Daus, 2002; Harikkala-Laihinen, 2020). Thus, this article explores if and how communication could be a useful tool in

managing positive change.

Abductive Research Process

This study follows an abductive, moderate constructionist research process (Järvensivu & Törnroos, 2010; cf. Annosi

et al., 2016; Dubois & Gibbert, 2010). Abductive research is particularly suitable for exploring change management,

as it enables the examination of interrelatedness between di�erent factors, highlighting theory development rather

than generation (Dubois & Gadde, 2002). Abduction is thus particularly adept when the objective is to explain

practical occurrences (Folger & Stein, 2017). Moreover, reporting an abductive research process as it unfolds in

practice increases the openness and improves the trustworthiness of the study (Schwab & Starbuck, 2017). In this article

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practice increases the openness and improves the trustworthiness of the study (Schwab & Starbuck, 2017).

Figure 1 outlines the research process for this study. In phase one, systematic combining is used as a means to

move between theory and empirical evidence (Dubois & Gadde, 2002) in order to �nd the best possible explanation

for surprising �ndings in the data (Folger & Stein, 2017). First, existing literature shaped a pre-understanding

re�ected in the above sections, which guided data collection. In the second stage, additional literature provided

explanatory theory for surprising �ndings in the data. In stage three, the found literature and explained

observations inspired a new framework. The section ‘Study one for phase one’ discusses stages two and three.

Figure 1. Abductive research process. Modi�ed from Järvensivu and Törnroos (2010, p. 103).

In phase two, deduction allows substantiation, acting in the context of justi�cation (Nenonen et al., 2017). In

abductive research, deduction enables testing emerging ideas (Åsvoll, 2014) and determining the explanatory power

of an emergent theory (Reichertz, 2004). Thus, the fourth stage of the research process con�rmed the explanatory

power of the new framework. The section ‘Study two for phase two’ discusses stage four.

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power of the new framework. The section Study two for phase two discusses stage four.

Both phases primarily follow a qualitative approach, which allows the emergence of interrelated patterns, enabling

the formation of suggestive theory (cf. Edmondson & McManus, 2007). However, this study utilizes both quantitative

and qualitative means of data collection and analysis, yet integrates them in the discussion in order to gain deeper

understanding from a limited number of cases (cf. Hurmerinta & Nummela, 2011). This mixing of methods brings

out the voices of the study subjects more comprehensively (cf. Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011; O’Cathain et al., 2007).

Recognizing that di�erent sets of data are essential for generating and testing an emerging theory (Hyde, 2000),

each phase uses a di�erent case, ensuring the richness of description (cf. Dyer & Wilkins, 1991) and extensive data

collection (cf. Yin, 2012), enabling interpretive sensemaking (cf. Welch et al., 2011). Each phase of the study discusses

case descriptions and detailed information on data collection and analysis separately.

Study One for Phase One

Method

Case Description

The case for phase one explores Finnish Alpha’s acquisition of German Beta, completed in late 2013. Prior to the

deal, Alpha was a family-owned, Nordic supplier of technologically advanced user-friendly products, employing

approximately 800 workers. Beta, employing 600 workers, was Alpha’s competitor, yet stronger in Central European

markets, providing an expansion opportunity for Alpha. Because both companies were similar in size and their

product lines were complementary, Alpha chose a best of both worlds approach to integration (cf. Cartwright &

Cooper, 1993; Haspeslagh & Jemison, 1991), resembling a merger of equals. Thus, Alpha Group was born. Although In this article

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Cooper, 1993; Haspeslagh & Jemison, 1991), resembling a merger of equals. Thus, Alpha Group was born. Although

the deal closed already in late 2013, the most intensive integration e�orts began in late 2014, coinciding with the

research agreement for this study.

The greatest integration e�ort at Alpha Group centred on creating new organizational values, with speci�c value

workshops to introduce them to all employees in early 2015 overlapping with data collection. All major Alpha Group

locations organized the value workshops in-house. Each workshop hosted a maximum of 20 participants with a local

facilitator, who guided the participants to re�ect on the new Alpha Group values through a series of tasks designed

to breathe life into the values. The key purpose of the workshops was to allow employees to share their ideas of

how these values could become a part of everyday work at Alpha Group.

The Alpha Group case represents a single, signi�cant case (cf. Patton, 2015) that is particularly informative (cf.

Fletcher & Plakoyiannaki, 2011), making it suitable for abductive research. The merger approach makes this case

unique. As such, it is also uniquely suitable for POS, which allows an a�rmative bias. Nevertheless, POS does not

encourage ignoring negative emotions or challenging contexts, but rather acknowledges that it may be precisely at

such times that examples of vitality and organizational �ourishing are most vivid (Cameron & Caza, 2004). This is

also visible in the �ndings.

Data Collection and Analysis

In 2015, Alpha Group employees contemplated what emotions the value workshops, the deal itself, and the

subsequent integration evoked in them through an open-ended, qualitative questionnaire. The response rate was

approximately 50% (n = 681), with wide participation across Alpha Group’s largest locations in Finland, Germany,

Poland, and the Czech Republic. In 2016, the employees again re�ected on what emotions the deal evoked in them

through open-ended, qualitative questions. The response rate was approximately 80% (n = 1,082), again with wide

participation across Alpha Group’s largest locations. illustrates the key demographics of the respondents.Table 1 In this article

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participation across Alpha Group s largest locations. illustrates the key demographics of the respondents.

For both qualitative surveys, the responses were �rst coded quantitatively into neutral (0 – no emotional valence or

arousal), negative (1 – displeasing valence or arousal), mixed (2 – both pleasing and displeasing elements), and

positive (3 – pleasing valence or arousal) emotional content. The numeric data o�ered a quick overview of the

aggregate contents, mainly in the form of percentages.

QSR NVivo 11 software aided further analysis of the data containing emotional information (i.e. coded 1, 2, or 3),

focusing on speci�c emotions and their triggers. Lazarus’s (1993) categorization of emotions, which divides

emotions into four positive (happiness, pride, relief, love), nine negative (anger, anxiety, fright, guilt, shame, sadness,

envy, jealousy, disgust) and two mixed states (hope, compassion) guided categorization. For example, the employee

response ‘The takeover made it possible to combine our strengths, which strengthens the company for the future’

re�ected happiness, as it portrays ‘Making reasonable progress toward the realization of a goal’ (Lazarus, 1993, p.

13). In turn, the response ‘Management must live up to these values as an example, otherwise they are senseless’

portrayed anger, as it entails ‘A demeaning o�ense against me and mine’ (Lazarus, 1993, p. 13) in that the

employees were asked to behave in one way, whereas management was not seen to follow the same rules.

In addition to the surveys, semi-structured interviews with Alpha Group management (11) and employee

representatives (2) between late 2015 and mid-2016, six in Finland in Finnish, and seven in Germany in English,

Table 1

Table 1. Respondents.

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representatives (2) between late 2015 and mid 2016, six in Finland in Finnish, and seven in Germany in English,

provided more personal, in-depth data regarding the context and emotional experiences. The interviews were

audio-recorded (altogether approximately 830 min) and transcribed to ease analysis. Organizing the data in QSR

NVivo 11 software re�ected both theoretical and inductive themes. The analysis focused on detailing the emotion

elicitation process during post-acquisition change. During the analysis process, it became clear that the emergent

emotions were not merely those of anxiety and stress expected in previous acquisition literature (e.g. Graebner et

al., 2017). Moreover, the stance towards change was not resistant, as predicted in much of the change management

literature (e.g. Rosenbaum et al., 2018). Instead, two questions, which existing literature could not explain, arose:

Why are they so happy? And What is special about interaction? These questions form the key point of problematization

in this article (Alvesson & Sandberg, 2011). Thus, pertaining to the abductive paradigm, the �ndings from study one

are explored through answering these surprising empirical questions (cf. Dubois & Gadde, 2002; Folger & Stein,

2017).

Why Are They So Happy?

Although previous acquisition literature expects the employees to be miserable, at Alpha Group positive emotions

were clearly dominant at the time of integration as revealed by the 2015 employee satisfaction survey (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Emotions at Alpha Group in 2015.

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This raised the question, why are they so happy? Exploring this question through systematic combining, two key

concepts seemed to o�er the best explanatory power: cognitive appraisal theory and a�ective events theory.

Cognitive Appraisal Theory

In human evolution, emotions were fundamental for survival by prompting humans to seek nurturance and avoid

harm (Izard, 1984). However, research settings often operationalize emotions as componential experiences, which

include a combination of appraisal, action readiness, physiological responses, behavioural outcomes, and subjective

feelings (Scherer & Moors, 2019). This is a cognitive approach to emotion. Cognitive appraisal theory stems from the

work of Magda Arnold (Cornelius, 2006), who claimed that emotion requires perception and appraisal (Arnold,

1960). Here, appraisal refers to a degree of personal relevance and is an evaluation of the importance of a certain

situation or event to the wellbeing of the self (Lazarus, 1991). Thus, emotions are judgments (Solomon, 2003) and

include a trigger, an evaluation, and a reaction (Fredrickson, 2001).

The emotion labels that arise from the cognitive process are varied, and because emotions are essentially subjective

experiences, categorizing them is di�cult (Mandler, 1999). Despite the di�culties, categorizations build on the

hedonic quality of the emotion, meaning whether it feels good or bad (Gordon, 1987). In addition to being positive

(pleasing, good, or goal-congruent) and negative (displeasing, bad, or goal-incongruent), di�erent emotions have

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(pleasing, good, or goal congruent) and negative (displeasing, bad, or goal incongruent), di�erent emotions have

di�erent appraisal patterns, distinguishing them from other emotional states. Lazarus (1991; 1993) has suggested

that what separates the emotions from each other are the speci�c relationships they describe between the

experiencing individual and the surrounding context. For example, happiness refers to making reasonable progress

toward an objective, whereas anger re�ects a demeaning o�ense against oneself or a group with which one

identi�es.

Affective Events Theory

A�ective events theory suggests that work-related events can act as triggers for emotions. It counterbalances

traditional judgment-based theories of work-related behaviour, drawing a line between the work context itself and

events in the environment that can cause emotional reactions. It proposes that work-related emotions have a direct

link to behaviours and attitudes (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996). Here, the term event refers to a discrete episode at

work (Morgeson et al., 2015) that provokes an appraisal (Basch & Fisher, 1998) related to one’s job tasks or

relationships at work (Casper et al., 2019).

Change, such as post-acquisition integration, is a common emotion trigger at work (e.g. Dhingra & Punia, 2016;

Kiefer, 2002). When considering change acceptance, it is noteworthy that, apart from valence, emotions can have

activating power. For example, the two negative emotions of anger and fear have rather opposite activation

patterns. Whereas anger can aggravate and increase impulsiveness, fear often leads to withdrawal (Ashkanasy &

Dorris, 2017). To generate proactive attitudes towards change, activating positive states such as excitement seem

most bene�cial. Change acceptance signi�es positive states without activation, such as calmness. Conversely,

disengagement from change e�orts occurs when emotional experiences are negative and deactivating, such as with

helplessness or sadness. In turn, active negative emotions such as anger create change resistance (Oreg et al., 2018). In this article

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helplessness or sadness. In turn, active negative emotions such as anger create change resistance (Oreg et al., 2018).

Revisiting the Emotions at Alpha Group

At Alpha Group, employees expressed myriad emotions identi�able in the categorization outlined by Lazarus (1993)

( ).

On the positive side, happiness emerged through the belief in continuity triggered by the extensive change e�orts,

most notably the value workshops. Similarly, relief signalled an increased sense of security. The employees felt pride

in the ability to carry out the acquisition and in working for a company that had expressed values to guide everyday

work. On the negative side, anxiety arose from the uncertainties of integration and the perceived lack of progress,

whereas anger emerged when employees saw actions as unjust. A sense of loss created sadness, and jealousy

emerged from di�culties in understanding the new decision-making structures. Nevertheless, hope arose from

employees’ seeing the synergy potential of uniting the two companies.

Notably, employees gave a wide range of labels to these experiences. Happiness, for example, is synonymous with

joy, enthusiasm, or optimism (cf. Laros & Steenkamp, 2005), whereas anxiety matches nervousness (cf. Watson &

Clark, 1999). In addition, employees experienced several emotions simultaneously, including contradictory

emotions, signalling that the emotions are not mutually exclusive (cf. Carrera & Oceja, 2009; Watson & Clark, 1999).

Furthermore, emotions are dynamic, as they are bound in time and space (cf. Lazarus, 1991; Scherer, 2009).

Table 2

Table 2. Emotions at Alpha Group (see also Harikkala-Lahinen, 2019 , pp. 228–232).

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Furthermore, emotions are dynamic, as they are bound in time and space (cf. Lazarus, 1991; Scherer, 2009).

Regardless, events at work undoubtedly triggered emotions (cf. Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996). Most positive were the

employee emotions regarding the interactive and engaging value workshops. This highlights an interesting point.

Whereas communication appeared lacking, the value workshops – arguably a communication e�ort – clearly

triggered mainly positive emotions. This led to the question, what is special about interaction.

What Is Special About Interaction?

A key positivity trigger at Alpha Group were the designated value workshops where every employee was able to

make sense of the new company values.

The observation that we all, sometimes even unwittingly, have similar principles and values, was very

constructive. In such a community, it is easier to head in one direction – toward our common goal.

(Survey respondent)

These workshops were a massive communication e�ort on the part of Alpha Group. In addition, the values were a

recurring topic in the in-house employee magazine, where they appeared in short comic strips showing how the

values translated to everyday work. The values also appeared in all company meetings and presentations, and even

became a part of the recruitment. Yet overall, employees continued to experience communication as somewhat

sub-optimal, claiming that cooperation between units was lacking. This encouraged looking deeper into the

concepts of communication and interaction.

Communication and Interaction

Organizational communication is a means for employees to interpret work-related events, which in turn enables

organizations to use communication in order to in�uence employee perceptions (Roundy, 2010). However, following In this article

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organizations to use communication in order to in�uence employee perceptions (Roundy, 2010). However, following

acquisitions, the increased stress of the change period can make communication more di�cult (Lotz & Donald,

2006). Nevertheless, open (Angwin et al., 2016) and frequent (Weber et al., 2011) communication is vital during

integration (Schweiger & Denisi, 1991). Clear, consistent, considered information from several interconnected

channels helps employees handle uncertainty and thus increases productivity following acquisitions (Appelbaum et

al., 2000). In fact, e�ective communication is essential for any type of organizational change. Communication is

e�ective if it is simultaneously informative, educational, and motivational (Barrett, 2002).

Following an acquisition, most successful communication e�orts form a dynamic, ongoing process. A stream of well-

planned, coherent messages facilitate employee commitment to the acquisition and help avoid information

shortage or overload (Angwin et al., 2016). However, interaction – the ability to participate – seems most e�ective in

terms of achieving social cohesion (Cooper-Thomas & Anderson, 2006; Morrison, 2002). Involvement can greatly

increase employee willingness to commit to acquisition-related changes (Appelbaum et al., 2007). To achieve the

bene�t, employees must have the ability to get directly involved in the change e�ort (Simonsen Abildgaard et al.,

2020). Participation allows employees to form an understanding of the reasoning behind changes and creates a

sense of ownership and control, motivating employees to work toward the change. Participation also increases

awareness of the positive aspects of change, thus generating more positive emotions (Ra�erty & Jimmieson, 2018).

A key means of building unity through interactive communication is dialogue.

Dialogue

Dialogue means ‘a sustained collective inquiry into the processes, assumptions, and certainties that compose

everyday experience’ (Isaacs, 1993, p. 25). In essence, it signals a �ow of meaning (Bohm, 2003; Senge, 1990) that

embraces di�erent viewpoints (Oliver & Jacobs, 2007). The goal of dialogue is to achieve understanding rather than

agreement (Isaacs, 1999), enabling group members to move toward converging beliefs and values (Oliver & Jacobs, In this article

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agreement (Isaacs, 1999), enabling group members to move toward converging beliefs and values (Oliver & Jacobs,

2007), ultimately building a joint culture (Bohm, 2003; Schein, 1993).

In dialogue, each participant has the chance to voice thoughts and emotions. At the same time, each participant

must actively listen and empathize with each speaker, respecting everyone’s entitlement to their own position and

suspending all judgment (Isaacs, 1999). Authentic dialogue occurs when three di�erent information-processing

motivations converge (Choi, 2014). Epistemic information processing refers to the desire to make an e�ort towards

achieving understanding (De Dreu et al., 2008). This is the sphere where group-based decision-making is rational

(Choi, 2014). Social information processing motivation centres on the contents of information (Steinel et al., 2010),

determining which group outcomes are most desirable (Choi, 2014). Pro-self motivation seeks to increase individual

bene�ts, whereas pro-social motivation encourages the pursuit of group goals (Steinel et al., 2010). Compassionate

information processing motivation depicts empathic responses (Choi, 2014) that re�ect compassion – being moved

by perceived su�ering (Lazarus, 1993).

Revisiting Communication at Alpha Group

The most important thing is to understand the people and speak with them, and to be open. It is

communication – I cannot think of anything that would be more important. (Integration manager)

Alpha Group made a great e�ort at communication, starting with in-person announcements of the deal by the key

people in the four largest locations all on the same day. Alpha Group attempted to maintain a positive image of the

acquisition (cf. Roundy, 2010) through explicitly portraying the values in the value workshops as well as through

other communication means. With these e�orts, Alpha Group successfully informed as well as motivated employees

(cf. Barrett, 2002).

Moreover, Alpha Group employees did respond particularly well to participative communication in the form of

interaction (cf. Clayton, 2010; Cooper-Thomas & Anderson, 2006; Morrison, 2002). The value workshops gave In this article

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interaction (cf. Clayton, 2010; Cooper Thomas & Anderson, 2006; Morrison, 2002). The value workshops gave

employees the chance to explore each other’s viewpoints and come to a joint understanding – i.e. it gave them the

chance to engage in dialogue (Isaacs, 1999; cf. Oliver & Jacobs, 2007).

People appreciate that they are now much more involved than before. (Vice president, sales)

During the value workshops, employees were invited to breathe life into the new organizational values. They had

the chance to look for ways to use the values in everyday work throughout the company, re�ecting an epistemic

motivation (cf. De Dreu et al., 2008). They also had the chance to link the values in action to pro-social group goals,

re�ecting social information processing (cf. Steinel et al., 2010). Furthermore, the employees were encouraged to

consider their colleagues, suppliers, and customers, re�ecting a compassionate motivation (cf. Choi, 2014). Thus,

interaction – for example, dialogue – seems to be bene�cial in positive post-acquisition change.

A Framework for Positive Post-Acquisition Change

Positive organizational change refers to a�rmative rather than harmful change experiences (Avey et al., 2008). A key

way to encourage positive change is by o�ering employees positive emotion triggers (Cameron, 2008), which

increase positive emotional experiences and lead to positive, change-congruent behaviour (Fredrickson, 2013).

Positive triggers can include managers’ positive emotion displays (Newcombe & Ashkanasy, 2002) or engaging,

interactive change initiatives (Cameron & Green, 2012). Here, the emphasis is on the interconnections between

communication – particularly interaction – and emotions.

Based on the Alpha Group case, emotions following acquisitions occur on many organizational levels (cf. Ashkanasy,

2003), are dynamic during the integration process, and cause behavioural outcomes. Positive change does not

mean the exclusion and ignorance of negative emotions, but an emphasis on overcoming challenges (cf. Avey et al.,

2008; Bar-tal et al., 2007). Thus, also negative emotions need space at all levels to maintain the positive balance of In this article

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2008; Bar tal et al., 2007). Thus, also negative emotions need space at all levels to maintain the positive balance of

the changing environment. At the same time, it is important to stay on top of possible negative emotions in order to

discourage their spread.

To increase overall positivity, interactive communication that enables the generation of positive emotions seems to

be a key concern. Nevertheless, traditional top-down communication, i.e. information sharing, is important for

creating a level playing �eld where interaction can occur ( ). Company presentations, bulletin boards, email

newsletters etc. have a critical role in keeping employees informed. This information can decrease rumouring and

ensure employees can carry on their daily work during hectic change periods. Absorbing such information requires

limited individual involvement from employees, even though employees may �nd the messages unpleasant at

times.

Conversely, interaction allows employees to take a more active role and become engaged in the process. Interaction

can occur in team meetings, social gatherings, or speci�cally designed workshops. It is often initiated top-down, but

to become truly interactive, openness and participation are crucial. The purpose of such interaction is to engage

employees, create a sense of ownership of the change process, and thus motivate them to carry out the change. As

these communication means are very di�erent, they also triggered di�erent emotions at Alpha Group. Whereas

information sharing was often connected to negative emotions (i.e. uncertainty and anxiety due to perceived lack of

information) or to neutralizing negative emotions (i.e. overcoming information shortages), interaction was able to

Table 3

Table 3. Information sharing and interaction.

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information) or to neutralizing negative emotions (i.e. overcoming information shortages), interaction was able to

create positive emotions and employee engagement. Thus, both seem equally necessary, but have di�erent roles

during post-acquisition integration.

Based on Alpha Group, positive post-acquisition integration necessitates an understanding of communication

practices as well as employee emotions (Figure 3). The framework, based on existing literature (e.g. Angwin et al.,

2016; Balle, 2008; Roundy, 2010) as well as the Alpha Group case, suggests reliable, repeated, rich communication is

necessary for successful integration, evidenced in triggering positive emotions. The framework emphasizes the

bene�ts of interaction in increasing employee engagement and motivation, thus encouraging positive emotions and

behaviour (cf. Appelbaum et al., 2007; Clayton, 2010; Cornett-DeVito & Friedman, 1995).

Figure 3. A framework for positive post-acquisition integration.

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Following an acquisition, positive organizational change requires positivity towards the post-acquisition

organization. If employees’ positive emotions re�ect the pre-acquisition organization, they are likely to cause

protectionist behaviours, as any change poses a threat to the social group (cf. Menges & Kildu�, 2015). This is often

problematic, as acquisitions tend to bring forth employees’ old, pre-acquisitions identi�cation. Thus, a sense of

continuity is essential in redirecting identi�cation towards the new, post-acquisition organization (Van Vuuren et al.,

2010). For example, positive attitudes toward the new values encouraged employees to change their behaviour.

Conversely, negative emotions related to the values, such as seeing someone violate them, caused employees to

disregard them. Thus, positive emotions, which re�ect the change process or goals, are likely to boost change

e�orts, whereas negative emotions regarding the change or positive emotions regarding the pre-change

organization can hinder them. To explore the explanatory power of the suggested framework in a di�erent context,

study two focuses on a more traditional acquisition setting.

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study two focuses on a more traditional acquisition setting.

Study Two for Phase Two

Method

Case Description

German Gamma bought Finnish Delta in January 2017. Prior to the deal, Delta was a small manufacturing company

employing 77 workers, and had struggled with pro�tability for years. However, Delta’s product range was

competitive and of high quality, making it an interesting target for Gamma, a large group in the same business area

that had formerly been a customer of Delta. Whereas Delta had sales across Europe, the Middle East, and India,

Gamma’s brand was global. Thus, the deal o�ered Gamma a wider product range and Delta broader networks and

longevity. Gamma chose a rather slow and detached integration approach (cf. Cartwright & Cooper, 1993;

Haspeslagh & Jemison, 1991), deciding to maintain the separate company and brand names. Nevertheless,

uni�cation occurred in, for example, company structures and reporting processes.

Data Collection and Analysis

Phase two takes the acquired company’s point of view. This re�ects the majority of acquisition literature, which

assumes emotions – particularly negative emotions – occur mostly in the acquired organization (cf. Graebner et al.,

2017). Thus, a slightly di�erent setting, where negative emotions may be expected, best challenges the emerging

framework. In this article

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framework.

At Delta, data collection began with 17 semi-structured interviews with representatives of all organizational levels

and functions in the spring and summer of 2017, with nine separate follow-up interviews in the spring of 2018. The

interview questions re�ected the key themes found in phase one: (1) background of the deal, (2) completion of the

acquisition, (3) emotions and the working atmosphere, and (4) communication. Under these main sections, the

focus was on how the informants experienced integration. Most interviews took place face-to-face in the Finnish

language, but due to overseas locations, two were conducted via Skype, and due to di�erences in mother tongues,

two were conducted in English. The interviews were audio-recorded (altogether approximately 1,360 min) and

transcribed for analysis, which occurred through themed categorization in QSR NVivo 11 software.

In 2017, the interviewees were encouraged to write a memo-like diary detailing their everyday experiences

regarding the integration. Ten respondents made 44 entries. In 2018, the diary was open for all employees, and 6

respondents made 21 entries. The diary frame consisted of one A4 sheet asking the employees to (1) rate their day

on a scale from 1 to 10, (2) share any emotions they felt or detected, and (3) consider how the emotional climate at

work could be improved. The main body of the diary was open-ended, engaging the informants in producing

qualitative, textual data, whereas question one produced quantitative data. All diaries were written in Finnish, and

the analysis occurred through categorization based on issues that employees experienced as creating positivity or

negativity within Delta, giving more heft to the interview �ndings through illustrative quotes. As the diarists were too

few to represent the entire organization, quantitative analysis on the daily ratings was not feasible. Instead, the

ratings informed the analysis of the qualitative sections. Diarists that rated their days consistently low experienced

mainly negative emotions, whereas diarists whose daily ratings varied also reported varied experiences.

All Delta employees had the chance to contemplate their opinions about the deal, communication during the deal,

the working atmosphere, and management during the acquisition through four open-ended, qualitative questions In this article

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the working atmosphere, and management during the acquisition through four open ended, qualitative questions

in an employee satisfaction survey in the fall of 2018. These topics re�ect the key issues from phase one and from

the interviews conducted at Delta. The response rate was approximately 59% (n = 56). Most responses were in

Finnish, with some written in English. The survey data categorization used the themes of the questions as well as

the themes from the interviews to inform the emerging �ndings. In e�ect, the survey data illustrated and

strengthened the points already identi�ed as signi�cant in the interviews. Finally, all of the data collected from Delta

informed the illustrative quotes representing the experienced emotions, as categorized by Lazarus (1993).

Employee Emotions

At Delta, many emotions also emerged ( ).

The core of these emotions largely resembled the experiences at Alpha Group. Increased faith in the future

triggered happiness and relief, whereas the accustomed best practices at Delta generated pride. This, however,

turned to anger when it appeared that Gamma was o�ending the best practices. Employees experienced Delta’s

future within Gamma as insecure and keenly felt a sense of loss over the old company. Overall, at Delta, negative

emotions seemed more dominant.

People are tired and frustrated. I hear deep sighs and frustrated comments. (Diarist)

Table 4

Table 4. Emotions at delta (see also Harikkala-Lahinen, 2019 , pp. 236–237).

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At Delta, individuals were concerned about their own jobs, groups were concerned over their immediate colleagues,

and the pre-acquisition organization members over continuity. A strong us versus them attitude was visible,

indicating that the post-acquisition we had not emerged.

Communication and Interaction

Delta employees appreciated company meetings that invited all the employees together once each quarter to hear

the latest news. However, at Delta, employees did not experience that they had the ability to participate in the

change, indicating that information sharing rather than interaction was the used communication strategy. The

messages centred on day-to-day functional matters, and employees had a relatively passive role as recipients.

Although the aim was keeping everyone informed, many employees experienced communication as sub-optimal. At

the same time, employees were not purposefully engaged in acquisition-related interaction.

We can express our opinion, but so far it has had no in�uence. It is their [Gamma’s] rules, and we have

to … [follow]. (Managing director)

Delta employees also experienced the company strategy as foggy, discouraging them from extra e�ort toward

change. The �ndings likely re�ect the expected negativity in the acquired company facing change (e.g. Graebner et

al., 2017). This may be a key reason why the integration at Delta triggered signi�cantly fewer positive emotion

experiences than was found at Alpha Group. Nevertheless, the suggested framework functions as an analytical tool

also at Delta (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Integration at Delta.

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Although at Delta information sharing was the main communication means, the organization was able to tune the

message to employee needs, increasing communication when employees reported feelings of uncertainty.

Perceived longevity thanks to the acquisition did trigger positive emotions, but negative emotions were – at least in

the short term – more powerful due to a perceived loss of control and increased stress.

People are rather irritable and tired, and you can see that the positivity I always thought was our strength

has decreased considerably. (Country manager)

This occurred even though management made great e�ort to improve the acquisition partners’ perceptions of each

other and to hear employees’ worries. Nevertheless, the perceived distance of Gamma management downplayed

the post-acquisition organization, maintaining Delta as the core of employees’ identi�cation.

If they always say ‘them’, then it’s more challenging to grow together. I always pay very much attention to

that. (Integration manager)

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that. (Integration manager)

Thus, although Delta was able to achieve consistent, frequent communication (e.g. Angwin et al., 2016), the bene�ts

of interaction were not reaped (cf. Clayton, 2010).

Discussion

Looking at the integration processes discussed above from a POS viewpoint, to create positive post-acquisition

change, the management task centres on promoting change receptiveness and building commitment to the post-

acquisition organization (cf. Caldwell, 2003). Portraying what is exciting and bene�cial about the change for the

employees (cf. Karp, 2004) and emphasizing these positive emotion triggers (cf. Cameron, 2008) enables managers

to build positivity. This paves the way towards a�rmative, positive change (cf. Avey et al., 2008; Whetten & Cameron,

2011).

Employees are likely to experience myriad integration-related emotions, which can at times be contradictory.

Positive emotions such as happiness, relief and pride, as well as negative emotions such as anxiety, anger, sadness

and jealousy are likely to emerge. At the same time, employees are likely to experience hope. Overall, based on the

cognitive appraisal theory (e.g. Fredrickson, 2013; Lazarus, 1991), it seems that negative experiences following

acquisitions re�ect the uncertainty of the period, perceptions of o�ense against the employees or the pre-

acquisition organization, or experiences of resentment due to perceived favouritism or inequality. Positivity, in turn,

re�ects perceptions of continuity and opportunity, a relieving of stress, or perceived credit in advancement. These

�ndings increase understanding of emotions during acquisitions through o�ering a more balanced viewpoint,

considering both positive and negative experiences (cf. Graebner et al., 2017).

The relationship between communication and emotion seems somewhat complex. As predicted (e.g. Sinkovics et al.,

2011), communication arose as a central trigger for emotions both at Alpha Group and Delta. Open (cf. Angwin et In this article

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2011), communication arose as a central trigger for emotions both at Alpha Group and Delta. Open (cf. Angwin et

al., 2016), frequent (cf. Weber et al., 2011) communication was valued and helped employees cope with uncertainty

(cf. Appelbaum et al., 2000). Conversely, a lack of communication can also act as an emotion trigger, particularly

increasing uncertainty and anxiety, possibly giving rise to rumour mongering. Thus, organizations can use

communication strategically to in�uence emotions, for example through addressing issues, which are causing

rumours.

Previous literature (e.g. Balle, 2008; Barrett, 2002; Lee, 1994; Lotz & Donald, 2006; Schweiger & Denisi, 1991) seems

to best predict the e�ects and highlight the importance of traditional, top-down communication. This is essential for

change e�orts, because information can e�ectively decrease anxiety and enable smooth day-to-day functioning

during stressful change periods. However, in terms of increasing positivity, it seems that interaction is more

e�ective and important. Notably, the example of dialogue (cf. Bohm, 2003; Isaacs, 1999; Senge, 1990) found at Alpha

Group highlights the motivating e�ect of engagement. Establishing dialogue in the interactive sense, for example

through workshops like at Alpha Group, is a great e�ort. Thus, it is noteworthy that likely any other interaction

mode would have similar results in triggering positivity.

Interaction is a means towards building unity: creating a sense of closeness and collaboration, which can help

overcome the us versus them setting common following acquisitions. The key in using interaction to ease change is

in utilizing humans’ innate preference for positive triggers (Cameron, 2008) and responsiveness to social contexts

(Fiske & Taylor, 2013). This enables organizations to manipulate the change context to seem more positive (cf.

Andersen & Guerrero, 1996), allowing the appearance of positive emotions (cf. Bar-tal et al., 2007; Hat�eld et al.,

1994).

Moreover, interaction increases employee engagement with the change process, thus triggering a sense of shared

ownership of the process and its success. This further increases the motivating e�ect of interaction, as any In this article

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ownership of the process and its success. This further increases the motivating e�ect of interaction, as any

subsequent success in the change process then becomes a source of pride, and a boost for one’s ego-identity.

Nevertheless, interaction is likely to o�er a fruitful arena for emotion contagion (cf. Barsade, 2002; Hat�eld et al.,

1994). Therefore, although organization-led change initiatives may well trigger positivity, informal co�ee table

discussions may equally well spread negative emotions. This again highlights the necessity of both information

sharing and interaction following acquisitions.

Conclusion

Theoretical Contribution

This article has increased understanding of the emergence and in�uence of emotions in the change management

literature (cf. Zietsma et al., 2019) through highlighting the link between di�erent communication practices and

resultant employee reactions. Moreover, this article builds understanding on how communication can be used to

create a positive change climate (cf. Ashkanasy & Daus, 2002) and to overcome potential con�ict (cf. Angwin et al.,

2016; Weber & Drori, 2011). This article suggests that in order to create change-congruent behaviour, organizations

can simultaneously decrease worries through traditional, top-down communication and increase positivity through

interaction. Both are necessary for optimal change results. Information sharing can help organizations overcome

potential con�ict, but interaction will likely further the change agenda beyond the neutralizing e�ect. This shows the

value of positivity over and above the negative.

More particularly, this study has shed light on collective emotion management during change periods (cf. Huy, 2012;

Steigenberger, 2015) through di�erent communication e�orts. Although interaction is the key to positive emotion In this article

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Steigenberger, 2015) through di�erent communication e�orts. Although interaction is the key to positive emotion

elicitation, information sharing is essential in alleviating worries, cutting down rumours and ensuring day-to-day

functions. Thus, interaction will likely not be successful in creating positivity if information sharing is not in place.

Through uncovering this novel insight into the dynamics of emotion elicitation in organizations (cf. Scherer & Moors,

2019), this article revealed that managing change in a positive way (cf. Canning & Found, 2015; Dixon et al., 2016)

can occur through engaging both in information-sharing and interactive change communication. Consequently, this

article reveals that facilitating positive emotions at work (cf. Allen & McCarthy, 2016) can occur, for example, through

engaging employees in interactive, motivating communication endeavours.

Based on these insights, the relationship between emotions and communication in managing positive change is

threefold. First, communication can alleviate negative emotions (information-sharing) and generate positive

emotions (interaction). Second, emotions can guide communication e�orts. For example, anxiety can be tackled

through increased information-sharing. Third, management can use di�erent communication tools purposefully to

generate certain emotions. For example, interaction can be used to motivate and engage employees.

This article contributes to three aspects of change management: positive emotion elicitation, communication, and

emotion management. First, this article lays the theoretical and practical groundwork for signalling the importance

of interactive communication in generating positive change-related emotions. The sense of ownership and

engagement created through interaction increases employee involvement, thus making every success more

personal, encouraging change-congruent behaviour and the emergence of positive emotions. Second, this article

introduces the di�erent purposes of a more traditional, top-down communication style and a more interactive,

engaging style. Whereas the �rst is necessary to maintain day-to-day functionality and cut down rumour mongering,

the latter is a key means towards increasing employee motivation and commitment. Finally, this article shows how

communication practices enable collective emotion management during change. Traditional communication can

alleviate concerns and cut down rumours, thus decreasing negative emotions. To generate positive emotions, In this article

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alleviate concerns and cut down rumours, thus decreasing negative emotions. To generate positive emotions,

interaction can o�er employees experiences of motivation, engagement and ownership.

Managerial Implications

Increased knowledge of how employees react to organizational changes allows practitioners to prepare for

emotional experiences. The suggested framework can help practitioners plan and analyse their change e�orts

better, and to pay closer attention to the creation of a positive atmosphere likely to ease change processes. An

increased understanding of emotions and their triggers allows practitioners to have an increased depth of

perspective into their own change processes, encouraging them to help employees deal with change-related

anxiety. This is important because employees are likely to have emotional reactions even to relatively minor

changes. If practitioners can build a positive view of the future of the joint company, they can greatly enhance

employee commitment and motivation for making the change a success. In doing so, understanding the necessity of

di�erent communication styles, including interaction, can be a great help.

Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research

The key limitation of this article stems from the chosen methodology. Although every e�ort to establish rigour

advocated by other scholars (e.g. Dubois & Gadde, 2002; Järvensivu & Törnroos, 2010) has been made and detailed

accordingly (e.g. Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Shenton, 2004), the abductive structure is somewhat unique and the weight

of the arguments is based on only two cases. The article is potentially similarly limited by the a�rmative bias

inherent in POS as well as the friendly nature of the acquisitions studied. Thus, future research with more data from

varied change contexts can help corroborate the �ndings. For example, it would be particularly interesting to

explore positivity in hostile acquisitions or otherwise highly negative change experiences, such as following major

layo�s. In this article

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layo�s.

In addition, deeper insight into the di�erent communication means, both information sharing and interaction, may

reveal important insights for change management in terms of boosting positivity. Similarly, di�erences in core a�ect

(e.g. Russell, 2003) may in�uence the e�ectiveness of interventions, providing another avenue for future research.

Finally, other scholars are encouraged to adopt a POS lens to exploring change management, as refocusing e�orts

from looking at potential problems to looking at success and vitality may reveal why current literature is

inconclusive.

Acknowledgements

The author wishes to thank Professor Niina Nummela and Postdoctoral Researcher Johanna Raitis from Turku

School of Economics at the University of Turku and Lecturer Melanie Hassett from University of She�eld School of

Management for their invaluable support.

Disclosure Statement

No potential con�ict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Data Availability Statement In this article

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Due to the nature of this research, participants of this study did not agree for their data to be shared publicly, so

supporting data is not available.

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by TEKES – the Finnish Funding Agency for Technology and Innovation [grant number 4220/31/2014]

and Marcus Wallenberg Foundation.

Notes on contributors

Riikka Harikkala-Laihinen

Dr Riikka Harikkala-Laihinen is a Postdoctoral Researcher in International Business at the TurkuIn this article

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School of Economics at the University of Turku, Finland. She defended her doctoral thesis ‘The

power of positivity: How employee emotions and interaction can bene�t cross-border acquisitions’

in September 2019. In her thesis, she explored how cognitive appraisal theory could be used to

explain employee reactions during post-acquisition integration. It received the 2020 AIB-UKI Adam

Smith Best Doctoral Dissertation Award. Her areas of expertise include emotions in organizations,

cross-border acquisitions and cross-cultural management. Her current work centres on exploring

the in�uence of employee emotions at work. She has published in Cross Cultural and Strategic

Management and the Research on Emotions in Organizations book series. She has also coedited a

volume on socio-cultural integration in the Nordic countries for Palgrave-Macmillan and published a

Palgrave Pivot book on Managing Emotions in Organizations.

Notes

1 By positive, this study refers to an experienced quality: pleasure (e.g. positive emotions) as opposed to displeasure

(e.g. negative emotions) (cf. Lazarus, 1991).

2 Despite their di�erence, the words ‘merger’ and ‘acquisition’ are often used interchangeably. However, as

acquisitions are more common in practice (e.g. Raitis et al., 2017), this article mainly refers to ‘acquisitions’.

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