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Functional Neuroanatomy and the Evolution of the Nervous System

Chapter Two

• Rostral or anterior – Head end of four legged animal

• Caudal or posterior – Tail end of four legged animal

• Inferior or ventral – Towards the belly

• Superior or dorsal – Towards the back

Anatomical Directions

Anatomical Directions (cont’d.)

• Sagittal – Parallel to midline

• Coronal – Divides nervous system front to back

• Horizontal – (axial, transverse) – Divides brain from top to bottom

Planes of Section

Planes of Section (cont’d.)

• Meninges – Three layers of meninges provide protection

• Cerebrospinal fluid – Secreted in hollow spaces in the brain known

as ventricles – Circulates through ventricles, subarachnoid

space, and central canal of the spinal cord • Blood supply

– Brain receives nutrients through the carotid arteries and vertebral arteries

Protecting and Supplying the Nervous System

The Skull and Three Layers of Membrane Protect the Brain

Cerebrospinal Fluid Circulation

Hydrocephalus

The Brain Has a Generous Supply of Blood

• The central nervous system – Brain and spinal cord

• The peripheral nervous system – All nerves that leave from the brain and spinal

cord and extend to and from all parts of the body

The Organization of the Nervous System

• Anatomy – Extends from the medulla to the first lumbar

vertebra – 31 spinal nerves (cervical, thoracic, lumbar,

sacral, coccygeal) – White matter (nerve fibers); gray matter (cell

bodies) • Reflexes

– Patellar reflex – Withdrawal reflex

The Central Nervous System – The Spinal Cord

The Anatomy of the Spinal Cord

Embryological Divisions of the Brain

Structures of the Brainstem

Structures of the Brainstem (cont’d.)

• Medulla (myelencephalon) – Breathing, heart rate, blood pressure – Reticular formation

• Consciousness, arousal, movement, and pain

• Metencephalon – Pons: balance, motion sickness – Cerebellum

• Voluntary movements, muscle tone, balance, speech, motion sickness, executive functions, and emotional processing

The Central Nervous System: The Hindbrain

• Periaqueductal gray – Natural pain management

• Red nucleus – Motor output pathway

• Substantia nigra – Motor output pathway – Parkinson’s disease

• Superior and inferior colliculi – Visual and auditory stimuli

The Internal Structure of the Midbrain

Important Structures in the Brainstem

• The forebrain is composed of the diencephalon and the telencephalon

• Diencephalon – Thalamus

• Receives sensory input

– Hypothalamus • Regulation of the endocrine system

The Central Nervous System – The Forebrain

The Thalamus and Hypothalamus of the Diencephalon

• Telencephalon – Basal ganglia

• Motor control • Parkinson’s and Huntington’s disease; ADHD

– Limbic sstem • Learning, motivated behavior, and emotion

– Cerebral cortex • Four lobes • Sensory cortex, motor cortex, and association

cortex

The Central Nervous System – The Forebrain (cont’d.)

The Basal Ganglia and the Limbic System

Structures of the Limbic System

The Hippocampus

Comparative Convolutions of the Cortex

The Layers of the Cerebral Cortex

Brodmann’s Map of the Brain

The Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex

The Corpus Callosum and the Anterior Commissure

• Frontal lobe – Primary motor cortex, cognitive processes – Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, orbitofrontal

cortex – Phineas Gage – Lobotomies – Broca’s area – Lateralization of function

Localization of Function in the Cortex

The Case of Phineas Gage

• The Human Connectome Project – Mapping the neural connections within the

brain – Cellular and macro levels of investigation

Brain Circuits and the Connectome

• The cranial nerves – Enter and exit the brain directly to serve the

region of the head and neck • The spinal nerves

– 31 pairs provide sensory and motor pathways to the torso, arms, and legs

– Mixed nerves (afferent and efferent) • The autonomic nervous system

– Manages the vital functions of the body without conscious effort or awareness

The Peripheral Nervous System

The Twelve Pairs of Cranial Nerves

The Structure of the Spinal Cord

• The sympathetic nervous system – Fight-or-flight system

• The parasympathetic nervous system – Provides rest, repair, and energy storage

• The enteric nervous system – Serves the gastrointestinal tract

• The endocrine system – Hypothalamic control of hormone release – Pituitary gland

The Autonomic Nervous System

The Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous Systems

• Natural selection and evolution – Natural selection favors the organism with the

highest degree of fitness • Evolution of the nervous system

– Fairly recent; vertebrates or chordates are animals with spinal columns and real brains

• Evolution of the human brain – Outstanding modern feature is our brain size – Brain development occurred very recently

The Evolution of the Human Brain and Nervous System

Timeline for the Evolution of the Brain

The Evolution of Chordate Brains

Human Brain Development Proceeded Swiftly