INTL101 Week 10
piggy_cute
Fela.pptxPost-independence Nigeria and fela kuti
Nigerian independence
Ghana set the pattern for independence in british west Africa (1957), but ghana was a relatively small, compact country with a population of about 5 million in the early 1950s
By contrast, Nigeria was a large and disunited territory of about 35 million people, including regional divisions between the Yoruba-dominated west and the igbo-dominated east
The movement for independence in Nigeria was pushed for by the national council of Nigeria and cameroons (ncnc), founded in 1944 (Nnamdi Azikiwe was one of its founders); Azikiwe sought to mOVE the ncnc PAST BEING A SOUTHEAST IGBO ORGANIZATION TO ONE THAT WAS TRULY nationwide
Nigerian independence
OTHER REGIONALLY-BASED PARTIES FOLLOWED IN 1949, INCLUDING THE YORUBA ACTION GROUP AND THE (HAUSA/FULANI) NORTHERN PEOPLES CONGRESS (NPC)
INDEPENDENCE IN NIGERIA WAS DELAYED AS THE VARIOUS PARTIES COULD NOT AGREE UPON A SUITABLE CONSTITUTION
EVENTUALLY A FEDERAL SOLUTION WAS PRODUCED AND NIGERIA BECAME INDEPENDENT IN OCTOBER OF 1960 WITH NORTHERNER SIR ABUBAKER TAFAWA BALEWA AS PRIME MINISTER
Nigerian independence
WHEN NIGERIA ACHIEVED INDEPENDENCE, THE PROSPECTS APPEARED PROMISING AND EXPECTATIONS FOR THE FUTURE OF THE COUNTRY WERE HIGH BECAUSE:
IT WAS THE MOST POPULOUS COUNTRY IN AFRICA
THE POTENTIAL FOR ECONOMIC GROWTH WAS GREAT, BUOYED largely by the discovery of commercial quantities of petroleum in the niger delta region in 1958 (Nigeria was dubbed the “giant of Africa”
By 1970, however, Nigeria’s stability and prestige had been greatly damaged by a decade of political corruption, economic struggles, military coups, and a 2 ½ year civil war from 1967 to 1970 that ripped the country along regional and ethnic lines, killed between 1 and 3 million people, and nearly destroyed the fragile federal bonds that held the Nigerian state together
Nigerian independence
The underlying cause of all the problem that Nigeria experienced in the 1960s and since then is what is often called the “national question”
Who are nigerians? How does the country go about developing a meaningful national identity?
The national question exists because the geographical area known as Nigeria was created by the british colonial administration in 1914, not by indigenous peoples themselves
The regional and federal emphases of the constitutions of the 1950s further undermined the development of a unified national consciousness
Nigerian independence
The underlying cause of all the problem that Nigeria experienced in the 1960s and since then is what is often called the “national question” (CONT’D)
as a result, the largest ethnic groups in each region—the hausa/Fulani (muslim ethnic groups) in the northern region; the Yoruba in the western region
igbo in the eastern regiOn—came to dominate their respective regions and contest for power at the federal level
This led to ethnic minorities feeling increasingly alienated from the political process, complicating the development of a SINGLE Nigerian identity
Nigerian independence
The national question
Nigerian artists, scholars, and some politicians addressed the problem of national unity in the early 1960s by trying to construct a unique Nigerian culture through their art, writings, speeches, and legislation
Efforts were made to promote a strong central state and a state-run economy that focused on development initiatives across Nigeria
Ultimately, these efforts failed, largely because of the overwhelming trend in the political sphere toward consolidating power at the regional level at any cost
Official corruption, rigged elections, ethnic baiting, and bullying dominated the conduct of politics in the first republic (1960-1966)
Nigerian independence
Because regional identities were strong and national identity weak, the greatest fear among nigerians in the 1960s was that their region would become “dominated” by another
These fears led to troubled elections in 1964 and 1965 in which all kinds of tricks were used by every side
Under these circumstances, many nigerians came to believe that the federal system was dysfunctional and that Nigeria should change to a different model
These attitudes led directly to the overthrow of the civilian democratic regime by several military officers in January 1966 and to a civil war between 1967 and 1970
Nigerian independence
Campaign for economic independence
Colonial rule leaves behind a legacy of economic DEPENDENCE that is difficult to overcome
European colonial governments set up the African colonies to be the source of the cheap labor and the raw materials/commodities, whereas the ”metropole” was the site of industrial development
The colonies existed to enrich the metropole, not to compete with it
Nigerian independence
Campaign for economic independence
The colonies were also turned into a huge consumer base to purchase these manufactured products from Europe, producing more profits
Remember that Africa was being colonized during the industrial revolutions; at the moment of decolonization, they were thrown into a global economy with powerful and rich nations, multinational businesses and imf/world bank policies that favored them
attempting to create economic independence in such a global economy that favored established wealth was very CHALLENGING
Nigerian independence
Campaign for economic independence
In 1962 the government introduced the first national development plan (fndp) focusing on investment in the agriculture industry and education
The fndp anticipated an annual growth rate of 4%
Because of the strong focus on economic independence, greater emphasis was placed on the development of manufacturing (mainly tobacco, food processing, and beverages) and industry (mining and petroleum) in the 1960s
Nigerian independence
Campaign for economic independence
import substitution was a goal
production of crude oil increased from 46,000 barrels a day in 1961 to 600,000 barrels a day in 1967
Through the fndp and other development initiatives, the economy grew at a steady rate between 1960 and 1966
the economy also diversified considerably during this period
the military coup of 1966 brought an end to developmental planning efforts
Nigerian independence
Campaign for economic independence
The successes of the fndp and other development schemes were accompanied by many failures and negative trends
The reliance on foreign investment to fund development projects complicated the push for economic independence
Foreign investments in manufacturing and industry increased the overall productivity and diversity of Nigeria’s economy, but actually perpetuated the dependence of the Nigerian economy on foreign sources
As of 1965, 110 firms in Nigeria were fully owned by foreigners at a value of n28 million, compared to 52 Nigerian-owned companies with a total value of n4 million
The machinery and technology necessary for manufacturing and industrial upgrades had to be bought entirely from overseas producers
Nigerian independence
POLITICS OF THE FIRST REPUBLIC, 1960-66
The federal system that had solidified regional divisions in the 1950s was no longer sustainable in the period from 1960 to 1966 a the main political parties in each region fought bitterly to gain or maintain control of both the federal and regional assemblies, which controlled the bulk of Nigerian resources
This created a situation in which control at the regional and federal level was the key to power over how Nigeria’s resources would be distributed
Thus, the fear that emerged in the 1950s truly was that of ”domination,” or that another region would dominate over one’s regional home; this clouded any sense of national unity in Nigeria in the 1960s
Under these conditions, it became imperative for parties in power to stay in power and for those out of power either to ally with the majority party or to wrest control of the government away from the party in the next election
Nigerian independence
POLITICS OF THE FIRST REPUBLIC, 1960-66
The Northern people’s congress (npc) did seem to have the upper hand in the power play in the early 1960s; although the fndp claimed to be a national development plan, the bulk of the allocations actually went to projects in the north
This and other actions strained relations with the NPC’S coalition party, the NCNC, WHICH BEGAN TO FEEL THAT IT WAS NOT RECEIVING BENEFITS AT THE FEDERAL LEVEL THAT IT SHOULD BE AS A PARTNER
FROM 1962 THE NCNC LEADERSHIP BEGAN TO COURT NEW ALLIES AGAINST THE NPC IN THE SOUTH AND AMONG MINORITY PARTIES IN THE NORTH
BY 1963 IT HAD BECOME CLEAR TO MOST MINORITY PARTIES THAT THERE WAS LITTLE TO BE GAINED BY JOINING WITH THE NPC GOVERNMENT
THE BEST WAY TO GAIN POWER IN THE FEDERAL SYSTEM WAS TO ATTACK THE NORTHERN BASIS OF POWER
Nigerian independence
POLITICS OF THE FIRST REPUBLIC, 1960-66
The 1964 elections were characterized by a great deal of violence and corruption as different political parties tried to quash one another
Some candidates were prevented from registering to run for office AND some people called for a boycott of the election; Nigerians’ faith in their system of government was weakened after this election
Elections in the western region the following year were also problematic and it was believed that the Nigerian national democratic party (nndp) rigged the election; both the nndp and the opposition united progressive grand alliance (upga) claimed victory, BUT upga leaders were taken into detention
The western region remained a battle zone for two months and the igbo military leaders of the region began to plot a coup
Nigerian independence
The end OF THE FIRST REPUBLIC, 1966
In January of 1966, Nigeria’s first military coup began
The leaders of the coup claimed that their goal was to bring an end to the ”tribalism” and corruption that characterized the first republic
In the process, the majors leading the coup arrested all the regional premiers and killed prime minister balewa and two other premiers
many northern military officers were also killed in the coup
Nigerian independence
The end OF THE FIRST REPUBLIC, 1966
ThIS threw the country into a major political crisis
power quickly devolved to the commanding officer of the army, major ironsi, who immediately went about restoring order
At first the coup was perceived positively, especially in the south
they believed it marked the end of northern “domination” and in the western region the unrest almost came to an immediate end
The northerners were alarmed and were worried about igbo domination
Nigerian independence
Civil war (Biafran war) 1966-70
A group of northerner officers carried out a countercoup and captured and killed ironsi
Eventually the leading northern officers selected lieutenant colonel gowon as head of state
gowon attempted to make steps to show that Nigeria was committed to unity, but reconciliation was difficult, especially with the lieutenant colonel Ojukwu, the igbo military governor of the eastern region who was very concerned about the safety of igbos in the country and the ability or willingness of the military government to protect them
Ojukwu began to ponder the secession of the eastern region for that reason
May 30, 1967, Ojukwu declared the independence of the eastern region, renamed the independent republic of biafra
General Gowon
Nigerian independence
Civil war (Biafran war) 1966-70
The secession of Biafra was impossible for gowon and the federal military government (FMG) to accept for three main reasons:
Gowon and the FMG believed in the concept of Nigerian unity and were willing to fight to preserve it
To allow the secession of Biafra would be to invite the secession of any minority group within the federation and the prospect of Nigeria fragmenting into many small, hostile areas
The lands claimed by Biafra contained 68% of the known petroleum reserves in the country
Nigerian independence
Civil war (Biafran war) 1966-70
The civil war ensued for 2.5 years, ending in Biafra’s collapse and surrender in January of 1970
Igbos commonly claimed that the federal military government’s objective was the “genocide” of the igbo people
Wartime policies did lead to starvation and 1-3 million deaths, mostly in the eastern region
After the war, the strong petroleum-based economy helped the process of reintegration and reconciliation, but the national question remained a problem
Nigerian independence
After the civil war, petroleum became Nigeria’s chief export and single-handedly made Nigeria the wealthiest county in Africa during the 1970s
However, rather than contributing to the overall development of Nigeria and to improved living conditions for Nigerian citizens, this wealth was distributed unequally, benefitting primarily those people who had access to state power (this is what fela spoke out against and educated the people about)
The result was a system of government that became increasingly divorced from its people, creating a stark disconnect between the will of the people and the actions of government officials
All three regimes between 1970 and 1983 mismanaged government funds and contributed to the development of a kleptocracy
While a small class of politicians and entrepreneurs ha become exceedingly wealthy via the oil economy, the majority of nigerians remain mired in perpetual poverty
Nigerian independence
The gowon government’s dependence on petroleum for the vast bulk of government revenue caused many problems from the gowon era onwards
The Nigerian economy became extremely vulnerable to fluctuations in the world price of petroleum
Development planning and revenue allocation for the future were based on the going rate for petroleum in the early 1970s, when crude prices were high
The influx in wealth led to enormous expenditure, including huge salary increases to government employees, investment in large infrastructure projects, new schools, and the festival of black arts and culture (festac); he also increased military spending, maintaining a standing army of over 200,000 soldiers
When petroleum prices dropped between 1976 and 1979, and again in the earl 1980s, the Nigerian economy suffered greatly
Nigerian independence
The focus on petroleum as the basis for the Nigerian economy led to the neglect of other sectors
For instance, the agricultural sector continued to decline and Nigeria became more dependent on food imports
manufacturing decreased as a percentage of the gross domestic product from 9.4% in 1970 to 7) in 1973/4
Nigerian independence
Thus, the oil boom, rather than providing an impetus to grow the productive sector of the Nigerian economy, instead encouraged a rise in imports
Inflation became a serious problem as well
Again, fela kuti spoke OUT AGAINST THE WAY THAT THE OIL BOOM RESULTED IN WIDESPREAD CORRUPTION ON THE PART OF GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE COLLECTION AND ALLOCATION OF REVENUES
Nigerian independence
The oil boom led to the development of a ”rentier state” in Nigeria
Unlike countries where government revenue is generated within the country through taxes on citizens, internal borrowing, etc., in a “rentier state” the bulk of government revenue comes from outside the country
In the case of Nigeria, the vast majority of government revenue since the 1970s has come from “rents” paid to it through licenses and royalties from the multinational petroleum corporations such as shell, bp, etc.
Nigerian independence
under such a system, corruption can, and has, run rampant
Citizens’ opinion of the government becomes irrelevant, since the the government does not maintain it power through popularity but through coercion and the control of resources
The military maintains power through the threat or act of violence
Nigerian independence
During the oil boom, efforts were also made to indigenize business, taking control of economic activity out of the hands of foreigners and placing it in the hands of Nigerian investors
Indigenization programs rapidly increased the overall percentage of business owned by nigerians, BUT did little to improve the lot of the average Nigerian
Only those who already had money could afford to invest in business
Indigenization therefore created a small class of wealthy businessmen whose interests were aligned with those of foreign investors and rent-seeking politicians content to enrich themselves at the expense of the majority of the population
Nigerian independence
Nigerians were ready to transition to democratic rule and the gowon regime was dragging its feet
Nigerians were also fed up with the corruption and the gross mismanagement of government revenues
Still, gowon was in no hurry to hand power back to the civilian government, promising reforms
The announcement of the reforms came across as arrogant, corrupt and an abuse of power to many people
Nigerian independence
By 1975 he had lost respect in nearly every segment of Nigerian society:
average nigerians resented the failure of the regime to manage the oil wealth in a way that could improve living conditions
non-military politicians resented his postponement of the democratic transition that promised to put them in power
many within the military felt that gowon had damaged the reputation of the armed forces
Nigerian independence
In 1975 a group of young officers led a bloodless coup and removed gowon from power
A northerner, general mohammed, was placed as the new head of state
General mohammed promised to restore dignity to the military and committed himself to returning Nigeria to democratic rule, but he was only in office for 6 months when he was assassinated
This brought general Obasanjo, a southern Yoruba, to power
Obasanjo had similar goals to mohammed, including the promotion of “national unity”
Nigerian independence
In 1978 oil prices fell steeply and Obasanjo offset the loss in revenue by instituting some small-scale austerity measures, including new taxes and cuts to social service expenditure
One such cut resulted in the increase of tuition fees at Nigerian universities; this led to protests
Other angry nigerians at the time included people who lost their jobs in the civil service and other branches of government; The Obasanjo regime also failed to end corruption and it used its military might to quell criticism
Nigerian independence
Fela kuti was one of these critics
he founded the kalakuta republic in 1970, a commune that he declared independent from the government of nigeria and from where he composed many songs criticizing the corruption and violence of the military regime
for his actions, the military raided his commune in 1978 with as many as 1000 soldiers
During the raid, the entire compound was burned to the ground and fela’s mother was thrown from a window, receiving injuries from which she later died
General Obasanjo:
The Obasanjo regime transferred power to a new, democratically elected civilian administration in 1979, ending the period of military rule
Fela kuti in memory
Inventor of Afrobeat music and gave it it’s name
Multi-instrumentalist
Best known(?) pan-Africanist music icon from Africa
Spokesperson for the oppressed
Loyal Nigerian
Cultural hero
revolutionary
Protest singer, social/political critic
Social maverick
World renown pioneer and elder stateman of African music
Nigeria’s first major countercultural figure
“African james brown”
“black president”
His death Helped wake up Africa to aids crisis in the late 1990s
Persecuted but unwavering political insurrectionist
