United States history 2 paper

SPIRITUALITY AS PRESENTED IN VARIOUS RELIGIOUS CONTEXTS

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The Upanishad is one of the founding books of Hinduism. Not only that, it is mostly the source of spiritualism and mysticism in the eastern part of the world, at least according to Hindus. A book from 700-300 B.C is still revered by many people in the east as well as in the west. I have always doubted the existence of God, but always felt that there is a spiritual aspect of life. All the world religions as they are now have lots of superstitions that have one way or the other been debunked by science. For example Christianity says that the earth and everything in it was made by God in six days, but science has already proved that earth is billions of years old.

Similarly, Hinduism also has many rituals and beliefs that are generally baseless. Even Buddhism has evolved from its basic root. So, salvation (I don’t necessarily believe one can attain it) to me through world religion, as it is now, is not possible. The Upanishads, however are filled with spiritual teachings which are untouched and pristine, ideas that developed in early stages of human civilization and that have captivated people for centuries. Even though they might not be true, it does have some interesting things. In this paper, I make an attempt to understand the spiritual aspect of life if there is one at all.

The Upanishads Religious Philosophy

In my understanding from the Upanishad sacred texts, Hindu spiritualism is characterized by a diversity of worldviews. Some Upanishads have been considered monistic while others, for instance Katha Upanishad or Maitri Upanishads, have been deemed dualistic.[footnoteRef:1], [footnoteRef:2] As a result, they have a strong foundation in the classical Yoga and Samkhya schools of Hinduism. This is in contrast to the non-dualistic (Brahman and the Atman). Upanishads which have a diversity of ideas.2 [1: Ariel Glucklich, The Strides of Vishnu: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2008), 70. ] [2: Swami Paramananda, The Upanishads (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Divinity School, 1919), 22.]

Ever since they first appeared, the Upanishads have dominated the Indian philosophy, life, and religion with their teachings3. Hindus consider Upanishads as sources of Brahman knowledge, which is deemed to be the knowledge of ultimate hidden reality. The Upanishads’ presentation of philosophy postulates that if a person wants to seek the truth, he/she has to strictly use his/her effort.3 This follows from the obvious fact that an individual cannot use another person’s effort to achieve what he/she wants. According to Radhakrishnan in Upanishads, knowledge is an avenue to freedom.[footnoteRef:3] However, I do not entirely believe that knowledge is necessarily the path to freedom. In my perspective, in addition to knowledge, one needs to have wisdom and experience to be able to skillfully navigate through life escapades. This is because we need wisdom and experience to understand and apply the knowledge that we acquire. [3: 2 Swami Paramananda, The Upanishads (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Divinity School, 1919), 22. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, The Principal Upanishads (Beltsville, Maryland: George Allen & Co., 1951), 24.]

The Upanishads have texts which are founded on the Indian traditional teachings and spiritualism. For instance, the texts have one of the oldest known affirmation that Ahimsa or non-violence is an ethical principle. Precisely, this precept is included in Chandogya Upanishad.[footnoteRef:4] Upanishad texts such as the Vedic origins of karma2 have also helped me familiarize myself with several other ethical principles such as charity, self-restraint (temperance), truthfulness, compassion, and non-hypocrisy, among others. Equally, I have learned karma as it is presented in one of the earliest Upanishads, the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.[footnoteRef:5] [4: Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Part 1 (Delhi, India: Motilal Banarsidass, 1980), 114-115. IT should be 3,4,5,6,7] [5: 4 Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Part 1 (Delhi, India: Motilal Banarsidass, 1980), 114-115. Herman Wayne Tull, The Vedic Origins of Karma: Cosmos as Man in Ancient Indian Myth and Ritual (SUNY Series in Hindu Studies. Albany, N Y: State University of New York Press, 1989.), 28. It should be 8,9,10,11,12,13 And so on for every page]

The Vedas(hymns) underscore rituals, while the Brahmanas serve as a ritual guide for those rituals. However, I like the fact that the Upanishad spirit is integrally opposed to rituals.5 One particular thing that I like about the older Upanishads (such as the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad) is their increasingly intense attacks on those practicing meaningless rituals. According to them, any individual worshipping religion other than the self is referred to as the animal of the gods.4

One of the Upanishads (Kaushitaki Upanishad) emphasizes that rituals such as Agnihotram (a heated milk offering offered twice a day by Strauta believers4, which is classified under the ritual category commonly referred to as the “external rituals”, should be eliminated and replaced with the ritual of introspection or inner Agnihotram. Further, the Upanishads assert that people should pursue knowledge but not rituals.4 Because of my experience growing up in a Hindu society, I have a generally negative attitude towards rituals. I have always been opposed to the act of performing rituals due to the fact that people are promised false benefits by priests and misled into offering sacrifices through rituals, pious works, and oblations.

Mundaka Upanishad’s asserts that the practice of rituals is frail and foolish.4 Those who follow and practice it are spiritually weak and without vision because, according to the Upanishads, rituals do not make any difference in an individual’s life, now or in death. Unfortunately, those who offer rituals are apparently not aware of this, for if they were, they could have stopped the practice. Upanishads likens ritual performance to when a blind man is leading fellow blind men. Several Upanishads have described the practice of rituals as an exercise in futility and that it is useless since it achieves nothing beneficial.5

The Upanishads’ opposition to the tradition of rituals is not clear in some cases. In numerous instances, the Upanishads spread Aranyakas (the philosophy behind ritual sacrifice of the ancient Indian sacred texts, the Vedas) task by making the ritual symbolic as well as giving it a philosophical meaning. As an example, the Brihadaranyaka interprets ashvamedha or the practice of horse-sacrifice in a symbolic manner. This ritual states that the earth’s over-lordship can be attained by giving a horse as a sacrifice. It then proceeds to state that spiritual independence can be attained by rejecting the universe, which is perceived in the context of a horse’s image.5 To me, it is not clear why some Upanishad teachings could advocate horse sacrifice when they have already stated that rituals are baseless.

Despite my doubt in the existence of God, I have always thought that there exists a spiritual aspect of life. This aspect seems to me to be ever-present, and, in my experience, is with or around each and every human being or any living thing. Upanishad gods such as the Agni, Aditya, Indra, Rudra, Visnu, Brahma are known to be all-powerful, omnipresent, and an inmost being for everybody and all living creatures. According to the Upanishad texts such as Vedas, having a close and personal relationship with God gives one peace and freedom both in this life and the life after death.5

Going through the Upanishad texts, I have been able to identify two concepts that are in line with my way of thinking about the issue of religion and spirituality.[footnoteRef:6] These are the Atman (also mostly referred to as the individual self) and the Brahman (commonly known as the ultimate reality). Brahman is the term that is used to describe the utmost existence or outright reality. It is considered to be the substantial, formal, efficient, and the cause of all that is in existence. [6: 5 Herman Wayne Tull, The Vedic Origins of Karma: Cosmos as Man in Ancient Indian Myth and Ritual (SUNY Series in Hindu Studies. Albany, N Y: State University of New York Press, 1989.), 28. Charles R. Lanman, The Outlook, Volume 56 (New York, NY: Outlook Company, 1897), 790.]

Brahman is the genderless, universal, eternal truth, endless, and delight that never changes. Brahman is the reason why all changes occur. The Vedas describe it as the boundless source, material, core, and the purpose of all what that is in existence, established or otherwise. Brahman is the concept upon which the universe has developed and established. I have always believed in the existence of things, starting from the universe and all that is within it. The idea is scientifically proven and also agrees with spiritual teachings.[footnoteRef:7] [7: 6 Charles R. Lanman, The Outlook, Volume 56 (New York, NY: Outlook Company, 1897), 790. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Eastern Religion and Western Thought (Oxford, England, UK: Oxford University Press, 1940), 20-21]

For me, it is not easy or logical to ignore the existence of God. Even if people are convinced to believe that the concept that God exists does not have any reality in it and is just an idea, what forms the idea and endeavors to realize it is in itself a belief in God. Individuals’ sense of lack, yearning for perfection, desire for the perfect, and strive to achieve the consciousness of infinity, are the causes of divine exposure. I believe that these manifests themselves to some extent in all human beings.6

People, animals, and even plants have an inner self, also known as the soul.6 This is called atman and is very vital in Upanishad sacred texts. In my view, based on my Hinduism knowledge, atman (the real self beyond ego or false self) is among the most important topics discussed in the Upanishad sacred texts. Atman and Brahman convey two themes that are somewhat divergent and different. Some people are of the opinion that Brahman and atman are similar while others suggest that atman is a component of Brahman and that the two are not similar. This is an ancient debate and has given rise to dual and non-dual theories in Hinduism.8 The two theories were regarded as different most especially during times of ignorance.8 However, in the innermost level and in the context of self-realization, Brahman and atman are two similar theories and are no different from each other since both captures the Vedanta school's primary view about ultimate reality and our human relationship to it. The concept stemming from the Upanishads regarding the similarity of these two theories is held by Lanman as one of the greatest contributions which have been made in the philosophy of the world.[footnoteRef:8] [8: Charles R. Lanman, The Outlook, Volume 56 (New York, NY: Outlook Company, 1897), 790. ]

Reading through Eastern Religion and Western Thought by Radhakrishnan, I learn that, according to him, in Hinduism, a rationalistic approach (the theory that knowledge is gained through prior experience) regarding religion is adopted by researchers. Here, the facts about human life are studied in a methodical manner. These includes facts that can be observed by researchers, the successes and conquests of people who are slumbering in what is known as spiritual oblivion.8 The approach also includes life’s innermost facts (such as the secrets we keep and the things we worry about). Hinduism also teaches that religion is much of a revelation. This means that the Hindus receive their religion via religion[footnoteRef:9] [9: Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Eastern Religion and Western Thought (Oxford, England, UK: Oxford University Press, 1940), 20-21 ]

It can be described as more of a transforming encounter than a belief of God. Actual religion can prevail in the absence of definite notion of the deity. However, it cannot occur without the distinction between the profane and the spiritual, the secular and the sacred.9

One important thing that I have observed about Hinduism religions, whatever the denomination, is that they seem to agree that salvation (Moksha) is the only way of attaining an individual’s true status. Beliefs and behavior, ceremonies and rites, dogma and authorities, all are assigned an inferior place compared to the art of mindful self-discovery.8 This uniqueness of the Hindu religion was witnessed even by the ancient people. Some religious philosophers interested in the Hindu religion have even noted that while basically everyone wishes to live near God, it is only the Hindus who ensure that this happens.8

Evidences regarding the existence of God can be seen from the perspective of definition and the language used.(footnote) God’s facts are not dependent on sheer human authority or proof from alleged extraordinary happenings. The complexity of our planet points to a deliberate Designer who not only created our universe, but sustains it today.(footnote) The universe had a start and there must be a supernatural being who caused it. We know God exists because he pursues us. He is constantly initiating and seeking for us to come to him.8

Whereas consciousness is the fact, the philosophy of truth is an inference. There is a distinction between contact/connection with the truth and the opinion about it. Similarly, there is a difference between belief in God and the mystery of divinity or godliness.8 It is quite possible for a person to know a lot in religion but yet lack in the spirit of religious conviction.8 According to the Hindu philosophers, it is dangerous to be rationalistically self-sufficient.8 This could be the reason why such thinkers believed that the learned are at more risk than those who are not.

Hindu theorists have suggested two ways through which we possibly mislead ourselves. These are: the simple way through which the uneducated see the world just as it is and the painstaking way through which the learned see the same world by establishing the reality of naturalism. This means that the learned sometimes tend to overthink about existence while the uneducated do not bother to seek an understanding of the complexity of life. In doing so, the educated are often deceived by the definite.9 It means that the educated sometimes pursue too much knowledge until they forget about the simple things. The two ways successfully shut us away from the truth of our existence.10

The process of self-discovery does not result from intellectual examination but rather on the realization of human integrity achieved by a total mastery of nature.10 The ancient belief and reason that if we think rightly, then we will act properly is not true. Thus, acting rightly needs more than thinking.9

There are many religious contexts that I have learnt from Swami Vivekananda regarding the Hindu religion and the belief about creation. In volume one of his books, Vivekananda writes that Vedas is the revelation through which the Hindus have received their religion. They maintain that the Vedas do not have a beginning or the end.[footnoteRef:10] This means that the collection of spiritual decrees discovered by various individuals in different times were in existence before they were discovered and will ultimately remain even if everybody forgets about them.10 [10: Swami Vivekananda, Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, Volume 1 (Chicago: 1893), 8-15.]

This concept is similar to the fact regarding the law of gravity. Gravitational force existed even before it was discovered and will exist even if no one cares or forgets about it.10 This is very similar to the ideas and laws that govern the spiritual world. The ethical, moral, and spiritual associations between souls, individual spirits, as well as what is known as the father of all spirits existed even before they were discovered, and would persist even after we have forgotten about them.10

It is commonly argued that all this energy was in potential form in God.10 This means that God is sometimes potential and other times kinetic, thus making Him changeable. Anything that is changeable is a compound and every compound undergoes change and can be destroyed at some point in time.10 This argument would lead to the absurd conclusion that God can be destroyed. Since this can never happen, it is logical to conclude that there was not time when there existed no creation.10

Samkhya is a school of thought or system that put emphasis on the enumeration of principles, emergents, or evolutes.[footnoteRef:11] In simple terms, Samkhya means number while Yoga means union. This implies that Samkhya Yoga means the union, combination, or merging of numbers. Two possible interpretations of the term Samkhya have been advanced.11 The first interpretation describes Samkhya as a way of defining a concept by enumerating its content. The other interpretation suggests that Samkhya refers to the individuals who examine or analyze the different categories of existence. The numbers alluded to in these definitions are with regard to the number of realities which are hidden, and which are manifested in the existing reality.11 [11: Gerald James Larson, Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning (Jawahar Nagar, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 2001), 2.]

According to Advaita teachings, the liberated souls unite into the seamless heavenly Brahman, the only reality. Finally, they escape their earthly dreams of suffering and sin even to the extent of sacrificing individuality. Both Dvaita and Viśiṣṭādvaita are definitely pragmatist systems and perceive essential variations between Brahman and souls which are never surpassed, even in the world of the freethinking, envisaged in these systems as a magnificent bliss where God reigns in glory over peaceful souls who are perpetually devoted to Him.[footnoteRef:12] (There needs to be footnote under every page for every number in the above text) [12: Stafford Betty, Dvaita, Advaita, and Viśiṣṭādvaita: Contrasting Views of Mokṣa (Asian Philosophy, 2010), 1.]

Bibliography

Bailey, Alice. 1930. The Soul and Its Mechanism. New York, NY: Lucis Publishing Companies.

Stafford Betty (2010) Dvaita, Advaita, and Viśiṣṭādvaita: Contrasting Views of Mokṣa, Asian Philosophy, 20:2, 215-224, DOI: 10.1080/09552367.2010.484955

Deussen, Paul. 1980. Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Part 1. Delhi, India: Motilal Banarsidass.

Glucklich, Ariel. 2008. The Strides of Vishnu: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Lanman, Charles R. 1897. The Outlook, Volume 56. New York, NY: Outlook Company.

Larson J., Gerald. 2001. Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning. Jawahar Nagar, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.

Paramananda, Swami. 1919. The Upanishads. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Divinity School.

Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli. 1940. Eastern Religion and Western Thought. Oxford, England, UK: Oxford University Press.

—. 1956. History of Western and Eastern Philosophy. Crow’s Nest, Australia: George Allen & Unwin Ltd.

—. 1951. The Principal Upanishads. Beltsville, Maryland: George Allen & Co.

Tull, Herman Wayne. 1989. The Vedic Origins of Karma: Cosmos as Man in Ancient Indian Myth and Ritual. Albany, N Y: State University of New York Press.

Vivekananda, Swami. 1893. Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, Volume 1 . Chicago.