One Philosophy Question

Discussion question, p. 298 (How to find fallacy of equivocation)

1. Newspapers should print stories that are in the public interest

2. Rumors about sex scandals are in public interest  (3) Newspapers should print rumors about sex scandals

1. Newspapers should print stories that benefits the public

2. Rumors about sex scandals benefits the public

 (3) Newspapers should print rumors about sex scandals

1. Newspapers should print stories that the public takes an interest in

2. Rumors about sex scandals are those that the public takes an interest in

 (3) Newspapers should print rumors about sex scandals

Fallacy of Equivocation Pro-Life Argument against Abortion 1. It is wrong to kill innocent human beings 2. Fetuses are innocent human beings. (3) Therefore, it is wrong to kill fetuses

Genetic sense: A human being is any organism with human DNA Moral sense: a human being is any individual that is a full-fledged member of the moral community (individual with a full set of rights)

Abortion

• Most anti-abortion arguments are based on the premise:

• The fetus is a person

• Reason? • Development is continuous, thus there is no point at which one is/is not a

person.

• Conceptual Slippery Slope Fallacy

Defining terms • Connotation – SENSE of a word, what we understand when we

understand the meaning

• Denotation – REFERENCE, class of things to which the word refers

1. Lexical or dictionary definitions – factual information about standard meanings of words. Not always accurate.

2. Disambiguating definitions – specifies a sense in which a word or phrase is used by a speaker in a specific context. Used in response to equivocating words.

3. Stipulative definitions – to create a new or special meaning to a familiar term. Cannot be false, but could be vague, ambiguous, or confusing.

Example

• Religions are systems of discourses, practices, communities, and institutions that draw on human and suprahuman powers to provide adherents access to ultimate meaning (of life).

- Stipulative Definition of Religion, Scott T. Kline.

4. Precising Definitions

Used to resolve vagueness. Combinations of stipulative and dictionary definitions. Conforms to generally accepted meaning of a term.

• Definition of Death

• Ceasing to be alive. But what is it to be alive?

• Uniform Determination of Death Act, 1981: Individual who has sustained either (1) Irreversible cessation of circulatory and respiratory functions or (2) irreversible cessation of all functions of the entire brain, including the brain stem, is dead.

5. Systemic or theoretical definitions

Introduced to give a systematic order or structure to a subject matter.

(Exercise IX)

Alice and Brenna are sisters

Definition: Alice and Brenna are female and have the same parents

Alice is Brenna’s niece

Definition: Alice is female and a parent of Alice has parents in common with Brenna.

• If you are trying to refute a conceptual slippery slope argument by giving a definition, what kind of definition you should give?

- Dictionary

- Stipulative

- Precising

Fallacies of Relevance

• Such fallacies arise when a premise, true or not, is not adequately or sufficiently related to the conclusion.

• Such fallacies are very common and are used to mislead by diverting attention from the real issue at hand.

• Relevance fallacy’s premise may appear relevant and may resonate psychologically but it is not relevant.

• One form of this fallacy is red herring.

• Caveat: “Sometimes the occurrence of irrelevance is innocent.” Need to pay attention to the context to decide if a remark is irrelevant or not.

Assessing Relevance: premises must be relevant/acceptable to the conclusion • You should vote for Hillary Clinton as she is the only female candidate.

• Your Honor, I admit that I declared thirteen children as dependents on my tax return, even though I have only two. But if you find me guilty of tax evasion, my reputation will be ruined. I’ll probably lose my job, my poor wife will not be able to have the operation that she desperately needs, and my kids will starve. Surely I am not guilty.

Examples

• Obama-Romney debate 2012

• https://www.npr.org/2012/10/16/163050988/transcript-obama- romney-2nd-presidential-debate

• 2016 GOP debate https://www.cbsnews.com/news/transcript-sixth- republican-top-tier-debate-2016/

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xu0ZRzio4Rs

How do I make my argument stronger?

1. Make sure that all of the material presented in the argument is an important part of the argument. Take out all irrelevant matters that may raise additional issues or distract your opponent.

2. If one of your premises is irrelevant to your argument, but most of your audience might regard it as supportive of your argument, take it out. There is a possibility that some members of your audience will recognize it and expose it, thereby weakening the argument.

Ad Hominem

• Before he died, poet Allen Ginsberg argued in favor of legalizing pornography. But Ginsberg’s arguments are nothing but trash. Ginsberg was a marijuana-smoking homosexual and a thoroughgoing advocate of the drug culture.

• International terrorist Osama bin Laden planned the bombing of the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania, killing over two hundred innocent people, and he supports terrorist causes all over the world. Bin Laden is therefore a wicked and irresponsible person.

Argumentum Ad Hominem (argument to the person) • Used to distract us from the real issue.

• Targeted (by the opponent) at the person (arguer) and at irrelevant personal characteristics rather than at the against the person’s claim/argument. The fallacy is committed if you dismiss someone’s position (idea, proposal, claim, argument etc.) by dismissing the person.

• Called deniers as they deny the truth of what is said or the strength or soundness of the argument.

• Caveat: sometimes ad hominem arguments are not fallacious.

• Sure Sally says she saw me cheat, but she accuses everyone, and she’s almost always wrong, so you should know that she is wrong this time, too.

• Denier

Other Ad Hominem varieties

• Ad hominem Silencers - Revokes the speaker’s right to speak in a certain context without necessarily

denying the truth of what is said.

- Sure Steve says she saw me cheat, but he wasn’t even playing the game. It’s not his place to accuse those of us who were playing.

• Adhominem Dismissers - Dismisses the speaker as untrustworthy or unreliable.

- Sure Sam says he saw me cheat, but the only reason he says it is that he wants to win the game. He’s a real jerk.

• The Dalai Lama argues that China has no business in Tibet and that the West should do something about it. But the Dalai Lama just wants the Chinese to leave so he can return as leader. Naturally he argues this way. Therefore, we should reject his arguments.

• Sure, Sybill says she saw me cheat, but I didn’t even take the exam, so I couldn’t have cheated on it. p. 312

Two steps in assessing ad hominem arguments 1. Determine whether the conclusion is about

- Truth, soundness, or strength of the claim (denier)

- someone’s right to speak (silencer)

- Someone’s reliability or trustworthiness (dismisser)

2. Do the premises provide adequate justification for the conclusion?

Inconsistency

• Accusing people because they say different things at different times.

• “The president says now that he believes in global warming, but ladies and gentlemen, when the president was campaigning he scoffed at the idea.”

Public-Private rift

• “Gore’s mansion…consumes more electricity every month than the average household uses in an entire year, according to the Nashville Electric Service…more than 20 times the national average…In total Gore paid nearly $30,000 in combined electricity and natural gas bills for his Nashville estate in 2006.”

– Tennessee Center for Policy Research (a day after Gore received Oscar for Inconvenient Truth).

Tu quoque (you are another/you too)

• Special case of ad hominem

- I don’t see why our company should be singled out by the city just because of some leakage problem at our chemical storage facility. The city should pay more attention to the more serious pollution that is occurring at its landfill site.

• Jim: “Based on the arguments I have presented, it is evident that it is morally wrong to use animals for food or clothing." Bill: "But you are wearing a leather jacket and you have a roast beef sandwich in your hand! How can you say that using animals for food and clothing is wrong!"

Genetic Fallacies

• “To evaluate an idea or an argument, one should focus on that idea or argument, not on its origin.” p. 312

• These kind of ad hominem arguments target the source or origin of the speaker’s belief. When origin is irrelevant to the truth of the claim, such arguments commit the genetic fallacy.

• This pamphlet is put out by the people who have been trying to suppress minority voters. You wont’ find a word of truth in it.

• Armed guards in public schools? You think that’s a solution to gun violence? That’s just something the NRA put out there.