New York Police Diversity Management
finishit
FirstResponders_Full_Report.pdf
December 2016
PROMISING PRACTICES
FOR
Increasing Diversity Among First Responders
Prepared for U.S. Department of Labor, Chief Evaluation Office
Full
Report
PREPARED BY
Bethesda, Maryland
AUTHORS
Abby Miller, Sue Clery, Samantha
Richardson, and Amelia Topper, Coffey
Consulting, LLC
Stephanie Cronen, Samantha Lilly,
Emma Hinkens, and Michelle Yin,
American Institutes for Research (AIR)
This project has been funded, either wholly or in part, with federal funds from the U.S. Department of Labor under Coffey Consulting, LLC’s MOBIS Contract GS-10F-0176P, DOL BPA DOLQ129633242, Task Order DOL OPS-15-U-00189. The contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the U.S. Department of Labor, nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement of same by the U.S. Government.
Acknowledgments
Coffey Consulting, LLC and the American Institutes for Research thank the resourceful
and supportive U.S. Department of Labor staff for commissioning this work, particularly
Demetra Nightingale, Chief Evaluation Officer; Jessica Lohmann, Evaluation Specialist;
and Amy Lin, Senior Policy Advisor. In addition, Coffey thanks members of the
Technical Working Group for taking time to share their thoughtful insights and expertise,
and providing valuable guidance to the research team: Dr. Sandy Hunter, Professor,
Emergency Medical Care, Eastern Kentucky University; Jacobo Negron, President,
Massachusetts Latino Police Officers Association; and, Deborah Pendergast, Chief and
Director of the New Hampshire Fire Academy and Emergency Medical Services and
Trustee, International Association of Women in Fire and Emergency Services. Also,
thanks to representatives of the following organizations who helped us identify sites to
visit: Hispanic American Police Command Officers Association, International
Association of Chiefs of Police, International Association of Fire Chiefs, International
Association of Fire Fighters, National Association of Black Law Enforcement Officers,
and Women in Federal Law Enforcement. Finally, our gratitude goes to the study sites,
which extended much hospitality and accommodated our visits. Without the honesty,
openness and willingness of site participants who shared much valuable information,
this study would not have been possible.
Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ........................................................................................................ 1
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 5
OBJECTIVES AND RESEARCH APPROACH ............................................................................ 7
BACKGROUND—LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................ 9
SITE VISIT FINDINGS ........................................................................................................ 13
Site Summaries .................................................................................................................................... 14
Promising Practices .............................................................................................................................. 32
Culture of Diversity ......................................................................................................................... 32
Recruitment .................................................................................................................................... 35
Hiring .............................................................................................................................................. 41
Training .......................................................................................................................................... 43
Retention and Advancement .......................................................................................................... 47
Challenges ............................................................................................................................................ 50
Police.............................................................................................................................................. 50
Fire/EMT ........................................................................................................................................ 53
DISCUSSION/RECOMMENDATIONS ..................................................................................... 55
Cross-Site Comparisons ....................................................................................................................... 55
Revisiting the Promising Practices Literature ....................................................................................... 59
Feasibility of Replicating Promising Practices ...................................................................................... 60
Recommendations for Future Research and Evaluation...................................................................... 61
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................. 64
APPENDIX A: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................... 68
APPENDIX B: STUDY METHODOLOGY ................................................................................ 89
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 1
Executive Summary
First responder fields—including law enforcement, firefighting, and emergency
management services (EMS)—serve a crucial role in the safety and well-being of
communities around the country. Public citizens and officials have placed a renewed
focus on improving agencies’ relations with their local communities by ensuring that first
responders reflect the populations they serve. The potential benefits of increasing
diversity and moving toward greater representation could also provide more secure and
rewarding employment opportunities to historically underrepresented populations, thus
having implications for local economic and workforce development. To gain a better
understanding of such benefits, the U.S. Department of Labor’s (DOL) Chief Evaluation
Office contracted with Coffey Consulting, LLC (Coffey) to conduct an exploratory study
to identify promising practices that first responder agencies and organizations can
leverage to increase the diversity of their workforces.
Method
Coffey, in collaboration with the American Institutes for Research (AIR), began by
conducting a detailed review of the published first responder and human resources
literature and media to identify promising practices within the employment pipeline—
recruitment, selection, training, retention, and advancement—that are being applied by
first responder agencies or supporting organizations to increase workforce diversity.
The study team visited a purposive sample of five sites identified as having well-
established diversity efforts to gather more in-depth, contextualized information about
the promising practices implemented and their potential, both achieved and anticipated,
for increasing the diversity of their local first responder workforce.
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 2
The five selected sites represented several different first responder fields, focused on
different points in the employment pipeline, and used different strategies to target
diversity of various populations. The five sites were composed of two police
departments (Atlanta Police Department [APD] and Dallas Police Department [DPD]),
one fire department (San Francisco Fire Department [SFFD]), and two third-party
training providers (Bay Area Youth EMT [BAY EMT] program and Camp Fully Involved
[CFI]). The police and fire departments that participated in the study were more
representative of the local populations they serve relative to departments nationwide,
and all sites display diversity practices cited in the human resource and first responder-
specific literature as potentially promising. A profile summarizing the information
collected prior to and during the site visit was developed for each site. 1
Findings
Overall, the findings indicated that the sites employ a range of promising practices along
the employment pipeline. Some common themes related to organizational and
leadership support, recruiting diversity, and retaining diversity emerged across the sites.
Key differences in the challenges faced by the type of organization were also identified.
A high-level summary of these findings follows.
ORGANIZATIONAL AND L EADERSHIP SUPPORT
All five sites displayed aspects of a diverse organizational culture including: a diverse
leadership (in terms of both race/ethnicity and gender), an emphasis on diversity as a
priority, and open discussions among staff about the importance and meaning of
diversity.
RECRUITING DIVERSITY
Promising recruitment practices include population-specific liaisons, partnerships with
colleges and high schools, and financial incentives for language skills. In addition, APD,
through their partnership with the Atlanta Police Foundation, offers housing and
education benefits to new recruits. Community engagement activities—including youth
programs and classes and events for the public—serve as both direct and indirect
recruiting methods. These activities provide opportunities for citizens to learn more
about first responder careers while also fostering a positive image in the community,
particularly among previously underrepresented populations in the professions, who can
then see themselves in these positions.
The majority of the sites provide free training and/or test preparation. Both APD and
DPD have free academies; BAY EMT is a free fire service and emergency medical
services program and covers testing fees; and Camp Fully Involved offers scholarships
to cover the costs of fire service training on an as-needed basis. APD and DPD both
1 Each site had an opportunity to review its profile for accuracy.
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 3
offer coursework specific to diversity involving anti-bias training and reality-based role-
playing exercises, and DPD requires that academy graduates complete 60 hours of
Spanish coursework.
RETAINING DIVERSITY
Although the focus for increasing diversity primarily appeared to be on recruiting, some
examples surfaced related to the retention of employees. Both police sites offer frequent
opportunities for promotion and movement between various units within the department,
with an emphasis on equal opportunity for all staff regardless of background. All three
department sites (two police and one fire) offer financial incentives to staff who speak
multiple languages, which better positions them for communicating directly with
community members. Also, the focus on inclusion supports the retention of a diverse
workforce. In fact, female and racial/ethnic minority representatives of both police
departments spoke of a comfortable, welcoming, “family” environment, particularly for
underrepresented populations. SFFD offers employees the professional and personal
support of various employee affinity groups (i.e., a group with no departmental or
government oversight in which employees may voluntarily join to build relationships with
other employees having similar interests or experiences such as race, gender, gender
identity, etc.) that advocate on their behalf.
CHALLENGES
Diversity challenges among departments appeared specific to the profession: either
police or fire. For police, a major challenge is filling the approximately 200–300
openings each year, while for fire, the challenge appeared to be competition for limited
openings. All three departments cite the need for additional bilingual staff and the
challenge of gaining the trust of immigrant populations who often have negative views of
police from their home countries. The two police sites, like police departments around
the country, lose a number of applicants during the hiring stage due to factors such as
candidates not passing the background review and the length of time it takes for a
candidate to complete the hiring process. Beyond hiring, both police departments cite
challenges retaining younger employees, many of whom were the focus of recent
recruitment efforts targeting underrepresented populations.
Conclusions
Findings from the literature review and site visits provide many examples of strategies
that agencies can use to increase diversity among first responder professions.
However, implementing these practices may be more or less difficult in some contexts,
depending on the receptiveness of key participants to making real and lasting changes
and having the resources available to do so. Further research is needed to study the
identified practices in more depth. In order to be successful, agencies, at a minimum,
must work towards institutionalizing their goal to strive for and support diversity and
inclusion. It must become prioritized as a part of the organization’s leadership, budget,
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 4
and business process. To inform and support this approach, a program brief
summarizing the promising practices identified for increasing diversity within the first
responder workforce was developed for dissemination to those who have an opportunity
to make a difference.
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 5
Introduction
Following passage of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act (1964), as amended, federal and
state governments have implemented an array of policies aimed at preventing job
discrimination based on personal characteristics, such as race, ethnicity, gender,
religion, national origin, disability status, age, and sexual orientation. An important
expectation of equal opportunity legislation is that it will contribute to the establishment
of a representative workforce with the development and implementation of regulations,
rules and policies contemplated by such legislation. However, decades after the
enactment of these policies, some occupational sectors remain largely homogenous.
One such cluster of occupations includes “First Responders”—defined here as law
enforcement, fire, and other emergency medical services (EMS) personnel. 2
First responder fields serve a crucial role in the safety and well-being of communities
around the country. Public citizens and officials have placed a renewed focus on
improving both the representativeness of first responders in relation to the populations
they serve, and the agencies’ relations with their local communities. The assumption
underlying this focus is that a more representative first responder workforce will lead to
better community relations and fairer treatment of the public served. While the limited
2 Based on an analysis conducted by the U.S. Department of Labor, the majority of first responders in
2014 were male, White, and 25- to 54-years old; it should be noted, however, that some of the first responder professions were more representative of women and non-Whites than others, and some groups were actually somewhat over represented at the national level in unexpected ways when compared with the overall working population—including Blacks or African Americans in law enforcement (15 percent of those in law enforcement compared to 11 percent of those employed in any field; see Schafer, Sutter, & Gibbons, 2015).
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 6
research available does not conclusively support this assumption (e.g., Brown & Frank,
2006; Sklansky, 2006; Sun & Payne, 2004), 3 a representative first responder workforce
has been associated with a key outcome—a lower incidence of police-related deaths
(Legewie & Fagan, 2016)—and is generally seen as desirable for social, economic, and
legal reasons, regardless of its effect on other outcomes (e.g., see U.S. Department of
Justice [DOJ] and Equal Employment Opportunity Commission [EEOC], 2015). For
example, first responders who mirror the demographics of the community they serve
may be more trusted and, therefore, seen as more approachable by witnesses or those
in need of help, resulting in a more effective provision of services and greater
community well-being. Hiring and promoting a more diverse first responder workforce
also opens secure and rewarding jobs to a community. In addition, the notion of
diversifying public organizations “. . . is crucial to ensuring active representation that
leads to equal access to power, the reflection of community preferences, and public
willingness to cooperate with organizations” (Morabito & Shelley, 2015, p. 346).
These potential benefits to the community, which may be yielded as a result of having a
diverse first responder workforce, underscore the importance of providing equal
employment opportunities to underrepresented populations. As noted by Riccucci and
Riccardelli (2014), “[t]here is a long history of discrimination by police and fire
departments against women and people of color in the United States” (p. 353).
Compared to women and underrepresented groups’ overall representation in the
workforce, their relative representation in first responder sectors is notably low (Griffith,
Schultz, Wakeham, & Schultz, 2015; Morabito & Shelley, 2015; Schuck, 2014; Russ-Eft,
Dickison, & Levine, 2008), indicating a longstanding opportunity to recruit and retain
underrepresented populations from the workforce pool in policing, firefighting, and EMT
service.
In recognition of the need for additional research on this important topic, the U.S.
Department of Labor (DOL) contracted Coffey Consulting, LLC (Coffey) to conduct an
exploratory multi-site case study of promising practices for increasing diversity among
first responders.
The study’s research design and approach, site visit case study summaries, detailed
cross-site analysis, and discussion of findings are presented in the following sections of
this report.
3
There have been some important exceptions related to women in law enforcement, as summarized in the 2016 DOJ and EEOC Advancing Diversity in Law Enforcement report. Based on the authors’ review of the literature, female officers were less likely than male officers to use deadly or excessive force unnecessarily, and were more likely to use community-oriented practices in their policing.
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 7
Objectives and Research Approach
The First Responder Diversity Study sought to establish a better understanding of
promising recruitment-, hiring-, training-, retention-, and advancement-related practices
for improving the diversity of first responders in terms of gender, race, ethnicity, and
sexual orientation. This exploratory study is intended to contribute to the existing
research base and to serve as a resource for future diversity research. The findings
profile promising diversity practices at the five first responder study sites and are not
intended to represent a definitive or exhaustive list of practices.
Overview of the Study
This multi-site case study consisted of two main components: (1) information gathering
from the field about potentially promising practices and (2) in-depth case studies of the
five study sites identified as implementers of promising practices. The information
gathering component included a comprehensive search of the human resources and
first responder literature on improving diversity; a review of first responder association
websites; and a scan of policies and practices enacted within a set of states found to
have a relatively diverse first responder workforce. The findings of that initial information
gathering were described in detail in the study’s literature review (see Appendix A) and
are summarized in the current report. Based on the information gathered, study staff
developed a list of potential study sites and a “best practices” rubric culled from the
relevant literature to use in screening those sites. From this process, staff identified five
local fire or law enforcement agencies or supporting organizations (e.g., training
providers) that were implementing practices consistent with those identified in the
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 8
literature review. Study staff recruited the five sites and conducted a site visit to each of
the agencies or supporting organizations to collect detailed information through
interviews with leaders and line staff and to obtain information on the current
demographics. The ultimate goal of the case studies was to identify and describe in
depth some of the strategies being used that hold promise for increasing diversity in
other locations. A full accounting of the study’s methodology can be found in Appendix
B.
Site Selection
To be selected as a study site, potential agencies or supporting organizations had to
meet two main requirements during site selection: (1) the strategies followed “best
practices” based on the human resources literature and/or were based on expert
recommendations from the relevant first responder field and (2) reported outcomes
suggested that a particular site’s strategies were improving diversity at that site. Sites
were removed from the list if they did not appear to follow “best practices” according to
the screening rubric developed for the study, or if their outcomes data either did not
show improvements in diversity over time or were not yet available.
From the resulting list of prospective sites, the study team selected a group of five sites
that, as a whole, met the following study requirements: The sites represented a range of
first responder fields, utilized components of the employment pipeline, and protected
groups targeted by the strategies. The five sites were composed of two police
departments, one fire department, and two third-party training providers.
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 9
Background—Literature Review
In both the public and private sectors, a similar set of general practices or organizational
characteristics have been identified as useful for ensuring and managing a diverse and
inclusive workforce (e.g., see Aronson, 2002; Stalcup et al., 2005; U.S. Department of
Commerce and National Partnership for Reinventing Government Benchmarking Study,
n.d.). These include:
A demonstrated commitment to diversity and inclusion at the leadership and
management levels (e.g., diversity among leadership members; an organization’s
stated core values include diversity and inclusion; sustained investment in
supporting diversity and inclusion, etc.);
A strategic plan designed from a current diversity assessment of the organization
that includes diversity goals and plans aligned with or explicitly linked to the
organization’s goals and objectives;
Succession planning that includes an ongoing strategic process for identifying
and developing a diverse pool of talent for an organization’s potential leaders;
Communications from leadership about the value of diversity for organizational
performance;
Employee involvement to support diversity and inclusion throughout the
organization (e.g., mentoring new employees, supporting public outreach by
employees, etc.);
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Training of management and staff to recognize and avoid bias (including implicit
bias); and
Establishing indicators for measuring progress and performance and holding
leaders accountable to those measures.
Experts in the field of diversity management along with organizations that have been the
most successful at improving diversity and inclusion support these practices (e.g., see
Aronson, 2002; Stalcup et al., 2005; U.S. Department of Commerce and National
Partnership for Reinventing Government Benchmarking Study, n.d.). They agree that a
combination of the general practices identified should be considered when an
organization is developing and implementing its diversity initiatives. The descriptions
below summarize general strategies as they relate to specific components of the
employment pipeline. See Appendix A for the full literature review report, which
describes these strategies in greater detail.
Recommendations from the Human Resources Literature
In general, the human resources literature suggests a commitment to diversity and
inclusion at all levels of the organization in a way that is explicitly communicated,
demonstrated, supported, and sustained (Aronson, 2002; Stalcup et al., 2005; U.S.
Department of Commerce and National Partnership for Reinventing Government
Benchmarking Study, n.d.). For outreach, recruitment, and hiring, recommendations
include establishing a council to develop, implement, and monitor a diversity-focused
recruitment plan, including individuals with a strong commitment to diversity on advisory
councils and search committees; training members of search committees to avoid bias
in selection practices; developing formal partnerships with schools and organizations
that serve diverse populations; and disseminating tailored recruitment messages in a
range of outlets that serve diverse populations (Avery & McKay, 2006; Jacobs &
Thomas, n.d.; Stalcup et al., 2005; Williamson et al., 2008).
Diversity training is seen as most successful when broad, inclusionary definitions of
diversity are used by the organization and training is strongly encouraged for all
employees and required for managers (Kalev et al., 2006; Rynes & Rosen, 1995).
Additionally, strategies should be pilot-tested before full-scale implementation (Holvino
et al., 2004). Long-term evaluations of diversity training initiatives include assessing
changes to individual attitudes and behavior, organizational culture, costs and
profitability, employee satisfaction across different groups in the organization, and the
use of diversity strategies within business systems and structure (Holvino et al., 2004;
Rynes & Rosen, 1995).
For improving retention and advancement, organizations should prioritize diversity by
assessing, communicating, and explicitly recognizing effective diversity efforts, such as
including diversity-related goals in the organizations’ strategic plans (Stalcup et al.,
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 11
2005; U.S. Department of Commerce and National Partnership for Reinventing
Government Benchmarking Study, n.d.). Establishing a mentorship program can help
foster self-development, a sense of inclusion, and advocacy within the organization, and
thus increase the likelihood of retention and advancement of a diverse workforce
(Stalcup et al., 2005; U.S. Department of Commerce and National Partnership for
Reinventing Government Benchmarking Study, n.d.).
The vast majority of studies conducted to establish these best practices consist of
surveys, interviews, focus groups, and case studies, which have been valuable for the
sake of knowledge development around best practices. However, additional research is
needed to identify more specific approaches (e.g., the characteristics of an effective
mentorship program) and the conditions under which implementation is most
successful, and to evaluate the effectiveness of best practices more rigorously.
Summary of Best Practices from the First Responder Literature
The best practices identified in the diversity literature specific to first responders
mirrored many of the general practices highlighted in the human resources literature. In
addition to targeted recruitment messaging and partnerships in the community, the
literature on police diversity recommends adequately funding recruitment efforts to
reach a diverse set of applicants (Comeau, 2011; Haddad, Giglio, Keller, & Lim, 2012;
Jordan, Fridell, Faggiani, & Kubu, 2009; Matthies, Keller, & Lim, 2012; International
Association of Chiefs of Police, Bureau of Justice Assistance, & Klein Associates
Division/ARA, 2009; Scrivner, 2006; Taylor et al., 2005; White, Cooper, Saunders, &
Raganella, 2010). It is important to tailor messaging for diverse communities not only by
highlighting the range of people with careers in law enforcement, but also by conveying
aspects of the job that applicants care about—helping people, job benefits, and job
security (White et al., 2010).
The practices identified in the firefighter and EMT literature include changing the
fundamental culture of an organization, which requires a re-examination of traditional
gender perceptions, visible commitment from leadership, progress monitoring,
transparency, and objectivity (Broome, 2012; Hulett et al., 2008). Additional
recommended practices include implementing a human resources committee or task
force on diversity, effectively communicating the rationale and advantages of a diverse
workforce, instituting organization-wide diversity training, establishing a recruiting
budget to ensure a diverse applicant pool, developing relationships with affinity groups
to aid in targeted recruitment, establishing a mentoring program, and allocating
additional resources to support diverse student populations (Fernandez, Studnek, &
Margolis, 2008; Fox, Hornwick, & Hardin, 2006; Van Solkema, 1999).
Similar to the general human resources literature on best practices for increasing
diversity and the literature on law enforcement, the findings on best practices for police,
firefighters, and EMTs are based on survey and qualitative research, such as focus
groups, with those primarily in the firefighter profession. This work has been critical for
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identifying promising practices generally in human resources, but more research is
needed to identify additional best practices specific to first responders and to assess
their impacts throughout the employment pipeline.
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Site Visit Findings
Below are summaries of each of the five sites visited, followed by a cross-site analysis
of major themes pertaining to promising practices and challenges along various key
points in the employment pipeline: career exploration, recruitment, hiring, training,
retention, and advancement. Table 1 displays where the practices identified at each site
fall along the employment pipeline.
Table 1. Overview of Diversity Efforts Along Key Points in the Employment Pipeline at Each Site
Atlanta Police
Department (APD)
Dallas Police
Department (DPD)
San Francisco Fire
Department (SFFD)
BAY EMT*
Camp Fully
Involved (CFI)*
Career Exploration
Recruitment
Hiring N/A N/A
Training
Retention N/A N/A
Promotion N/A N/A
*Bay EMT and CFI are third-party training sites, therefore some segments of the employment pipeline, as noted, are not applicable to these sites.
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 14
Site Summaries
Atlanta Police Department
Background
The Atlanta Police Department (APD) was selected as a study site based on its
representation of the population, and results from the policy scan that highlighted recent
recruiting efforts targeting local Spanish-speaking communities. The study team
interviewed 18 line and command staff, including the Chief of Police, an Assistant Chief,
a Deputy Chief, one Captain, four Majors, two Sergeants, one Investigator, six Police
Officers, and one civilian employee. Among those interviewed were representatives
from the Background and Recruitment Unit; the Training Academy; Special Projects; the
Community-Oriented Policing Section; the internship program; lesbian, gay, bisexual,
and transgender (LGBT) and Hispanic liaisons; and the Atlanta Public Schools liaison.
The site visit took place in April 2016.
Staff at the APD described the city of Atlanta as “the home of civil rights” where the “the
discussion of race is always front and center.” Atlanta has been described as “the
emerging capital of [B]lack America” (Lloyd, 2012, p. 485). In addition, Atlanta has
garnered attention for being racially progressive within the South and previously
adopted the city slogan “The City Too Busy to Hate” (Lloyd, 2012, p. 485).
The APD, like the city, is over 50 percent African American. Based on interviews with
APD staff, the leadership appears to have an understanding of the benefits of diversity
and the importance of diversity beyond race/ethnicity to include gender, sexual
orientation, religion, age, and other background characteristics and experiences. One
interviewee commented that staff “need an open mind” to work at APD; those who do
not value diversity often leave. APD staff members are transparent about discussing the
demographic representation of staff and any gaps that need to be addressed, both in
the line staff and leadership. Figure 1 displays the demographic composition of APD
sworn officers in comparison with the local population.
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Figure 1. Percentage Distribution of APD Full-Time Sworn Personnel vs. Atlanta General Population by Race/Ethnicity and Gender
Sources: Bureau of Justice Statistics, Law Enforcement Management and Administrative Statistics (LEMAS) 2013, U.S. Census, American Community Survey, 2010-2014. Note that LEMAS data represent full-time sworn personnel, and ACS general population data reflect the total population, including all ages, of the city of Atlanta, Georgia. White and Black/African American categories exclude those of Hispanic or Latino origins and those reporting more than one race.
Leadership
Based on site visit observations and interviews, historically underrepresented
populations in the first responder profession (racial/ethnic minorities, females, and the
LGBT community) appear to be particularly well-represented among the leadership
ranks at APD, as well as throughout the line staff. Diverse leadership provides role
models for current and prospective APD officers who can envision themselves in those
positions.
Chief George Turner, who grew up in Atlanta, has been with APD for 35 years and was
appointed to lead the department in 2010. He attended a local historically Black college
and has a deep understanding of Atlanta’s racial climate, as well as the importance of
having a diversified police force. He described his philosophy about diversity as
“purposed,” especially within the command staff, and has made a deliberate effort to
place women and underrepresented groups in top leadership positions. He is also a
vocal supporter of the LGBT community.
Diversity is a priority throughout the leadership ranks, reflected in this comment from a
leadership staff member interviewed: “We’ve made huge strides but we have much
further to go.” The department’s leadership has a clear understanding of the benefits of
diversity—“when we have diversity of individual, we have diversity of thought”—and why
that is important for both APD and the city. This message from leadership trickles down
to staff, who commented frequently on the importance of visibility of diversity—among
command staff, individual units, officers, and in recruiting advertisements—for serving
the community.
37%
58%
4%
82%
18%
36%
52%
6%
50% 50%
White Black/African
American
Hispanic/Latino Male Female
Race/Ethnicity and Gender
APD Full-Time Sworn Personnel City of Atlanta
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In addition to embracing diversity, interviewees noted that the Chief and Atlanta Mayor
Kasim Reed support “outside the box” thinking to achieve such goals as diversity. This
innovation is reflected in the recruiting and community practices described below,
including such recent staff-developed initiatives as My Life Matters (highlighted in “APD
Highlight” text box). The APD leadership is closely involved in many aspects of the
recruiting and hiring processes, including participation at local events and out-of-state
recruiting trips.
APD Highlight
“John”* is a 22-year-old native of Atlanta who, as a homeless youth, was driven to gangs and crime because it was the only life he knew and saw as a possibility. Eventually, he was arrested for home robbery at age 14. A judge in the Superior Court of Fulton County gave John a second chance to succeed and connected him with mentors who encouraged him to continue with high school. After being released from prison, John attended school at nights and on weekends, and within one year, enrolled in college. The APD Deputy Chief offered to help John get a job with the APF, because he could not find employment with felonies on his record. As a result of John’s success, the judge and APD recently partnered with APF to create a grant-funded program, My Life Matters (MLM), to give other incarcerated youth like him a second chance in life. Currently, 14 minors with felonies are participating in the pilot program.
John now works for MLM as an employee of APF, serving as a mentor for the program along with three APD officers. They meet with participants regularly and intensively, and connect participants with individuals from the business community to teach life and job skills. The program partners with Atlanta Technical College to enroll participants in a GED program and with nonprofit organizations—including Habitat for Humanity, Big Brother/Big Sister, and Atlanta Job Corp—for community service opportunities. Participants are monitored closely to ensure they are making progress and meeting program goals. This second chance program is representative of the innovative leadership of APD; its leaders are not afraid to take risks and try new approaches to reaching at-risk populations in the community. In addition, the program reflects the tendency of staff to take a holistic view of individuals and their circumstances in consideration of their future opportunities and potential contributions to the department. This is also a tenet of the background review process when hiring officers; minor offenses will be forgiven if enough time has passed and the applicant shows promise. MLM is an example of APD’s recognition that to connect with the community, they need staff who can relate to the community. Finally, demonstrating this commitment to the community will help instill trust and a more favorable opinion among segments of the population who may have previously viewed the police skeptically. Building this positive image among citizens will make a future career with the police force a more viable option.
* A pseudonym has been used to protect the individual’s identity.
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 17
Unique Practices
Diversity practices specific to APD include the use of population-specific liaisons (i.e.,
Hispanic, LGBT) and partnerships with the Atlanta Police Foundation (APF) and city
agencies to provide financial incentives, including bonuses for Spanish-speaking
officers. APD also places importance on recruiting in its budget, which enables a
recruiting team of 17 officers to travel to areas outside the state. These and other
promising APD practices, such as community engagement, are described below in
common findings across sites. Figure 2 displays where promising practices identified at
APD fall along the employment pipeline.
Figure 2. Overview of Diversity Efforts Along Key Points in the Employment Pipeline at APD
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 18
Dallas Police Department
Background
The Dallas Police Department (DPD) was selected for study based on its representation
of the local population and recommendation by experts in the field for its recruiting
practices focused on diversity. Fifteen line and command staff at the DPD were
interviewed, including one Assistant Chief, two Deputy Chiefs, two Lieutenants, three
Sergeants, three Senior Corporals, three police officers, and one civilian employee.
Among those interviewed were representatives from the Recruiting Unit, Administrative
Bureau, Applicant Processing, Personnel Division, Patrol Division, Training Academy
and Division, Internal Affairs, and Community Affairs. It should be noted that the study
team visited the site and conducted interviews in April, 2016, prior to the tragic event of
July 2016 that led to the deaths of five DPD officers.
Dallas has a long history of racial tensions and segregation, while also experiencing
major growth in the diversity of its citizens over the past 50 years (Nicholson, 2016). To
a large extent, Dallas’ growing Hispanic population has driven this diversity, increasing
its representation from 7.5 percent in 1970 to 42 percent today.
The ninth largest police department in the United States, DPD employs approximately
3,300 officers and hires approximately 200 new officers per year. Police staff
interviewed described the DPD as having a family environment despite its large size.
Currently, the DPD has 50 percent racial/ethnic minorities and 19 percent female
officers. DPD leaders would like to achieve better representation of females among its
sworn officers, although this percentage is higher than the national average of 12
percent. 4 In 2016, African American officers mirrored the city demographics (26
percent), while Hispanic officers, comprising approximately 20 percent of the total, were
still underrepresented (see Figure 3).
4 Based on analysis of Bureau of Labor Statistics, Law Enforcement Management and Administrative Statistics (LEMAS) Survey, 2013. Note: This survey is conducted every five years, and 2013 is the most recent year available. The representation of women has not changed since the previous survey collection in 2007.
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 19
Figure 3. Percentage Distribution of DPD Full-Time Sworn Personnel vs. Dallas General Population by Race/Ethnicity and Gender
Sources: DPD, 2016; U.S. Census, American Community Survey, 2010-2014. Note that ACS general population data reflect the total population, including all ages, of the city of Dallas, Texas. White and Black/African American categories exclude those of Hispanic or Latino origins and those reporting more than one race.
Leadership
DPD has made progress at recruiting Hispanic officers since a major push in 2008 to
restructure the recruitment team and develop innovative recruiting practices to reach
this population (described under Findings—Recruitment). Table 2 displays the increase
in both underrepresented groups and female sworn officers at DPD since implementing
these changes.
50%
26% 21%
81%
19%
29% 24%
42%
50% 50%
White Black/African
American
Hispanic/Latino Male Female
Race/Ethnicity and Gender
DPD Sworn Officers City of Dallas
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Table 2. Percentage Distribution of DPD Full-Time Sworn Personnel by Race/Ethnicity and Gender, 2008 and 2016
2008 2016
Total 100% 100%
Race/Ethnicity
White 57% 50%
African American 24% 26%
Hispanic 16% 21%
Other 0% 0%
Asian/Pacific Islander 1% 2%
American Indian/Alaskan 1% 1%
Gender
Male 83% 81%
Female 17% 19%
Source: DPD, 2016.
Chief David Brown has led the DPD since 2010. 5 He interacts with the community at
various events, such as “Chief on the Beat,” and through what staff refer to as heavy
use of social media. Officers interviewed for this study expressed their appreciation for
having a homegrown leader who is actively engaged in the community. In 2012, Chief
Brown expanded community policing efforts to include the Community Affairs Unit, the
Police Athletic League (PAL), and the Neighborhood Policing Unit. Brown maintains
strong relationships with the Dallas Mayor and the City Council leadership, who have
been supportive of the DPD and its community engagement efforts.
Interviewees said that African American and female officers in the command staff serve
as role models for prospective and current officers who can envision themselves in
those positions. The importance of diversity is reflected in the DPD’s strategic plan and
ingrained in its culture. Staff members are described as having courageous
conversations about differences in backgrounds and perspectives. Interviewees noted
that the DPD is now in its second generation of officers from underrepresented groups
and, at this point, credit word of mouth for helping to sustain diversity.
DPD leadership defines diversity as extending beyond race/ethnicity to LGBT status,
age, disabilities, and other background characteristics and experiences. While the DPD
has made strides in becoming representative of the local population, both overall and
within its leadership ranks, leaders expressed that the DPD still has “room for
improvement” when it comes to women and Hispanic officers. Despite being above the
national average for representation of both women and underrepresented groups, DPD
is always striving for better representation of the local population.
5 Chief David Brown announced his retirement in September 2016, during the production of this report.
See: http://gov.texas.gov/news/press-release/22628
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 21
DPD Highlight
At the DPD, a Hispanic woman who now serves on the command staff highlighted the importance of both role modeling and having diverse recruiting staff familiar with cultural norms. Her family was hesitant with the idea of her serving on the police force, given traditional gender roles typical in some Hispanic communities, and having a Hispanic recruiter communicate with her family was critical to gaining their acceptance:
“In my household we were raised where you are here for your family and that’s what
you do. If you get a job it will be a nice safe office job. Anything where you’ll be
subjected to danger as a girl, with my upbringing, that’s not something they were in
favor of. [DPD Recruiter] played a heavy role with me becoming a Dallas police officer
with speaking to my father...I was a civilian at the time… [DPD Recruiter] had words of
encouragement—‘Don’t limit yourself to handing out equipment and answering phones.
You’re capable of so much more.’ My father at the time said ‘no.’ But again, [DPD
Recruiter] would express to him, ‘we need her out there because she can relate to the
community.’ [DPD Recruiter] has been by my side and one of my biggest cheerleaders
ever since…He told me once ‘whether you want it or not you are a role model for all
these little girls so you do the best with every opportunity presented to you.’…He has
sent that message out of there are no limitations of what you are able to do here…I
can’t believe that I am where I am right now. It’s because of [DPD Recruiter].’”
Unique Practices
DPD recruiting is unique in its strategy of forming relationships with college campuses.
Recruiters go beyond the standard practice of staffing tables at job fairs on campuses to
making presentations in college classrooms and spending time with students in
common areas. DPD recruiters reach out to students of all majors, not only criminal
justice, with the message that policing can provide job opportunities beyond patrolling.
DPD is also unique in its training requirements; both basic and in-service training
provide diversity-specific coursework and role-playing, and all recruits are required to
complete intermediate Spanish—60 credit hours, which is well beyond the state
requirement of 12 hours. These practices, along with those shared by other sites, are
described in more detail below in the cross-site analysis of common findings. Figure 4
displays where promising practices identified at APD fall along the employment pipeline.
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Figure 4. Overview of Diversity Efforts Along Key Points in the Employment Pipeline at DPD
San Francisco Fire Department
Background
The San Francisco Fire Department (SFFD) was selected to participate in the study due
to its notable diversity statistics after managing a near decade-long consent decree. The
study team conducted interviews with 17 staff of various positions and involvement in
diversity efforts, including the Chief, Deputy Chiefs, Fire Commissioner, Director of
Human Resources, representatives of population-specific employee groups,
Neighborhood Emergency Response Team (NERT) Program Coordinator, Compliance
Officer, union representatives, Director of the Firefighters and Safety Education
program, and other command and line staff. Interviews were either conducted one-on-
one or in small groups to accommodate SFFD staff schedules and availability. The
SFFD site visit occurred in April, 2016.
The SFFD is one of the top five departments in the nation when it comes to diversity
and has had a female chief since 2004. The department has several employee groups
to represent and support specific underrepresented groups in fire service, including
women; African American; Asian; Hispanic; lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and
queer; and military veteran staff. The SFFD partners with the California Firefighter Joint
Apprenticeship Committee (CFFJAC) to provide paid apprenticeships and also partners
with local public schools. The SFFD also offers a neighborhood emergency response
program provided at several locations throughout the city in English, Spanish, and
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 23
Cantonese to support participation of all types of individuals. Benefits and compensation
offered to department staff and the investment in employees is reported to be an
excellent cause for retention.
Targeted efforts to increase diversity began in 1987 when a consent decree with the
U.S. Department of Justice was implemented and required the department to
dramatically increase its representation of staff from underrepresented groups and
female staff, and it is now one of the most diverse fire departments in the country. The
consent decree contained a court order to change the department’s hiring, promotional,
and management policies after the U.S. Department of Justice cited the City and
County of San Francisco for unlawful discrimination. Although the ruling called for new
hires to consist of 40 percent underrepresented groups and 10 percent women, SFFD
surpassed the requirement by hiring 60 percent underrepresented groups and 20
percent female staff between 1988 and 1998. After termination of the consent decree in
1998, departmental leaders and staff maintained and continue to build on that diversity.
Staff are also 15 percent female, with 7 percent of female staff in leadership positions
as either chiefs or captains. 6 Figure 5 displays the race/ethnicity of staff relative to the
local population, and Table 3 displays the demographic characteristics of staff before
and five years following the consent decree.
Figure 5. Percentage Distribution of SFFD Full-Time Sworn Personnel vs. San Francisco County General Population by Race/Ethnicity and Gender
Sources: SFFD 2016; U.S. Census, American Community Survey, 2010 to 2014. Note that ACS general population data reflect the total population, including all ages, of the city and county of San Francisco, California. White, Black/African American, and Asian/Pacific Islander categories exclude those of Hispanic or Latino origins and those reporting more than one race.
6 Percentages were obtained from the SFFD Human Resources department on April 1, 2016.
Percentages may sum to more than 100 due to rounding.
48%
10%
17%
24%
85%
15%
41%
6%
15%
34%
51% 49%
White Black/African
American
Hispanic/Latino Asian/Pacific
Islander
Male Female
Race/Ethnicity and Gender
SFFD San Francisco County Population
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Table 3. SFFD Full-Time Sworn Personnel by Percentage Race/Ethnicity and Gender, Pre-Consent Decree, Five Years Intra-Consent Decree, and 19 Years Post-Consent Decree
Pre-Consent Decree:
1988
Intra-Consent Decree:
1993
Post-Consent Decree:
2016
Total 100% 100% 100%
Race/Ethnicity
White 83% 72% 48%
Black/African American 7% 9% 10%
Hispanic 7% 10% 17%
Asian/Pacific Islander 3% 9% 24%
Gender
Women 0% 4% 15%
Men 100% 96% 85%
Source: SFFD 2016
Leadership
Department Chief Joanna Hayes-White was appointed in 2004 and was one of the first
female fire chiefs appointed in the United States. Racial diversity also occurs at the
leadership level. For example, the deputy chief of operations is a Hispanic male and the
deputy chief of administration is an African American female. In addition, the San
Francisco Fire Commissioner is Asian American.
SFFD Highlight
Chief Joanne Hayes-White was one of the first women hired at SFFD in 1990, and has
been Chief since 2004. When she first started, the work environment was “structured for
men” in terms of the station facilities, with one large bathroom and sleeping dorm. In
1992, a proposition passed that provided funding for separate changing rooms and
showering facilities for men and women, which “helped tremendously.” Chief Hayes-
White is “proud of the strides [SFFD] made” to foster a comfortable working
environment that allowed for women to excel in the field. San Francisco has “embraced
a diversified workforce” and Hayes-White now oversees 1,600 members and an
operating budget of $375 Million at SFFD, the largest urban fire department in the world
with a female chief. She is an example of homegrown talent being invested in
representing and serving her city. As she said, it “remains a huge honor for me to serve
as Chief of department in the city of my birth...the city I love.”
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 25
Unique Practices
SFFD uses school outreach at the elementary through college levels to bring
awareness about the profession and attract diverse applicants. At the lower level,
initiatives are focused on teaching children basic fire safety and increasing visibility to
demonstrate that individuals of different backgrounds can become firefighters. At the
postsecondary level, SFFD partners with the City College fire science program to offer
internships to selected students to gain on-the-job experience. In addition, since 2012,
SFFD has offered a three-year apprenticeship through the CFFJAC which emphasizes
the value of recruiting well-trained and qualified firefighting personnel from the ranks of
underrepresented and target groups. Over 500 individuals have participated in the
program since it started. The SFFD has multiple employee groups to represent and
supports employees with shared characteristics (e.g., race/ethnicity, gender, sexual
orientation, military experience). Employee groups are intended to provide a source of
support and ensure equal opportunities for all employees, as well as serve as a
recruitment tool for maintaining and increasing diversity within the department. Figure 6
shows where promising practices identified at SFFD fall along the employment pipeline.
Figure 6. Overview of Diversity Efforts Along Key Points in the Employment Pipeline at SFFD
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 26
Bay Area Youth Emergency Medical Technician Program
Background
The Bay Area Youth EMT (BAY EMT) program was selected to participate in the study
because of its unique approach to increasing diversity as a third-party training provider.
The study team conducted interviews either one-on-one or in group settings with 30
persons of various involvement and positions with the program, including the executive
directors of BAY EMT, Oakland and Alameda County Fire Department staff who serve
as volunteer instructors in the program; Alameda County Superior Court judge who acts
as a local advocate and partner; BAY EMT alumni; and current BAY EMT cadets. The
site visit to BAY EMT was conducted in April, 2016.
BAY EMT is a nonprofit organization that offers free vocational training in the Oakland,
California area with the mission of increasing the diversity of the local fire and EMS
workforce. The program targets at-risk youth from foster homes and juvenile facilities
who are between the ages of 18 and 24. BAY EMT offers two programs—the EMT
program and the Fire Academy. The Fire Academy is operated with the support of
Merritt College, the Oakland Fire Department, and the Alameda County Fire
Department. In addition to completing fundamental lecture-style courses, students in the
Fire Academy participate in physical training to practice fire skills hands-on. Additionally,
all students are required to participate in volunteer events, such as school job fairs,
community festivals, church events, and health fairs.
BAY EMT provides young adults with classroom instruction and hands-on physical
training that prepares them to sit for any applicable required exams and become
qualified candidates to apply for either a position within the field (for EMT) or within a
fire department’s academy (for fire). Enrollment for the EMT program allows for 35
students per session, and application for participation in the program is open to all
interested individuals. BAY EMT fire academy enrollment is limited to 20-25 students
per session and requires that applicants have taken one fire science technology course
and have completed at least one EMT course. The EMT program is a five-month course
offered twice a year, while the fire academy program is 18-weeks long and offered once
a year. 7
BAY EMT’s founders conceptualized the program because they were particularly
concerned with the lack of diversity in their community’s EMT and firefighting fields—
one of the most diverse communities in the country, but lacking in female, non-White,
and bilingual staff. In the years prior to the program, some fire/EMT professionals at
departments in local counties were less than 10 percent African American, less than 5
percent female, or, in one extreme, comprised only of men. These statistics were not
representative of the diverse demographics of Oakland at the time, which was 36
7 Exception during 2009 and 2010 when EMT sessions occurred once a year.
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 27
percent African American, 22 percent Hispanic or Latino of any race, 15 percent
Asian/Pacific Islander, and 52 percent female. 8 In pursuing development of the
program, the founders realized that the education requirements necessary for pursuing
a career in fire/EMT contributed to the lack of diversity: disadvantaged groups lacked
resources and accessibility to attend and afford the education or training. Accordingly,
the BAY EMT program was established in 2002 to offer free training, education, and
support to prepare students for a career in EMS for those underrepresented in the field.
Of the 259 BAY EMT program students between 2011 and 2014, 205 passed the BAY
EMT Final Exam, 96 passed the National Registry of Emergency Medical Technicians
(NREMT) exam, and 67 became employed in healthcare (e.g., at an ambulance agency
or hospital). Approximately 30 percent of the EMT graduates obtain employment within
a year after completing the program. In addition, of the 62 fire academy students who
participated in the program from 2013 to 2016, 43 students passed the Firefighter I Final
Exam, 13 obtained a paid internship at a fire department, 21 became employed in
healthcare (e.g., at an ambulance agency or hospital), and 16 became employed as
firefighters or are participating in a department’s hiring process. The program was the
topic of a documentary titled “In the Red,” which followed some of the program’s
participants over a period of two years to portray the program’s impact on their lives.
Leadership
BAY EMT is managed primarily by its two founders, executive director Wellington
Jackson and fire academy director Sean Gascie; both are firefighters at local
departments who dedicate time outside of their own firefighting careers to voluntarily
operate BAY EMT. The founders use their large professional, community, and social
network to gain support and resources for the BAY EMT program.
BAY EMT Highlight
An alumnus of the program shared his success story:
“I was in juvenile hall when someone introduced me to [the founding director]. I took a liking to [the program], I really enjoyed the curriculum, so I graduated from the program out of juvenile hall and moved on to BAY EMT. I got my license and started working at a detox center. [The founding director] single-handedly helped me along the way. He took me to Sacramento to speak about a senate bill. It was about allowing people with records to go on and get their EMT license in the State of California. He jumped through a lot of hoops here, and he does that for everyone. After that I went to the fire academy. I got a job as a reserve, now I’m in the academy program.”
8 Oakland city demographic data for this period obtained from: U. S. Census Bureau. (2000). American FactFinder fact sheet: Oakland City, California. Retrieved November 8, 2016, from https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/table/PST045215/0653000/accessible.
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Unique Practices
BAY EMT provides pre-cadet training to a segment of the population that may not
otherwise receive it. BAY EMT’s recruitment strategy is also unique in the field because
the program recruits directly from foster programs and juvenile facilities and has less
stringent entry requirements compared to fire academies. While most academies
require all six fire science courses (offered through colleges or universities) be
completed in order to enter a fire academy, BAY EMT only requires one of six fire
science courses for program applicants to enter the program. This requirement was
thoughtfully determined in an attempt to increase the diversity of the applicant pool by
providing the opportunity to individuals — many of whom are from underrepresented
groups — who start but have difficulty finishing an extended educational pathway. The
program advocates for students and alumni by utilizing local networks and providing
resources and tools to aid in placement into a fire academy with a department. The
program also provides mentoring, tutoring, and professional advice. The large
community network of local fire departments, employers, and organizations allows BAY
EMT to share information, obtain support, and try to identify opportunities for students
after program completion. The program supports students in personal obstacles as well,
such as finding housing and managing family challenges. Due to the targeted focus of
the program, students have often struggled with legal indiscretions in their youth that
may otherwise serve as employment obstacles. BAY EMT partners with East Bay
Community Legal Center to help in resolving students’ legal matters.
Given the highly competitive nature of the field and industry demand, it is much more
difficult to obtain employment in fire services than EMS. To aid in students’
advancement, BAY EMT has established three paid part-time internships with local fire
departments for fire academy students for the duration of their involvement in the
program. This allows those students to gain first-hand experience and perhaps an
advantage in obtaining a position in a department after completion of the program. BAY
EMT also partners with a local ambulance provider to offer jobs to graduates in EMT
occupations. Figure 7 displays where promising practices identified at BAY EMT fall
along the employment pipeline.
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 29
Figure 7. Overview of Diversity Efforts along Key Points in the Employment Pipeline at BAY EMT
Camp Fully Involved
Background and Unique Practices
Camp Fully Involved (CFI) was selected as a study site based on its unique practices to
increasing diversity in the firefighting field, with a particular focus on women. The study
team interviewed the CFI director, two representatives from partnering organizations,
four lead instructors (three of which were also founding members), an adjunct instructor
who is also a former cadet, and four alumnae. Members of the study team conducted
the site visit in May, 2016.
CFI is a hands-on, week-long residential camp located in Concord, New Hampshire, for
girls age 14 (and having completed 8th grade) to 20 who are interested in fire science.
The camp’s mission is to “to provide young women a safe, dynamic, interactive and
physically challenging environment to gain strength and knowledge while building
confidence and leadership skills.” (CFI, n.d-b.). CFI has been hosted by the New
Hampshire State Fire Academy since opening in July 2007. The Academy donates the
use of its state-of-the-art facility, including its dorms and some equipment, to CFI.
While the percentage of female firefighters has slowly increased over the past three
decades, women comprise only 3 percent of career firefighters nationally (National Fire
Protection Association, n.d.) and only 1 percent of firefighters in New Hampshire (Dinan,
2015). Founding director Jess Wyman, prompted by her own experience as a
firefighter—currently serving as the first female Lieutenant at Nashua, NH Fire
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 30
Rescue—and with encouragement from staff at a similar program in Oklahoma, created
CFI to respond to the need for a more diverse fire service workforce.
Unlike other youth firefighter camps, CFI is unique for several reasons: the cadets, or
participants, are all female; it is residential; the staff include both female and male
firefighters; and cadets are exposed to authentic firefighter training exercises and drills,
such as extinguishing a car fire, rappelling down a four-story burn building, and—CFI’s
capstone activity—putting out a building fire. As one of the founding members of CFI
remarked about the all-girl design of the camp, “I think not having the boys here; [the
cadets’] guard goes down and they can be who they want to be.”
Although CFI is focused on helping girls learn about and experience the firefighting
profession, applicants are not required to be committed to a fire science career; the
hope is that cadets “will gain a confidence and inner strength that come through
accomplishment and success, and those qualities will stay with them no matter what
career paths they should choose” (National Fire Protection Association, n.d.). According
to Wyman, “We have a lot [of cadets] who are already interested in fire services, but for
ones who don’t have connections to fire service, we really want to open doors.” And, as
echoed by an instructor, “We’ve had some girls come in thinking they’ll be firefighters,
and then they say ‘not for me,’ but they still come out with skills that are valuable.”
While CFI has not conducted formal outcomes assessments, it has collected informal,
self-reported data on the post-camp activities of alumnae. Data provided by CFI show
that, as of the 2015 summer session, 57 percent of cadets (or, 97 cadets) either
continued in fire science, joined a fire exploring program, 9 or attended college for a fire-
based degree program. Of these cadets, 23 percent (or, 22 cadets) were hired as
volunteers, paid on-call, or full-time career firefighters.
Figure 8 displays where promising practices identified at CFI fall along the employment
pipeline.
9 Exploring includes all active explorers/junior firefighting programs and those cadets who are currently
pursuing a fire-service, EMS, or military college path.
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Figure 8. Overview of Diversity Efforts Along Key Points in the Employment Pipeline at CFI
Leadership
Lieutenant Wyman created the camp based on her experiences as a woman firefighter
seeking greater representation in the field. Wyman, the director, and core instructional
staff volunteer their time to work for the camp while it is in session and throughout the
year to review and refine the curriculum, obtain and maintain equipment, and plan for
the next summer camp.
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 32
CFI Highlight
The four CFI alumnae spoke of going through a personal transformation during the week at camp. Their experience at CFI helped them build a professional network through the connections they made with their fellow cadets and camp instructors as they worked towards their goals to become fire service professionals.
When asked what stood out to her most about the camp, one alumna spoke of how hearing about the instructors’ personal experiences with being from an underrepresented group in the field helped her to feel supported. She reflected, “Camp really helped get that mentality of ‘you’re a girl, you can’t do this’ out of our heads.”
The alumnae interviewed said the instructors cultivated a supportive climate and the cadets rallied around each other, helping each other to complete each of the activities and cheering each other on. Another alumna, who is currently pursuing her bachelor’s degree in fire science, said of the camp: “It was the pushing you to be good, if you were doing something wrong, they’d show you a new technique.”
Another alumna, who is working towards becoming a fire investigator, credited the
relationships and training she received at the camp for her decision to pursue fire
science. Alumna described how the hard work they put into the camp and skills they
learned also helped increase their confidence in their abilities to be successful
firefighters.
Promising Practices
Culture of Diversity
The following sections describe commonly identified promising practices across the
sites and along the recruitment and employment pipeline. All sites exhibit a culture of
diversity through the priority placed on diversity by leadership, open discussions about
diversity, and explicitly stated goals about diversity in strategic plans (also see Figure
9).
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 33
Figure 9. Promising Culture of Diversity Practices
Diverse Leadership/Role Models
All of the study sites have leaders in place who value the benefits of diversifying their
workforces. As noted by a police chief in this study, “I think you have to be very
purposed in what you do to try to change the diversity in and around cities.” Having
leaders from underrepresented groups and female officers in the leadership ranks are
critical for role modeling and attracting future candidates. All three departments have
several officers from underrepresented groups serving in deputy chief roles and other
high-ranking positions. For example, the leadership staff at APD and DPD reflect the
diversity of their surrounding populations, and both sites have local African American
leaders who are veterans of their departments and are well-respected among staff.
Additionally, SFFD’s chief was one of the first female fire chiefs to be appointed in the
United States and continues to maintain her tenure in the position after more than 12
years. Likewise, BAY EMT and CFI’s leadership and instructional staff represent a
range of ages, genders, and race/ethnicities and have taken traditional and non-
traditional paths to the fire service. Both training sites invite alumni back to the program
as instructors, which further contributes to providing diverse staff and role models for
attendees of the programs.
Diversity Central to Mission/Culture
The importance of diversity is reflected through the culture of these departments in
everyday conversation with staff. Each of the sites has incorporated diversity goals into
their strategic missions, which helps to guide and strengthen their overall approaches to
recruitment, hiring, and promotion. The staff members interviewed at these sites were
not afraid to have open discussions about race, gender, or sexual orientation. In fact, at
APD it was said that those who are uncomfortable discussing such matters do not fit in
with the organizational culture. Staff at APD and DPD expressed the importance of
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diversity not only for improved community relations and representation, but also for
better business practice. Examples include:
APD’s strategic plan recognizes the importance of representing the community
through a diversified staff. One of the eight “Key Success Measures” in the
APD’s strategic plan is to increase the number of bilingual employees.
Specifically, “The Atlanta Police Department is committed to being a reflection of
the diversity of our community. Therefore, we will seek to demonstrate that effort
by measuring the increase in the number of bi-lingual employees—both sworn
officers and non-sworn civilians” (Turner, G.N., 2014, p. 10). The strategic plan
reiterates the APD goal of increasing officer diversity as a measure of success
for three of the five broad APD strategies: reduce crime, community
empowerment, and organizational effectiveness.
DPD states in its strategic plan, “We are committed to valuing and respecting
diversity in experiences, backgrounds and points of view” (Dallas Police
Department, 2013, p. 3).
SFFD continues to maintain an overall commitment to increasing the diversity of
its staff beyond the completion of the consent decree. Today, approximately 52
percent of SFFD staff members are from underrepresented groups and 15
percent are female, making it statistically one of the top five diverse departments
nationally based on gender and ethnicity.
Unique and Innovative Practices—Demonstrating a Commitment to Diversity Through Volunteer Instruction
BAY EMT and CFI staff members work for the program on a volunteer basis,
demonstrating their commitment to providing opportunities for candidates from
underrepresented groups and female candidates, respectively. CFI requires a unique
commitment from staff members, almost all of whom use vacation time or take unpaid
leave to spend a week living at the camp. CFI has 10 core staff members, most of
whom are in the leadership ranks at their fire departments. The director screens all
potential staff to ensure that they are interested in volunteering at the camp to support
female involvement in the fire service, and that they have experience teaching and
working with youth. Her screening process involves leveraging her network of fire
service colleagues from around the state and New England to ascertain to what extent
the potential staff member would be a good fit. One instructor said, “There were no
camps like this when I started, and I thought it was a great opportunity to introduce
women to the fire service, to tell them that they can do this…I thought this was a
fabulous opportunity to reach out to young girls to—seeing their eyes open up.”
According to the director, as CFI’s reputation has grown, some firefighters who have
expressed interest in being instructors see volunteering at the camp as a way to build
their resume, causing her to screen potential instructors more carefully. As a result, CFI
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has had very little staff turnover. All of the instructors are committed to the program, as
summed up by one instructor:
“We’re in the job because we want to help people, the community—that to me was
paramount to why I wanted to be involved. We’re not paid and don’t want to be paid.
To come up here to a group of girls who are very receptive; it’s very rewarding. What
we care about is that they can take something away; better themselves.”
All of the instructors interviewed said their firehouses and supervisors have supported
their involvement in the camp. One of the instructors, now retired from the fire service,
said, “The chiefs I worked under absolutely believe in getting involved in instructing in
the later part of your career when you have the experience to back it.”
Recruitment
Site visits yielded a number of promising practices related specifically to the recruitment
of new employees, which may be a particularly important point along the pipeline for
increasing diversity. Looking across sites, the following practices were identified as
promising for recruiting a diverse workforce (also see Figure 10).
Figure 10. Promising Recruitment Practices
Prioritizing Recruitment Staff and Budget
The prioritization of recruitment budget and staff was notable across sites. Leaders
demonstrated commitment to recruiting a diverse workforce by providing the recruitment
teams with substantial financial support, which made possible the promising recruiting
practices described below. Budgets at the APD and DPD allow for considerable
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recruitment travel; staff from APD will travel to 11 states in 2016 alone. Departments
target locations with high unemployment rates and with large populations of Spanish-
speaking citizens or other demographic characteristics that are difficult to recruit locally
(see “Travel to Other Sites,” below). The DPD recruiting budget supports off-site testing,
which makes “it easy for out-of-state applicants to join the department by going to them
instead of having them keep coming back to us.” In SFFD’s case, the consent decree
era saw a substantial shift in funding to recruiting activities, which reportedly made a
significant contribution to increased staff diversity. Beyond budgetary allocations, the
number of staff assigned to these units is also notable at both the APD (17 staff
members) and the DPD (12 staff members). Recruiting positions at DPD in particular
are well-respected and sought after by officers.
Strong Focus on Community Outreach
This research suggests that community engagement may play an important role in
recruitment. Building a positive image of first responders, particularly among youth, may
facilitate citizens considering the profession as a career. Some of the more promising
approaches to community outreach are described below.
POPULATION-SPECIFIC LIAISONS
The APD maintains relationships with local citizens through designated community
liaisons, who lay the foundation for local recruiting from diverse communities. These
employees typically reach out to citizens with whom they share specific demographics.
Since 2008, the APD utilized three different Hispanic liaisons and three LGBT liaisons,
and it is currently expanding the liaison role base to include Asian and “multicultural”
liaisons. These staff members attend festivals, meetings, parades, and events specific
to the population they represent. The liaisons also attend demographic-specific job fairs
and host informal discussions at local coffee shops, which provide opportunities for
discussions or one-on-one conversations with attendees.
PUBLIC CLASSES AND E VENTS
Police-led classes and events open to the public also support local recruitment through
increased community connections. DPD hosts “Coffee with Cops” and “Chief on the
Beat” public outreach events, for example, both of which provide the opportunity for
informal interactions in non-enforcement settings. The SFFD collaborates with the City
of San Francisco’s Department of Human Resources to hold information nights once a
month in recreational centers in all districts throughout the city. Information nights serve
as a way for SFFD to interact with the community, emphasize the importance of
diversity in the department, describe their efforts to increase diversity, and provide
information to guide those interested in a career. Information nights include people of all
ethnicities by coming to venues in specific regions of San Francisco, and citizens who
attend are encouraged to ask questions about the department and the process of
becoming a firefighter. The SFFD also provides a Neighborhood Emergency Response
Team training that teaches a “neighbor-helping-neighbor” approach to local citizens.
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These interactions are intended to help build trust among specific communities that
might otherwise have negative perceptions of first responders. United Fire Service
Women is an SFFD employee group that supports and advocates for women in the
SFFD, and teaches hands-on CPR to communities; this also increases the visibility of
women in fire careers.
Hosting regular population-specific public events is another approach that may help to
build relationships with a diverse, local recruiting base. At the DPD, examples of
population-specific events include an annual Asian health fair and refugee outreach
initiatives. In addition to health services, these events have on hand DPD recruiters and
representatives of various units within the DPD who can answer questions about what
their jobs are like. In addition, the APD and DPD offer Spanish-speaking Citizen’s Police
Academies (CPAs) to engage local Hispanic citizens. These events provide another
outlet for citizens to interact—and become more comfortable—with police. Participation
may help to dispel myths and increase understanding of day-to-day police work, thus
making the profession a more viable career option among these populations. Likewise,
the SFFD’s Latino employee group, Los Bomberos, participates in several community
events, fairs, and parades, including annual participation in the Carnaval Parade, a
large weekend event celebrating music and cultural elements from Latin American and
Caribbean tradition. Los Bomberos often hosts a booth at these events to provide
information about careers in the fire service for Spanish-speakers.
PARTNERSHIPS WITH LO CAL HIGH SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES
Partnerships with education providers can be another reliable recruiting source that
contributes to a diversified workforce. The APD, DPD, and SFFD have student intern
programs, which serve as an indirect recruitment tool, for participants to gain hands-on
experience that may strengthen their interest in the profession. In addition, several sites
have partnered with local high school students to create specialized student
organizations, such as a Gay-Straight Alliance sponsored by APD and BAY EMT’s Pre-
EMT Club at a local high school. For SFFD, recruiting students from high schools has
been a major focus of the department since the consent decree era and may have
particular implications for increasing diversity; schools often specifically request female
SFFD firefighters for visits. As a result, the SFFD interacts with all levels of educational
institutions. SFFD employees visit local schools and colleges to speak about fire service
careers and teach fire safety and education, and its Los Bomberos members reach out
to schools in the Latino districts of the city. SFFD employees are often asked by schools
and colleges to speak to classes on career day and at career fairs, which helps to
expose the field as a career option for students, including females and racial/ethnic
minorities.
Sites also build recruiting relationships with local colleges. The APD and DPD recruit a
diverse workforce through visits to colleges serving specific student demographics, such
as historically Black colleges and universities (APD) and majority-female colleges
(DPD). Furthermore, the DPD highlighted that it is important “to be approachable” to
young populations in underrepresented groups who may not have positive perceptions
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of police, so younger staff recruit on-campus and often appear in casual uniform. DPD
recruiters build relationships with college students, staff, and faculty by making
classroom presentations and spending time at campus common areas. BAY EMT’s
partner institution, Merritt Community College, also provides a natural recruitment
ground where students are completing fire and medical courses.
LINKING WITH COMMUNITY ORGANIZATIONS AND AGENCIES
Partnering with local agencies can help to provide the resources needed for community
efforts like those described above. The DPD partners with nonprofits and businesses,
including the Asian Chamber of Commerce and local McDonald’s restaurants to provide
goods and services at DPD events. At the APD, the Atlanta Office of Cultural Affairs
provides support for the Spanish-speaking CPA (see above) and Spanish-speaking
youth Explorer programs. As discussed in the CFI site summary, CFI partners with the
New Hampshire State Fire Academy, local fire departments, and community
organizations that provide them with all the facilities, equipment, and insurance they
need to operate the program.
Partnering with local and national organizations can help provide the connections and
endorsements needed to reach and gain trust among diverse populations. For example,
BAY EMT has established relationships with a local judge, juvenile detention centers,
and foster programs to reach individuals in underrepresented groups, while CFI
partners with a local division of the Boy Scouts of America’s co-ed Explorers Program to
recruit girls interested in fire service. Similarly, the SFFD collaborates with the Alice B.
Toklas LGBT Democratic Club; a political action committee located in San Francisco
that initiated the movement for increasing the number of LGBT employees within SFFD
and brought about the hiring of the first openly gay fire commissioner. The SFFD LGBT
employee group, SF-RESQ, partners with the Club to attend community events,
especially LGBT events, and proudly displayed the SFFD’s LGBT presence and
encouraged the LGBT community to consider a career in the fire service industry.
Partnerships with local organizations can also help with recruitment efforts by providing
financial incentives that attract recruits, such as the APD’s relationships with the APF
and City Council, which provide key education, housing, and foreign language benefits
used to recruit candidates.
YOUTH PROGRAMS
Engagement with local youth is another critical component to recruiting a diverse first
responder workforce. At all sites, engaging with local youth appeared as an important
strategy for “planting the seed” for future consideration of the first responder profession.
It is notable that the sites studied used youth engagement programs as another means
of reaching specific subpopulations in the community. Both the SFFD and the APD have
focused on outreach to young Hispanics through a teen-specific club at SFFD and
soccer and boxing programs at the APD Police Athletic League. These activities build a
positive image of first responders among youth and their families, who can then see
these professions as viable career options.
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Programs that serve youth help increase awareness of the first responder profession
and local programs. For example, at the SFFD, the Black Firefighters Association
sponsors the San Francisco Fire Youth Academy, a program open to high school youth
interested in joining the fire service. The Academy, held every Saturday from 9 a.m. to 1
p.m. teaches basic firefighting skills and provides information about the fire service
while assisting in the development of interpersonal skills. BAY EMT participates in a
youth development program at a local residential program, Camp Sweeney, for juvenile
offenders designed to reach incarcerated, at-risk youth in underrepresented groups.
This introduces juvenile offenders to first responder training and is meant to provide an
opportunity to prepare for pursuing a career in EMS or fire service. An established
community connection with a local county Superior Court and previously the presiding
Juvenile Court judge has facilitated BAY EMT’s efforts to reach young, disadvantaged
individuals. Between 2011 and 2014, 13 Camp Sweeney residents attended the EMT
program, 10
and between 2013 and 2015, 10 additional Camp Sweeney residents
attended the fire academy. 11
Recruitment from the Military
Staff at several sites considered the military to be a promising practice for increasing
diversity. At the DPD, where staff noted that veterans adapt well to the police force, the
military has recently become the most reliable recruiting source—providing 10 percent
of the new hires at the DPD since 2014. Importantly, more than half of these recruits
were from underrepresented groups. Similarly, the veterans’ group at the SFFD
represents one promising way to recruit veterans, as the group actively attends veteran-
specific job fairs. At the SFFD, the Veterans Fire Fighter Association, an employee
group established in January 2016, participates in targeted approaches to recruit and
support veterans, such as their “Hiring Our Heroes” initiative that helps veterans reenter
the workforce.
Incentives for Bilingual Staff
A recent practice and increasingly more common one is the provision of incentives to
recruit candidates who speak foreign languages. The APD, DPD, and SFFD offer such
incentives, which serve the dual purposes of attracting diverse populations to the first
responder workforce and providing improved services to communities whose first
language is not English. Notably, the pay incentive at APD was extended to recruits
who are not yet sworn officers. As one officer at the APD noted, “Just as long as you
were in the academy, you were able to get this 2 percent. That to me was a big
10
No classes were taught at Camp Sweeney in 2012 and, therefore, BAY EMT was unable to recruit from the camp that year. Data for Camp Sweeney participants in 2011, 2013, and 2014 were collected by BAY EMT staff through program participant tracking efforts.
11 The BAY EMT Fire Academy, which takes place once a year, accepts 25 students per session with the exception of the 2013 pilot, which enrolled 12 students. Data for Camp Sweeney participants between 2013 and 2015 was collected by BAY EMT staff through program participant tracking efforts.
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 40
incentive.” The DPD offers a language incentive for seven foreign languages, and the
SFFD offers stipends for speakers of Spanish and Cantonese.
Travel to Other Sites
Recruiting from sites outside of the local area may provide the first responder workforce
with additional sources of diversity that are not locally available. Notably, the APD and
DPD highlighted the importance of using analysis to guide travel. Recruiters travel to
cities with high unemployment rates or poor economies, as well as to cities where local
police departments have cumbersome hiring processes or are experiencing hiring
freezes. Furthermore, both sites met their departmental need of hiring more Spanish-
speakers by sending recruiters to geographic areas with larger Latino populations.
Unique and Innovative Recruiting Practices
In addition to the shared promising practices described above, the sites in this study are
also undertaking some unique strategies to recruit a diverse workforce, all of which are
driven by local context.
RECRUITMENT TEAM RES TRUCTURING AT THE DP D
The current sergeant of recruiting at DPD rebuilds his recruiting team every two years.
He encourages promotions so that his team members can move onward in their careers
at the DPD, and hence brings forth a fresh, energetic team with whom the millennial
generation can directly relate. In his selection of new recruiting team members, the
sergeant often specifically selects staff with compelling stories that will help them
connect with specific underrepresented populations. For example, recruiting team
members include a Hispanic female, a single mother, and a high school dropout who
share their DPD success stories with prospective candidates.
HUMANIZING THE WORKF ORCE AT APD
The APD recently shifted the messaging of marketing materials used for recruitment to
reflect a community policing-based approach. Action-filled videos of police in SWAT
gear have been replaced by films focused on the diversity of Atlanta and APD
community engagement. As a former LGBT liaison described, the community policing
approach means having “a genuine interaction with people. It means to me that you’re
humanizing the job, because believe it or not, you’re human first. We put the clothes
[on], and we come to work. But people seem to forget that. I think it’s really important to
remind them.”
FINANCIAL INCENTIVES
Financial incentives are often used as recruiting and retention tools to help prevent
attrition and sustain a diverse workforce. The foreign language incentives (described
above) at the SFFD, DPD, and APD serve as one type of financial incentive. At the
APD, a partnership with the APF enables a host of other notable financial incentives,
including tuition reimbursement, free in-city housing in exchange for providing security,
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and $100,000 in life insurance. When speaking about retention and the education
benefits available at the APD, one investigator noted that “a lot of the training that we
get, we can use those credits towards any other college credits that we have. That’s a
big plus.” The deputy chief noted that the APF “has brought money in to allow the
department to do things it couldn't otherwise do,” such as paying for higher education.
Hiring
Once past the recruiting stage, hiring practices can further shape the demographics of
first responder staff. In this section, three strategies are considered that show promise:
leadership involvement in applicant screening, accelerated hiring processes, and
modification of screening exams (Figure 11).
Figure 11. Promising Hiring Practices
Leadership Involvement in Applicant Screening
Leaders who value diversity are closely involved with the hiring process. At the APD
each year, approximately 10,000–12,000 candidates apply for positions. These
applicants pass through initial screening and examinations, at which point the
“hundreds” who pass go to the chief of police for file review. The chief must approve
each file that then receives a conditional offer to join the APD. A deputy chief closely
monitors background screening processes and investigates when the number of
applicants getting through the process appears low. For example, one deputy chief
recently found that potential applicants were being turned away because they had
tattoos. APD has a policy that it cannot hire individuals with tattoos on their face or
neck; however, the officers had been misinterpreting this policy and extending it to all
tattoos. Tattoos have become more common among younger generations and are
particularly common among military applicants, a reliable source of recruiting for police
departments. Once discovered, the deputy chief ensured all officers were aware of what
the policy on tattoos explicitly states. In addition, bringing in a mix of staff of different
ages and backgrounds can help address such acts of unintentional discrimination or
implicit bias.
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Accelerated Hiring Processes
The hiring process at the APD and the DPD takes roughly three to five months. Both
police departments in this study noted that this timeframe is relatively compact in
relation to other large departments in the country, where the process can take several
years. Both APD and DPD have aggressive recruiting targets of several hundred new
hires each year, which necessitates an expedited process. They are able to offer an
accelerated process in part due to resources, including a healthy recruiting budget that
allows for robust background capacity; background investigations are often the most
time consuming portion of the hiring process. The DPD has 12 recruiters dedicated to
conducting sworn background investigations. In addition, DPD offers all written and
physical exams both on and off-site, leaving fewer steps for the applicant to complete
once he or she passes to the next phase. An accelerated hiring process makes
agencies such as APD and DPD more attractive, and agencies with such cumbersome
processes, particularly in large cities with highly diverse populations, serve as targets
for recruitment. When speaking about recruiting young individuals in underrepresented
groups specifically, a member of the recruiting team at the DPD commented that the
priority interests of this population when choosing an agency are “how fast they can get
on and what they’ll make,” underscoring the appeal of an accelerated hiring process
and the potential impact this compact process may have on hiring diverse staff.
Screening/Exam Modifications
Both written and physical exams can be a source of bias against applicants from
underrepresented groups and female applicants, resulting in a loss of sought-after
applicants. For example, APD, like other departments nationwide, found that the portion
of an obstacle course where recruits must climb over a six-foot wall unfairly
discriminates against women who do not have the same upper body strength as men,
yet having to climb over a six-foot wall is not relevant to the job duties. APD senior
leadership looked into successful models of this practice nationwide, and found two
examples of departments that allowed recruits to use an object to help them over the
wall, which provides the desired test of agility using a more practical scenario of a real-
life situation, while still maintaining test validity and job relevancy. ADP recently
changed the wall test as a result.
APD leadership believes in second chances and recognizes that all individuals make
mistakes but should be forgiven over time, particularly if individuals make an effort to
correct those mistakes. In 2006, APD relaxed its requirements about applicants’ credit
scores, which are often low due to student debt and not relevant to the duties of a police
officer. APD takes a holistic look at applicants when it comes to traffic violations and
other minor offenses, taking into consideration the number of years that have passed
since the offense and whether or not the applicant is honest about the information
provided.
Also in 2006, APD lowered its psychometric exam passing score from 80 to 75 after
learning that the exam disproportionately eliminated applicants from underrepresented
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groups. The new passing score was still higher than the statewide standard and,
therefore, ensured that only qualified applicants passed, but prevented the exam from
screening out large shares of applicants from underrepresented groups. Noteworthy is
the fact that, as of 2016, this psychometric exam is no longer a part of the APD hiring
process.
Modifications to the selection process in other sites included more frequent testing
opportunities, making it possible to begin the application and selection process more
frequently. In 2013, the City and County of San Francisco implemented a continuous
testing process for entry-level firefighting exams. The continuous model allows exams to
be administered regularly by the National Testing Network (NTN) at facilities in San
Francisco and surrounding cities. Applicants who pay an examination fee, which may be
waived for financial hardship, have scores provided to the Department of Human
Resources, and those who pass the exam and have a current California EMT certificate
are placed on the eligibility list. Candidates’ names remain on the list for a 24-month
period, and SFFD may select any candidate on the eligibility list for hire.
The previous testing method in San Francisco required significant time and human
resources, which limited test administration to only once every four years. This former
method greatly restricted the applicant pool to those who were available at the
scheduled testing date and time. The flexibility and convenience in exam scheduling
offered to applicants with the continuous testing process allows far more applicants to
take the exam, and thus, increases the possibility of having a diverse applicant pool.
The continuous testing method also improves the impact of recruitment efforts by
reducing the time between initial outreach and applicant testing. Continuous testing also
allows the department to select from a consistently updated list of quality candidates.
Training
While the recruiting and hiring segments in the pipeline are critical for attracting diverse
candidates, innovative training practices can instill organizational values for diversity in
new recruits and build community value among both new and veteran employees. As
noted by a training staff member at the DPD, the process of training new members of
the first responder workforce has implications for the development of an organizational
culture: “You instill in them whatever you value as a profession, as an organization, as a
city.” Below are shared strategies among the sites that appear to show promise in
training a diverse first responder workforce (also see Figure 12).
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Figure 12. Promising Training Practices
Free or Low-Cost Training
Across sites, effort is made to provide their programs to students at low or no cost. APD
and DPD have training academies that recruits attend without cost. The two programs
that offer training to youth and young adults, CFI and BAY EMT, provide scholarships or
are free to attendees. The registration fee for CFI is $350 per cadet, and the money
goes completely towards camp expenses, including enrollment in the Explorer Program,
a co-ed career education program for high school and college students between the
ages of 14 and 20. One of the three career exploration areas offered by the Daniel
Webster Council’s Explorers Program is Fire and Emergency Services, which is a
natural fit for CFI. In addition to supporting the mission of CFI and assisting with
recruitment, the program also provides insurance coverage for CFI students and staff.
CFI applicants can apply for one of three scholarships (Camp Fully Involved, n.d-a.), to
cover registration fees. Two of the scholarships are limited to applicants in the New
England area (Cape Cod, Connecticut/New England), and the third scholarship is open
to all applicants (and sponsors three to 10 girls each session).
BAY EMT offers free preparatory EMS and fire training to young adults interested in
these careers, particularly those from the inner-city communities of the neighboring San
Francisco Bay Area. The ability for students to complete the program free of charge is
intended to prevent financial means and accessibility from hindering the diversity of
those pursuing fire/EMT as a profession. By releasing students from any financial
responsibility—including cost of books, equipment, facilities, testing, etc.—more non-
White cadets can be trained to enter the pool of qualified candidates in the profession.
BAY EMT operates strictly from grant funding and donations. All equipment and the
facility are donated by the Oakland Fire Department, the Alameda County Fire
Department, and several local departments. Money to fund general operations is often
obtained through personal donations or donations made on behalf of various companies
or organizations. BAY EMT also routinely pays for the National Registry of Emergency
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 45
Medical Technicians (NREMT) certification exam fees to ensure all qualified students or
alumni are given the opportunity to take the exam.
Diversity-Related Curriculum
Both police departments in this study included purposeful diversity-related coursework
as part of basic academy training, and DPD continues diversity-related coursework in its
in-service training as well. An emphasis on mandatory diversity coursework signals
diversity as a priority at the departments, and lends to a culture of diversity where
otherwise uncomfortable topics, such as race and gender, are more easily discussed. At
the APD, the curriculum provides eight hours of training on cultural awareness, four
hours of training on LGBT/cultural diversity, and two hours of transgender citizen
interaction training. The Hispanic and LGBT liaisons frequently serve as instructors. At
the DPD, a particularly well-developed curriculum that has been in place for 26 years
focuses on multiculturalism and covers topics related to race, gender, LGBT status, and
disability. Notable is the fact that the DPD provides 20 hours of multiculturalism
instruction, despite the state mandate of only 10 hours.
One common component of diversity training at both the APD and the DPD is scenario-
based or reality-based training. At the APD, a noteworthy aspect of the scenario-based
training is the inclusion of LGBT elements and the portrayal of LGBT citizens in various
positive roles (i.e., as the victim, witness, or reporting party—not the suspect or
arrestee). The DPD also utilizes a role-playing component in diversity training through
which recruits with different genders and ethnicities are intentionally paired.
A final notable component of the diversity training at the APD and DPD is the inclusion
of local community members. For example, at the APD, trainers “actually ask our
liaisons to seek out transgender role players in the Atlanta community because we
would like to now insert transgender element to the role base, because we think that if
there is a bias present, we can probably trigger it to come forth in those times.”
Likewise, a key component of the DPD training is interaction with the local community;
members of the local Dallas community frequently come into class to speak to the
recruits, and the recruits participate in a community project day to address local needs.
In addition to the diversity-related training provided to new recruits, the DPD also offers
in-service training to meet the state-mandated requirement of 40 hours of continuing
education every two years. The DPD offers a course called “Personal Perspectives,”
which has been in place for six years that further helps staff to understand cultural
diversity through role-playing and open, honest discussions about personal biases.
Unique and Innovative Training Practices
TEST PREPARATION
Fire sites reported the testing process as a barrier to selecting and hiring individuals
from underrepresented groups and women; however, they are making strides to help
these individuals become better prepared to take the tests. Oakland Fire Department, in
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collaboration with the Oakland Black Firefighter Association, allows BAY EMT students
and alumni to participate in mock oral boards to prepare for the oral portion of the
examination required during fire department or academy hiring processes. The mock
oral boards are given by a panel of three volunteers, the session is recorded, and the
student is provided constructive feedback. At the SFFD, the United Fire Service Women
employee group provides training and testing resources to help women prepare for
pursuing a career in fire service.
INTERMEDIATE SPANISH REQUIREMENT AT THE DPD
Approximately 40 percent of the current population in Dallas is Hispanic, with
approximately 35 percent of the population speaking Spanish at home. The ability to
communicate quickly and efficiently with local Dallas citizens is particularly critical
among first responder professionals, and the DPD has tailored its basic training for new
recruits to reflect this need. While the state of Texas mandates only 12–16 hours of
Spanish language instruction for police recruits, the DPD exceeds the requirement to
require 60 hours of training. Recruits are required to reach intermediate-level proficiency
in the language before graduating from the academy. Importantly, the Spanish language
requirement is reinforced through reality-based training. Recruits are required to
complete a module including a traffic stop and burglary situation speaking only in
Spanish. The devotion of time, staff, and resources to ensuring that all recruits speak
intermediate Spanish by the time they graduate the DPD academy expands the foreign
language base of the workforce and ensures that DPD officers are adequately prepared
to respond to and connect with the local Spanish-speaking community.
CAREER EXPLORATION
CFI provides a week-long, residential, intensive experience for female youth interested
in fire service to help them determine whether this is a field they would like to pursue as
a career. The founding director designed the curriculum to mirror actual firefighter
training: “We want [participants] to have a good snapshot of what the fire service is. You
have to be ready physically and mentally. If we offer this, they can make an informed
decision—‘Is that what I want to do for my career?’ Some kids from the first day are like
‘Heck no!’, and some are like ‘Yeah, sign me up!’”
CFI makes a point to focus specifically on learning and experiencing firefighting.
According to the director, “The reason women fail is the physicality of the job…We
realized it’s more because of the skills [that are a barrier]—they don’t know how to throw
a ladder or get around their height.” Cadets are taught ways to leverage their body
weight and equipment to accommodate their typically smaller frames and limited upper
body strength. The curriculum culminates with participants using all the skills and
knowledge they have learned throughout the week to tackle a building fire using the
New Hampshire State Fire Academy’s four-story burn building. Following this capstone
experience, there is a graduation ceremony that families are encouraged to attend.
Although the primary goal of the camp is to expose cadets to the firefighting profession,
all of the instructors interviewed said that building self-confidence was as important as
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producing future firefighters and fire service professionals. According to an instructor, “If
we change one kid, that’s worth it for me. Not every girl goes into the fire service, but it’s
the fact that they realize what they can do.” Another instructor emphasized the
individual transformation as an important outcome: “Seeing the transformation in
people. Some getting involved in the fire service. It’s almost like a way of life that we
transmit to them. The team work, getting over your fear, trying to be better than you
were. I think that’s pretty important.”
Retention and Advancement
Following the recruiting, hiring, and training of diverse employees, targeted retention is
critical for maintaining a diverse workforce. This section presents promising practices for
retaining diverse employees: providing opportunities for promotion, providing financial
incentives, and facilitating a family-like environment (also see Figure 13).
Figure 13. Promising Retention/Advancement Practices
Opportunities for Promotion
Across sites, opportunities for promotion were frequently referenced as a strategy to
retain employees in the first responder workforce. There is ample room for
advancement at the APD, which functions both as a retention tool and as a selling point
in recruiting. As a member of the APD recruiting team describes, “The room for
advancement quick is a big motivation for them.” The DPD recruiting team echoed the
importance of quick promotion and the opportunity for it at the DPD: “Other agencies
might pay you a little more in the beginning but you’ll be restricted to patrol for a while
before you’re actually able to move up” and that “we haven’t had to spend a lot of time
in patrol, which is obviously a selling point when it comes to police officers or
applicants.”
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Furthermore, at both the APD and the DPD, the opportunities for quick promotions not
only exist, but also appointments are made with maintaining a diverse workforce in
mind. At the APD, appointments made to the position of captain and above are made by
leadership who are—as described in the interviews—“very purposed with the diversity
within our command staff,” and diversity is a “discussion point” for all such
appointments. The deputy chief of the Personnel Division at the DPD echoed this
sentiment, but also noted that “even at the promotion level of senior corporal sergeant,”
the leadership uses promotions to express that diversity is a priority. The ability to
effectively do the job is still valued over everything else.
A “Family” Environment
Despite their relatively large department sizes, staff at both the APD and DPD
commented on their “family”- like environments. Officers seem to appreciate this
atmosphere, and leaders cite it as a factor for retaining employees. A Hispanic female
on the Patrol Division at the DPD also said that the atmosphere at the DPD is “like a
second family.… [DPD] has accepted me for everything I bring to the table.” A former
LGBT liaison at the APD said, “A lot of us are like family, and a lot of departments got
away from that. That’s one of the things that I’d like to keep going as I move up to
different units. To keep that and give it back—that family, that bond, you have to have—
because this job is not easy.” Likewise, the DPD staff echoed this sentiment: “You
realize it is a family because you’re depending on each other to get home.” In addition
to the two police departments studied, the staff of the BAY EMT training program also
noted that cadets and alumni remained involved in the program due to the family-like
environment. Having diverse alumni returning to the program to aid in the instruction of
future cadets creates a cyclical approach to sustaining diversity in both the program and
the workforce, which is made possible by the family-like environment.
Strategies for nurturing the family-like atmosphere of the DPD included the persistent
support of members of the recruiting team who are in communication with candidates
throughout the recruiting process to hiring of new candidates through graduation from
the academy. DPD officers also cited the long duration of academy programs through
which new recruits bond.
BAY EMT also cultivates a family atmosphere through instructors, alumni, and peers
who provide not only professional but also personal support and assist students with
housing searches and management of family challenges. The family environment
fostered at BAY EMT encourages cadets and alumni to remain involved in the program.
Many alumni who reside in the area return to the program regularly to aid in instruction
of current cadets. Instructors and leadership of BAY EMT also stay connected to cadets
and alumni on a personal level outside of the program’s facilities.
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Unique and Innovative Retention Strategies
SFFD EMPLOYEE GROUPS
SFFD has a particularly high rate of retention, which is notable because other fire
departments have been struggling with retention throughout the State of California,
according to SFFD staff. SFFD thinks that one key strategy for retaining its diverse first
responder workforce has been the development of population-specific employee
groups. Created to represent and support large groups of people within the department
who have shared characteristics or life experiences, the employee groups appear to be
a specific strategy for establishing a comfortable, family-like environment much like
those described above at the APD and DPD. At the SFFD, these employee groups help
firefighters feel more comfortable and provide emotional support for individuals with
similar backgrounds. Examples of employee groups include the Asian Firefighters
Association, United Fire Service Women, the Black Firefighters Association, SF-RESQ,
Los Bomberos, and an employee group for veterans.
The groups also actively participate in events and actively work to recruit new
participants from diverse backgrounds. The Asian Firefighters Association (AFA)
attends several events targeting the Asian community, including the Cherry Blossom
Festival in San Francisco’s Japantown, the Chinese New Year Parade, Fiesta Filipina,
Pistahan Festival, and Dragonboat Festival. During these events, AFA members march
in the parades, staff first aid booths and AFA tables to answer questions, provide
informational materials, and encourage careers in fire service. In addition to its work
with high school youth, the Black Firefighters Association partners with the National
Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in efforts to recruit African
Americans.
USE OF DATA TO STUDY ATTRITION AT THE APD
Recently, the APD has struggled with a declining retention rate and cited potential
reasons for this attrition to include a recent pension reform, “job hopping” among newer
employees that the APD is recruiting, higher pay elsewhere, and recruits sometimes
coming to the APD to utilize free Academy training before beginning a career
elsewhere—because “once they receive training they can now be a police officer in a
smaller city at no expense to the administration they want to join.” However, a city-wide
freeze on pay raises has recently been lifted, and in an attempt to further increase
employee retention rates, the mayor is adjusting pay for officers to make up for wages
lost during the recession of 2008. Of particular interest is the APD’s use of data to learn
more about the problem and take action. The APF (2009) conducted a study in 2009,
which suggested that stagnant pay was the main reason for recent increases in attrition.
The APD then implemented an incentive system through which employees would
receive financial bonuses for staying at the department for a specified number of years.
However, following the recent pension reform, the APF is conducting a follow-up study
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to ascertain the current reasons for attrition. This is a notable example of action taken to
sustain a diverse first responder workforce by developing an understanding of the
attrition of employees. While this data has yet to be used to address attrition of
underrepresented minority staff, it is used to look at trends among underrepresented
staff and appears to be a promising practice that could be used to identify a problem
early.
Challenges
Police
While this study illuminated some facilitators for creating and maintaining a diverse
workforce, it also uncovered some challenges applicable to various phases of the
employment pipeline. Differences among the first responder professions yielded a
separate set of challenges for police and fire departments. Challenges specific to the
police profession are described below.
Public Image
Reflecting a nationwide trend, job application numbers at the APD and DPD have been
dwindling, which may be due to the public’s negative perception of police resulting from
recent racially-charged incidents. Staff at the ADP and DPD agreed that “the profession
isn’t looking particularly appealing right now” and police are under heavy media scrutiny.
A consequence of the negative public image is increased competition for candidates
between departments, which inhibits the sharing of promising recruitment practices. As
noted by a deputy chief at the DPD, “The reality of it is, we are all fishing from a smaller
pond.”
While this study focused solely on increasing the diversity of first responder staff, it
should be noted that national police reform efforts are underway to address the root
cause of the negative public perception of police. Some practices to address police
reform emerged through information about advances in training coursework. Both APD
and DPD utilize role playing scenarios in their training academies with individuals of
various backgrounds, and the DPD created a class for new recruits titled “Before You
Make YouTube.” The class focuses on officers’ actions and understanding that they are
under constant public observation, particularly through citizens’ phone cameras, which
can quickly escalate incidents to viral videos online.
The APD and the DPD focus on positive relationships and trust with local citizens
through, as described previously, community outreach activities such as youth athletic
leagues, classes, and fairs (see “Promising Practices—Recruiting”). A former LGBT
liaison and diversity instructor at APD’s Citizen’s Police Academy (CPA) observed that,
in addition to educating the public, one benefit of the CPA is to dispel stereotypes by
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allowing citizens to get to know officers and their day-to-day reality on the job. In
addition to serving as direct recruitment methods where police can provide information
about careers in policing, such community outreach activities help build a positive image
among historically underrepresented populations in the profession. Further, through
regular, positive interactions with the community in non-emergency settings, first
responders become role models and provide potential career options for youth.
It should be noted that community engagement, identified as a promising practice for
recruitment, has the potential to not only lead to diversity, but also could be a result of
diversity: The more diverse first responders are, the more likely they may be to engage
with diverse local populations, the greater the engagement, and the more likely they are
to attract diverse citizens as employees. Figure 14 illustrates this theory of change
between the symbiotic relationship of community engagement and diversity of first
responder departments.
Figure 14. Cyclical Effects of Community Engagement and Diversity
Recruiting Spanish-Speaking/Bilingual Staff
Both police departments understand the importance of recruiting Spanish-speaking staff
to communicate and relate with a growing Hispanic population. However, connecting
with communities that distrust police presents a recruiting challenge. A member of the
APD noted that immigrants from Central and South America have experiences with
police who “are not necessarily as fair and justly working on their behalf.” Furthermore,
a police officer at the DPD noted the historical distrust of police by individuals in
underrepresented groups in the United States: “Because we all know, in minority
neighborhoods we ran away from them [the police].”
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Both APD and DPD approach the recruitment of Spanish-speaking officers through the
following activities: recruiting from Hispanic-heavy areas, building relationships with
Hispanic youth through the PAL program, engaging through Spanish-speaking Citizen’s
Police Academies and public events, providing recruitment materials in Spanish, having
role models on staff, and offering language incentives. In addition, the APD utilizes a
designated Hispanic liaison to educate APD staff and connect with the community, and
the intermediate Spanish-speaking curriculum implemented by the DPD Academy
further builds the base of bilingual staff.
Word-of-mouth appears to be another promising practice for reaching the Hispanic
community. At the APD, an employee referral program supports this practice. Likewise,
a sergeant in Applicant Processing at the DPD highlighted that because of word-of-
mouth, “there’s a lot of second and third generation minority officers on the department
now.”
Strict Hiring Requirements
Unfortunately, staff at the APD and DPD indicated that strict background reviews
eliminate many potential candidates from joining the police profession. The former
Hispanic liaison, when speaking about outcomes of a Hispanic recruitment initiative,
noted that “maybe 10 percent of … calls received were actually qualified for the
positions … because you still have to go through tests, the academy, a six-month
probation. So it’s an uphill battle to fully become a police officer.” Staff at the DPD also
indicated that minor offenses often “weed out” applicants during the background review.
Both departments, in recognition that stringent guidelines are important for the hiring of
first responders, have focused their attention on engaging with youth as a strategy to
avoid the occurrence of minor offenses by potential future candidates. As noted by the
assistant chief of the Administrative Bureau at the DPD, “Being able to see officers like
our Neighborhood Police Officers, our Community Affairs officers, our PAL, those
officers are going out there and talking to the kids and planting the seed when they are
younger.… We are planting that seed so hopefully we can continue to draw minorities.”
Salary
Low pay is another challenge cited by the APD and DPD staff members, particularly in
relation to other departments. Pay may not only serve as a barrier for entry into the
police profession in general but also, as noted by a captain of Special Projects at the
APD, “Obviously we have to be competitive in salary in order to be able to compete”
with other agencies that are hiring.
Leadership at both the APD and DPD implement various strategies to negate the
challenge. Both departments have academies, thereby offsetting the cost of training for
recruits who might have to pay for training elsewhere. As noted by one participant at the
APD, some agencies require applicants to pay for certification and training, but at the
APD, “once we hire you, we have our own academy so we pay you to get trained.” The
DPD focuses on tweaking the recruitment messaging so that candidates see the
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benefits that are not related to pay, such as room for advancement. As noted by an
assistant chief at the DPD, applicants “know what the pay is compared to other places.
But they know at the end of the day, they’ll see so much more here than they ever will
somewhere else.” Both departments also offer language incentives as retention tools to
offset the low base pay, and the APD also offers attractive educational incentives and
affordable housing.
Recruiting and Retaining Millennials
Recruiting younger candidates from the millennial generation presents a new challenge
to first responder departments across the country. Interviewees thought that younger
recruits were more likely to leave the profession instead of seeing it as a career, which,
as expressed by an ADP staff member, poses a challenge from a financial perspective:
“[To] recruit, hire, train, have someone out there with gun and badge, we invest about
$100,000 on them. So when they leave, especially before five-year mark, it’s painful.”
The DPD, where recent changes to the pension plan may have resulted in increased
attrition of young officers, is utilizing some promising strategies to recruit and retain
millennials. Many of the recruiting team members are themselves twentysomethings
who can relate to the majority of applicants who fall in this age group. One of the
recruiters noted that “whatever the trend is with the kids, we learn it.”
Fire/EMT
Recruitment Funding
The primary challenge reported by SFFD leadership and staff was a lack of funding to
implement recruitment efforts. While SFFD just recently hired a recruitment director, it
was noted that funding was not available to employ all recruitment efforts possible.
Specifically, employee groups voluntarily participate in community activities to recruit
relevant target populations—such as recruiting at local events, parades, festivals, and
races—because of a lack of funds from the department to support these efforts.
Selection Process
Employee groups at SFFD also reported challenges with selecting diverse applicants
due to the overall competiveness of the application pool. The removal of the state
residential restriction for applicants, which had previously encouraged local residents to
serve their community, has led to an abundance of many out-of-state or out-of-country
applicants. The highly competitive nature of firefighting jobs in the area results in limited
availability of firefighting positions. With an abundant supply of applicants, intensified by
the removal of residency restrictions, allowing an influx of out-of-state or international
applicants, the percentage of local residents within the candidate pool decreases. Thus,
the probability of selection for employment for local residents is reduced, limiting the
SFFD’s ability to reflect the community it serves. The site staff also spoke of the testing
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process as a barrier, with the Candidate Physical Ability Test (CPAT) in particular as
being difficult for women to pass. In addition, the financial and educational requirement
necessary to become a firefighter automatically limits the diversity available. For
example, the expenses of school and obtaining EMT certification often impede
individuals from underrepresented groups from pursuing a career in the fire service.
Providing Low- or No-Cost Pre-Cadet Training
The biggest challenge noted by BAY EMT staff and partners concerned material and
financial limitations. The program allows students freedom from any financial
responsibility (books, uniforms, equipment, etc.—all paid for by BAY EMT) in order to
provide individuals from underrepresented groups the opportunity for a career in a field
that needs and thrives with diversity. The cost to complete a BAY EMT program is
approximately $1,500 per fire academy student, and $1,000 per student for the EMT
program. BAY EMT operates strictly from grant funding and donations. All equipment
and the facility are donated by local fire departments, and money to fund general
operations is often obtained through personal donations or donations made on behalf of
various companies and organizations. Responsibility to fund the program lies with the
directors, who often utilize connections and networks to obtain monetary aid. BAY
EMT’s directors indicate that administrative support and a grant writer to focus on solely
obtaining funding would be greatly beneficial in growing the program and allowing staff
to more effectively concentrate on the programs’ students and objectives.
Guaranteeing space and facilities for pre-cadet training is also a significant challenge.
While the Oakland Fire Department has provided its training facility for BAY EMT to use,
there is no permanent home solely for the program. Additionally, the Pre-EMT club at
Oakland Tech High School occurs at the school’s facility, but only allows for a limited
time. This effort, which is critical to increasing interest in fire and EMS at a key age and
serves as a recruitment tool for the program, would benefit from having its own facility.
With BAY EMT’s successful operations, the hope for and growth of the program would
require distinct, private, and expanded facilities. In speaking with BAY EMT directors,
the ultimate goal would be to house a training facility in the immediate center of
Oakland, allowing accessibility to the diverse populations the program targets.
Helping Students Get Hired
Lastly, a substantial challenge not specific to BAY EMT alone is placing students after
program completion. This challenge is particularly applicable to graduates of BAY
EMT’s fire academy. While the program helps prepare its cadets, the California fire
industry as a whole is highly competitive. There is no longer a local residency
requirement for fire department candidates. This allows candidates from all over the
world to apply, creating a larger applicant pool and greater competition in obtaining
employment or placement within a fire department. Candidates from disadvantaged
backgrounds, such as those attending BAY EMT, will likely have greater difficulty
getting hired as competition increases and more candidates with higher levels of
preparation enter the market.
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Discussion/Recommendations
This section provides a holistic picture of the practices the First Responder Diversity
Study sites employ that either directly or more broadly have the potential to increase
diversity. A discussion of the findings follows.
Cross-Site Comparisons
The findings not only yielded common themes but also key differences by type of
organization. The following discussion refers to one of two types of sites: departments
(APD, DPD, and SFFD) and training programs (BAY EMT and CFI).
Culture of Diversity
All five sites displayed aspects of a diverse organizational culture: a diverse leadership
(in terms of both race/ethnicity and gender), an emphasis on diversity as a priority, and
open discussions among staff about the importance and meaning of diversity. Table 4
displays diversity practices identified at each site.
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Table 4. Cross-Site Comparison of Diversity Practices
APD DPD SFFD
BAY EMT CFI
Diverse Leadership
Diversity Priority
Open Discussions About Diversity
Recruitment Practices
The study examined recruitment practices at the three department sites—APD, DPD,
and SFFD. All three department sites have partnerships with either colleges or high
schools but in different ways. DPD forms relationships with faculty on college campuses
and makes presentations in classrooms. SFFD reaches out to students beginning at the
elementary-school level to talk about careers in the fire service. APD recruits from local
historically Black colleges and partners with Georgia State University to provide training
for staff.
All three department sites are active in community engagement, including community
partnerships, youth programs, and classes and events for the public. These community
engagement activities act as direct and indirect recruiting methods. Community
outreach events and interactions provide the opportunity for citizens to ask questions
and learn more about careers in police, fire, and EMT. In addition, fostering positive
relations is critical to maintaining a positive image of first responders in the community,
particularly among previously underrepresented populations in the professions who can
then see themselves in these positions. In addition to community engagement activities
described above, APD hires liaisons specific to underrepresented and LGBT
populations to reach those groups, ensure good relations, and to recruit them from
these communities.
In addition to community engagement, all three departments offer financial incentives to
bilingual applicants, due to the need for communicating with non-English-speaking
populations in emergency situations. Recruiting budgets at the two police departments
also allow for travel outside the state to recruit Spanish speakers and other populations
that are hard to reach in their areas, particularly in areas where police jobs are
unavailable or have long or inaccessible hiring processes. Table 5 displays recruitment
practices identified at each site.
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Table 5. Cross-Site Comparison of Recruitment Practices
APD DPD SFFD
College/High School Partnerships
Liaisons (LGBT, Hispanic)
Local Partnerships
Youth Programs
Public Classes/Events
Language Incentives
Travel
Hiring Practices
Both APD and DPD offer accelerated hiring processes, which recruiters offer as a
selling point to applicants from other cities where the process can take several years.
As described above, leadership at APD is closely involved in the hiring process, with the
Chief reviewing each conditional offer. A number of applicants at both departments are
lost in the background review process, as is the case at police departments nationwide
(Matthies, Keller, & Lim, 2012). As discussed previously, APD has recently modified its
testing and screening requirements to ensure that applicants from underrepresented
groups, including female applicants, are not discriminated against, while maintaining
high standards to ensure that only qualified applicants are hired. Table 6 displays hiring
practices identified at each site.
Table 6. Cross-Site Comparison of Hiring Practices
APD DPD SFFD
Accelerated Process
Leadership Involvement
Exam/Screening Modifications
Training Practices
Importantly, the majority of the sites provide free training and/or test preparation. APD
and DPD have free academies; BAY EMT is a free program and covers testing fees;
and CFI offers scholarships to cover the costs on an as-needed basis. APD and DPD
offer coursework specific to diversity involving anti-bias training and reality-based role-
playing exercises, and DPD requires that academy graduates complete 60 hours of
Spanish coursework. Table 7 displays training practices identified at each site.
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Table 7. Cross-Site Comparison of Training Practices
APD DPD SFFD
BAY EMT CFI
Free
Diversity Coursework
Role-Playing/Scenarios
Role-Playing/Scenarios in Spanish
Spanish Requirement
Mock Board Exams
Retention Practices
Although the focus for increasing diversity primarily appeared to be on recruiting across
the three department sites, some examples surfaced related to the retention of
employees. Both police sites offer frequent opportunities for promotion and movement
between various units within the department. All three sites offer financial incentives,
which act as both a recruiting and retention tool for language. In addition, APD, through
its partnership with the APF, offers housing and education benefits. Female and
racial/ethnic minority representatives of both police departments spoke of a comfortable,
welcoming, “family” environment, particularly for underrepresented populations who feel
at home. SFFD offers employees the professional and personal support of various
employee groups who advocate on their behalf. Table 8 displays retention practices
identified at each site.
Table 8. Cross-Site Comparison of Retention Practices
APD DPD SFFD
Opportunities for Promotion
Financial Incentives (Housing, Language)
“Family” Environment
Employee Groups
Challenges
Challenges among departments seemed specific to the profession: either police or fire.
For police, a major challenge is filling the approximately 200–300 openings each year,
while for fire, the challenge appears to be competition for limited openings. All three
sites cite the need for additional bilingual staff and the challenge of gaining the trust of
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immigrant populations who often have negative views of police from their home
countries. The two police sites, like police departments around the country, lose a
number of applicants through rigorous background reviews, and both sites lose younger
generations of employees, possibly because of low pay and job-hopping patterns. Table
9 displays challenges to increasing diversity identified at each site.
Table 9. Cross-Site Comparison of Challenges to Increasing Diversity
APD DPD SFFD
Competition for Applicants
Competition for Positions
Recruiting Bilingual Staff (Negative Image, Distrust)
Background Review Eliminations
Retaining Millennials
Pay/Pension Freezes
Revisiting the Promising Practices Literature
Findings from this study support many common findings and recommendations in the
literature specific to increasing diversity of first responders, including the importance of
supportive leadership and organizational values; the formation of community
partnerships; tailored recruitment messages; development of broad definitions of
diversity; and ongoing training. While other recommendations from the literature—
establishing a diversity council and mentoring programs—did not surface in the site
visits, they merit further study and potential consideration among first responder
departments as strategies for increasing diversity, along with practices identified
through this study.
Some of the findings did not appear in the literature and may merit further exploration,
such as a culture of diversity and the use of community liaisons. Similarly, while some
practices used by the study sites were explicitly designed to improve diversity, others
were broader organizational approaches or contexts that may have the unintended
benefit of increasing diversity indirectly, either through recruitment (e.g., accelerating
hiring processes) or retention (e.g., having “a family” environment).
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Feasibility of Replicating Promising Practices
The promising practices literature and the sites visited as part of the First Responder
Diversity Study provide many examples of strategies that can be used within law
enforcement or fire service to increase diversity. However, implementing these practices
may be more or less difficult in some contexts, depending on the receptiveness of
participating players to make real and lasting changes and having the resources
available to do so. In order to be successful, agencies at a minimum must work towards
institutionalizing their goal to strive for and support diversity and inclusion. It must
become a part of the organization’s new business as usual and be reflected among the
organization’s leadership and in its recruitment and retention practices and budget.
The study sites illustrate how this can come about in different ways. SFFD was legally
required to improve its diversity, and it met and then exceeded its requirements through
a variety of approaches. This case demonstrates what is possible when local agencies
are motivated and have the financial support to prioritize diversity, even if it is not
initially by choice and does not reflect past priorities. At the other end of the spectrum,
APD operates within the context of a city that is considered by locals to be “the home of
civil rights” and is one of the most intentionally diverse and representative police
departments in the country. Diversity is an established priority throughout the agency,
and resources are allocated accordingly.
What these cases do not illustrate, of course, is that this type of progress can easily be
made anywhere. The highlighted practices will be more or less feasible depending on
local contexts. For example, the agencies in the study were all located in large cities. As
such, they have larger budgets and more diverse applicant pools than those in smaller
municipalities, which likely gives the study sites an advantage. However, this does not
mean that it is impossible to make progress elsewhere. In fact, a concurrent study
conducted by the U.S. Department of Justice investigated how smaller police
departments are improving diversity. The DOJ study will add further information to that
presented here.
One important takeaway from this study may be that agencies with fewer resources
have options for doing more with less. Two promising practices that may be feasible for
a broader array of agencies are: (1) supporting volunteerism, and (2) partnering with
third-party organizations and community groups as a means of recruiting and retaining
more diverse staff. Agencies like SFFD encourage employees to participate in
specialized employee groups on a volunteer basis. These groups are a source of social
support among their members and a valuable resource for SFFD in the volunteer
outreach they do to help inspire others to enter the fire service. Similarly, BAY EMT and
CFI are inspiring examples of what can be accomplished by those in fire service on a
purely volunteer basis. In addition, they serve as an important segment of the pathway
for disadvantaged youth and women to gain access to career options that may not have
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 61
otherwise been available to them. In this niche, they are also providing a valuable
service to partnering agencies by giving them increased access to an applicant pool that
they may not have otherwise had. A second option for partnering with third-party
organizations or training providers is to host paid apprenticeship and internship
opportunities—in some cases, these training programs may be funded partially or fully
through other sources, such as workforce development grants.
Recommendations for Future Research
and Evaluation
As described earlier in this report, the research on diversity practices in general, and
among first responders specifically, is quite limited despite its clear policy relevance and
social value. This First Responder Diversity Study represents one of the first steps in a
program of research to help inform the first responder field. Subsequent research will
ideally take several forms: (1) larger studies of promising practices at a greater number
of sites within different contexts (e.g., mid-size cities, less diverse cities, etc.); (2) in-
depth implementation studies of promising practices similar to those identified in this
report and in related studies; and (3) impact studies of programs that appear the most
promising for improving diversity. Below is a discussion of each of these types of
research in more detail.
Identifying Additional Promising Practices
The First Responder Diversity Study included a comprehensive extensive search for
sites implementing promising practices. However, the approach of conducting a more
traditional literature review and web search was not fruitful in identifying promising
practices in the first responder fields. It was much more productive to talk with people in
each of the fields directly, such as representatives from first responder professional
organizations and local-level police and fire agencies, but this process was relatively
slow and did not result in a large number of potential study sites. It was also difficult to
use data from existing sources to identify first responder agencies with diverse
personnel because of the cross-sectional nature of available data; these data provided
a snapshot of each municipality’s workforce at one point in time—a time that could have
been before, during, or after diversity initiatives were implemented in a particular
agency.
A useful next step in studying diversity practices among first responders would be to
widen the field of sites studied — preferably to include agencies and other types of
organizations like training providers from a variety of contexts, such as smaller cities. An
expanded study may also help fill some of the gaps identified in both the literature and
in the current study. In particular, while the study has found some practices thought to
increase diversity by improving retention and advancement, the vast majority of
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 62
practices focus more on getting potential first responders into the pipeline through
outreach and recruitment, and less on keeping them and advancing them within in the
pipeline. Similarly, realistic barriers within the selection and advancement process still
exist even among sites doing well. The current study did not uncover many practices
that address those barriers. In order to identify additional promising practices,
several good starting points may be to : (1) set up a volunteer registry on the
DOL website for agencies and first responder training organizations to tell others
about their initiatives, including details on how they have updated their recruitment,
selection and advancement policies and practices as well as how they have partnered
with local training providers and workforce development boards to improve diversity in
their agency; (2) periodically reach out to the first responder professional
associations to learn about new initiatives in the field; (3) consider developing and
conducting a survey of local police and fire agencies in partnership with
associations to ascertain how many agencies nationwide have implemented the
practices identified through the First Responder Diversity Study as promising, or
others that may show promise; and (4) continue to analyze data on first responder
diversity over time and develop trend analyses for municipalities.
Studying the Process and Conditions for Successful Implementation
The process of enacting promising diversity practices and the factors that promote or
inhibit real organizational, attitudinal, and behavioral change in this context are complex
and require much deeper and targeted study. One of the next steps in this line of
research should be to conduct implementation studies among a sample of the sites
identified in order to provide the field with more concrete “how-to” information. For
example, DPD has an interesting approach to forming and reorganizing its recruitment
team, and SFFD has formed relationships with other organizations to offer paid
apprenticeships. Future research could explore how the agencies set up these types of
staffing and partnering structures, and what kinds of organizational change have been
required to allow for that kind of flexibility.
One of the findings of the study, however, was that some practices are considered
proprietary, and competition for recruits is so strong that agencies can be reluctant to
share details. Another challenge to doing a deeper study of implementation is that any
information on improving diversity as part of a selection, retention and advancement
process is going to be sensitive in nature, and sites will understandably only be willing
to share so much. This will limit the amount that can be learned. Any research that
takes place at a deeper level will have to be undertaken with a clear agreement among
organizations involved as to what information can be shared and what information can
be used to inform the research but cannot be released.
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 63
Determining the Impact of Diversity Efforts
Ultimately, the goal of any body of promising practices research is to provide the field
with more conclusive evidence that a particular approach is effective. In the case of
diversity practices, this preliminary study has found that agencies and organizations
take a variety of approaches to improving diversity. There is no instance in which a
single practice (e.g., employee support groups) or a specific set of associated and
coordinated practices would be implemented. Diversity practices develop rather
organically over time. That creates a challenge for conducting an impact study, where
participants would ideally be randomly assigned to a “promising practice” group or to a
comparison group that does not participate in the practice. Therefore, any impact study
of diversity practices would likely need to focus on targeted initiatives or programs that
are implemented during the study, such as a diversity and inclusion-related training
course for staff or a job training program that (a) includes characteristics identified in the
promising practices research (e.g., fire service apprenticeships that follows a curriculum
recognized by the field), (b) is implemented in collaboration with a sponsoring agency,
and (c) could be studied in this way and would add valuable information to the field.
However, while it may possible to conduct an experimental study of a well-defined
practice—such as a diversity and inclusion-related training course for staff—in this
setting, it would not be feasible to randomly assign personnel or candidates to an
agency’s full set of practices that developed over time. There are also legal implications
for allowing some individuals access to resources and not others (e.g., for selection of
test preparation or supports for advancement opportunities). A more realistic approach
would be to use a quasi-experimental design in this setting, which would allow
researchers to compare agencies implementing promising practices with those that are
similar in important ways (e.g., similar employee characteristics and recruitment and
hiring policies at baseline) but that do not use the types of practices being studied. In
this approach, however, it would be important to screen the comparison sites to ensure
that they are not implementing other practices that would be considered promising, and
that relevant and reliable data on policies, practices, and outcomes could be obtained
from all sites.
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 64
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Appendix A: Literature Review
Introduction
The first step in the First Responder Diversity Study was to gather information on
potentially promising approaches to increasing diversity in each first responder field
through a comprehensive literature search, a review of first responder association
websites, and a scan of policies and practices within a set of states found to have a
relatively diverse first responder workforce.
This report provides a summary of information regarding best practices for increasing
diversity from the human resources literature as well as best practices, more
specifically, from the existing first responder literature. The final section identifies the
strengths and weaknesses of the literature and research base and suggests areas for
future research. 12
Best Practices for Increasing Diversity
Recommendations from the Human Resources Literature
The goal of increasing workforce diversity is not unique to the first responder fields. In
this section, a summary is presented of the human resources literature on best
practices considered to be relevant to first responders. It describes general
organizational or leadership best practices for supporting diversity and inclusion, as well
as best practices specific to the components of the employment pipeline, including
outreach, recruitment and selection, training, and retention and advancement.
GENERAL ORGANIZATION AL OR LEADERSHIP PRACTICES
In both the public and private sectors, a similar set of general practices and
organizational characteristics have been identified as useful for ensuring and managing
a diverse and inclusive workforce (e.g., see Aronson, 2002; Industrial Relations
Counselors, Inc., 2008; Stalcup et al., 2005; U.S. Department of Commerce & National
Partnership for Reinventing Government Benchmarking Study, n.d.). These include:
A demonstrated commitment to diversity and inclusion at the leadership and
management levels (e.g., diversity among leadership members; organization’s
stated core values include diversity and inclusion; sustained investment in
supporting diversity and inclusion, etc.);
12
Additional details about the First Responder Study methodology and findings are available in the final study report.
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 69
A strategic plan designed from a current diversity assessment of the organization
that includes diversity goals and plans aligned with or explicitly linked to the
organization’s goals and objectives;
Succession planning that includes an ongoing strategic process for identifying
and developing a diverse pool of talent for an organization’s potential leaders;
Communications from leadership about the value of diversity for organizational
performance;
Employee involvement to support diversity and inclusion throughout the
organization (e.g., mentoring new employees, supporting public outreach by
employees, etc.);
Training of management and staff to recognize and avoid bias (including implicit
bias); and
Establishing indicators for measuring progress and performance, and holding
leaders accountable to those measures.
Experts in the field of diversity management, along with organizations that have been
the most successful at improving diversity and inclusion, support these practices and
agree that a combination of the general practices identified should be considered when
an organization is developing and implementing its diversity initiatives (e.g., see
Aronson, 2002; Industrial Relations Counselors, Inc., 2008; Stalcup et al., 2005; U.S.
Department of Commerce & National Partnership for Reinventing Government
Benchmarking Study, n.d.). Below, some general strategies, among others, are
discussed more in depth as they relate to specific components of the employment
pipeline.
OUTREACH, RECRUITMEN T, AND SELECTION
Recruitment efforts in areas that serve diverse populations or are unique to a targeted
group of individuals have received positive support in the literature. For example,
partnering with schools and organizations that serve diverse populations is a promising
recruitment practice, according to a study that examined the practices of agencies with
the 10 highest ranked diversity management programs (Stalcup et al., 2005). The
findings support active recruitment from schools such as historically Black colleges and
universities, Hispanic-serving institutions, women’s colleges, and schools with
international programs, and encourage developing internship opportunities for students
in underrepresented racial/ethnic groups. The report notes that building formal
partnerships with schools and multicultural professional organizations can help
organizations to establish their commitment to diversity (Stalcup et al., 2005).
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 70
Similarly, outreach to locations—such as community centers, professional
organizations, churches, or local educational institutions—in areas of targeted
populations of interest can signal that the organization values inclusion of those
individuals and the importance of diversity. Dissemination of recruitment advertisements
in these outlets is believed to increase the number of diverse applicants (Avery &
McKay, 2006).
In addition to the location of recruitment dissemination, careful consideration and
tailoring of recruitment messages is important for attracting diverse candidates.
According to a study that explored how prospective applicants reacted to agency
advertisements, recruitment messages are more effective when organizations provide
justification for their diversity-focused efforts (Williamson, Slay, Shapiro, & Shivers-
Blackwell, 2008). This is supported by Jacobs & Grant-Thomas (n.d.), who emphasize
the value of reflecting on and conveying organizational motivations for seeking to
diversify the workforce. Williamson and colleagues (2008) further recommend that,
because prospective applicants’ responses to advertisements vary by individual
experiences of discrimination, organizations should develop messages that account for
both group- and individual-level experiences. However, Williamson and colleagues
(2008) recommend first examining market research to better understand the makeup of
the applicant pool. This is based on the authors’ findings that groups and individuals are
attracted to different justifications for increasing diversity. The University of Vermont’s
Diversity and Retention Best Practices guide echoes this point, suggesting that
organizations evaluate the diversity of the current workforce—such as through data
from the Offices of Affirmative Action and Equal Opportunity (AA/EO), Human
Resources, and Institutional Research and a unit’s own data, if applicable—to set
diversity goals and job positions (University of Vermont, 2012).
Best practices among leading diversity management programs also suggest that
establishing a corporate council to develop, implement, and monitor a diversity-focused
recruitment plan is a promising approach (Stalcup et al., 2005). Most of the 10 agencies
examined by Stalcup and colleagues (2005) had some type of diversity advisory board
and involved employees in diversity management. Jacobs and Grant-Thomas (n.d.)
recommend that the organization embrace its mission to increase diversity by including
individuals with a strong commitment to diversity on the search committee. The authors
suggest that, in addition to ensuring clear metrics for the evaluation of candidates,
members of the search committee be trained to avoid potential biases in the recruitment
and selection process. The University of Vermont’s Diversity and Retention Best
Practices guide also supports training of search committee members and hiring officials,
recommending participation in the AA/EO educational recruitment and retention
sessions. It is also noted that leaders of the organization should be engaged in and
actively support the organization’s strategies and plan to diversify its workforce.
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TRAINING
Support for diversity at the management level has been reported to be a significant
factor in the effectiveness of diversity training (Rynes & Rosen, 1995). According to a
survey-based study on the factors related to the adoption and perceived success of
diversity training programs, training programs are more likely to be perceived as
successful when organizations embrace broad, inclusionary definitions of diversity and
make diversity training attendance mandatory for managers, and when organizational
leaders are perceived to be supportive of diversity (Rynes & Rosen, 1995). This is
reinforced by the Equal Employment Opportunity Management Directive 715, which
requires leadership at federal agencies to demonstrate a commitment to diversity and
incorporate equality of opportunity into their strategic mission, such as by training
managers with effective communication and interpersonal skills to manage a diverse
workforce (U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 2003). The training should
be designed to develop employees’ understanding and awareness of diversity and may
include key topics, such as cultural awareness, communication styles, team building,
and conflict resolution (Stalcup et al., 2005). Although all employees should be
encouraged to participate in diversity training, evidence suggests a voluntary approach
to attendance may yield more positive results (Kalev, Dobbin, & Kelly, 2006).
Another promising strategy for implementing diversity training includes testing the
effectiveness of diversity-focused training courses within small segments of the
organization prior to broad implementation (Holvino, Ferdman, & Merrill-Sands, 2004).
For example, the authors recommend conducting a multicultural team-building
intervention with a virtual project team to test trainings in smaller work units, and then
expanding effective approaches across the entire organization.
Conducting evaluations to determine the impact and results of diversity initiatives or
training is an important step in ensuring the success of diversity training programs.
Findings from Rynes and Rosen (1995) suggest that training programs are perceived as
more successful among employees when they involve a long-term evaluation
component. According to Holvino and colleagues (2004), best practices for evaluating
diversity training include assessing changes in individual attitudes and behavior,
organizational culture, inclusion of diversity strategies, business systems and structure,
costs and profitability, and the level of satisfaction across different groups within the
organization.
RETENTION AND ADVANC EMENT
Assessing, communicating, and recognizing the effectiveness of diversity efforts is key
to developing a diversity program that is beneficial to existing employees (U.S.
Department of Commerce & National Partnership for Reinventing Government
Benchmarking Study, n.d.). More specifically, agencies with successful diversity
initiatives identified the following benchmarks for evaluation: attrition rates, workforce
satisfaction, complaints and litigation, and organizational competitiveness and financial
performance. An explicit recognition of diversity efforts and initiatives, such as giving out
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awards for employees or managers who demonstrate a commitment to the
advancement of diversity (U.S. Department of Commerce & National Partnership for
Reinventing Government Benchmarking Study, n.d.), reinforces diversity as part of the
strategic mission and encourages diversity-promoting practices. Taken together, these
practices help to establish employees’ perceptions of the organization as having
institutionalized its commitment to diversity.
Mentorship programs are another recommended approach to improving retention and
advancement of a diverse workforce (Stalcup et al., 2005). Groups developed to foster
inclusion and promote diversity can also help to contribute to employees’ self-
development and advocacy. The report from the U.S. Department of Commerce and
National Partnership for Reinventing Government Benchmarking Study (n.d.) identifies
benefits to these groups in terms of development and retention of employees,
improvement of staff managers, and a sense of inclusion among employees.
SUMMARY OF BEST PRAC TICES FROM THE HUMAN RESOURCES
LITERATURE
In general, the human resources literature suggests a commitment to diversity and
inclusion at all levels of the organization in a way that is explicitly communicated,
demonstrated, supported, and sustained. For outreach, recruitment, and hiring,
recommendations include establishing a council to develop, implement, and monitor a
diversity-focused recruitment plan, including individuals with a strong commitment to
diversity on advisory councils and search committees; training members of search
committees to avoid bias in selection practices; developing formal partnerships with
schools and organizations that serve diverse populations; and disseminating tailored
recruitment messages in a range of outlets that serve diverse populations.
Training is seen as most successful when broad, inclusionary definitions of diversity are
used by the organization; and training, while required for managers, is strongly
encouraged to all employees. Strategies should be pilot-tested prior to full-scale
implementation. Long-term evaluations of diversity training initiatives include assessing
changes to individual attitudes and behavior, organizational culture, costs and
profitability, employee satisfaction across different groups in the organization, and the
use of diversity strategies within business systems and structure.
For improving retention and advancement, organizations should prioritize diversity by
assessing, communicating, and explicitly recognizing effective diversity efforts.
Establishing a mentorship program can help to foster self-development, a sense of
inclusion, and advocacy within the organization, and thus increase the likelihood of
retention and advancement of a diverse workforce.
The vast majority of studies conducted to establish these best practices consist of
surveys, interviews, focus groups, and case studies, which have been valuable for the
sake of knowledge development around best practices. However, further research is
needed to identify more specific approaches (e.g., the characteristics of an effective
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 73
mentorship program) and the conditions under which implementation is most successful
and to test the effectiveness of best practices more rigorously.
Recommendations from the First Responder Literature
The following results describe diversity best practices specific to first responders along
the employment pipeline (outreach, recruitment, hiring, training, retention, and
advancement). The literature summarized below is broken down by profession (police
and firefighter/EMS). These findings represent academic publications, research studies,
and government reports. Following the literature review findings, potentially promising
practices identified through an online scan of association websites and state and local
policies are described.
POLICE
The majority of best practices from the diversity literature specific to police apply to
outreach, recruitment, and hiring. These best practices reflect some of the
recommendations from the general human resources literature and some practices
specific to policing.
Forming community partnerships
As with the general human resource diversity literature, forming partnerships with other
organizations is considered a promising recruiting strategy for improving diversity
among police. The Police Executive Research Forum conducted a survey of
approximately 1,000 police agencies and identified 60 as effective at recruiting or hiring
women and individuals in underrepresented racial/ethnic groups (Taylor et al., 2005).
These agencies indicated that advertising on websites of women’s organizations and
associations and recruiting at women’s events, including fairs, college athletic events,
and fitness clubs, were promising strategies for increasing the gender diversity among
police. Comeau (2011), through a series of interviews with the New York State Division
of Criminal Justice Services and New York police departments with high representation
of underrepresented groups within the force, also found support for community-based
and in-person recruitment events— such as open houses or those held at professional
organizations, churches, fraternities, community groups, malls, and job fairs—as
promising practices.
Targeting diverse populations
The dissemination of recruitment advertisements in outlets that serve diverse
populations has been proposed as an effective strategy in the literature. Haddad, Giglio,
Keller, and Lim (2012) suggest that diversity recruitment strategies found to be effective
by the Military Leadership Diversity Commission can be applied to law enforcement
agencies. For example, they recommend translating messages into multiple languages
and advertising in newspapers, on social media, or at institutions that serve
underrepresented populations, such as historically Black colleges and universities.
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 74
Scrivner (2006) presents case studies of five police departments’ community
approaches to recruiting and hiring a diverse workforce as part of a project funded by
the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) to increase service-oriented law enforcement
members. Departments reported the need to carefully design online recruitment
information and applications, which may be a barrier to recruits for whom English is a
second language. Findings from a focus group discussion at one site suggested that
recruitment advertisements highlight the various types of individuals with careers in law
enforcement.
Targeted recruitment messages
White, Cooper, Saunders, and Raganella (2010) recommend that law enforcement
agencies design recruitment and hiring strategies to appeal to recruits’ motivations for
joining the police force. According to the study, law enforcement officials from the New
York City Police Department cited a desire to help people and practical concerns, such
as benefits and job security, as the primary factors behind their career choices. Results
suggest that motivations for joining the police force and job satisfaction are consistent
across racial groups and genders, indicating that diversity recruitment efforts may
benefit from focusing on these factors.
Other studies note the value of tailoring recruitment messages to attract diverse
populations of interest, such as by identifying previously untapped neighborhoods and
considering the effect of recruitment messages on different populations (Matthies,
Keller, & Lim, 2012). Taylor and colleagues (2005) indicate that featuring minority and
female officers heavily in recruitment material, such as brochures, communicates
directly with applicants during the outreach and recruitment process. Comeau (2011)
recommends that recruitment messages be tailored specifically to diverse groups and
be disseminated at a variety of outlets, including TV, radio, newspapers, internet, and
smartphone apps.
Jordan, Fridell, Faggiani, and Kubu (2009) conducted a national survey of police
agencies to assess the effectiveness of targeted approaches to recruit women and
minorities. The findings suggest that targeted recruiting strategies toward
underrepresented groups may have increased the number of new hires from these
groups by more than three times, and specific recruiting strategies for women were
associated with a more than doubling of new female hires. However, only 18 percent of
agencies were found to use these strategies. Increasing starting pay was not found to
be an effective strategy, but increased spending on recruitment resources was
positively associated with success in recruiting and hiring individuals from
underrepresented groups and women.
In addition to targeted recruitment messaging for individuals from underrepresented
groups and women, it is important to consider the unique needs of groups such as
veterans. A report by the International Association of Chiefs of Police, Bureau of Justice
Assistance, & Klein Associates Division/ARA (2009) investigated transition issues for
veterans returning to law enforcement careers, revealing that veterans may have unique
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 75
needs and may benefit from a different set of recruitment approaches than other
groups, such as underrepresented racial/ethnic groups and women. For example,
interviews and focus groups with veterans highlighted the value of a liaison or
committee designed to facilitate the transition from the military to the law enforcement
agency and to increase awareness of issues faced by veterans. In addition, training that
focuses on communication skills and community relations, and targets a wide range of
skill levels could benefit veterans in particular.
It is worth noting that, although targeted recruitment strategies are cited by many as a
promising recruitment strategy, there is wide variation in the extent to which law
enforcement agencies tailor recruitment strategies to increase diversity as a standard
practice. A survey administered to nearly 3,000 law enforcement agencies found that 21
percent of all agencies targeted underrepresented racial/ethnic groups in their
recruitment approaches, 21 percent of all agencies targeted women in their recruitment
efforts, and 17 percent of all agencies targeted military veterans (Reaves, 2012). Large
state agencies tailored recruitment efforts toward underrepresented groups and women
at much higher rates than other agencies. For example, 88 percent of agencies with
more than 500 employees actively recruited women, and 85 percent focused
recruitment on underrepresented groups (Reaves, 2012). This implies that smaller and
local agencies may not commonly use this promising practice.
Exam assistance
Additional best practices suggested in the literature include providing easily accessible
recruitment information and exam preparation assistance, and ensuring exams do not
include culturally biased questions (Matthies et al. 2012). Similarly, Riccucci and
Riccardelli (2015) recommend revisiting the use of written exams from police
department entry assessments, since they can discriminate against non-White
applicants, and instead relying on other components of the hiring process, such as oral
and psychological exams.
Retaining diverse officers
In addition to implementing tactics to diversify employees, agencies have to ensure that
they also provide structural supports to appropriately manage a more diverse staff. For
example, a study of 464 large police departments found that increased diversity
correlated with increased staff turnover, and as a result, decreased crime control (Hur,
2012). The report indicates that, in an effort to minimize the negative impact of
employing a diverse staff, the departments required diversity management, such as
addressing potential friction between different ethnic groups. Chrobot-Mason and
Aramovich (2013) echo these findings in their report, which suggests that an inclusive
work environment includes diversity-focused recruitment and hiring practices alongside
transparent practices of equal access and treatment. Agencies should cultivate a
climate that supports the diverse workforce it hopes to achieve.
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 76
Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies
Studies have also examined the relationships between accreditation and diversity. A
study by Kasdan (2006) noted that of 19 police departments surveyed in Rhode Island,
the most creative recruitment strategies were implemented by agencies that had gone
through the accreditation process. Furthermore, a study by Burlingame and Baro (2005)
showed that national accreditation status through the Commission on Accreditation for
Law Enforcement Agencies (CALEA) is associated with more successful recruitment
strategies. The study examined the percentages of women and non-White women in
agencies by CALEA status. The authors reported that CALEA agencies were found to
have significantly higher percentages of women and non-White women in the force at all
levels of command, which “may help to change the organizational culture of an agency
with respect to the employment and promotion of women (Guajardo, 2016, p.21).”
Morabito and Shelley (2015) echoed the findings of Burlingame and Baro (2005) in that
CALEA accreditation significantly and positively predicted the proportion of female, non-
White, and African American employees across 1,478 police jurisdictions.
Summary of Best Practices from the Law Enforcement Literature
In addition to targeted recruitment messaging and partnerships in the community, the
literature on police diversity recommends adequately funding recruitment efforts to
reach a diverse set of applicants. It is important to tailor messaging for diverse
communities not only by highlighting the range of people with careers in law
enforcement, but also by conveying aspects of the job that applicants care about—
helping people, job benefits, and job security. It may also be useful to ensure that all
groups’ interests are represented in collective bargaining and that agencies consider
seeking accreditation.
Similar to the general human resources literature on best practices for increasing
diversity, the literature on law enforcement is based on survey and qualitative research,
such as focus groups with those in the profession. This work has been highly valuable
for identifying the promising practices described above. However, more research is
needed to identify additional best practices—particularly for addressing the barriers to
hiring, retaining, and promoting police (e.g., through unbiased hiring and promotion
criteria, application procedures, and exam preparation assistance)—and to test their
impacts throughout the employment pipeline.
One suggestion from the field is for law enforcement agencies to begin addressing
issues of inclusiveness by performing a barrier analysis of the policies or cultural norms
that inhibit the recruitment and retention of diverse candidates. Once the context-
specific recruiting, hiring, retention, or promotion barriers have been identified, an
agency can attempt to remove them and improve practices (Matthies et al., 2012).
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 77
FIREFIGHTERS, EMTs, AND PARAMEDICS
Best practices for increasing diversity noted in firefighter, EMT, and paramedic literature
are similar to those discussed for the policing field, as well as general human resources.
The literature highlights implementing diversity efforts through recruitment, hiring, and
training and the importance of a commitment to diversity from leadership.
Comprehensive practices
The International Association of Fire Fighters’ (IAFF) report, Achieving and Retaining a
Diverse Fire Service Workforce (Fox, Hornwick, & Hardin, 2006), highlights various
programs and initiatives that have been implemented in the past with the intention of
increasing diversity. Consistent with the recommendations and best practices in the
general human resources literature and based on interview and survey data and case
studies of effective departments, the report lists the following key components in
recruiting diverse first responders: (1) making it a mission; (2) instituting diversity
training; (3) starting a human resources committee; (4) building relationships with affinity
organizations; (5) improving the education of applicants (scholarships, recruitment of
diverse applicants to educational programs); and (6) establishing a mentoring program.
The IAFF’s diversity initiative also highlights five obstacles to increasing diversity: (1)
being passive or defeatist about the problem; (2) a selection process that does not
measure the most important skills and abilities; (3) a selection process that requires
education, certification, or prior experience that limits diversity; (4) not knowing how to
reach the desired groups effectively; and (5) not communicating a clear message of the
value of diversity within the organization, not fostering an inclusive environment within
the organization, and not developing or enforcing policies regarding harassment.
Therefore, any approach to increasing diversity would likely need to address these
same or similar barriers.
The RAND Corporation’s report, Recommendations for Improving the Recruiting and
Hiring of Los Angeles Firefighters (Hardison et al., 2015), offers recommendations for
recruiting diverse and highly qualified firefighters while minimizing organizational costs
within the Los Angeles Fire Department. The report emphasizes recruiting highly
qualified candidates from applicant pools that also offer diversity, such as female
athletes at local colleges or recent non-White military veterans. Subsidized or free
access to requisite training for assessments is also suggested as a way to help highly
qualified applicants from low socioeconomic backgrounds who cannot afford the
program fees. Departments should also evaluate the knowledge, skills, abilities, and
other characteristics required for highly capable firefighters so that the hiring criteria are
validated by outside experts and data. This is especially important for female candidates
who can be discriminated against due to physical capability criteria (Russo, 2013;
Schuck, 2014).
Promoting a positive organizational culture
Focusing specifically on women in the fire service, the National Report Card on Women
in Firefighting, developed by the International Association of Women in Fire &
Emergency Services (iWomen), examines such issues as discrimination, harassment,
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 78
recruitment, hiring, and training (Hulett, Bendick, Thomas, & Moccio, 2008). This report
discusses changing the fundamental culture of an organization. The authors highlight
five elements for supporting a permanent change in the fundamental culture of a fire
department that echoes many of the general best practices discussed previously: (1) a
visible commitment by top leadership, including mayors and senior appointed or elected
officials; (2) monitoring and accountability to translate the broad goal into immediate
consequences (including rewards and sanctions); (3) human resources management
procedures embodying transparency, objectivity, and performance-relatedness to
replace bias in hiring, promotions, and assignments; (4) changing individuals’ behavior
to control hostile acts (such as adopting a zero-tolerance policy for aggressive
behavior); and (5) sustained efforts over three to five years or longer to effect significant
culture change. The authors also showcase departments that have had success in
increasing the diversity of their workforce. 13
Broome (2012) also addresses the importance of the fundamental culture of an
organization from a psychological lens, through which the author argues that gender
perceptions of the typical firefighter still linger as a masculine figure. Broome calls for
continued re-examination of traditional ideological perceptions that view being female
and being a firefighter as mutually exclusive. Broome also calls upon male firefighters to
serve as diplomats in ensuring that women have the ability to serve as firefighters and
to hold leadership positions.
The results of a survey of firefighters’ experiences of bullying at the workplace suggest
that gender discrimination still occurs (Griffith, Schultz, Wakeham, & Schultz, 2015).
Female respondents reported feeling that they were treated differently based on their
gender and that their supervisors failed to respond to gender or sexual orientation-
based complaints.
The findings of these studies, coupled with those of Broome and others in this review,
may have implications for retaining a diverse firefighter workforce through consideration
of organizational culture.
Recruiting task force
Van Solkema (1999) examined the effectiveness of the recruitment task force of the
Grand Rapids Fire Department and recommended the following requirements for fire
departments seeking to increase diversity through recruitment: (1) the entire department
should participate in diversity training; (2) the rationale for the task force should be
reinforced within the organization; (3) a recruiting budget must be established; and (4) a
sense of urgency must be conveyed to members by communicating the advantages of
diversity. These requirements are noted as critical to improving recruitment of a diverse
workforce.
13
For the current First Responder Diversity Study, the authors have not focused on the promising organizations and agencies listed in the iWomen report as prospective sites for more in-depth study because they have already been identified and described. The goal of the current study is to identify additional organizations and agencies in order to add to the literature base.
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 79
Targeted recruiting to reflect the population
As described by the U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration (USDOT/NHTSA) (2008), “Changes in the ethnic composition of the
population indicate a need for a more ethnically diverse workforce” (p. 88) of EMS
professionals. Hunter (2003) commented on these population changes and highlighted
that EMS professionals will need to increasingly respond to “diverse health beliefs,
customs, and practices” (p. 88). The report from USDOT/NHTSA (2008) highlighted that
census data reflected a more diverse population of young adults in the United States,
which has been a historically fertile recruiting ground for EMS professions in the past.
Similar to the recommendations made by Hardison and colleagues (2015) for recruiting
diverse firefighters, the report from USDOT/NHTSA (2008) concluded that targeted
recruitment from diverse populations is crucial for building the future EMS workforce.
Suggestions for recruiting volunteers
Providing a unique perspective on the field of volunteer fire, Retention & Recruitment for
the Volunteer Emergency Services: Challenges & Solutions offers information regarding
effective strategies for recruiting a diverse volunteer staff, obstacles with retention,
suggestions for retaining female volunteers, mentoring programs, and strategies for
improving training (U.S. Fire Administration, 2007). Developed collaboratively by the
U.S. Fire Administration, the Department of Homeland Security, and the National
Volunteer Fire Council, online surveys were administered to various fire and EMS
associations across the country. Findings based on survey results suggest that the most
important aspect for improving recruitment and retention is having effective and fair
leadership. Results also suggest implementing specific retention plans, such as
financial incentives for employees and offering changes in duty shifts.
Supporting diversity during pre-employment training
Hunter (2003) provides 15 recommendations relevant to EMS students prior to entering
the employment pipeline. Recommendations include ensuring photos printed of EMS
staff in textbooks reflect a diverse group of individuals, using mannequins with a variety
of skin tones in the classroom, addressing varying cultural beliefs regarding healthcare,
and making internships available in areas where students will be exposed to diversity.
Hunter (2005a) recommends the use of small group, narrative-based learning in the
classroom to better relate instruction to student’s lived experiences. Hunter (2005b) also
studied the relationship between self-efficacy and knowing an employee in the EMS
field for 499 students. The author found that in relation to successfully completing the
paramedic training, knowing someone was more important to the self-efficacy of
females than males. Hunter recommends that organizations wishing to increase
diversity create recruitment opportunities for connecting diverse staff and diverse
prospective employees.
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 80
Gender-appropriate equipment
Griffith and colleagues (2015) found that women more frequently reported that their
uniforms or equipment did not fit. The authors’ recommendations include ensuring
properly-fitting equipment is available for females. 14
Summary of Best Practices from the Fire, EMT, and Paramedic Literature
The best practices identified in the diversity literature specific to firefighters, EMTs, and
paramedics mirrored many of the practices highlighted in the human resources
literature, as well as some practices from the law enforcement literature for recruiting
and retaining a diverse workforce.
Best practices include changing the fundamental culture of an organization, which
requires a re-examination of traditional gender perceptions, visible commitment from
leadership, monitoring progress, transparency, and objectivity. Additional recommended
practices include implementing a human resources committee or task force on diversity,
effectively communicating the rationale and advantages of a diverse workforce,
instituting organization-wide diversity training, establishing a recruiting budget to ensure
a diverse applicant pool, developing relationships with affinity groups to aid in targeted
recruitment, establishing a mentoring program, allocating additional resources to
support diverse student populations, and providing population-appropriate gear.
For volunteer first responders, the literature is more limited. However, the most
important practices supporting recruitment and retention among volunteer staff are
having effective, fair leadership; implementing retention plans, such as financial
incentives; and offering practical incentives, such as offering changes in duty shifts.
Similar to the general human resources literature on best practices for increasing
diversity and the literature on law enforcement, the findings on best practices for
firefighters, EMTs, and paramedics are based on survey and qualitative research, such
as focus groups with those primarily in the firefighter profession. Again, this work has
been critical for identifying some promising practices, but more research is needed to
identify additional best practices specific to first responders and to test their impacts
throughout the employment pipeline.
14
This issue was also raised by several experts in fire service in conversations with study staff. Fire equipment was described as typically being purchased in a limited range of sizes. Purchasing equipment in additional sizes is expensive, and many departments cannot afford it. However, wearing improperly fitting gear can be a safety issue.
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 81
Support from the Field
In addition to the practices described above, the literature review and policy scan
uncovered a number of diversity initiatives supported by first responder professional
associations and membership organizations. Many of these organizations have been
actively advocating for an increasingly diverse workforce and several of those
organizations shared information, below, about strategies currently underway in their
organizations to support diversity within their respective fields.
Police
THE INTERNATIONAL AS SOCIATION OF CHIEFS OF POLICE’S
DIVERSITY COORDINATI NG PANEL
The IACP formed the Diversity Coordinating Panel (DCP) in 2006 to identify and
evaluate the programs, policies, and initiatives that may enhance the diversity of law
enforcement agencies internationally. The DCP focuses on issues affecting recruitment,
hiring, retention, and promotion of underrepresented groups and women in law
enforcement. To date, the DCP has looked at diversity issues related to fitness
standards, pregnancy (which led to a related policy recommendation), recruitment,
promotion, and training.
The DCP meets each year at the IACP conference and has played a role in dedicating
recent issues of the IACP magazine to diversity, with articles on topics including lesbian,
gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ); and race/ethnicity. The DCP co-chairs
visit other IACP committee meetings—such as civil rights, ethics, patrol and tactical
operations—and look at ways the panel can support these groups to integrate issues of
diversity. The panel members want to ensure that the 40 other IACP committees are
aware of diversity gaps and resources, and coordinate diversity efforts and messaging.
The DCP collaborates with representatives of diverse law enforcement organizations
and civil rights leaders to discuss how they can collaborate to increase diversity in law
enforcement, connect with the community, and encourage individuals from
underrepresented minority groups and women to consider a career in law enforcement.
The IACP/DCP formulated an action plan with the White House and the U.S. Department
of Justice (DOJ) following President Obama’s 21st Century Law Enforcement Task
Force report in 2014, resulting in 58 recommendations. 15
Ongoing meetings address
how to implement these recommendations across 18,000 agencies. The task force
report, however, did not address gender diversity. Since that time, the White House
policy office has asked Women in Federal Law Enforcement (WIFLE) and the National
Association of Women Law Enforcement Executives (NAWLEE) to work together to
develop an implementation plan that departments can use to help increase gender
15
The final report can be found here: http://www.cops.usdoj.gov/pdf/taskforce/taskforce_finalreport.pdf
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 82
diversity and address such crimes as sexual assault, domestic violence, and human
trafficking.
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF BLACK LAW ENFORCEMENT
OFFICERS RESEARCH-GUIDED TRAINING
To investigate barriers to diversity in policing and use this information to raise
awareness in the field, National Association of Black Law Enforcement Officers
(NABLEO) administered a survey of hiring practices to several local Rhode Island police
agencies. One of the survey findings indicated that many agencies use credit checks in
the hiring process, which can penalize applicants who have been out of work for a year,
and may not be relevant to a candidate’s ability to perform quality police work. NABLEO
then conducted a one-day training session with attendees from law enforcement and
the community to discuss the survey findings and implications for practice.
Fire
THE INTERNATIONAL AS SOCIATION OF FIRE CH IEFS’ HUMAN
RELATIONS COMMITTEE
In response to the focus in the field on diversity, the International Association of Fire
Chiefs (IAFC) formed a Human Relations Committee (HRC) with the goal of helping
leaders in the fire and emergency service establish a structure within their organizations
that understands, includes, and respects diversity and inclusion. An HRC working group
is currently developing a diversity and inclusion program to help local departments
diversify and to reach potential recruits in underrepresented and immigrant communities
in fire prevention education. The IAFC expects to pilot the program in August 2017 with
the release of a toolkit, which committee members will implement at departments
nationwide.
The IAFC also promotes diversity through resources on its website, workshops,
seminars, presentations, and sessions devoted to the topic at its annual conference.
During the annual conference, the HRC sponsors a breakfast, open to all registrants,
which allows professionals in the fire service to network and discuss diversity openly. A
speaker presents a diversity-focused presentation and encourages active participation,
sharing of ideas, and networking in hopes of improving the diversity efforts of each
attendee’s department. Below are examples of topic areas covered during IAFC
webinars and presentations related to diversity:
Homophobia and transphobia in fire emergency service
Women in the promotional process
Challenging racism in emergency service
Challenging sexism in fire service
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 83
Designing a harassment and prevention program
Hiring women in fire service
Facility design, sleeping arrangements, etc.
Diversity as told by a panel of chiefs
Harassment
Policy and procedures
Social media
Diversity breakfast at the annual IAFC conference
The IAFC also promotes diversity by encouraging the use of non-gender-specific terms,
such as “firefighter” instead of “fireman,” and “staff power” instead of “manpower.” They
also work to raise awareness in the field on issues that may adversely affect diversity,
such as the lack of variability in the fit of turn out gear (i.e., equipment such as uniforms
and gloves), the pass/fail nature of physical tests during the selection process, and the
typical lack of dedicated recruitment staff in fire departments.
THE INTERNATIONAL AS SOCIATION OF FIRE FI GHTERS
TARGETED TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE
The IAFF became involved in diversity efforts early on, with a civil rights conference in
the early 1980s. IAFF recently celebrated the 25th anniversary of the nondiscrimination
resolution from the 1982 conference, 16
which led to the civil rights commission. In 2006,
IAFF signed on to an American Federation of Labor-Congress of Industrial
Organizations LGBT resolution not to exclude any members of the community. More
recently, IAFF has hosted conferences and workshops to help members increase
diversity at their agencies (e.g., on LGBTQ issues) and to review various cities’
recruitment, hiring, retention, and promotional processes for fairness and balance by
gender and race.
16
See the Human Relations Manual of the International Association of Fire Fighters (http://www.iaff.org/hr/hr_manual.pdf).
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 84
Conclusions
The results of this literature review further support the need to better understand which
specific approaches are effective at improving diversity for various first responder
professions along different points in the employment pipeline. This review is the first
step in meeting the public call for action to better represent and serve 21st-century
communities. Before implementing and replicating practices further, more rigorous
research should be conducted to determine which interventions have the most positive
impact.
Much of the literature on increasing diversity of police, firefighters, EMTs, and
paramedics along the employment pipeline mirrors the more general body of human
resources literature. Among the often-cited promising recruitment practices are targeted
recruitment messaging, partnerships in the community, and designated funding for
diversity recruitment efforts. Strategies that address recruitment and retention include
effectively conveying the job and implementing mentorship programs or employee
groups. A general practice that applies to the employment pipeline as a whole is
demonstrating the commitment of the organization or agency and its leadership to
diversity.
Similar to the general human resources literature on best practices for increasing
diversity, the literature on first responders is based on survey and qualitative research,
such as focus groups with those in the profession. This work has been highly valuable
for identifying the promising practices described above, but more research is needed to
identify additional best practices—particularly for addressing the barriers to hiring,
retaining, and promoting police (e.g., through unbiased hiring and promotion criteria,
application procedures, and exam preparation assistance)—and to test their impacts
throughout the employment pipeline.
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 85
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Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 89
Appendix B: Study Methodology
Identifying Potential Sites/Practices
The process of identifying sites and practices to profile in the literature review and to
consider for inclusion in the study consisted of several approaches, including a first
round of targeted internet searches, a comprehensive literature search, and a state and
local policy scan for states with relatively diverse first responders. This initial search was
followed by a second round of outreach that included calls to first responder
associations and states that had relatively diverse first responders. Potentially promising
diversity practices (hereafter referred to as diversity practices) for the purposes of the
search were defined as any type of approach to achieving diversity-related goals, or any
combination of approaches: state or local policies; outreach to the community; training
programs through a government, one-stop program, or a secondary/postsecondary
school; or initiatives to get leadership buy in, among other approaches.
Diversity practices could target any or all of the following components of the
employment pipeline: (1) outreach to the community, related recruitment, and hiring of a
diverse workforce; (2) training to ensure individuals are ready for the job (before or after
hiring), stay competent on the job, or qualify for raises or additional opportunities; and
(3) increased retention and advancement.
First Round Search
The initial search for diversity practices and sites consisted of a targeted internet and
literature review, followed by a scan of state and local policies focused on first
responder diversity. The internet search was conducted by first compiling a list of
websites for national and international first responder associations (Exhibit B1). Study
staff scanned each of the association’s websites for descriptions of specific approaches
to increasing diversity. In addition to the 32 associations (17 police and 15 fire, EMT,
and paramedic) listed in Exhibit B1, staff also searched other websites or associations
referenced on the initial associations’ sites.
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 90
Exhibit B1. First Responder Association Websites Searched for Diversity Sites and Practices
Police and General First Responder Websites
Fire, EMS, EMT, and Paramedic Websites
Fraternal Order of Police
International Association of Chiefs of
Police
International Association of Women
Police
International Brotherhood of Police
Officers
International Police Association
International Union of Police
Associations
National Asian Peace Officers’
Association
National Association of Black Women
in Law Enforcement
National Association of Police
Organizations
National Black Police Association
National First Responders
Organization
National Latino Peace Officers
Association
National Organization of Black Law
Enforcement Executives
National Police Research Platform
Society for Human Resources
Management (only searched for the
first responder fields)
U.S. First Responders Association
Women in Federal Law Enforcement
International Association of Black Fire
Fighters
International Association of EMTs and
Paramedics
International Association of Fire Chiefs
International Association of Fire
Fighters
International Association of Flight and
Critical Care Paramedics
International Association of Women in
Fire & Emergency Services
International Fire Service Training
Association
National Association of Emergency
Medical Technicians
National Association of State EMS
Officials
National Association of State Fire
Marshalls
National EMS Association
National Fire Protection Association
National Medical Services Association
National Volunteer Fire Council
United States Fire Administration
(including its library)
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 91
The literature search was conducted with the help of a professional librarian. The initial
database search was done using the EBSCO publications database, including
Academic Search Premier (ASP), SocINDEX (SOC), and Business Source Corporate
(BSC). Study staff scanned the search results (including titles and abstracts) for specific
practices for increasing diversity among first responders. An example of the keywords
used to identify such practices is provided below.
Name(s) of the occupation plus:
(diverse OR diversity OR composition OR representation OR race OR racial* OR
ethnic* OR gender* OR veteran*OR outreach* OR recruit* OR hire OR hiring OR
training OR retention OR retain* OR advancement OR advancing OR promotion* OR
promoting OR “selection system” OR “selection systems” OR “selection ratio” OR
“selection ratios” OR “selection fairness” OR “affirmative action” OR Equal Employment
Opportunity* OR EEOC OR EEO OR “adverse impact” OR “disparate impact” OR
“disparate treatment” OR discrimination OR discriminatory OR disproportion*)
AND
(Intervention OR interventions OR practices OR initiatives OR initiative OR policy
OR policies OR approaches OR approach OR “good faith effort*” OR program OR
programs OR strategy OR strategies)
Two searches were conducted: One search was aimed at identifying diversity practices
for police and general first responders, while the other was aimed at identifying
practices for firefighters, EMTs, and paramedics. If the title and/or abstract of any given
result indicated that the publication met the screening criteria, study staff would obtain
the full text of the publication and review it to either confirm the initial screening decision
or determine that the publication did not meet the screening criteria.
The diversity practices described in the publications that met the criteria were then
coded using the study’s topical matrix (Exhibit B2) and summarized. Each three-letter
code represents a different type of diversity practice. The first letter in the code can be
an “F” for fire, “E” for EMT, “M” for paramedic, or a “P” for police. The second letter in
the code can be an “O” for outreach, recruitment, and hiring; “T” for training; or an “R”
for retention and advancement. Finally, the last letter in the code can be an “R” for race
and ethnicity, “G” for gender, “V” for veteran, or “L” for LGBT to identify the focus of the
practice. Therefore, if a diversity practice was found on a fire association’s website that
described a recruitment program for increasing the number of female firefighters hired,
the practice would be coded as “FOG.”
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 92
Exhibit B2. Topical Matrix for First Responder Diversity Practices
Component
Fire EMT Paramedic Police
R a c e /
E th
n ic
it y
G e n
d e r
V e te
ra n
L G
B T
R a c e /
E th
n ic
it y
G e n
d e r
V e te
ra n
L G
B T
R a c e /
E th
n ic
it y
G e n
d e r
V e te
ra n
L G
B T
R a c e /
E th
n ic
it y
G e n
d e r
V e te
ra n
L G
B T
Outreach, Recruitment,
Hiring FOR FOG FOV FOL EOR EOG EOV EOL MOR MOG MOV MOL POR POG POV POL
Training FTR FTG FTV FTL ETR ETG ETV ETL MTR MTG MTV MTL PTR PTG PTV PTL
Retention, Advancement
FRR FRG FRV FRL ERR ERG ERV ERL MRR MRG MRV MRL PRR PRG PRV PRL
The diversity practices were then further summarized by providing information for the
name of the author (or organization), a website address for more information, key
features of the practice, the target population, the timeline of implementation (if
available), and a description of the levels and or stakeholders directly involved in the
strategy. The purpose of providing a description of the stakeholders was to provide a
sense of how comprehensive the approach is by identifying who is involved—for
example, community leaders, senior leadership, or all ranks in the agency. In addition to
this information, if any indicator of the practice’s effectiveness was available (e.g., a
percentage increase in women hired), that information was also included in the
summary.
The policy scan involved an internet search for any policies or practices in states with
the most diverse first responders. A search of government websites within those states
at the local level resulted in 13 promising fire departments (including one whose
diversity policies focused on paramedics) and 31 promising police departments.
Results of the First Round Search
Following the search, an initial set of screening criteria was applied to all search results:
To be reviewed more in depth, the search result (e.g., a publication or description of a
policy or practice on a website) must have focused on (1) at least one of the study’s first
responder groups and (2) a concrete approach or set of approaches to improving
diversity that had been implemented in the field. The results of the initial search and
screening are provided below.
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 93
Exhibit B3a. Literature Search and Screening Results for Police
Police Pre-Screened
Abstracts
Full Text Screened to Determine If
Rubric Should Be Applied
Best Practices Rubric Applied
Determined to Be Potentially
Promising
Websites
17 1 1
Lit Search 1,166 25 1 0
Policy Scan
30 11 8
Exhibit B3b. Literature Search and Screening Results for Fire, EMT, and Paramedics
Fire/EMTP Pre-Screened
Abstracts
Full Text Screened to Determine If
Rubric Should Be Applied
Best Practices Rubric Applied
Determined to Be Potentially
Promising
Websites
15 2 2
Lit Search 1,792 40 9 1
Policy Scan
13 6 3
Website search. Of the 17 websites screened for police and general first responders
associations, only one provided a publication that was forwarded for additional review.
Similarly, of the 15 websites screened for fire, EMT, and paramedic associations, two
publications were discovered that were forwarded for review using the best practices
rubric, described below.
Publications database search. The publications database search produced 1,166
results for police and general first responders, and 1,792 results for fire, EMT, and
paramedic. However, most of these publications did not meet initial screening criteria.
Of the 1,166 results for police and general first responders, only 25 results met the
criteria for additional screening. Of the 1,792 search results for fire, EMT, and
paramedic, only 40 were forwarded for additional screening. 17
Policy scan. The policy scan identified 30 police departments and 13 fire departments
that were implementing diversity practices. In order to determine which departments’
practices were promising, a screening rubric was applied to each result (described in
more detail below).
17
At the initial screening stage, a random sample of 10% of the search results was screened by a second reviewer. The resulting interrater agreement was 85%. A senior member of the study team reviewed the cases for which there was disagreement and determined that the initial reviewers’ decisions were correct.
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 94
Best practices review of search results. Based on a review of the full-text
publications obtained through the website search, the database search, and the policy
scan described earlier in this report, 30 diversity practices were identified that met the
study’s first and second stage screening criteria—13 in the police field and 17 in the
firefighting, EMT, and paramedic fields. To identify the sites implementing practices that
were “potentially promising” and therefore candidates for further study, trained
reviewers applied a best practices rubric developed by the study team to reflect the
diversity practices literature described in this report and detailed in the project’s
literature review. For each relevant component of the first responder employment
pipeline (e.g., outreach, selection, etc.), reviewers rated the diversity practices on the
following scale:
3 = Incorporates the majority of best practices for achieving diversity goals
2 = Incorporates some, but not all of the best practices for achieving diversity
goals
1 = Incorporates one of the most common best practices for achieving diversity
goals
0 = Fails to incorporate any best practices for achieving diversity goals
Reviewers were instructed to indicate “insufficient information” if the source(s) did not
provide enough information to make a rating and to also provide a percentage estimate
of their confidence level for each rating, on a scale of 0 percent (no confidence) to 100
percent (complete confidence).
Using a 5-point rating scale as a summary measure (ranging from 1 for strongly
disagree to 5 for strongly agree) reviewers indicated the extent to which they agreed
that the approach described in the source(s) aligned with human resources best
practices for increasing workforce diversity and provided an estimate of their confidence
level for that rating. Given the small number of practices found in the literature, the
criteria for translating scores into a designation of “potentially promising” were not
stringent at this stage. A diversity practice was considered “potentially promising” if the
reviewer gave it an overall score of 3 or higher (out of 5) and had a confidence in that
rating greater than 50 percent. 18
From that process, 15 diversity practices were identified as potentially promising—nine
in the police field and six in the fire, EMT, and paramedic fields.
18
A random sample of 13% (n = 8) of the diversity practices scored using the rubric were reviewed by a second reviewer. In all cases, both reviewers agreed on the designation of “potentially promising” or not potentially promising.
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 95
Second Round Outreach
Staff supplemented the information gained through the literature search, web search,
and policy scan by conducting phone interviews with individuals in the first responder
field. Study staff employed “snowball sampling” by conducting informational calls with
associations and membership organizations in the first responder fields and with
experts in the fields of fire service, law enforcement, and EMTs. 19
They also contacted a
set of local sites recommended as potentially promising by either state staff, association
contacts, or the study’s technical working group members. Through conversations with
individuals in the field, five additional sites were identified.
Selecting Final Sites
The sites on the list compiled from these sources had to meet two main requirements to
be considered for the study: (1) the strategies being used follow best practices based on
the human resources literature, or based on expert recommendations from the relevant
first responder field; and (2) reported outcomes suggest that a particular site’s strategies
are improving diversity at that site.
Sites were removed from the list if they did not appear to follow best practices and if
their outcomes data either did not show improvements in diversity over time or were not
yet available due to the recency of the strategies being implemented. 20
From the
resulting list of prospective sites, Coffey Consulting (Coffey) selected a group of five
sites—Bay EMT (Oakland, California, Fire Department); Camp Fully Involved (Concord,
New Hampshire); Dallas (Texas) Police Department; San Francisco (California) Fire
Department; and Atlanta (Georgia) Police Department—that, as a whole, met the
following requirements: The sites represented a range of (1) first responder fields; (2)
components of the employment pipeline; 21
and (3) protected groups targeted by the
strategies. 22
19
Snowball sampling consisted of asking contacts in the field for referrals to agencies or organizations implementing potentially promising diversity practices, and then talking to those referrals about their practices, as well as asking for referrals to others in the field who may know of additional agencies or organizations implementing diversity practices.
20 Several sites considered for inclusion implemented their strategies in 2015; the outcome of those efforts has yet to be determined.
21 Eligible strategies for increasing diversity could include any or all of the following components of the employment “pipeline”: (1) outreach to the community, related recruitment, and hiring of a diverse workforce; (2) training to ensure individuals are ready for the job (before or after hiring), stay competent on the job, or qualify for raises or additional opportunities; and (3) increased retention and advancement.
22 The groups of interest in the study were not limited to any specific population but strategies most often target increased diversity in race/ethnicity and gender.
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 96
Conducting the Site Visit
After receiving approval from sites, site visits were scheduled based on the availability
of each site over the course of three months. A liaison was identified at each site to help
coordinate the visit and develop an interview schedule. At the beginning of each site
visit interview, participants were provided with a consent form to sign, and each site was
provided with a form containing information about the project and site visit. Staff from
Coffey Consulting and American Institutes for Research (AIR) interviewed individual
participants and conducted focus groups based on a site visit guide that was tailored for
each site prior to the visits. Interviewees included current staff and alumni of training
program sites. After obtaining permission from participants, all interviews were recorded
and detailed notes were taken. At the end of each site visit, staff requested any relevant
materials to support the study (e.g., recruitment brochures, reports and briefings,
publications, policies and procedures, outcome statistics). When possible, staff received
tours of sites’ facilities.
The site visit guide, which can be found below, was structured as a list of open-ended
topics rather than specific questions. Research team members tailored questions for
individuals based on their roles at the site.
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 97
First Responders—Site Visit Discussion Guide
Introduction
Thanks
o Thank you so much for speaking with us today.
o We are with Coffey Consulting and we are conducting this study today on
behalf of the US Department of Labor, in collaboration with American
Institutes for Research. We would like to learn from practices you have
implemented that are effective at increasing diversity.
o As you are aware, the Coffey Consulting-AIR team has a contract to identify
promising practices aimed to increase diversity among firefighters, police,
paramedics, and EMT.
Purpose
o We are interested in identifying practices or programs that have been
successful in increasing diversity (including race/ethnicity, gender, LGBTQ,
etc.) at each stage of employment—from community outreach, recruitment
and training, to hiring and retention. Our work is exploratory in nature, with the
goal of providing information to the field and to improve the profession. No
one knows for sure how to best improve diversity, so sharing real-life
examples of promising efforts like yours will help others hoping to achieve
similar goals.
o We identified your department as having unique and successful diversity
practices, which we would like to learn more about.
o Our final report will feature models of promising practices like yours that set
examples for potentially effective practices, from which others in the field can
learn.
Before we get started, we want you to know that we will be taking notes. And,
with your permission, we would like to record our conversation to support our
notes.
The recording and any notes we take will be stored on a secure server.
Information that we obtain during the study from various interviews will be
combined and used to describe your strategies for increasing diversity and the
outcomes of those strategies.
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 98
No individuals providing information for the study will be named in the study
reports, and if the organization chooses, the name of the organization will also be
kept confidential.
Strategies
Strategy for increasing diversity—basic information:
o Segment of the pipeline: training, recruiting, hiring, retaining, promoting
o Population(s): (i.e., underrepresented groups/female/LGBQ, etc.)
o Number of individuals reached per year
o Interviewee role in diversity efforts
o Other staff involved
o Leadership involved
o Year strategy implemented
o Impetus for strategy
o Existing model for strategy (either within/outside the industry)
o Strategy implementation:
1. Staff involvement/roles
2. Budget amount/source
3. Outside consultants, if any
4. Challenges, if any, and adjustments made
o Community partnerships
1. Schools, programs at the local/state/federal level
2. Private organizations
3. EMT: Partners in the medical community, i.e. physicians, medical
centers, ER departments
4. External/3rd party programs: first responder departments/employers
o Strategy communications
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 99
1. Internal communications
2. External communications
3. Information communicated
Strategy outcomes/tracking:
o Goals/benchmarks
1. Diversity indicators
2. Knowledge of community demographics
o Outcomes overall and by particular population
o Frequency of progress tracking/meetings to assess results
o Any adjustments to program/benchmarks based on outcomes
o Satisfaction level with strategy
Success factors
o Strategy elements that help students succeed
o Example of success story
o Any strategy adjustments based on success factors
Program recognition
o Strategy publicity (Publicly or within the department)
o Strategy replication
1. Suggestions for organizations who wish to replicate the program
Challenges/barriers
o Adjustments to the strategies since implementation
o Any changes currently under consideration
o Environmental challenges that may prohibit the strategy/success.
Any strategies that backfired and lessons learned
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 100
General—Departments
Overall department diversity
o Progress made
o Satisfaction levels
o Areas of strength/opportunities for improvement
o Challenges
o Successful strategies/factors
o Leadership role
o Relationship with community, including target populations
City-wide diversity interest/initiatives (beyond first responders)
Community context (or any recent issues or incidents)
Chief/Leadership
Leadership priorities
Desired qualities in candidates (also ask of HR manager)
Documentation
Statistics/information on diversity/characteristics of staff, before/after recent
diversity initiatives
Relevant reports/publications/documentation related to the initiative
Ethics, harassment, dignity policies
Names/contact information of other individuals with whom we should meet
Closing
Thank you very much for taking the time to speak with us. The information you provided
will certainly be useful in our study efforts. Please let us know if you would like us to
provide you with any additional information about the study as it becomes available.
Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders Coffey Consulting, LLC and American Institutes for Research (AIR) 101
Compiling Data
Upon returning from site visits, staff saved interview notes and recordings on a secure
server and deleted recordings from the recording device. Hard-copy materials received
from sites were scanned and saved on the secure server as well. Staff cleaned all notes
and created detailed summaries of the site visits based on the interview notes. Staff
provided sites with their corresponding site visit summary and gave each site the
opportunity to provide corrections. Sites were also asked about their willingness to be
named in the report. Based on the site visit summaries, an outline was developed to
present a cross-site analysis of promising practices. Any missing data, such as dates
and diversity statistics, were obtained by following up with points of contact at each site
via email.
- Promising Practices for Increasing Diversity Among First Responders
- Acknowledgments
- Contents
- Executive Summary
- Introduction
- Objectives and Research Approach
- Background—Literature Review
- Site Visit Findings
- Site Summaries
- Promising Practices
- Culture of Diversity
- Recruitment
- Hiring
- Training
- Retention and Advancement
- Challenges
- Police
- Fire/EMT
- Discussion/Recommendations
- Cross-Site Comparisons
- Revisiting the Promising Practices Literature
- Feasibility of Replicating Promising Practices
- Recommendations for Future Research and Evaluation
- References
- Appendix A: Literature Review
- Appendix B: Study Methodology
