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Citation: 6 Am. J. Police 1 1987 Provided by: University of South Carolina School of Law, Coleman Karesh Law Library

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American Journal of Police 1

FOOT PATROL AND COMMUNITY POLICING: PAST PRACTICES AND FUTURE PROSPECTS

Jack R. Greene Department of Criminal Justice

Temple University

INTRODUCTION

In recent years there has been a resurgence of interest in pro- grams that attempt to place the police and the community in greater harmony and interaction. Many large and medium sized cities have adopted variations of "community policing" programs, each of which emphasizes some combination of crime reduction and prevention, increased community cohesion and informal social control, and fear of reduction policing strategy.

Like many social interventions, changes in police operational philosophy and practices have historical traditions that have condi- tioned current thought and practice. Moreover, the underlying "theory" of community policing itself is yet emerging, attempting to clarify the relationship between the formal and informal agents of social control. Police programs emphasizing foot patrol and the order maintenance role of the police are currently testing these ideas, and the results of such analysis will provide information on the prospects of this policing strategy.

The research that is reported in this volume of The American Journal of Police examines many of the expectations that have been created for community policing programs. Because community policing means many things to many people, an entire volume has been devoted to this important policing topic. The papers that are presented here examine some of the claims made for community policing, most particularly for foot patrol programs. The topics are divergent, ranging from considerations of whether this police strat- egy reduces crime and victimization, to whether community atti- tudes toward the police are affected, and whether police officers

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derive any greater job satisfaction from having participated in such programs. The diversity among these topics reflects the many ex- pectations for community policing and foot patrol programs; the papers in this volume will, hopefully, help to clarify these expecta- tions.

COMMUNITY POLICING: PAST PRACTICES

The seeds of this new community policing philosophy are found in the police and community relations programs of the 1950s and 1960s, the team policing programs of the 1970s and the more recent fear reduction and problem focused policing programs of the 1980s. Forty years of refinement in police philosophy and opera- tions has left its mark on the community policing programs of to- day.

Police and community relations programs sought a greater harmony and interaction between the police and the public on mat- ters of crime control and prevention. They also sought out and tar- geted minority populations for this increased attention. The mes- sage was simple-the police wanted to assure the community, par- ticularly the black community, that their concerns for increased po- lice protection and fairness in the application of the law were valid.

The era of police and community relations saw programs de- signed to improve community understanding of the police role and operational practices, paving the way for more recent programs of neighborhood watch and other forms of citizen involvement in the law enforcement process. The legacy of community relations pro- grams also established the legitimacy of community involvement in crime control efforts either through self-help programs or through the coproduction of crime prevention services (Skolnick and Bay- ley, 1986). Historically, this community involvement role had largely been obscured in the 1930s and 1940s through efforts to de- politicize police agencies and to improve administrative and man- agement practices (see Fogelson, 1977).

Throughout the decade of the 1970s policing embraced the team concept (see Angell, 1971). Team policing received its first endorsement from the President's Commission on Law Enforce- ment and Administration of Justice (1967) in its Task Force Report: Police. Partly as a reaction to the perceived rigidity of the police

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control-centered bureaucracy, and partly in an attempt to overcome the growing deficiencies of preventive patrol and rapid response as patrol tactics, team policing grew and was nurtured in a liberalizing police reform philosophy. By the early 1970s several programs were implemented across the country. Emphasizing geographic stability, the permanent assignment of teams to neighborhoods increased communications among team members as well as between team members and community residents (Sherman, et al., 1973); team policing was radical for its day.

Team policing required a rethinking of the social and formal organization of policing on a massive scale. Its demise was largely at the hands of middle level managers within police organizations, who had invested interest in maintaining a more centralized form of command and control.

Despite its general failure, team policing established a tone for improving the police officer's lot within the police organization and reaffirmed the community context of policing suggested by earlier community relations programs. In the late 1970s other team policing programs, such as the Community Sector Team Policing Program in Cincinnati (Schwartz and Clarren, 1977) and the Com- munity Profiling Program in San Diego (1975), posted modest suc- cess for the team concept, although by the late 1970s and early 1980s the popularity of the team concept had faded as an opera- tional police tactic.

In the 1980s, three emerging strains of police operational prac- tice and philosophy began to form the basis for the adoption of foot patrols throughout the country. First, policy research into police operational practices had begun to yield the conclusion that "nothing works". Preventive patrol, rapid patrol responses, and follow-up criminal investigations all came under the social science microscope, and the results were devastating for the conventional crime deterrence and containment philosophies of the police. In the absence of any substantiated claim to deterrence, police agen- cies began to seek alternate ways to demonstrate effectiveness.

Secondly, the idea that the police should focus more on re- solving community problems than on some abstract crime con- trol/prevention function gained attention during this period. "Problem-oriented policing," as envisioned by Herman Goldstein, broadened the scope of police interventions by focusing attention on community problem solving (Goldstein, 1977; 1979). The role

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of the police, then, was preemptive and problem focused rather than reactive and crime containment focused. The ends of policing, after all, were to improve community "quality of life" and to reduce citizen exposure to and fear of crime.

Thirdly, the linkages between disorderly or unruly behavior, fear of crime and community victimization were being reexamined by social scientists, and the political philosophy of the times was changing. While the police had always provided order maintenance services to the community, these services were often seen as sec- ondary to those that emphasized enforcement and crime control. Findings from an experimental demonstration project in the use of foot patrol in Newark, New Jersey suggested that while crime and victimization rates were unlikely to decrease in response to foot pa- trol, public perceptions of social disorder and fear of crime were affected (Police Foundation, 1981). These findings provided sup- port for greater use of foot patrol officers in residential neighbor- hoods as a means to reduce fear of crime and to re-establish com- munity order. Fear of crime and perceptions of disorder, then, have become the targets of police intervention.

The movement toward reducing fear of crime through order maintenance and foot patrol programs has stirred quite a political debate as well. On the one hand, liberal reformers of the police suggest that community policing and foot patrols, stressing neigh- borhood definitions of social order, can quickly become extensions of class and racial bias and thereby introduce more injustice into communities than expected (see Walker, 1984; Klockars, 1985). For liberals the loosening of the traditional constraints on police behavior might well result in the loss of liberties for many, particu- larly minority group members and those in marginal group relation- ships in urban areas.

On the other hand, recent conservative arguments in support of foot patrols and order maintenance policing (Sykes, 1986) sug- gest that such police activities actually increase the amount of free- dom available in communities. Proponents of this philosophy sug- gest that order maintenance policing through foot patrol increases the collective freedoms of the community by freeing law abiding citizens from their crime anxieties, and by reducing the precursors to crime and victimization-those situations and individuals who would increase and exploit community disorder.

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The past 40 years of police operational practice and policy re- search has resulted in the current emphasis in community policing and foot patrol. The development of a policing philosophy and op- erational strategies that emphasize 1) community involvement in crime control, prevention and order maintenance, 2) a broadening of the police officer's role in community problem solving, main- taining community order and informal social control, and 3) re- ducing the signs of crime and community disorder, thereby reduc- ing community crime anxiety, has been an evolving process. The manifestation of this philosophy and practice in the form of foot patrol has come a long way, but what of its future?

COMMUNITY POLICING: EMERGING THEORY AND PRACTICE

The underlying "theory" of community policing involves some rather broad assumptions about the police role in establishing so- cial control at the neighborhood level of social organization (see Manning, 1984; Klockars, 1985). The arguments beneath this phi- losophy tend to suggest that the police have lost their community context, in that changes in technology-such as the automobile and wireless radio-have resulted in the police becoming estranged from the communities they patrol (Moore and Kelling, 1983). Further- more, the police preoccupation with crime suppression and criminal apprehension left little time for order maintenance activities, which are now presumed to contribute more to the "quality of life" expe- rienced by the citizenry, particularly in urban areas (Kelling, 1985). It is argued that by reestablishing the community's social order through the vigorous enforcement of order maintenance and public disturbance behaviors, the conditions that make communities ripe for criminal invasion will be avoided. Finally, proponents of com- munity policing argue that neighborhood policing and closer con- tact between police and citizens will result in a strengthening of the social fabric (Wilson and Kelling, 1982), making communities more resistant to criminal invasion.

Community policing takes several forms; it involves the use of foot patrol in urban areas, it establishes programs that attempt to mobilize community crime prevention activities, and it increases public and private efforts to stem community decay by reducing the

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signs of crime (physical and social incivilities) as well as the fear of crime that is presumed to be associated with community deteriora- tion. Today, programs in community policing can be found in sev- eral major U.S. cities, such as New York City; Boston, Mas- sachusetts; Baltimore, Maryland; Newark, New Jersey; Houston, Texas; Oakland, California and Flint, Michigan (Greene and Tay- lor, 1985; Yin, 1986).

In addition to these programs, many of which involve foot pa- trol efforts, a change in the underlying philosophy of policing has been suggested (Skolnick and Bayley, 1986). This philosophy em- phasizes decentralizing police crime control efforts, increasing the involvement of the community in establishing crime control priori- ties, greater police and community cooperation in and coproduc- tion of crime control services, and a widening of discretion for po- lice officers to deal with community problem solving.

COMMUNITY POLICING: A LOOK AT THE EVIDENCE

In an earlier review of several community policing and foot pa- trol programs, Greene (1985) and Greene and Taylor (1985) sug- gested that many of these programs failed to adequately opera- tionalize the theory of community policing discussed above. Many projects simply put police officers in foot patrol beats in widely het- erogeneous communities. Other programs involved several police interventions, such as car stops, bus rides, and curfew enforcement as well as other fear reduction strategies, such as neighborhood clean-up efforts, thereby making it difficult to determine the effec- tiveness of any particular strategy. Many of the community policing and foot patrol programs were absent experimental control and evaluated different outcomes. ,The conclusions drawn from these programs are difficult to draw together and are potentially biased by faulty operational definitions about the community and/or the police intervention.

In a similar fashion, Yin (1986), in examining the effectiveness of 11 community crime prevention programs, concluded that many of these interventions were not unique, although he suggested that the results of these evaluations were favorable and methodologi- cally reliable. Yin concludes, however, that many of these crime

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prevention programs and their evaluations did not target high crime rate neighborhoods for intervention, and that many actually focused on small geographic areas. In this regard, Yin suggests that these 11 programs may not be representative of other crime pre- vention programs previously established. Finally, he suggests that while we may know more about preventing crime from these stud- ies, we may not be able to do much about crime even given this knowledge. Collectively, these meta-assessments of foot patrol and community crime prevention programs raise more questions than they answer. Given the "experimental" nature of many foot patrol and community police programs, systematic evidence about pro- gram effectiveness is simply not available. The research presented here furthers our understandings of the dynamics of community policing and foot patrol programs in many diverse communities.

Foot Patrol, Crime Control and Order Maintenance

The first three papers in this volume examine what might be termed the traditional outcomes anticipated for foot patrol pro- grams-a reduction in crime and victimization, a more positive pub- lic assessment of the police, and a strengthening of community bonds or the network of informal social control. The fourth paper addresses another expectation of community policing-increased police officer job satisfaction.

In "The Impact of Foot Patrol Staffing on Crime and Disorder in Boston: An Unmet Promise" William Bowers and Jon Hirsch analyze the impact of the Boston Reallocation Plan, a major effort to make foot patrol the predominant form of patrol in this urban community. Bowers and Hirsch examine the crime control and or- der maintenance effects of this rather dramatic reorganization of patrol services in Boston, one that designated 34% of all patrol units in that city for foot patrol.

In a city where historically 80% of patrol response units were two-man patrol cars, Boston undertook a dramatic shift toward community policing in 1983. The Boston Reallocation Plan shifted patrol resources from a traditional reaction-oriented patrol model of the past to one that emphasized foot patrol as the primary police response system and single-officer patrol cars as the secondary method of patrol response (24% of all units). The result was to

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shift 300 uniformed officers to foot patrol, in a city-wide program to improve police efficiency and effectiveness.

Analyzing 16 locations throughout the city of Boston for a 19- month period of time, Bowers and Hirsch provide one of the first "tests" of the foot patrol strategy in a large urban city. Data for the evaluation came from the Boston Police Department's computer aided dispatch system.

Interestingly, in implementing the Boston plan, police com- manders selected areas of the city with high rates of crime as target areas for foot patrol, thereby overcoming some of the criticism of the crime prevention programs studied by Yin (1986). Using a "share statistic," or the proportion of calls for service that fell be- tween control and change groupings from 1981 through 1984, Bowers and Hirsch determine that no reporting or crime control effects were attributable to foot patrol areas.

Using offense specific data, they could not find any major ef- fects in crimes reported to the police in areas where foot patrol was implemented. Violent crime such as assault (aggravated or simple) could not be associated with foot patrol staffing changes, and while a reduction in street robbery occurred in high staffing foot patrol areas, this was offset by an increase in commercial robberies in the same areas. Property offenses were similarly unrelated to foot pa- trol staffing changes; burglary showed no consistent association with foot patrol staffing, and larceny and auto thefts actually in- creased during the first year of the program, attesting to some re- porting stimulation effects. In this regard the crime control effects presumed of the program were not realized.

In the second paper, "Foot Patrol: Of What Value?," Finn- Aage Esbensen examines the effects of a foot patrol program in a medium-sized southeastern city. Using police records as well as in- terview data with merchants in both a foot patrol and a comparison area, Esbensen examines both the crime effectiveness of foot patrol in a downtown business district, as well as the community relations value of this program to area business leaders.

Impetus for this particular foot patrol program was presented in a similar fashion to the arguments for order maintenance polic- ing advanced by Wilson and Kelling (1982), in that concern among business leaders had turned to the level of disorder evidenced in the visibility of panhandlers, vagrants, drunks, prostitutes and oth- ers who might represent signs of social incivility. The Downtown

American Journal of Police 9

Merchants' Association mustered political and economic support for the addition of four officers to patrol on foot the three police beats in the downtown business district.

Four months, representing seasonal variation in police work- load and crime reporting, were selected for the analysis between the business district and a comparison area. Reported crimes in these two areas formed the basis of the comparative study; two sur- veys were also conducted four months after the implementation of the foot patrol program, and again 20 months after the first survey. These surveys examined perceptions of police protection in the two areas, as well as business leader assessments of police professional- ism, support for the police, and the quality of police and community relations.

Comparisons between business areas on the aggregated level of reported crime revealed no significant differences, suggesting lit- tle overall crime control effect associated with the program. Con- trolling for crime type, most particularly for crimes of public disor- der (e.g. vandalism, disorderly conduct, prostitution, drunkenness, and vagrancy), did reveal a steady decline in public order crimes in the foot patrol areas, with an increase in these crimes in the two ar- eas surrounding this business district. This finding suggests that foot patrol in this business district may have some public order dis- placement effect in surrounding districts.

The attitudinal surveys produced generally favorable assess- ments of police performance among the downtown merchants as well as the comparison area merchants. The positive assessments of police performance made by the downtown merchants increased over the life of the evaluation, suggesting some changes in the per- ception of the "quality of life" in the downtown area. These changes were attributed to the foot patrol program.

Robert Friedmann's "Citizens' Attitudes Toward the Police: Results from an Experiment in Community Policing in Israel" ex-* amines the introduction of an experimental community policing and crime reduction program in an Israeli community. The imple- mentation of a Neighborhood Police Officer (NPO) program into 15 "problem neighborhoods" in a large metropolitan area of Israel provided the opportunity to assess community attitudes toward the community and the police. The NPO program cast the role of the police officer as "community social worker" rather than the tradi- tional law enforcement role ascribed to the police.

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Using a field experimental design, Friedmann examines com- munity attitudinal change in three time periods-at the beginning, middle and end of the program. This analysis is based on a sample of four NPO neighborhoods randomly chosen and three control areas, matched on several social, economic and demographic char- acteristics.

A community effects analysis examined attitudes toward the police and police effectiveness, assessments of police activities in the neighborhoods, protective measures taken by residents, and feelings of safety and self-reported victimization. The analysis also includes an assessment of attitudes toward the community by em- ploying a "Community Attitudinal Scale," measuring perceptions of community services, integration and civic responsibility.

Friedmann's analysis has several implications for community policing efforts. First, the analysis suggests that research and con- trol neighborhoods differed significantly on victimization before and after the program. Given the selection criteria used to obtain research areas defined as "problem neighborhoods" such differ- ences might have been expected. Nonetheless, changes in level of victimization could not be attributed to the policing intervention, even when neighborhoods were matched on other criteria.

Second, Friedmann reports that awareness of the program, es- pecially by residents in the research neighborhoods, increased dra- matically over the life of the project. While awareness of the exis- tence of the program was demonstrated, no evidence suggested that differences in direct contact with the police actually occurred. Improvements in police and community relations stemming from the program, then, were much more indirect than first anticipated, perhaps being mediated through community social organizations rather than in citizen/police contact.

Third, in a factor analysis of the community attitude items, Friedmann's study suggests that research neighborhoods had a lower view of self-conception than did their counterparts in the control neighborhoods. These same research neighborhoods demonstrated a positive shift in attitude toward their community, while the comparison neighborhoods experienced a decline and restabilization in attitudes toward the community.

Finally, an interesting and possibly counter intuitive finding in the Friedmann study suggests a general decline in attitudes toward the police, even when attitudes toward the community were im-

American Journal of Police 11

proving. This suggests that expectations of improved commu- nity/police relations and community restabilization may be unrealis- tic in certain communities, and that the dynamic of community change is much more difficult for the police to manipulate. Given the community change strategy imbedded in many community policing and foot patrol programs, such findings direct attention to the theory that undergirds the new policing philosophy.

Collectively, the three foot patrol and community policing pro- grams provide mixed evidence for certain of the claims made for this type of police strategy. Evidence from these projects does not provide tremendous support for the crime control goals of these programs, although in one program, reported by Esbensen, there was a decline in public disorder crimes. Victimization, as measured by Friedmann, was not associated with the community policing in- tervention evaluated, although community cohesion did seem to be affected, but mediated through existing social institutions rather than directly from police and citizen contact.

Improving the "Quality of Life"for the Police

Another set of claims associated with community policing and foot patrol programs are connected with improving police officer job attachment and officer satisfaction, while at the same time im- proving the "quality of life" in the community. The final paper in this volume considers these claims.

Assessing police officer job satisfaction in a community polic- ing program in Baltimore County, Maryland, David Hayslip and Gary Cordner examine the "The Effects of Community-Oriented Patrol on Police Officer Attitudes". This evaluation of police offi- cer job satisfaction was undertaken in conjunction with the adop- tion of a problem-oriented police strategy in Baltimore County, Maryland in 1982.

Project COPE, Citizen Oriented Police Enforcement, sought to approach crime and law enforcement by targeting community problems through-various police tactics. COPE police officers were given an expanded police role, a role that involved more discretion in decision making and a wider field of police interventions.

Building on past assessments of community police officer job satisfaction, this study sought to determine the independent effects of patrol officer participation in project COPE. Using a treatment

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and control group, surveys were administered four times, at the be- ginning of the program in 1982, January-February 1983, November 1983, and in March 1985. These surveys measured officer job sat- isfaction, attitudes toward the community, attitudes toward the po- lice role, and personal assessments of the effectiveness of the COPE strategy. In addition to these outcome variables, officer tenure, education and age were included in the analysis to control four other factors previously associated with levels of job satisfac- tion.

In the bivariate analysis presented, Hayeslip and Cordner sug- gest that COPE participation increased or maintained the level of job satisfaction and sense of accomplishment among COPE offi- cers, while control group officers generally reported less satisfaction and accomplishment throughout the life of the program. Attitudes toward the community also tended to be more positive among COPE officers in comparison to the control group, and COPE offi- cers tended to maintain a broader definition of their police role. Finally, as might be expected, COPE officers saw more promise for the COPE strategy than did control officers.

In a multivariate analysis, Hayeslip and Cordner report that participation in the COPE program best predicted assignment sat- isfaction, feelings of accomplishment, positive police image, and perceptions that COPE had some effect on crime. Personal and job assignment and tenure variables had little consistent effect on the measures of job satisfaction and accomplishment.

The findings from the research conducted by Hayslip and Cordner extend the analyses of others who, while measuring as- pects of job satisfaction among the police, failed to control for other personal and rank/assignment factors that may affect satisfac- tion. These findings suggest that police officer attitudes toward the community, their role as agents of social control, and their sense of achievement and accomplishment can be influenced by participa- tion in a community policing strategy. This finding is consistent with other projects that have attempted to reorient the police to a community focus (see Boydstun and Sherry, 1975).

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COMMUNITY POLICING: FUTURE PROSPECTS

It is clear that the concepts of foot patrol and community policing have captured the imagination of the public, social scien- tists and police managers. Each affected group has differing rea- sons for its support of these programs. The community sees such police programs as more visibly deterring crime, despite the evi- dence that suggests that crime and victimization are little affected by such police strategies.

Social scientists see the prospects of such community policing and crime prevention programs as a way of testing ideas about in- formal social control, fear of crime and the police role in these pro- cesses. Despite what we have learned about the effectiveness and ineffectiveness of these programs, the debate as to the role of the police in maintaining the "sense of community" thought to make neighborhoods more crime resistant continues.

Police managers see these programs as alternative definitions of police effectiveness and efficiency at a time when all public agen- cies are being subjected to more extensive review and evaluation. After a decade of research "debunking" the effectiveness of most patrol and investigative effort, community policing and foot patrol provide a fresh opportunity to "demonstrate" that the police are doing something about crime and disorder.

All of this "police experimentation" is occurring within a po- litical context stressing "getting tough on crime," "self-help" and "co-protection," emphasizing the community's role in crime preven- tion and order maintenance. But what of this for the continuation of such police innovations?

The prospects for community policing and foot patrol are un- certain at present. There is much rhetoric currently surrounding the foot patrol debate. Proponents of this patrol strategy make several claims; some claim crime effectiveness and improved social interaction among the police and the community. Others claim that such programs are merely "old wine in new bottles". The pa- pers presented in this volume of The American Journal of Police at- tempt to focus and clarify some of the claims and counterclaims. In the long run, the test of community policing and foot patrol will depend on careful documentation and thorough analysis.

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REFERENCES

Angell, J.E. (1971) "Towards an Alternative to the Classical Police Organizational Arrangements: A Democratic Model" Criminology 9 (2,3): 185-206.

Boydstun, J.E. and M.E. Sherry (1975) San Diego Community Pro- file: Final Report. Washington, DC: Police Foundation.

Fogelson, R.M. (1977) Big City Police. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Goldstein, H. (1977) Policing a Free Society. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger.

Goldstein, H. (1979) "Improving Policing: A Problem Oriented Approach" Crime and Delinquency. 25 (April): 236-258

Greene, J.R. (1985) "Religiosity and Crime Control: A Look at Foot Patrol and Community-Based Policing." Paper presented at the annual meetings of the Society for the Study of Social Prob- lems, Washington, DC, August.

Greene, J.R., and R. B. Taylor (1986) "A Closer Look at Foot Pa- trol and Community Based Policing: Issues of Theory, Evaluation and Operationalization." Paper presented at the annual meetings of the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences, Orlando, Florida, March.

Kelling, G.L. (1985) "Order Maintenance, The Quality of Urban Life, and Police: A Line of Argument," in W.A. Geller (ed) Police Leadership in America: Crisis and Opportunity. New York: Praeger.

Klockars C.B. (1985) "Order Maintenance, The Quality of Urban Life, and Police: A Different Line of Argument," in W.A. Geller (ed) Police Leadership in America: Crisis and Opportunity. New York: Praeger.

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Manning, P.K. (1984) "Community Policing," American Journal of Police 3,2 (Spring): 205-228.

Moore, M.H., and G.L. Kelling (1983) "To Serve and Protect: Learning from Police History," The Public Interest 70 (Winter): 49- 65.

Police Foundation (1981) The Newark Foot Patrol Experiment. Washington, DC: Police Foundation.

President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice (1967) Task Force Report: Police. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Schwartz, A.I. and S.N. Clarren (1977) The Cincinnati Team Polic- ing Experiment. A Summary Report. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute and the Police Foundation.

Sherman, L.W., C.H. Milton, and T.V. Kelly (1973) Team Policing: Seven Case Studies. Washington, DC: Police Foundation.

Skolnick, J.H. and D.H. Bayley (1986) The New Blue Line. New York: The Free Press.

Sykes, G. (1986) "Street Justice: A Moral Defense of Order Main- tenance Policing," Justice Quarterly 3,4 (December): 497-512.

Walker, S. (1984) "'Broken Windows' and Fractured History: The Use and Misuse of History in Recent Patrol Analysis" Justice Quarterly 1 (1): 75-90.

Wilson, J.Q. and G.L. Kelling (1982) "Police and Neighborhood Safety: Broken Windows" Atlantic Monthly 249 (March): 29-38.

Yin, R.K. (1986) "Community Crime Prevention: A Synthesis of Eleven Evaluations," in D. Rosenbaum (ed) Community Crime Pre- vention, 294-308.