FFR-CS7

RCH 5302, Foundation for Research 1

Course Learning Outcomes for Unit VII Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:

2. Discuss the ethical imperatives of conducting research.

3. Examine qualitative and quantitative research methods.

4. Explore the dynamics of data sampling and distributions.

5. Analyze research data through the application of statistics.

6. Analyze a data set in an existing research study. 6.1 Examine a data set for validity to support findings.

7. Critique an existing research study.

7.1 Assess effectiveness of research design, data analysis, and conclusions drawn from the findings in a research report.

Course/Unit Learning Outcomes

Learning Activity

2 Unit VII Case Study

3 Unit VII Case Study

4 Unit VII Case Study

5 Unit VII Case Study

6.1

Unit Lesson eBook: Introduction to Research Methods and Report Writing : A Practical

Guide for Students and Researchers in Social Sciences and the Humanities, Chapter 6

Unit VII Case Study

7.1

Unit Lesson Chapter 13, pp. 401–427 eBook: Introduction to Research Methods and Report Writing: A Practical

Guide for Students and Researchers in Social Sciences and the Humanities, Chapter 6

Unit VII Case Study

Required Unit Resources Chapter 13: Writing and Presenting Your Research, pp. 401–427 In order to access the following resource, click the link below. Read Chapter 6 in the eBook below. Mligo, E. S. (2016). Introduction to research methods and report writing: A practical guide for students and

researchers in social sciences and the humanities [E-reader version]. https://libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?dire ct=true&db=e000xna&AN=1228098&site=ehost-live&scope=site&ebv=EK&ppid=Page-__-58

UNIT VII STUDY GUIDE

Writing and Presenting Research

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Unit Lesson As can be recalled from our previous units, data analysis choices span wide ranges, though the most common or best fitting ones will be recognized as repeatedly being featured in studies. In quantitative studies, researchers commonly look for changes in calculations as the independent variable is changed; often, the analysis focuses on changes in a mean or expected value, and of these, calculations of distributions are performed to illustrate the patterns the means take in the study. In qualitative studies, a reader can follow the researcher’s thought processes in establishing a framework with minimal biases, presenting themes, and interpreting the study experience and findings. A scholar undertaking a review of a research report may find a framework much different than what was expected. The reader, who is likely to be a scholar/practitioner in the same field, may agree with everything written and presented in the study but disagree with the conclusions at the very end. As when planning the research, planning to write the report and presentation is best done with the readers and audience in mind. Other than finishing the research study, what is the researcher trying to communicate? As in most other endeavors, sticking to the job at hand and avoiding biases are virtues when writing a research report. Dissertations have been presented that included worthy studies, yet the researcher was personally committed to the political implications of the research problem and essentially boasted about the research. There are times to showcase, to brag, and to argue, but a research study and report is most constructive to society when it is crafted as a straightforward report of the study, findings, and conclusions and recommendations as to what to do with the new findings.

Reviewing Presented Data and Conclusions for Validity Let’s practice analyzing data and conclusions by looking at two examples.

Example 1: A Simplified Quantitative Research Study and Analysis (Fictional) Background: On April 1, First National Bank, wanting to increase its account deposits, began to offer higher interest rates (2%) for customer accounts summed up to be over $20,000 (account totals under this amount would continue to receive 1% interest). A staff member who is attending an online university offered to reframe management’s effort into a research study and analyze the data. Hypothesis: The researcher developed the hypotheses below.

• Hypothesis = H1 = There will be more than a 1% increase of total deposit amounts in 12 months after the start of the increase of interest paid.

• Null Hypothesis = H0 = There will be no more than a 1% increase of total deposit amounts in 12 months after the start of the increase of interest paid.

Data collection and analysis: The bank collected the following data from the timeframe of January 1 to December 31. This period starts 3 months before the offer started (April 1) and ends 9 months after the offer started (December 31).

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Independent variable: Vi = % interest paid to customer accounts Dependent variable: Vd = increase in bank’s account total

As of date: Interest if over $20K

Vi Vd ($)

January 31 1% .01 801,922

February 28 1% .01 790,416

March 31 1% .01 795,009

April 30 2% .02 796,710

May 31 2% .02 802,355

June 30 2% .02 803,881

July 31 2% .02 803,607

August 31 2% .02 804,114

September 30 2% .02 803,950

October 31 2% .02 804,322

November 30 2% .02 804,216

December 31 2% .02 803,990 Simple percentage calculations can start the analysis:

January starting baseline total = $801,922 Analyzing percentages for the remaining months involves simple mathematics (as shown in the chart below).

Month Vd ($) % of $801, 922 % of deposit change

February 790,416 98.6% -1.4%

March 795,009 99.1% -0.9%

April 796,710 99.4% -0.6%

May 802,355 100.1% +0.1$

June 803,881 100.2% +0.2%

July 803,607 100.2% +0.2%

August 804,114 100.3% +0.3%

September 803,950 100.3% +0.3%

October 804,322 100.3% +0.3%

November 804,216 100.3% +0.3%

December 803,990 100.3% +0.3% Is the conclusion straightforward? Deposits rose—but not by as much as 1% in any one month. This would indicate that accepting the null hypothesis, H0, is true. Is this the right conclusion from these findings with this data? Were there other factors at play? How about the bank’s total deposits declining slightly in December— might that be a reflection of customers’ holiday shopping and expenditures? Research should explore possible factors and biases and address those in the research proposal. If they do not and you think of them, this may be an indication that the proposal has some gaps in its framework. Otherwise, the hypothesis, H1, might be incorrectly accepted, which—as we know from Unit V—would be a Type I error. Would this be a more thorough analysis if a normal distribution was calculated and shown as a figure? You can try it and see if it tells the reader something new or better in the research report’s findings. Twelve data points might be enough for a meaningful distribution graph.

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Example 2: A Simplified Qualitative Research Study and Analysis (Alegre, 2012) Background: A researcher has undertaken a phenomenological study to address the problem (research problem) that U.S. military leaders (in particular, advisors to friendly foreign armies) struggle to effectively communicate cross-culturally. The purpose of the study was to explore the central phenomenon of U.S. soldiers’ lived experiences with cross-cultural communications and their resultant conclusions and perceptions. Research question: The research question was: What were U.S. Army soldiers’ experiences when conducting cross-cultural communications with people of other cultures? This particular question had two sub- questions, which are listed below.

1. What factors and competencies made U.S. Army soldiers successful or unsuccessful? 2. What techniques can improve the conduct of cross-cultural communications?

Method: The researcher conducted a six-question interview with each of the 34 soldier-leaders who had been either an advisor in a combat tour or a soldier who supported the friendly foreign force assistance efforts. Demographics: Participants (AV) were identified and grouped as follows: 22 officers, seven non- commissioned officers, five junior enlisted soldiers; three females and 31 males; and 31 U.S. citizens by birth and three raised in countries other than the United States. Data collection and analysis: The interviews consisted of six questions that essentially asked the soldiers about their experience and what happened. Analysis was conducted in a Moustakas modification of the van Kamm qualitative phenomenological analysis method, meaning that “packets of meaning” were identified and drawn from the transcripts, and when these were clustered, themes emerged from patterns of data to answer the research questions. The researcher looked at interview answers to check for contradictions; examined interviewee fatigue; and, in a few cases, canceled appointments if it looked like the interview could not take place in an unhurried manner. Five themes emerged from the data:

1. Challenges of miscommunication or rejection almost inevitably emerge when cross-cultural communications are conducted.

2. Certain American soldiers’ cultural tendencies—especially displaying impatience and communicating urgency and topical directness—may create challenges in cross-cultural communications.

3. Successful cross-cultural communications require a significant investment in time to gradually establish relationships with people of other cultures and gain their trust.

4. Challenges in cross-cultural communications can be overcome by acting among several choices of preparations, techniques, and attitudes.

5. American soldiers’ transformational leadership practices and firm groundings in socially responsible organizational values are effective in intercultural environments.

Examples of the data descriptions are provided below. AV1 explained, “While communicating, I could tell when there was a problem, as my counterpart’s feedback would seem off. Also, I would look for changes in facial expressions as an indicator that there were miscommunications. I would then move on to other topics and try to return to that one later.” AV13 suggested, “That overall bluntness, which Americans are known for, probably gets us into trouble in a lot of other places. We are definitely in the minority when it comes to how we communicate; the majority of the world does not communicate that directly.” AV8 had these observations: “The primary problem is that our (American) culture makes us bad advisors. If we see a problem, we want to fix it. We Americans have an urge to be generous and seem to measure success by the numbers of dollars we spend.” AV19 related, “When you have a cross-cultural issue, you have to dispense with it in a culturally appropriate manner for each of the subjects. America says that we value truth over all things. There, they value honor

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over all things, and they are willing to look at and accept less than perfection in other things. The other thing on that is, I knew I was dealing cross-culturally.” Earlier in his interview, AV19 summed up a typical intercultural engagement: “We could understand each other, but you had to accept the level of understanding you were going to be able to achieve.” AV20 described his acceptance by his counterpart: “And the next time we came out, he brought from home a big river carp that I guess his wife had prepared . . . and I was told this was a big deal, if they make you the river carp thing, you ‘are in.’” AV21 explained, “Being in the Army helped. Being a U.S. Army soldier helps us, more than I would say for a regular civilian, because everyone in the military is not from one part of America itself. So, they bring in people from different cultures, and we can learn about them, and when we go to these different places to protect what we believe in (and help other countries protect what they believe in), it helps a lot by assembling all of these cultures as people join the Army. In my 15 years of seeing other cultures, I have learned that everyone is different, and everyone deserves the respect of a human being.” Findings: Findings were that cross-cultural communications are challenging, but with preparation, patience, time investments, and empathy, obstacles to communicating can be overcome. Recommendations: Recommendations are listed below.

• There is a need to continue to build intercultural expertise.

• All leaders should consider the cross-cultural implications of their activities.

• Academia should continue to explore theories and models to facilitate the bridging of cultures for mutual benefit.

• With studies showing that global violence is dropping, more emphasis in cross-cultural effectiveness could tip the global experience more toward peace.

Despite this being just a quick overview of the study, are you, the reader, persuaded that the study was sensible, the findings fitting, and recommendations logical? A qualitative approach means that there could be several choices on how to address the problem and questions, and the best one may not have been chosen. Did bias infiltrate into the study and ruin it? Were there not enough interviewees, or were the wrong ones chosen? These are the questions a reviewer of a qualitative study can mull over—in some ways better than the researcher who conducted the study can.

Writing and Presenting Research Both from researching filed and stored research reports and reviewing Chapter 13 of the textbook, a researcher can see that a research report or presentation is essentially a research proposal, which uses future tense to describe what research would be conducted with approval and uses past tense in the revision stages in order to describe what research was performed. As was true for a proposal, the best research reports are both thorough and concise enough that irrelevant material is left out. When the components are addressed and these descriptions are assembled into one report, the document will be long enough! Note that reports can be just two-page, four-column journal articles or 200-page doctoral dissertations. Devlin (2021) notes, as is true for all other scholarly works, research reports and presentations must be thoroughly documented with source support. As is true in other written works, this is shown in the form of a references list, which details the sources used; citations should appear throughout the report to indicate where unoriginal information is present. Report writing is an art. You craft a title, you shape an abstract so it has enough information but not too much based on the standards in the field in which you are working, and you take a step back to look at the whole report to ensure it is a balanced product, representative of the work that was accomplished. As explored in Unit IV, the research report and research presentation are commonly developed as described below. The following review also contains tips to help you develop each section. Introduction: This component contains the problem, purpose, significance of the study, research question(s), and definition of any relevant terms. If the introduction will be more in-depth than brief, then outside authors’

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works can be brought in here and cited in order to show why the research problem and question are so important. It is useful to address here the significance of the study and, in particular, the significance to leaders. The nature of the study and theoretical framework can be introduced in just a few statements in this section before the reader sees this more in-depth in the research method and design component. Review of the literature: Basically, the literature can be a list of descriptions. Some promising approaches can be organized historically, with the last sources being the most current and/or the most relevant, or based on topic, with the relevance building to the last ones. Research method and design: Devlin (2021) notes that this can include participants, the mathematical models and measurements used, and the procedure that results in the satisfactory acquisition of data, which is expected to answer the question once analyzed. Presentation and analysis of data and findings: In either quantitative or qualitative studies, the data or representations of them are depicted or described for the reader to understand with clarity how the researcher reached the findings. Conclusions and recommendations: This component includes limitations of the study, possible sources of bias, conclusions drawn from the analysis, and suggestions for further research. This component ties in with the whole study and wraps it up as well. More on the art of concluding a research effort will be addressed in Unit VIII. Recall that researchers may combine the introduction of the research with a review of literature into one section—especially if they are writing a brief journal article that will appear among other journal features. The article may be concluded after a thorough description of the research and once conclusions from the findings have been discussed. With this in mind, a sample research presentation could resemble the format below.

• Slide 1: Problem statement

• Slide 2: Purpose statement

• Slide 3: Significance of the study

• Slide 4: Research question(s)

• Slide 5: Definition of terms

• Slide 6: Selected literature

• Slide 7: Methodology

• Slide 8: How the research was conducted

• Slide 9: How data analysis was conducted

• Slide 10: Limitations or possible bias

• Slide 11: Findings and implications

• Slide 12: Recommendations

• Slide 13: Suggestions for further research

• Slide 14: References For those who believe that research is but a cycle, there is a good deal of truth to that idea. Research is inherently progressive, but the scientifically accepted procedures are just cycles (i.e., recognizing that a problem exists and then reframing or creating a new problem that could be studied—and eventually might). A researcher, who is building on experience and competence with practice while being mindful of research ethics, should contribute significantly toward a better society.

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References Alegre, D. M. (2012). U.S. Army soldiers’ experiences in cross-cultural communications: A phenomenological

study (Doctoral dissertation). https://search-proquest- com.libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/docview/1015364641?accountid=33337

Devlin, A. S. (2021). The research experience: Planning, conducting, and reporting research (2nd ed.).

SAGE. https://online.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781544377933

Suggested Unit Resources Continue reading in the textbook for additional information on writing and presenting research. Chapter 13: Writing and Presenting Your Research, pp. 428-436