PSYC 621 Child Psychology

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Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth

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Fostering childhood resilience: A call to educators

Ronald L. Gardner & Tammy L. Stephens-Pisecco

To cite this article: Ronald L. Gardner & Tammy L. Stephens-Pisecco (2019) Fostering childhood resilience: A call to educators, Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 63:3, 195-202, DOI: 10.1080/1045988X.2018.1561408

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988X.2018.1561408

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ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Fostering childhood resilience: A call to educators

Ronald L. Gardnera and Tammy L. Stephens-Piseccob,a

aUniversitat Jaume I, Bolzano, Italy, Castell�on, Spain; bUniversity of St. Thomas, Houston, TX, USA

ABSTRACT An educator’s function exceeds traditional subject teaching. It includes monitoring and enhancing a child’s physical and emotional well-being. Today’s children face a plethora of risks and educators are on the front line of the defensive. To build childhood fortitude, the authors call on teachers to become aware of the characteristics of resilience and to make its construction a component of their standard curriculum and teaching strategy. The article provides teachers with a checklist of indicators and a list of techniques that educators can use to boost students’ positive development in the classroom. Ideally, the model can be incorporated into general and special educa- tion classes.

KEYWORDS Adverse childhood experiences; at-risk children; protective factors; resilience

Individuals face trauma and stressors at every point in their lives. From an abusive father rearing an infant to a youth struggling with the death of her mother, some risks encoun- tered threaten one’s psychological and social well-being (Masten, Herbers, Cutuli, & Lafavor, 2008). Coinciding with a given risk, there are personal factors that can undermine one’s ability to overcome adversity, including biological characteristics such as personal health (Zolkoski & Bullock, 2012), coping styles, and the availability of a social support network (Miller & Harrington, 2011; Ungar, 2015a). This combination of attributes, among others, helps determine whether a person is able to successfully navigate the adver- sities they encounter. If an individual surmounts their hard- ship, they are often referred to as resilient (Ungar, 2015a).

Contemporary academic literature boasts multiple defini- tions of resilience (Cassidy, 2015; Zolkoski & Bullock, 2012). Cassidy (2015), for example, defines resilience as “an asset or strength, a desirable and advantageous quality, character- istic or process that is likely to impact positively on aspects of an individual’s performance, achievement, health, and wellbeing” (p. 2). In more simplified terms, Zolkoski and Bullock (2012) suggest that it is the ability to live a success- ful life despite encountering greater risk than one’s average peers. What is clear from these understandings is that schol- ars conceptualize resilience as a dynamic process and the ultimate outcome where someone prevails in the face of challenges.

By comparison, other researchers hypothesize that resili- ence is something greater. Beutel et al. (2017), for example, recognize that some individuals thrive in the face of adver- sity. In these instances, resilience is not a homeostatic return to earlier levels of functioning subsequent to encountering a challenge, but something extraordinary. While such concep- tual divergences are theoretically and etymologically

important, in this article, we choose to broadly define resili- ence as both a general recovery and any improvement sub- sequent to an encounter with one or more risk factors. This, we believe, places emphasis on individual fortitude or cap- acity without passing unnecessary, untimely, or inappropri- ate judgment on those who may struggle to thrive.

Adverse childhood experiences

A large cross-section of primary and secondary students is exposed to adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) that can produce trauma, stress, unhealthy development, and poor achievement (Bethell, Davis, Gombojav, Stumbo, & Powers, 2017). For instance, an estimated 41% of all children in the United States live in households with a low income (Koball & Jiang, 2018). In 2016, nearly 5.5% of children lacked health insurance (Barnett & Berchick, 2017; Koball & Jiang, 2018). Further, an estimated 4% are exposed to domestic or community violence (Bethell et al., 2017), with one in seven children self-reporting instances of abuse or neglect (Fortson, Klevens, Merrick, Gilbert, & Alexander, 2016). Last, 9% of children live with parents who have an alcohol or drug problem (Bethell et al., 2017). If these individual ACEs were not debilitating enough, research has found that many students are exposed to multiple risk factors and lack the necessary resources or support networks in their family, school, or community (Bethell et al., 2017; Beutel et al., 2017).

With these cascading risk factors in mind, this article seeks to fill an important research gap by drawing attention to the importance of proactively building childhood resili- ence at school. We are encouraged by a general shift in United States educational policy over the past decade from a reactive, or “wait-to-fail,” model to a more preventative

CONTACT Tammy L. Stephens-Pisecco [email protected] University of St. Thomas, Houston, Texas, USA � 2019 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

PREVENTING SCHOOL FAILURE: ALTERNATIVE EDUCATION FOR CHILDREN AND YOUTH 2019, VOL. 63, NO. 3, 195–202 https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988X.2018.1561408

approach of early identification and intervention (Bernard & Walton, 2011). To illustrate, school districts have been implementing preventative measures to enhance academic achievement through the Response-to-Intervention (RtI) since 2004 (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2006). Among other disciplines, RtI identifies and addresses reading difficulties and other learning disabilities. While a recent government study of the RtI reading program found mixed results in reading improvement among elementary schools (Balu, Zhu, Doolittle, Schiller, Jenkins, & Russell, 2015), educators con- tinue to proactively assess students and adjust their RtI pro- grams to enhance outcomes.

However, preemptive interventions centered on student mental health and welfare continue to lag, even though research has shown the benefits of active strategies in this area (Fox, Carta, Strain, Dunlap, & Hemmeter, 2010). For this reason, we wish to draw educators’ attention to the observation, maintenance, and building of individual and collective resilience to augment pupils’ psychological, social- emotional, and academic development in light of the preva- lence of ACEs. The approach introduced herein prioritizes student well-being and teacher proactivity by providing a reference list of indicators of resilience and then offering suggestions for how teachers can assist students at risk. Our model has a light footprint and is built on a meta-analysis of existing research and classroom experience.

Ideally, general education classes can incorporate our model into an existing RtI framework, where it can be deliv- ered to a whole class, a small group, or an individual, depending on students’ needs and school resources. Also, special education instructors could implement these strat- egies within a classroom. In instances where RtI frameworks do not exist, teachers of all subjects can incorporate many of the techniques suggested into their everyday classroom strategies, often without having to introduce new material. In these latter instances, educators simply need to become aware of students’ potential vulnerabilities and apply best practices while instructing to address student needs. Regardless of the mode of implementation, the developmen- tal characteristics and recommendations outlined below are applicable to most students irrespective of the type or num- ber of risk factors they face or their age, race, cultural back- ground, or achievement level.

The value of instructors building childhood resilience is well documented, as its absence has short- and long-term implications. Socially, nonresilient children can have trouble making friends due to aggressiveness or introverted person- alities (Beutel et al., 2017; Cicchetti, 2013). They are also expected to lack competencies and self-esteem (Cicchetti, 2010; Marx, Young, Harvey, Rosenstein, & Seedat, 2017). At the extreme end of the spectrum, nonresilient children may experience high levels of stress or have hyperaroused senses (Ungar, 2015a). These personal traits likewise have an impact on learning. Anxious and depressed children can exhibit behaviors ranging from becoming easily distracted to being disruptive or noncooperative in the classroom (Ward, Martin, Theron, & Distiller, 2007). Students can even

become withdrawn or truant or may drop out of school (Bethell et al., 2017).

There are equally lifelong implications for nonresilient children. Bethell et al. (2017) find that individuals experienc- ing cascading risks are increasingly maladjusted and some- times engage in deviant behavior as they mature. These characteristics can lead to pathologies, pessimism, and chal- lenges in the management of personal problems or achieve- ment of goals in adulthood (Masten, Monn, & Supkoff, 2011; Wright, Masten, & Narayan, 2013). At its extreme, some may go on to engage in violent criminal activity (Bethell et al., 2017).

After outlining the importance of resilience building among our children, the next section qualifies individual dimensions, or indicators, of resilience. Thereafter, we sug- gest techniques educators can use to assist students they have identified as being at risk. We close the article with a list of organized programs available to educators that could be implemented or referenced when resources and neces- sity warrant.

Qualifying resilience in students

Since resilience is complex, it is challenging both to define and to measure (Cicchetti, 2010; Masten et al., 2011; Wright et al., 2013; Zolkoski & Bullock, 2012). One reason for dis- concertion is that individuals can be strong in one area while weak in another (Condly, 2006; Wright et al., 2013). Equally problematic, children exposed to similar back- grounds and risks can experience divergent outcomes (Cicchetti, 2013; Goldstein & Brooks, 2006; Wright et al., 2013). What is certain is that because risks are ever present, building and maintaining resilience is a necessary and con- tinuous process (Condly, 2006; Wright et al., 2013). Due to the likelihood of fluctuation during childhood development and environmental changes, educators may find it necessary to regularly observe students to look for vulnerabilities (Limonero et al., 2014).

While individual resilience varies over time (Benight & Cieslak, 2011; Beutel et al., 2017; Marx et al., 2017) and is contextual (Ungar, 2015a), scholars recognize multiple, interrelated characteristics that indicate healthy child devel- opment and well-being. For the sake of space, Appendix 1 provides a list of indicators extracted from the literature. Instructors can observe many of these dimensions in the normal classroom environment, at recess, or between classes. Perhaps the most unambiguous of those include independ- ence, self-control, self-esteem (Alvord & Grados, 2005; Cicchetti 2013), and engagement at school (Alvord & Grados, 2005; Skinner & Pitzer, 2012). Teachers usually identify these characteristics within a relatively short period of time during their everyday interaction with, and observa- tion of, pupils.

By comparison, other characteristics are more challenging to discern and require prolonged observation, while others may require the manufacturing of circumstances through brainstorming, stories, or role-play. For instance, resilient students demonstrate moral reasoning, insight, and reflexive

196 R. L. GARDNER AND T. L. STEPHENS-PISECCO

skills (Zolkoski & Bullock, 2012). Critical thinking exercises and classroom discussions provide one means of detecting a child’s ability to plan ahead or recognize cause and effect. Resilient children also trust their own judgment (Cicchetti, 2013; Masten et al., 2011), so are usually confident, pro- active, and not afraid to engage in challenging activities. At the same time, a resilient pupil will demonstrate

perseverance while performing difficult tasks (Alvord & Grados, 2005; Cicchetti, 2013; Condly, 2006).

When they encounter setbacks, a resilient child exercises healthy, active coping strategies (Benight & Cieslak, 2011; Cicchetti, 2013). Such challenges might include doing poorly on a test or having a disagreement with a peer. To manage these difficulties, a resilient student is likely to seek or accept

Table 1. Characteristics of resilience.

Characteristic Individual dimensions References Authors’ suggested opportunities

to evaluate

Relationship building Builds and maintains friendships (peer support network)

Allen et al., 2016; Beutel et al., 2017 Observe student interaction with peers and other teachers during recess period, classroom activities, discussions

Builds and maintains positive relations with teachers or another adults

Allen et al., 2016; Cook et al., 2005

Has the ability to build and maintain romantic attachments with prosocial and well-regulated peers

Cicchetti, 2010 (Not applicable for younger pupils)

Affect regulation Shows self-control Cicchetti, 2013; Condly, 2006; Cook et al., 2005; Marx et al., 2017

During times of stress or peer conflict, when being disciplined, or while per- forming complex tasksRegulates individual behavior Cicchetti, 2013; Marx et al., 2017;

Masten, Monn, & Supkoff, 2011 Can label and express their feelings Cook et al., 2005 Can clearly communicate their needs

or desires Cook et al. ,2005

Perception of self Has healthy self-esteem Cicchetti, 2010; Condly, 2006; Marx et al.,2017

During daily interaction with teachers and peers; when faced with difficult tasks or setbacks; when encounter- ing new situations

Has a realistic sense of control/hav- ing choices

Benight & Cieslak, 2011; Cicchetti, 2013

Believes in one’s uniqueness Alvord & Grados, 2005 Believes in oneself Cassidy, 2015; Marx et al., 2017 Sets high standards for themselves Marx et al., 2017 Trusts their instincts Marx et al., 2017

Personal qualities Is relaxed and easygoing Cook et al., 2005 During times of stress; while interacting with peers during recess and class; during role-play, sports and games, story telling, and arts and crafts; when pupil does not get their way

Exercises moral reasoning Zolkoski & Bullock, 2012 Is independent Alvord & Grados, 2005 Has a sense of humor Cicchetti, 2010; Connor &

Davidson, 2003 Is patient Connor & Davidson, 2003 Is creative Cicchetti, 2013; Zolkoski & Bullock, 2012 Has strong existential beliefs (faith) Cook et al., 2005; Marx et al., 2017 Has a proactive orientation

(takes initiative) Alvord & Grados, 2005; Cook et al.,

2005; Zolkoski & Bullock, 2012 Fortitude Has tenacity Beutel et al., 2017; Marx et al., 2017 During independent or group discus-

sion; when disciplined or receiving a bad grade; when they disagree with peers; during role-play or class or independent discussions, times of stress, and games and sports

Does not yield to stress Connor & Davidson, 2003; Marx et al.,2017

Has enjoyed past successes Connor & Davidson, 2003 Has tolerance for negative affects Marx et al., 2017; Ward et al., 2007 Is future-oriented Beutel et al., 2017; Cicchetti, 2013 Has positive expectations for the future Ward et al., 2007 Remains optimistic Alvord & Grados, 2005; Cicchetti, 2013;

Condly, 2006 Perceives change and potentially stress-

ful experiences in nonthreaten- ing ways

Cicchetti, 2010; Marx et al., 2017; Miller & Harrington, 2011

Confronts fears directly (does not deny or disengage)

Cicchetti,2013

Sets healthy expectations and goals Cook et al., 2005; Ward et al., 2007 Cognitive skills Has insight and reflexive skills Zolkoski & Bullock, 2012 During daily interactions and discus-

sions; during stressful situationsIs engaged at school Alvord & Grados, 2005; Skinner & Pitzer, 2012

Shows foresight in planning Cicchetti, 2013 Adaptive coping strategies Perceives meaning even in hardship Marx et al., 2017 During storytelling, role-play, discussion,

games and sports, group work, and individual interaction with peers

Is able to compromise and adapt (flexible)

Cicchetti, 2010; Condly, 2006; Ward et al., 2007

Learns from past experiences Cook et al., 2005 Exercises active coping strategies Beutel et al., 2017; Cicchetti, 2013;

Miller & Harrington, 2011 Seeks out or accepts support

from others Skinner & Pitzer, 2012; Zolkoski &

Bullock, 2012 Has active problem solving skills Beutel et al., 2017; Cicchetti, 2013; Marx

et al., 2017 Does not avoid surmountable problems Limonero et al., 2014

PREVENTING SCHOOL FAILURE: ALTERNATIVE EDUCATION FOR CHILDREN AND YOUTH 197

Table 2. Techniques for educators to build student resilience.

Description Technique References Suggested interventions

Create a safe environment Ensure the school environment is safe, structured, and inviting

Liebenberg et al., 2016 Prevent bullying; do not shout at stu- dents; manage conflict

Teachers should consistently operate as a disciplinarian

Brooks & Goldstein, 2008 Establish and enforce clear and trans- parent rules and roles

Teachers need to be aware of their own personal disposition and man- age their thoughts, behaviors, and expectations of students

Brooks & Goldstein, 2008; Ward et al., 2007

Think before doing; acknowledge pupil improvements even when you expected more; adapt activities and lessons to pupils

Build relationships Encourage positive peer interaction Allen et al., 2016; Liebenberg et al., 2016

Use group work; peer mentoring; team sports

Teach nonverbal (facial expression, body language) and verbal (initiating conversation, tone, word choice) social skills

Jones & Doolittle,2017; O’Connor, De Feyter, Carr, Luo, & Romm, 2017; Taylor, Oberle, Durlak, & Weissberg, 2017; Yeager, 2017

Role-play; stories; miming; picture cards

Allow and encourage students to help others

Allen et al., 2016; Liebenberg et al., 2016; Ungar, 2015b

Use peer mentoring; collaborative work; group games or sports

Teach students to set clear and realistic boundaries with peers and adults

Allen et al.,2016; Liebenberg et al., 2016; Ungar, 2015b

Teach spatial distance; how to commu- nicate wants and needs; explain the importance of boundaries and model them

Faculty and staff should be approachable

Allen et al., 2016; Liebenberg et al., 2016

Set office hours; be available after class; be considerate when students raise questions

Show empathy and warmth Brooks & Goldstein, 2008; Masten et al., 2008

Smile; comfort; encourage; listen

Encourage and praise students Brooks & Goldstein, 2008; Liebenberg et al., 2016; Masten et al., 2008

Set challenging but achievable tasks in a safe and controlled environment; draw attention to success

Respect students Liebenberg et al., 2016; Williamson & Witzel, 2016

Refrain from gossiping or whispering; be firm but kind when disciplining or correcting; do not show favoritism

Be sensitive to diversity Liebenberg et al., 2016 Educate yourself about cultural differen- ces; ask students for insight and feedback

Communicate clearly Liebenberg et al., 2016 Speak slowly; ask questions to ensure that the student understands direc- tions; explore alternative means of communication

Advocate on behalf of children when they lack the resources or fortitude to do so

Ungar, 2015b Offer guidance and assistance to the pupil and their parents; represent them at school

Facilitate student involvement in com- munity-building projects

Ungar, 2015b; Williamson & Witzel, 2016

Organize community activities where students can interact and help others

Affect regulation Teach students how to describe their emotions and encourage them to express themselves

Allen et al., 2016; Cook et al., 2005 Teach pupils to name emotions; create emotional maps; use emo- tions flashcards

Encourage children to take responsibil- ity for their thoughts and behaviors

Alvord & Grados, 2005 Allow students the opportunity to assist in establishing classroom rules and implement them; keep journals; teach mindfulness training

Encourage optimistic thinking Alvord & Grados, 2005 Teach self-talk; writing irrational and rational thoughts; mindfulness train- ing; map past successes; be their biggest fan; act as a role model

Teach relaxation and self-con- trol techniques

Jones & Doolittle, 2017; O’Connor et al., 2017

Teach breathing techniques; counting; time to think

Perception of self Help students develop a positive sense of their own self-worth

Ungar, 2015b Map strengths and successes; discour- age negative talk; offer encourage- ment and support

Promote social equality Ungar, 2015b Role-play to teach them to respect and appreciate diverse gender, racial, and economic/social statuses; provide les- sons on diversity

Promote a healthy perception of self and others

Williamson & Witzel, 2016 Demonstrate appropriate interaction; list positive attributes of self and others

Provide cultural and racial education Williamson & Witzel, 2016 Have a history lesson; denote accom- plishments; awareness days

Encourage and promote cultural practi- ces and traditions

Ungar, 2015b Have awareness days; praise or compli- ment diversity

Assist students with self-appraisal, aid- ing their understanding of their own strengths and weaknesses

Ungar, 2015b Engage students in activities that exam- ine their strengths and weaknesses;

(continued)

198 R. L. GARDNER AND T. L. STEPHENS-PISECCO

Table 2. Continued.

Description Technique References Suggested interventions

build on strengths; highlight and document strengths

Set realistically high academic expecta- tions and encourage students to pur- sue them

Williamson & Witzel, 2016 Praise success; teach good study practices

Set regular goals for individual students and the class

Williamson & Witzel, 2016 Establish weekly objectives at min- imum; hold periodic discussions about progress

Personal qualities Teach students to balance their per- sonal interests with those of the collective

Ungar, 2015b Use teamwork; group work; role-play; stories; and team sports and games

Foster a positive mindset Jones & Doolittle, 2017; O’Connor et al., 2017; Taylor et al., 2017; Yeager, 2017

Practice mindfulness techniques; track growth and successes; model posi- tive thinking; provide opportunities for students to succeed; allow stu- dents to explore in a safe and con- trolled environment

Help students develop, understand, and exercise their values and beliefs in a respectful manner

Ungar, 2015b Hold cultural awareness training; model appropriate interaction; hold diver- sity awareness days; student presentations

Foster proactivity Alvord & Grados, 2005; Cook et al., 2005; Zolkoski & Bullock, 2012

Teach students to plan ahead; teach them how to analyze and plan a task; model and utilize goal setting; praise proactivity

Allow students to have a voice in school operations and classroom functioning

Liebenberg et al., 2016; Ungar, 2015b; Williamson & Witzel, 2016

Give them a collective voice in rule set- ting; assign tasks in the classroom; encourage student feedback

Ensure that students perceive the cur- riculum is relevant

Liebenberg et al., 2016 Underscore the value of the curriculum; demonstrate its relevancy in every- day life

Encourage active participation Liebenberg et al., 2016; Ungar, 2015b; Williamson & Witzel, 2016

Assign tasks according to student strengths; assign group work

Teach students empathy and how to see things from another perspective

Brooks & Goldstein, 2008 Talk through situations privately; class- room discussions; role-play; stories

Fortitude Help students find a sense of purpose Ungar, 2015b Give responsibilities; assign them as peer mentors; encourage collabor- ation; act as their mentor

Lessen the fear of failure in the class- room through encouragement, sup- port, and empowerment

Masten et al., 2008 Set high expectations but offer support; assign academic mentors; talk them through their search for answers

Cognitive skills Utilize strength-based teaching models to build student confidence, motiv- ation, and fortitude

Masten, Monn, & Supkoff, 2011; Skinner & Pitzer, 2012

Use informal assessment to identify strengths and allow them to use the system that works best for them

Help students recognize their learning style and teach them the most effective strategies that work

Brooks & Goldstein, 2008 Use informal assessment to identify strengths; provide opportunities to try different models for them

Cultivate internal and exter- nal resources

Benight & Cieslak, 2011 Provide assistance; recommend alterna- tive resources available; connect stu- dents to resources

Critically evaluate your own (educator’s) performance and teaching strategies to improve effectiveness

Brooks & Goldstein, 2008 Do not blame students for academic shortcomings; ask colleagues for insight; seek alternative ways to pre- sent material

Adaptive coping strategies Teach coping strategies as a group and to individual students

Allen et al., 2016; Cook et al., 2005 Teach breathing techniques; practice removing oneself from a situation and cooling down; think time

Teach problem-solving skills Jones & Doolittle, 2017; O’Connor et al., 2017; Taylor et al., 2017

Present scenarios and work through as a group; model; role-play and discus- sions; games

Teach students to adapt and be flexible Cicchetti, 2010; Condly, 2006; Ward et al., 2007

Practice adapting to changing situa- tions; role-play and discussion; brain- storming solutions as a group

Ensure that school faculty and staff are approachable

Allen et al., 2016; Liebenberg et al., 2016

Be available to students after class; office hours

Establish peer mentors or have school faculty act as mentors

Liebenberg et al., 2016 Request stronger students to assist; consider resources available at school and in the community

Help students identify and access avail- able resources at the personal, school, community, and national levels

Brooks & Goldstein, 2008; Ungar, 2015b Make yourself available and offer to provide advice and assistance; advo- cate on their behalf; raise awareness of needs with school

Teach students to identify barriers and methods of negotiating them

Ungar, 2015b Role-play situations; group discussions on problems and ways to resolve them

PREVENTING SCHOOL FAILURE: ALTERNATIVE EDUCATION FOR CHILDREN AND YOUTH 199

assistance from others (Beutel et al., 2017; Cicchetti, 2013; Masten et al., 2011). For instance, they could approach a teacher or fellow student and ask them to mediate a conflict. See Table 1 for a more detailed list of indicators of resilience that teachers can reference when assessing their students.

Promoting protective factors in the classroom

Opportunities for building resilience occur at home, at school, and in the community (Brooks & Goldstein, 2008; Ungar, 2015a). As a consequence, researchers acknowledge that resili- ence building must occur holistically. At home, parenting training (e.g., anger management) or substance abuse treat- ment are modes of fostering constructive child rearing and safe households (Fortson et al., 2016). At the community level, providing access to high-quality, affordable child care and social services can supplement resources unavailable at home or school (Fortson et al., 2016; Ungar, 2015a). To augment these processes, educators also have the opportunity to moni- tor and forge resilience among their students at school.

Since teachers act as educators and role models, they play a vital role in child development (Brooks & Goldstein, 2008; Liebenberg et al., 2016; Masten et al., 2008). For this reason, we suggest that educators become cognizant of the risks their students encounter and provide support and coping strategies to their pupils. However, students have varying degrees and typologies of resilience: Some internalize risks and suffer in silence, while others externalize risks and act

out (Ward et al., 2007). As a consequence, teachers are encouraged to become attuned to students’ disposition to better manage their behavior and academic achievement and improve the social and emotional welfare (Ziomek-Daigle, Goodman-Scott, Cavin, & Donohue, 2016). We believe that educators can implement resilience-building techniques into their everyday classroom practices to augment student forti- tude. In cases where a pupil appears to lack numerous indi- cators over a prolonged period of time, teachers may wish to refer this student to a school counselor for fur- ther evaluation.

Scholars recommend that intervention occur early (Masten et al., 2008; Shonkoff, 2010; Stallard, 2013; Wright et al., 2013). To this end, it is essential that schools are safe, structured environments where children can learn, dream, explore, and find shelter (Brooks & Goldstein, 2008; Condly, 2006). Within this controlled environment, teachers serve students best by consistently operating as a disciplinarian, establishing and enforcing clear, transparent rules (Brooks & Goldstein, 2008; Masten et al., 2008). However, educators must balance discipline and structure with expressions of support, empathy, and encouragement. Studies have found that strong student–teacher relations can motivate students and improve academic performance (Liebenberg et al., 2016; Masten et al., 2008, 2011; Skinner & Pitzer, 2012). In some instances, a teacher may be the only positive role model in a child’s life and their actions can have a lasting impact on a student (Brooks & Goldstein, 2008; Masten et al., 2008).

Table 3. Programs for enhancing resilience.

Program Description Target References

You Can Do It! Early Childhood Education Program

Teaches children positive behaviors and disposition toward learning. Enhances social skills and coping strategies. Helps children develop positive relationships and self-esteem.

Individual, group, family, community Ashdown & Bernard,2012; Bernard,2017; Bernard & Walton,2011; Kids Matter,2018

Online resource: https://www.kidsmatter.edu.au/early-childhood/programs/you-can-do-it-program Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) Imparts protective traits and effectively

apply skills for coping with everyday life situations (e.g., managing emo- tions, setting and achieving goals). Imparts competencies (e.g., teach problem solving skills and personal competencies) and promotes healthy development.

Individual, class, school Ashdown & Bernard,2012; CASEL, 2017; Jones & Doolittle,2017; O’Connor et al.,2017; Taylor et al.,2017; Yeager,2017

Online resource: https://www.casel.org Positive Youth Development (PYD) Holistically nurtures child development

and is implemented at the student, familial, school, and community lev- els. Focuses on “the 5 Cs”: Competence, Confidence, Connection, Character, and Caring/Compassion.

Individual, group, family, community Child Welfare Information Gateway,2018; Duerden, Widmer, & Witt,2010; Taylor et al.,2017

Online resource: https://www.childwelfare.gov/topics/systemwide/youth/development/programs/ Resilience and Coping Intervention (RCI) A facilitated group therapy program

designed to aid students that have experienced a common trauma through disaster or crisis. The facili- tated discussion helps to elicit feel- ings and coping strategies.

Group Allen et al.,2016; Houston et al.,2017; University of Missouri,2018

Online resource: http://dcc.missouri.edu/rci.shtml Penn Resiliency Program (PRP) A therapy program targeting depressed

youth. Helps students manage stress and build fortitude and optimism.

Individual, group Brumwasser, Gillham, & Kim,2009; Stallard,2013; University of Pennsylvania,2018

Online resource: https://ppc.sas.upenn.edu/services/penn-resilience-training

200 R. L. GARDNER AND T. L. STEPHENS-PISECCO

In their role as an educator, teachers can likewise con- tribute to student resilience by using strength-based educa- tional models that build confidence, motivation, and fortitude (Masten et al., 2008, 2011; Skinner & Pitzer, 2012). Students who struggle academically often feel embarrassed or humiliated, so educators can help them identify their learning style and teach them the most effective strategies to succeed academically (Brooks & Goldstein, 2008). Likewise, educators can lessen the fear of failure in the classroom by encouraging, supporting, and empowering pupils while they learn and explore in a safe and controlled environment (Masten et al., 2008). Teachers can praise student achieve- ment, group struggling students with stronger ones, and request feedback. By providing both skills and opportunities for the pupil to succeed, an instructor not only motivates and encourages the child but also advances their aptitude as well (Masten et al., 2008; 2011; Skinner & Pitzer, 2012).

In conjunction with the recommendations delineated in this section, we offer educators a more comprehensive list of resilience building techniques in Table 2. While the appen- dix provides both objectives and several techniques of deliv- ery, it is not exhaustive. For this reason, we recommend that school faculty and staff reference their training, experi- ence, and imagination to individually or collectively con- struct resilience-building techniques and strategies in their classrooms.

Organized programs for building resilience

For teachers seeking additional information and insight on established intervention programs that impart protective fac- tors and build childhood resilience, numerous examples exist. Table 3 lists five programs referenced in the literature. The table includes brief descriptions of each program’s sug- gested objectives, who is being targeted (individual, group, or community), and a link to supplementary reference material. Educators may choose to participate in one of the existing models or can borrow aspects from them to tailor their own program as time, necessity, and resources permit. Regardless of its origination, scholars recommend that organized school resilience programs incorporate (a) educa- tion for teachers and staff on the program; (b) establishment of specific teacher objectives and strategies to aid student development; and (c) periodic evaluation of a program’s effectiveness (Richaud, 2013).

Conclusion

The promotion of resilience at school is important for the development of physically and psychologically healthy chil- dren. Since today’s students face multiple, and sometimes cascading, ACEs, we recommend that educators be cogni- zant of signs of at-risk students and intervene early. To this end, we provide teachers with a checklist of characteristics of resilience and a list of techniques to boost positive child development. Our model easily nestles into existing RtI frameworks in both general and special education classes. Where RtI frameworks do not exist, our recommendations

offer some guidance on how teachers can deliver their coursework and interact with students in a manner that fos- ters resilience. With the resources offered, we believe educa- tors can do their part to equip students with tools and techniques that will empower them to withstand and thrive in the face of current or future challenges and hardships.

Notes and contributors

Ronald Gardner is an ESL instructor and has a doctorate in Peace and Conflict Resolution. His research interests include student inter- vention, cross-cultural comparative analysis, and conflict resolution.

Tammy L. Stephens-Pisecco is an adjunct professor at the University of St. Thomas. She has a doctorate in Special Education. She is an edu- cational diagnostician, a former special education teacher, an assistant professor, and co-founder of C-SEP. Her research interests include assessment and intervention practices and the implications of resilience on learning.

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