ANSWER THE ESSAYS AND THE BULLET (-) QUESTIONS

Exam 2 (Skeletal System) Study Guide

Exam 2 Short Answer Essay Questions.

51. Describe four functions of the skeletal system. Be sure to explain each of these functions in detail including an example for each.

The four main functions of the skeletal system includes; Support, Protection, Movement, and Supply & Storage. (Aplecture 9, Slide 3)

1. Support. The skeletal system protects and supports soft organs and the entire internal body framework. The legs provides support for the body trunk and the rib cage offers protection for the thoracic wall. (Aplecture 9, Slide 4)

2. Protection. The skeletal system protects the internal soft organs e.g the skull protects the brain from damage, the vertebrae protects the spinal cord, and the ribcage protects lungs and the heart. (Aplecture 9, Slide 5)

3. Movement. The skeletal system allows movement by creating a framework for muscles to attach after which muscles contract and pull the bones of the skeleton which create movement. Examples of how the skeletal system allows movement is through the legs, hands, neck to name a few. (Aplecture 9, Slide 6)

4. Supply & Storage. Bones which make part of the skeletal system produce red blood cells and the white blood cells formed in the bone marrow. Bones also store minerals like calcium and phosphorous. (Aplecture 9, Slide 7)

52. Explain how some aspect of the skeletal system demonstrates form follows function.

Long bones are designed to have greater length than width and curved for strength enabling them to provide support for the body. (Aplecture 9, Slide 14)

Flat bones have a thin shape/structure that enable them to offer protection, and enough surface for muscle attachments e.g. the cranial bones. (Aplecture 9, Slide 16)

Irregular bones have a honeycomb like internal structure that makes them light and rigid at the same time allowing protection of the spinal cord and providing mechanical support. (Aplecture 9, Slide 17)

Use this study guide to help you review the important information you should know from your notes to be prepared for your exam. The exam format is as follows: 10 TRUE/FALSE, 40 multiple choice (each worth 1 pt) and 2 short answer questions (each worth 5 pts).

Notes: Overview of Bones

· Name the two divisions of the skeletal system and identify bones belonging to each of those divisions.

The two divisions are: Axial and Appendicular (Aplecture 9, Slide 2)

Axial has 80 bones located in a verticle order, they include; skull, hyoid bone, vertebral column, and thoracic cage. The appendicular bones are 126, they include; pectoral girdles, upper limbs, pelvic girdle, and lower limbs. (Lab manual Page, 105)

· Describe the functions of the skeletal system.

The skeletal system has numerous important functions in the body such as offering support to the soft tissues and creates points of attachments. Protection is equally guaranteed for example, the ribcage offers the heart and the lungs protection from physical invasion. Movement is guaranteed because legs allow people to walk and hands allow people to access things. Numerous minerals are stored in the body in the skeletal system. Bone marrow stores calcium and phosphorous which promotes good bone formation. (Aplecture 9, Slide 3)

· Identify the type of tissue osseous tissue represents.

Tissue osseous represents compact and spongy bones. (Aplecture 9, Slide 10)

· Distinguish between the two types of osseous tissue (compact and spongy).

Compact bone is dense and smooth looking whereas the spongy bone has a need like pieces of bones that have a lot of space. (Aplecture 9, Slide11 and 12 )

· Classify bones based on their shape.

Shape classifies bones into; long bone, short bones, flat bone, and irregular bone. (Aplecture 9, Slide13)

· Identify and describe the parts of a long bone.

1. Diaphysis contains the shaft, bone length, and compact bone

2. Periosteum, has a fibrous membrane and it functions by covering the diaphysis.

3. Sharpey’s fibers, protects the periosteum to underlying bone.

4. Epiphysis, they are the ends of long bones, and contain a thin layer compact bone that surrounds a spongy bone.

5. Articular cartilage, forms the outer covering of epiphysis, it is smooth and slippery and reduces friction at the joints.

6. Epiphyseal line, remains of epiphyseal plate

7. Epiphyseal plate, characterized by a flat plate of hyaline cartilage.

8. Adult shaft cavity stores adipose tissue, infant shaft cavity forms the red blood cells, and the red marrow in adults is usually confined to spongy bone of flat bones. (Aplecture 9, Slide 18, 19,20,21,22,23, and 24)

· Distinguish between the two types of bone markings (projections and depressions).

Projections grow out from bones in the body, and forms joints whereas, depressions forms openings or passageways for nerves and blood vessels. (Aplecture 9, Slide 26)

· Identify various terms as being either a projection/process or depression/cavity.

Tuberosity, crest, line, spine, and process are all terms used to describe projections. (Aplecture 9, Slide 27)

Sinus, fossa, groove, and fissure are some of the examples of terms used to describe depressions. (Aplecture 9, Slide 28)

· Describe the structure of compact bone.

Compact bone has a dense appearance.

1. Osteocytes, these bones have mature cells in them.

2. Lacunae, they are arranged in circles that are concentric.

3. Lamellae, arranged in concentric circles

4. Cetral canal, carries nerves and blood vessels to bone.

5. Osteon, has matrix rings.

6. Canaliculi, tiny canals who’s responsible for connecting cells of bones to nutrient supply.

7. Perforating, this is where communication from outside bone to interior occurs. (Aplecture 9, Slide 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36)

· Describe the process of bone formation.

Skeletal system consists of strong supportive tissues such as the cartilage and bone.

Embryos have a primarily hyaline cartilage

A child’s cartilage is replaced by bone but other cartilages remain in nose, ribs and joints. (Aplecture 9, Slide 37,38, and 39)

· Distinguish between bone lengthening (bone formation) and bone widening (bone remodeling) and the factors responsible for regulating each.

Bone widening, makes the body to increase in size/weight, increases strength in response to increase in calcium levels in blood and pull of gravity.

Bone formation is the growth of bones from the time of infancy to adulthood. (Aplecture 9, Slide 43, and 38)

· Explain the role of PTH, calcitonin, and stress on bone remodeling.

PTH is responsible for stimulating osteoclasts, and increases the need for more calcium ions in blood, and breaks bones.

Calcitonin, stimulates osteoblasts, increases calcium in blood, and build up bones.

Stress, makes the skeleton to remain strong, and that is where bone matrix is broken down or formed. (Aplecture 9, Slide 45)

· Distinguish between the different types of bone fractures

Comminuted fracture

Bones break into many pieces and is common in aged persons.

Compression fracture

Occurs in porous bones where crushing of bones happens.

Depressed fracture

Happens when a broken bone fracture is pressed inwards.

Impacted fracture

Ends of broken bones forced into each other.

Spiral fracture

Ragged break of bones occurs

Greenstick fracture

Bones break incompletely, common in children. (Aplecture 9, Slide 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, and 54)

· Describe the steps of bone fracture repair.

Hematoma, break splinted by fibrocartilage callus, bony callus forms, and bony callus remodeled. (Aplecture 9, Slide 57)

Notes: Axial Skeleton

· Identify the bones of the axial skeleton.

Skull, hyoid bone, vertebral column, and thoracic cage. (Lab manual Page, 105)

· Identify major projections/depressions of the axial skeleton bones.

Projections include; condyle, ramus, and spine.

Depressions include; fissure, foramen, fossa, and meatus. (Lab manual Page, 113)

· Describe the type of movement associated with skull bones.

Skull bones move along sutures. The movement occurs through expansion and compression. (Lab manual Page, 106)

· Describe how the fetal skull differs from the adult skull and why.

Fetal skull is not fully ossified but has membranous sections that have fibrous connective tissue called fontanels. The fontanels simplifies the birth process by allowing the bones of the skull to compress. The cranium of babies is larger than face. Adult skull has a larger face that the cranium, jaws increase in size and the skull becomes more rigid compared to fetal skull. (Lab manual Page, 119, and, (Aplecture 12, Slide 40)

· Know important facts about various bones of the skull pointed out in notes.

1. Cranial bones, they are 8 in number, 2 paired and 4 singled bones.

2. Sutures, they are immovable joints, between the bones of the skull.

3. Facial bones, they are 14, 6 paired and 2 single bones. (Lab manual Page, 106)

· Identify the curvatures of the vertebral column and the number of bones associated with each curvature.

Cervical curvature has 7

Thoracic curvature has 12

Lumbar curvature has 5

Sacral curvature has 5 sacral vertebrae. (Lab manual Page, 120)

· Distinguish between primary and secondary curvatures.

Primary curvatures remain even after birth (thoracic and sacral) whereas the secondary curvatures (cervical and lumbar) develop after birth. (Lab manual Page, 120)

· Describe the abnormal spinal curvatures.

The three abnormal curves of the spine are; scoliosis this is where the vertebral column literally bends, kyphosis is an exaggerated thoracic curve, and lordosis is an exaggerated lumber curve. (Lab manual Page, 128)

· Identify the various parts of the vertebrae.

Body, pedicle, transverse process, lamina, spinous process, vertebral arch, vertebral foramen, and superior and inferior articular process. (Lab manual Page, 122)

· Distinguish between cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae.

Cervical vertebrae, has a transverse foramen which allows the passage of vertebral arteries, veins, and sympathetic nerves to and from the brain.

Thoracic vertebrae, has a medium body with a long narrow spinous process that slants at a sharp angle.

Lumbar vertebrae, have the biggest bodies to offer support to weight and have thick, hatchet-shaped spinous process that extend horizontally. (Lab manual Page, 122 and 123)

· Identify the parts of the sternum.

Sternum has the following parts; manubrium, suprasternal notch, and jugular notch. (Lab manual Page, 128)

· Distinguish between true ribs, false ribs, and floating ribs and their representative numbers.

True ribs 7 pairs have their costal cartilages attached to the sternum.

False ribs which are 5 paired have costal cartilages which do not have a direct attachment to the sternum.

Floating rib pairs 11 and 12 do not have any attachment to the sternum and cartilage. (Lab manual Page, 128)

Notes: Appendicular Skeleton

· Identify the bones of the appendicular skeleton.

Pectoral girdles, upper limbs, pelvic girdle, and lower limbs. (Lab manual Page, 137)

· Identify major projections/depressions of the appendicular skeleton bones.

Projections and depressions include;

Foramen, which describes openings that allow passage of blood vessels

Fossa, shallow depression that allows muscle attachment to take place.

Line, long narrow ridge encourages muscle attachment.

Tuberosity, large projections that are rough, facilitates muscle attachment. (Lab manual Page, 138)

· Differentiate between a female and male pelvis.

Bone of males are heavier and rougher than those of female bones. Male pelvis is more vertical and narrow, has a heart-shaped pelvic inlet and has a 90 degrees or less pubic arch angle.

Female pelvis has more space, and is tilted backwards and flared for child birth. Pelvic inlet is round or oval with a pubic arch of over 90 degrees. (Lab manual Page, 144)

Notes: Joints

· Identify how joints are classified both structurally and functionally.

Functionally.

Synarthroses, immovable joints found in the axial skeleton

Amphiarthroses, slightly movable located in the axial skeleton

Diarthroses, freely movable located in limbs.

Structurally

Fibrous, immovable joints

Cartilaginous, immovable or slightly movable.

Synovial (Aplecture 12, Slide 4, and 5)

· Identify examples representative of various structural and functional classifications of joints.

Structurally

Types of fibrous joints.

Suture, gomphosis, syndesmosis.

Types of cartilaginous joints.

Symphysis

Types of synovial joints.

Plane, hinge, pivot, condyloid, saddle, and ball and socket. (Aplecture 12, Slide 7, 9, 11, and 12)

· Describe the various types of joints in terms of the amount of movement permitted by each type of joint.

Fibrous joints are immovable, cartilaginous are immovable or slightly movable and synovial joints are movable. (Aplecture 12, Slide, 5)

· Describe the various types of joints in terms of the plane of movement represented by each type of joint.

Gliding joints, and intertarsal or intercarpal joints. (Aplecture 12, Slide 19)

· Describe the characteristics of synovial joints and modified synovial structures.

Synovial joints, have articular cartilage which covers ends of bones, fibrous articular capsule that has fibrous connective tissue that encloses joint surface, joint cavity which contains synovial fluid and reinforcing ligaments.

Modified synovial structures include bursae which have flattened fibrous sacs, synovial fluid, ligaments and muscles. Tendon sheaths wraps around tendons subjected to friction. (Aplecture 12, Slide 13, and 14)

· Distinguish between the various synovial joints in terms of the amount of movement and plane of movement.

Plane joints.

Plane joints allow movement between two flat surfaces. Movement does not involve rotation.

Hinge joints, allows angular type of movement. Also permits uniaxial movement which is movement in one plane occurs in the elbow, knees and fingers.

Pivot joints, allow for rotational movement between two bones.

Condyloid joints, allows side to side, and back and forth movement.

Saddle joints, allows movement to occur between concave and convex surfaces. Ball and socket joints, this is where one bone fits into round socket of the other

(Aplecture 12, Slide 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26)

· Identify examples representative of the various types of synovial joints.

Monaxial joints, move in one plane only; hinge, pivot, and gliding joints.

Biaxial joints move in two planes; condyloid, and saddle joints

Multiaxial move in many planes, ball and socket joints (Aplecture 12, Slide 25)

· Identify the characteristics of the various inflammatory disorders of joints.

Bursitis, this occurs when there is an inflammation of the bursae or synovial membrane that causes water to accumulate on knees.

Sprain, occurs when there is excessive stretching which causes poor supply of blood.

Arthritis, a disease characterized by inflamed and damaged joints. (Aplecture 12, Slide 29)

· Distinguish between acute arthritis, chronic arthritis, osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, and gouty arthritis.

Acute arthritis is characterized by a decrease in fluid production and increased friction and pain.

Chronic arthritis is characterized by osteoarthritis, rheumatoid and it is gouty.

Osteoarthritis is the most common type of arthritis among older individuals. Characterized by wear and tear, occurs mostly on hips, knees ad lumber joints.

Rheumatoid arthritis is chronic and inflammatory, occurs mainly among persons aged 40-50 years, destroys cartilage and initial trigger is usually unknown.

Gouty arthritis occurs when uric acid accumulates in the blood, usually affects one joint, characterized by loss of weight and occurs mainly among men after the age of 30. (Aplecture 12, Slide 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, and 38)

· Describe how the skeletal system changes as we age.

The cranium of baby is larger than face, at around 6-11 years, the face grows out of the skull.

Primary curvatures birth convex posteriorly, secondary curvatures convex anteriorly, reshaping of the invertebral discs takes place and the spine assumes the s shape in adults.

In old age, osteoporosis occurs where bone thinning disease affect people, kyphosis occurs and pathological fractures are experienced. (Aplecture 12, Slide 40, 41, and 42)

Lab Need to Know:

Axial Skeleton:

Skull

Frontal

Parietal

Temporal

External auditory meatus

Styloid process

Zygomatic process

Mastoid process

Occipital

Sphenoid

Ethmoid

Lacrimal

Vomer

Maxillae

Mandible

Zygomatic

Nasal Bone

Palatine

Hyoid

Coronal suture

Sagittal suture

Lambdoid suture

Squamous suture

Vertebrae

Cervical (Atlas & Axis)

Thoracic

Lumbar

Sacrum

Coccyx

Sternum (manubrium/body/xiphoid process)

Ribs (7 true ribs, 5 false ribs (2 of these false are floating)

Appendicular Skeleton

Clavicle

Scapula

Acromion

Coracoid process

Glenoid cavity

Spine

Humerus

Head

Greater turbercle

Lesser turbercle

Deltoid Tuberosity

Capitulum

Trochlea

Radius

Ulna

Carpals

Metacarpals

Phalanges

Coxal bones

Iliac crest

Ilium

Ischium

Pubis

Acetabulum

Femur

Head

Neck

Greater Trochanter

Lesser Trochanter

Condyle

Tibia

Fibula

Calcaneous

Talus

Metatarsals

Phalanges