Assessing Research Components and Considerations

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Exploring the Evidence Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Focusing on the Fundamentals: A Simplistic Differentiation Between Qualitative and Quantitative Research Shannon Rutberg Christina D. Bouikidis

R esearch is categorized as quantitative or qualitative in nature. Quantitative research employs the use of numbers and accuracy, while qualitative research focuses on lived experiences and human percep-

tions (Polit & Beck, 2012). Research itself has a few vari- eties that can be explained using analogies of making a cup of coffee or tea. To make coffee, the amount of water and coffee

grounds to be used must be measured. This precise meas- urement determines the amount of coffee and the strength of the brew. The key word in this quantitative research analogy is measure. To make tea, hot water must be poured over a tea bag in a mug. The length of time a person leaves a tea bag in the mug comes down to perception of the strength of the tea desired. The key word in qualitative research is perception. This article describes and explores the differences between quantitative (measure) and quali- tative (perception) research.

Types of Research Nursing research can be defined as a “systematic

inquiry designed to develop trustworthy evidence about issues of importance to the nursing profession, including nursing practice, education, administration, and informat- ics” (Polit & Beck, 2012, p. 736). Researchers determine the type of research to employ based upon the research question being investigated. The two types of research methods are quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative research uses a rigorous and controlled design to examine phenomena using precise measurement (Polit & Beck, 2012). For example, a quantitative study may investigate a

patient’s heart rate before and after consuming a caffeinat- ed beverage, like a specific brand/type of coffee. In our coffee and tea analogy, in a quantitative study, the research participant may be asked to drink a 12-ounce cup of coffee, and after the participant consumes the coffee, the researcher measures the participant’s heart rate in beats per minute. Qualitative research examines phenom- ena using an in-depth, holistic approach and a fluid

Exploring the Evidence is a department in the Nephrology Nursing Journal designed to provide a summary of evidence-based research reports related to contemporary nephrology nursing practice issues. Content for this department is provided by members of the ANNA Research Committee. Committee members review the current literature related to a clinical practice topic and provide a summary of the evidence and implications for best practice. Readers are invited to submit questions or topic areas that pertain to evidence-based nephrology practice issues. Address correspondence to: Tamara Kear, Exploring the Evidence Department Editor, ANNA National Office, East Holly Avenue/Box 56, Pitman, NJ 08071-0056; (856) 256-2320; or via e-mail at [email protected]. The opinions and assertions contained herein are the private views of the contributors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the American Nephrology Nurses’ Association.

Copyright 2018 American Nephrology Nurses’ Association

Rutberg, S., & Bouikidis, C.D. (2018). Focusing on the fundamen- tals: A simplistic differentiation between qualitative and quantitative research. Nephrology Nursing Journal, 45(2), 209- 212.

This article describes qualitative, quantitative, and mixed meth- ods research. Various classifications of each research design, including specific categories within each research method, are explored. Attributes and differentiating characteristics, such as formulating research questions and identifying a research prob- lem, are examined, and various research method designs and reasons to select one method over another for a research project are discussed.

Key Words: Qualitative research, quantitative research, mixed methods research, method design.

Shannon Rutberg, MS, MSN, BS, RN-BC, is a Clinical Nurse Educator, Bryn Mawr Hospital, Main Line Health System Bryn Mawr, PA.

Christina D. Bouikidis, MSN, RNC-OB, is a Clinical Informatics Educator, Main Line Health System, Berwyn, PA.

Statement of Disclosure: The authors reported no actual or potential con- flict of interest in relation to this continuing nursing education activity.

Note: The Learning Outcome, additional statements of disclosure, and instructions for CNE evaluation can be found on page 213.

Continuing Nursing Education

Exploring the Evidence Quantitative and Qualitative Research

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Focusing on the Fundamentals: A Simplistic Differentiation Between Qualitative and Quantitative Research

research design that produces rich, telling narratives (Polit & Beck, 2012). An example of a qualitative study is explor- ing the participant’s preference of coffee over tea, and feel- ings or mood one experiences after drinking this favorite hot beverage.

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research can range from clinical trials for new treatments and medications to surveying nursing staff and patients. There are many reasons for selecting a quan- titative research study design. For example, one may choose quantitative research if a lack of research exists on a particular topic, if there are unanswered research ques- tions, or if the research topic under consideration could make a meaningful impact on patient care (Polit & Beck, 2012). There are several different types of quantitative research. Some of the most commonly employed quanti- tative designs include experimental, quasi-experimental, and non-experimental.

Experimental Design An experimental design isolates the identified phenom-

ena in a laboratory and controls conditions under which the experiment occurs (Polit & Beck, 2012). There is a con- trol group and at least one experimental group in this design. The most reliable studies use a randomization process for group assignment wherein the control group receives a placebo (an intervention that does not have ther- apeutic significance) and the experimental group receives an intervention (Polit & Beck, 2012). For example, if one is studying the effects of caffeine on heart rate 15 minutes after consuming coffee, using a quantitative experimental design, the design may be set up similarly to the descrip- tion in Table 1. Randomization will allow an equal chance for each participant to be assigned to either the control or the experimental group. Then the heart rate is measured before and after the intervention. The intervention is drink- ing decaffeinated coffee for the control group and drinking

caffeinated coffee for the experimental group. Data collect- ed (heart rate pre- and post-coffee consumption) are then analyzed, and conclusions are drawn.

Quasi-Experimental Design Quasi-experimental designs include an intervention in

the design; however, designs do not always include a con- trol group, which is a cornerstone to an authentic experi- mental design. This type of design does not have random- ization like the experimental design (Polit & Beck, 2012). Instead, there may be an intervention put into place with outcome measures pre- and post-intervention implemen- tation, and a comparison used to identify if the interven- tion made a difference. For example, perhaps a coffee chain store wants to see if sampling a new flavor of coffee, like hazelnut, will increase revenue over a one-month period. At location A, hazelnut coffee was distributed as a sample to customers in line waiting to purchase coffee. At location B, no samples were distributed to customers. Sales of hazelnut coffee are examined at both locations prior to the intervention (hazelnut sample given out to customers waiting in line) and then again one month later, after the intervention. Lastly, a monthly revenue is com- pared at both sites to measure if free hazelnut coffee sam- ples impacted sales.

Non-Experimental Design The final type of quantitative research discussed in this

article is the nonexperimental design. Manipulation of variables does not occur with this design, but an interest exists to observe the phenomena and identify if a relation- ship exists (Polit & Beck, 2012). Perhaps someone is inter- ested if drinking coffee throughout one’s life decreases the incidence of having a stroke. Researchers for this type of study will ask participants to report approximately how much coffee they drank daily, and data would be com- pared to their stroke incidence. Researchers will analyze data to determine if a causal relationship exists between coffee and stroke incidence by examining behavior that occurred in the past.

Table 1 Comparison of Control

Control Group Experimental Group Assignment 10 participants randomly assigned to the control

group 10 participants randomly assigned to the experimental group

Pre-Intervention Data Collection

Heart rate prior to beverage consumption Heart rate prior to beverage consumption

Intervention Consume a placebo drink (i.e., decaffeinated coffee)

Consume the experimental drink (i.e., caffeinated coffee)

Post-Intervention Data Collection

Obtain heart rate 15 minutes after the beverage was consumed

Obtain heart rate 15 minutes after the beverage was consumed

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Quantitative Study Attributes In quantitative studies, the researcher uses standardized

questionnaires or experiments to collect numeric data. Quantitative research is conducted in a more structured environment that often allows the researcher to have con- trol over study variables, environment, and research ques- tions. Quantitative research may be used to determine rela- tionships between variables and outcomes. Quantitative research involves the development of a hypothesis – a description of the anticipated result, relationship, or expected outcome from the question being researched (Polit & Beck, 2012). For example, in the experimental study mentioned in Table 1, one may hypothesize the con- trol group will not see an increase in heart rate. However, in the experimental group, one may hypothesize an increase in heart rate will occur. Data collected (heart rate before and after coffee consumption) are analyzed, and conclusions are drawn.

Qualitative Research According to Choy (2014), qualitative studies address

the social aspect of research. The researcher uses open- ended questions and interviews subjects in a semi-struc- tured fashion. Interviews often take place in the partici- pant’s natural setting or a quiet environment, like a confer- ence room. Qualitative research methodology is often employed when the problem is not well understood and there is an existing desire to explore the problem thor- oughly. Typically, a rich narrative from participant inter- views is generated and then analyzed in qualitative research in an attempt to answer the research question. Many questions will be used to uncover the problem and address it comprehensively (Polit & Beck, 2014).

Types of Qualitative Research Design Types of qualitative research include ethnography, phe-

nomenology, grounded theory, historical research, and case studies (Polit & Beck, 2014). Ethnography reveals the way culture is defined, the behavior associated with cul- ture, and how culture is understood. Ethnography design allows the researcher to investigate shared meanings that influence behaviors of a group (Polit & Beck, 2012). Phenomenology is employed to investigate a person’s

lived experience and uncover meanings of this experience (Polit & Beck, 2012). Nurses often use phenomenology research to better understand topics that may be part of human experiences, such as chronic pain or domestic vio- lence (Polit & Beck, 2012). Using the coffee analogy, a researcher may use phenomenology to investigate atti- tudes and practices around a specific time of day for coffee consumption. For example, some individuals may prefer coffee in the morning, while some prefer coffee through- out the day, and others only enjoy coffee after a meal. Grounded theory investigates actions and effects of the

behavior in a culture. Grounded theory methodology may be used to investigate afternoon tea time practices in

Europe as compared to morning coffee habits in the United States. Historical research examines the past using recorded

data, such as photos or objects. The historical researcher may look at the size of coffee mugs in photos or mugs from antique photos over a few centuries to provide a his- torical perspective. Perhaps photos are telling of cultural practices surrounding consuming coffee over the centuries – in solitude, or in small or large groups.

Qualitative Research Attributes When selecting a qualitative research design, keep in

mind the unique attributes. Qualitative research method- ology may involve multiple means of data collection to further understand the problem, such as interviews in addition to observations (Polit & Beck, 2012). Further, qualitative research is flexible and adapts to new informa- tion based on data collected, provides a holistic perspec- tive on the topic, and allows the researcher to become entrenched in the investigation. The researcher is the research tool, and data are constantly being analyzed to identify commencement of the study. The decision to select a qualitative methodology requires several consider- ations, a great amount of planning (such as which research design fits the study best, the time necessary to devote to the study, a data collection plan, and resources available to collect the data), and finally, self-reflection on any per- sonal presumptions and biases toward the topic (Polit & Beck, 2014). Selecting a sample population in qualitative research

begins with identifying eligibility to participate in the study based on the research question. The participant needs to have had exposure or experience with the con- tent being investigated. A thorough interview will uncover the encounter the participant had with the research ques- tion or experience. There will most likely be a few stan- dard questions asked of all participants and subsequent questions that will evolve based upon the participant’s experience/answers. Thus, there tends to be small sample size with a high volume of narrative data that needs to be analyzed and interpreted to identify trends intended to answer the research question (Polit & Beck, 2014).

Mixed Methods Using both quantitative and qualitative methodology

into a single study is known as a mixed methods study. According to Tashakkori and Creswell (2007), mixed methods research is “research in which the researcher col- lects and analyzes data, integrates the findings, and draws inferences using both qualitative and quantitative approaches or methods in a single study or program of inquiry” (p. 4). This approach has the potential to allow the researcher to collect two sets of data. An example of using mixed methods would be examining effects of con- suming a caffeinated beverage prior to bedtime. The researcher may want to investigate the impact of caffeine

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on the participant’s heart rate and ask how consuming the caffeine drink makes him or her feel. There is the quanti- tative numeric data measuring the heart rate and the qual- itative data addressing the participant’s experience or per- ception. Polit and Beck (2012) describe advantages of using a

mixed method approach, including complementary, prac- ticality, incrementality, enhanced validity, and collabora- tion. Complementary refers to quantitative and qualitative approaches complementing each other. Mixed methods use words and numbers, so the study is not limited to using just one method of data collection. Practicality refers to the researcher using the method that best addresses the research question while using one method from the mixed method approach. Incrementality is defined as the researcher taking steps in the study, where each step leads to another in an orderly fashion. An example of incremen- tality includes following a particular sequence, or an order, just as a recipe follows steps in order to accurately produce a desired product. Data collected from one method provide feedback to promote understanding of data from the other method. With enhanced variability, researchers can be more confident about the validity of their results because of multiple types of data supporting the hypothesis. Collaboration provides opportunity for both quantitative and qualitative researchers to work on similar problems in a collaborative nature. Once the researcher has decided to move forward with

a mixed-method study, the next step is to decide on the designs to employ. Design options include triangulation, embedded, explanatory, and exploratory. Triangulation is obtaining quantitative and qualitative data concurrently, with equal importance given to each design. An embedded design uses one type of data to support the other data type. An explanatory design focuses on collecting one data type and then moving to collecting the other data type. Exploratory is another sequential design, where the researcher collects one type of data, such as qualitative, in the first phase; then using those findings, the researcher col-

lects the other data, quantitative, in the second phase. Typically, the first phase concentrates on thorough investi- gation of a minutely researched occurrence, and the second phase is focused on sorting data to use for further investiga- tion. While using a two-step process may provide the researcher with more data, it can also be time-consuming.

Conclusion In summary, just like tea and coffee, research has simi-

larities and differences. In the simplest of terms, it can be viewed as measuring (how many scoops of coffee grounds?) compared to perception and experience (how long to steep the tea?). Quantitative research can range from experiments with a control group to studies looking at retrospective data and suggesting causal relationships. Qualitative research is conducted in the presence of limit- ed research on a particular topic, and descriptive narra- tives have the potential to provide detailed information regarding this particular area. Mixed methods research involves combining the quantitative and qualitative threads into data conversion and using those results to make meta-inferences about the research question. Research is hard work, but just like sipping coffee or tea at the end of a long day, it is rewarding and satisfying.

References Choy, L.T. (2014). The strengths and weaknesses of research

methodology: Comparison and complimentary between qualitative and quantitative approaches. Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 19(4), 99-104.

Polit, D.F., & Beck, C.T. (2012). Nursing research: Generating and assessing evidence for nursing practice. (9th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer.

Polit, D.F., & Beck, C.T. (2014). Essentials of nursing research: Appraising evidence for nursing practice (8th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer.

Tashakkori, A., & Creswell, J.W. (2007). The new era of mixed methods. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1(1), 3-7.

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Focusing on the Fundamentals: A Simplistic Differentiation Between Qualitative and Quantitative Research

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