behs 343 week 4
BYSTANDER
Exposuretomaritalconflict.pdf
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Exposure to marital conflict: Gender
differences in internalizing and externalizing
problems among children
Rikuya HosokawaID 1,2*, Toshiki Katsura2
1 School of Nursing, Nagoya City University, Nagoya, Japan, 2 Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto
University, Kyoto, Japan
Abstract
Purpose
Marital conflict is integral to children’s psychosocial well-being. Extant research has shown
that the effects of marital conflict on children are likely to vary by gender, indicating that gen-
der plays a significant and complex role in the relationship between marital conflict and child
adjustment. Focusing on gender, this study investigates the link between specific marital
conflict tactics and children’s mental health symptoms in families in which the parents live
together.
Methods
This study gathered data from 799 children and their parents in Japan by means of a ques-
tionnaire focusing on marital conflict and child behavioral problems. Marital conflict (verbal
aggression, physical aggression, stonewalling, avoidance-capitulation, child involvement,
and cooperation) was assessed using a Conflict and Problem-Solving Scale. Children’s
behavioral problems (externalizing and internalizing symptoms) were assessed using the
Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire.
Results
The findings highlight the significant impact of specific interparental conflict on children’s
behavioral problems, demonstrating that there are differences according to the child’s gen-
der. More specifically, multivariate analyses targeting boys revealed that cooperation was
significantly inversely associated with externalizing problems and internalizing problems,
while avoidance-capitulation and verbal aggression were significantly positively associated
with externalizing problems. In contrast, multivariate analyses targeting girls revealed that
cooperation was significantly inversely associated with externalizing problems and internal-
izing problems, while avoidance-capitulation and stonewalling were significantly positively
associated with internalizing problems.
PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0222021 September 12, 2019 1 / 14
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OPEN ACCESS
Citation: Hosokawa R, Katsura T (2019) Exposure
to marital conflict: Gender differences in
internalizing and externalizing problems among
children. PLoS ONE 14(9): e0222021. https://doi.
org/10.1371/journal.pone.0222021
Editor: Lindsay Stark, Washington University in
St. Louis, UNITED STATES
Received: May 7, 2019
Accepted: August 20, 2019
Published: September 12, 2019
Copyright: © 2019 Hosokawa, Katsura. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution License, which
permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided the original
author and source are credited.
Data Availability Statement: All relevant data are
within the manuscript and its Supporting
Information files.
Funding: This work was supported by: 1. JSPS
KAKENHI, Grant Number 26893224 | Recipient:
Rikuya Hosokawa; 2. JSPS KAKENHI, Grant
Number 16K20858 | Recipient: Rikuya Hosokawa;
3. JSPS KAKENHI, Grant Number 19K19738 |
Recipient: Rikuya Hosokawa. The funders had no
role in the study design, data collection and
analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the
manuscript.
Conclusion
This study reveals that interparental conflict is associated with children’s behavioral prob-
lems. Constructive marital conflict was significantly inversely associated with externalizing
and internalizing problems in both boys and girls. Meanwhile, destructive marital conflict
(i.e., avoidance-capitulation and verbal aggression) was significantly positively associated
with externalizing problems in boys and significantly positively associated with internalizing
problems in girls. These findings contribute to the substantial literature demonstrating the
relationship between family processes and the development of disruptive behavior disorders
in children.
Introduction
Marital conflict is unavoidable. Occurring in virtually all relationships, conflict is an inevitable
part of family life. As such, children living in families witness marital conflict. It is clear that
interparental relationships are integral to children’s psychosocial well-being [1,2]. Previous
research has shown that the effects of marital conflict on children are likely to vary by gender,
indicating that gender plays an important role in the relationship between marital conflict and
child adjustment [3]. In other words, although both boys and girls are vulnerable to the effects
of high marital conflict, gender appears to moderate potential outcomes [3]. For example, the
threat associated with marital conflict may be more significant for boys, who tend to respond
by externalizing problems. In contrast, girls evidence a tendency toward blaming themselves
for parental conflict, thus developing internalizing problems. One study on adolescents found
that parental hostility was associated with internalizing in both boys and girls, whereas exter-
nalizing was only significant in boys [4]. As such, gender may play a significant and complex
role in the relationship between marital conflict and child adjustment. Thus, in order to under-
stand how marital conflict impacts children, marital conflict tactics need to be explored with a
focus on gender.
Numerous tactics can be adopted in the face of marital conflict. Where some deal with con-
flict in a positive and constructive manner, other tactics are negative and destructive. Extant
studies have divided marital conflict tactics into two categories: namely, constructive and
destructive. Constructive marital conflict tactics involve more positive strategies for ameliorat-
ing tension, including the open discussion of problems, resolving conflict calmly, and showing
of affection during or after the conflict [5–7]. The use of constructive tactics elicits positive
emotional reactions from children, such as secure attachment, better problem-solving skills,
and emotional stability [8]. Constructive marital conflict may benefit positive child outcomes
by teaching them problem-solving skills and effective ways of communicating, ultimately fos-
tering more positive social relations. Positive outcomes include lower levels of internalizing
(e.g., anxiety, depression, and withdrawal) and externalizing symptoms (e.g., aggression, delin-
quency, and conduct disorders), and higher levels of social skills, prosocial behavior, and emo-
tion regulation [9,10].
In contrast, destructive marital conflict involves more negative conflict resolution tactics,
including aggressive and threatening behavior, arguing frequently, and leaving issues unre-
solved [5,6]. Such destructive tactics may make children more vulnerable to developing adjust-
ment problems, eliciting negative emotional and behavioral reactions such as aggression,
conduct disorders, anxiety, and depression [5–7,11]. Exposure to destructive conflict is associ-
ated with increased symptoms of psychological distress among children [12,13]. Involving an
Gender variation in the effects of marital conflict on children
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Competing interests: The authors have declared
that no competing interests exist.
implied threat to the emotional security of children, destructive marital conflict is associated
with negative child outcomes including higher levels of internalizing and externalizing symp-
toms, and lower levels of social skills, prosocial behavior, and emotion regulation [14–17].
Accordingly, the presence of marital conflict and the way in which conflict is approached
influence the environment in which the children learn and grow. Children are also likely to
experience the indirect effects of marital conflict because it impacts parenting behaviors—the
effects “spilling over” from the marital subsystem to the parent-child subsystem [18–20]. The
association between marital conflict and children’s behavioral and emotional difficulties is well
documented, with marital conflict found to be associated with a wide range of both externaliz-
ing and internalizing outcomes in children. Efforts to understand the association between
marital conflict and child development have increasingly focused on how parents express and
approach conflict in their relationship.
In approaching marital conflict, scholars differentiate between the ways in which parents
interact and handle interpersonal conflicts on the one hand, and the behaviors and words
exchanged during disagreements on the other [21]. Scholars have measured destructive marital
conflict by the frequency of minor and major conflicts, the severity or degree of conflict, and
conflict tactics. Destructive marital conflict contains various elements of avoidance, involving
the child or children in the conflict, stonewalling, verbal aggression, and physical aggression
[22–24]. As noted, conflict tactics influence the psychological well-being and development of
children: children who live in families characterized by high levels of specific forms of inter-
parental conflict are more likely to develop adjustment problems. Although extant studies
have focused on destructive marital conflict through combined scale (e.g., stonewalling, verbal
aggression, and physical aggression), these studies do not estimate the impact of specific con-
flict tactics on child outcomes. As such, it is necessary to explore specific conflict tactics in
order to understand how marital conflict impacts children. This is particularly necessary
because despite the likelihood of the effects of marital conflict on children varying according
to gender, few studies have examined the influence of gender on the association between spe-
cific conflict tactics and child adjustment. Thus, in order to understand how marital conflict
impacts children, specific conflict tactics need to be explored with a focus on gender. Further
research is necessary to clarify the link between specific conflict tactics and gender—a line of
enquiry that will aid in the provision of preventative measures at an early stage. This study
addresses this gap.
Focusing on gender, this study investigates the link between specific interparental conflicts
and children’s mental health symptoms in families in which the parents live together. More
specifically, this study hypothesizes that specific interparental conflict tactics—namely, cooper-
ation, avoidance-capitulation, stonewalling, verbal aggression, physical aggression, and child
involvement—are uniquely associated with children’s internalizing and externalizing prob-
lems. Previous studies have not conclusively shown whether specific interparental conflicts
impact girls and boys differently. Addressing this gap, this study investigates the moderating
effect of gender on the relationship between specific interparental conflict and children’s inter-
nalizing and externalizing problems.
Methods
Subjects
This study forms part of a larger longitudinal study examining the effects of the child-rearing
environment on the social development and adjustment of children. In 2014, we requested
permission from all facilities in Nagoya city in Aichi prefecture, a major urban area in Japan,
and conducted our survey at facilities where permission was obtained. As one of Japan’s
Gender variation in the effects of marital conflict on children
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leading cities, Nagoya city provides a representative sample of Japan. Subjects were recruited
from 52 kindergartens and 78 nursery schools. To recruit subjects, self-reported question-
naires were distributed to all parents of five-year-old preschool children enrolled in the kinder-
gartens and nursery schools. The parents of children provided written informed consent and
agreed to participate. We have conducted an annual survey as the children age, following their
progress from preschool to junior high school. The baseline was created via the first wave in
2014, during which we obtained the address of subjects. Each year, we mailed questionnaires
to the parents of children (second wave in 2015, third wave in 2016). This study uses the data
from the third wave survey.
The research for this study was conducted in 2016. Data were collected via self-adminis-
tered questionnaires, which respondents completed manually using pen and paper. This study
distributed one questionnaire per child, with the expectation that parents would answer
jointly. Questionnaires were mailed to the parents of children, who completed the question-
naires and returned them to the researcher by mail. Self-report questionnaires were provided
to subjects deemed eligible for the follow-up survey: the parents of seven-year-old children
(N = 1,643) who were in the second grade of elementary school (child subjects were aged five during the first wave, and seven in the third wave). Of the 1,643 questionnaires disseminated,
935 completed questionnaires were returned. In order to accurately clarify the association
between interparental relationships and child adjustment, this study excludes the following
from its analysis: (1) children from single-parent families, (2) children diagnosed with devel-
opmental problems, and (3) children whose parents did not return complete questionnaires.
To examine the impact of the specific interparental conflict tactics on children’s internalizing
and externalizing problems as closely as possible, we excluded children diagnosed with devel-
opmental problems. We defined parents as mothers and fathers; while they did not need to be
biologically related to the target child, they did need to reside with the child. Of the 935 chil-
dren whose parents completed the questionnaire, 799 (85.5%) met the inclusion criteria. A
sample size for analysis was not set because this study forms part of a larger longitudinal study.
Nonetheless, the obtained sample size (n = 799) was large enough to detect linear regressions to assess associations between the interparental relationship and child outcomes [25].
Subject characteristics are shown in Table 1. The average age of the subjects was 8.02 years
(SD = 0.36). In regard to gender, 51.8% of the subjects were boys (n = 414) and 48.2% girls (n = 385). The median annual household income was between JPY 5,000,000 and 5,999,999. Regarding subject mothers, the median age was 39.77 (SD = 4.42). In terms of their level of education, 1.9% had compulsory education, 20.2% had an upper secondary school diploma,
39.9% had up to four years of college/university education, and 38% had at least four years at
college/university or higher degrees. In regard to subject fathers, the median aged was 41.87
(SD = 5.46). In terms of their level of education, 4.3% had compulsory education, 23.4% held an upper secondary school diploma, 14% had up to four years of college/university education,
and 58.3% had at least four years at college/university or higher degrees. In terms of socioeco-
nomic status, subjects’ socioeconomic status was similar to that typical of other Japanese indi-
viduals of a similar generation [26,27].
Ethical statement
Children’s parents were informed of the study’s objectives and procedures and made aware
that they were not obligated to participate in the baseline survey. Parents provided written
informed consent on behalf of their children prior to participating in this research. Ethical
approval for this study was obtained from the Kyoto University Ethics Committee (E2322).
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Measures
Data were collected via questionnaires with several different scales covering a wide range of
issues concerning the child-rearing environment and child developmental outcomes. How-
ever, this study only uses measures pertaining to interparental relationships and children’s psy-
chosocial difficulties.
Interparental conflict. This study utilizes the Conflict and Problem-Solving Scale (CPS),
a self-report questionnaire measuring the characteristics of the specific marital conflict strate-
gies used by respondents [24]. The CPS is a 44-item questionnaire that uses a four-point Likert
scale ranging from never (0) to often (3) to measure various aspects of marital conflict. The
CPS comprises four conflict dimensions—frequency, severity, resolution, and efficacy—and
six conflict strategy subscales: cooperation, avoidance-capitulation, stonewalling, verbal
aggression, physical aggression, and child involvement. Cooperation involves the use of rea-
soning, problem-solving, and cooperation. Avoidance-capitulation involves attempts to ignore
or escape arguments, while stonewalling refers to impasses in conflict characterized by unre-
solved hostility, distress, and disengagement. Verbal aggression pertains to the use of verbally
hostile conflict tactics, while physical aggression involves the use of physical violence in inter-
parental conflict. Finally, child involvement concerns the direct or indirect involvement of the
child in the parents’ conflict. These scales have adequate internal consistency [24]. To address
cross-cultural translation issues in this study, we back translated the items and checked their
reliability according to the methodology recommended by Acquadro et al. [28]. In the sample
used in this study, internal consistency coefficients range from 0.76 to 0.88 (Table 2).
Externalizing and internalizing problems in children. This study uses the Strengths and
Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) to measure mental health problems in the child subjects, spe-
cifically externalizing and internalizing problems [29]. The SDQ is a 25-item questionnaire
that uses a three-point Likert scale ranging from not true (0) to certainly true (2) to measure
Table 1. Subject characteristics and emotional/behavioral problems.
Boys (N = 414) Girls (N = 385) Externalizing
Problems
Internalizing
Problems
Externalizing
Problems
Internalizing
Problems
N % Mean SD p Mean SD p N % Mean SD p Mean SD p Annual Household Income (in JPY millions)
< 3 25 6.1 6.40 3.09 0.015 4.40 2.73 0.031 22 5.9 5.57 3.73 0.002 3.52 2.80 0.321
3–5 189 46.1 6.26 3.86 3.39 2.83 159 42.3 4.53 3.33 3.46 2.54
6–8 120 29.3 5.83 3.34 3.38 2.96 123 32.7 4.43 2.59 3.20 2.72
� 9 76 18.5 4.73 2.78 2.88 2.56 72 19.1 3.41 2.33 2.87 2.17
Maternal Education Level
Compulsory education 11 2.7 7.46 4.63 0.038 4.15 3.02 0.154 4 1.0 6.67 2.50 0.003 4.67 2.58 0.096
Upper secondary school 86 20.9 6.52 3.63 3.58 2.95 74 19.4 4.93 3.34 3.78 2.97
Up to four years at college/university 169 41.1 5.65 3.30 3.45 2.93 147 38.6 4.54 2.92 3.34 2.60
More than four years at college/university 145 35.3 5.46 3.50 2.92 2.55 156 40.9 3.75 2.65 3.00 2.47
Paternal Education Level
Compulsory education 17 4.1 6.83 3.05 <0.001 6.64 1.62 0.422 17 4.5 6.72 3.77 <0.001 3.79 2.48 0.236
Upper secondary school 98 23.9 6.70 3.57 3.54 3.09 87 22.8 4.78 2.82 3.72 2.71
Up to four years at college/university 70 17.1 6.78 3.65 3.06 2.69 41 10.8 4.60 2.65 3.74 3.04
More than four years at college/university 225 54.9 5.10 3.34 3.29 2.84 236 61.9 3.90 2.85 3.14 2.55
Abbreviations: Standard Deviation (SD), p-value (p).
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externalizing and internalizing behaviors. In the SDQ, the difficult behavior score is calculated
as the sum of the scores obtained for the following subscale: emotional symptoms, conduct
problems, hyperactivity, and peer problems.
Following the recommendation of Goodman et al. [30], this study combined the conduct
problems and hyperactivity-inattention subscales into an externalizing problem scale, and the
peer problems and emotional problems subscales into an internalizing problems scale. These
scales have adequate internal consistency [29–31]. Additionally, the SDQ was cross-culturally
validated for the Japanese context [31]. In this study, internal consistency coefficients were
0.70 for the externalizing problems scale, and 0.74 for the internalizing problems scale
(Table 2).
Demographic covariates. Parents provided their demographic information, including
their child’s sex, annual household income, maternal education level, and paternal education
level. Annual household income was reported in Japanese yen (JPY). Regarding parental edu-
cation, both parents were asked to report their education in years, as well as the highest level of
education completed.
Data analysis
First, the relationships between subject characteristics and children’s behavioral problems
were analyzed via one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), as shown in Table 1. Second, associ-
ations between the interparental relationship and child outcomes were assessed using multiple
linear regression with CPS scores (cooperation, avoidance-capitulation, stonewalling, verbal
aggression, physical aggression, and child involvement) as predictors and SDQ scores (exter-
nalizing problems and internalizing problems) as outcomes. The regression analyses were
stratified by sex.
Regression analyses were organized as follows. In Model 1, each predictor was entered indi-
vidually to assess its univariate association with each outcome (cooperation, avoidance-capitu-
lation, stonewalling, verbal aggression, physical aggression, and child involvement). In Model
2, all predictors (cooperation, avoidance-capitulation, stonewalling, verbal aggression, physical
aggression, and child involvement) were entered simultaneously. As several subject character-
istics were significantly associated with behavioral problems in the analyses (see Table 1), we
included the factors as covariates in each analysis (see Tables 3 and 4). Multicollinearity was
assessed using variance inflation factor (VIF), and multicollinearity was considered when the
VIF value exceeded 2. The VIF value was <2 indicating no multicollinearity among the
Table 2. Descriptive statistics for the study variables (N = 799).
Description Range Mean SD α
Marital conflict: Conflict and Problem-Solving Scales (CPS)
Cooperation 0–18 14.42 3.40 0.86
Avoidance-Capitulation 0–30 14.73 5.50 0.80
Stonewalling 0–21 3.25 3.33 0.77
Verbal Aggression 0–24 8.99 5.14 0.88
Physical Aggression 0–21 0.87 1.69 0.76
Child Involvement 0–15 4.34 3.11 0.77
Child’s Emotional/Behavioral Problems: Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ)
Externalizing problems 0–20 5.12 3.32 0.70
Internalizing problems 0–20 3.32 2.73 0.74
Abbreviations: Standard Deviation (SD), Cronbach’s Alpha (α).
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predictors, and no problems with multicollinearity were found. All analyses were conducted
using IBM SPSS Statistics 23.0.
Results
Subject characteristics and emotional/behavioral problems
Subjects’ demographic characteristics and the relationships between these characteristics and
behavioral problems are shown in Table 1. In regard to boys, the externalizing and internaliz-
ing problem scores of boys in lower income households were significantly higher than those of
boys in higher income households. More specifically, externalizing problem scores: < JPY 3
million, 6.40±3.09; JPY 3–5 million, 6.26±3.86; JPY 6–8 million, 5.83±3.34; � JPY 9 million, 4.73±2.78; p = 0.015. Internalizing problem scores: < JPY 3 million, 4.40±2.73; JPY 3–5 mil- lion, 3.39±2.83; JPY 6–8 million, 3.38±2.96; � JPY 9 million, 2.88±2.56; p = 0.031. In regard to maternal education level, externalizing problem scores were significantly higher among boys
whose mothers had a lower education level. Externalizing problem scores: compulsory educa-
tion, 7.46±4.63; upper secondary school, 6.52±3.63; up to four years at college/university, 5.65 ±3.30; more than four years at college/university, 5.46±3.50; p = 0.038. In regard to paternal education level, children’s externalizing problem scores were significantly higher among chil-
dren whose fathers had a lower education level. Externalizing problem scores: compulsory
education, 6.83±3.05; upper secondary school, 6.70±3.57; up to four years at college/university, 6.78±3.65; more than four years at college/university, 5.10±3.34; p < 0.001.
In contrast, externalizing problem scores were significantly higher among girls in lower
income households than those of girls in higher income households. Externalizing problem
scores: < JPY 3 million, 5.57±3.73; JPY 3–5 million, 4.53±3.33; JPY 6–8 million, 4.43±2.59; � JPY 9 million, 3.41±2.33; p = 0.002. In regard to maternal education level, externalizing prob- lem scores were significantly higher among girls whose mothers had a lower education level.
Externalizing problem scores: compulsory education, 6.67±2.50; upper secondary school, 4.93 ±3.34; up to four years at college/university, 4.54±2.92; more than four years at college/univer- sity, 3.75±2.65; p = 0.003. In regard to paternal education level, externalizing problem scores were significantly higher among girls whose fathers had a lower education level. Externalizing
problem scores: compulsory education, 6.72±3.77; upper secondary school, 4.78±2.82; up to four years at college/university, 4.60±2.65; more than four years at college/university, 3.90 ±2.85; p < 0.001.
The link between interparental conflict and children’s emotional/
behavioral problems
The associations between interparental conflict and children’s outcomes were assessed using
multiple linear regression with CPS and SDQ scores as outcomes (see Tables 3 and 4). First, in
regard to externalizing problems, Table 3 shows the results of the multivariate analysis of the
relationships between interparental conflict and emotional/behavioral problems. Regarding
boys, in Model 1—which included individual predictors—all predictors (i.e., cooperation,
avoidance-capitulation, stonewalling, verbal aggression, physical aggression, and child involve-
ment) were significantly associated with externalizing problems. In Model 2—which contained
all predictors—cooperation was significantly inversely associated with externalizing problems
(β = -0.117, p = 0.022), while avoidance-capitulation (β = 0.171, p = 0.001) and verbal aggres- sion (β = 0.164, p = 0.014) were significantly positively associated with externalizing problems. In contrast, only some of the predictors—namely, cooperation, stonewalling, and physical
aggression—in Model 1 were significantly associated with externalizing problems in girls. In
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Model 2, cooperation was significantly inversely associated with externalizing problems (β = -0.106, p = 0.048).
Second, in regard to internalizing problems, Table 4 shows the results of the multivariate
analysis of the relationships between interparental conflict and emotional/behavioral
Table 3. The link between interparental conflict and children’s externalizing problems.
Model 1 Model 2
B SE β p Adjusted R2 B SE β p Adjusted R2
Boys
Cooperation -0.159 0.050 -0.156 0.002 0.065 -0.118 0.051 -0.117 0.022 0.150
Avoidance-Capitulation 0.114 0.031 0.178 <0.001 0.073 0.110 0.032 0.171 0.001
Stonewalling 0.217 0.050 0.209 <0.001 0.086 0.011 0.068 0.010 0.876
Verbal Aggression 0.141 0.033 0.211 <0.001 0.090 0.111 0.045 0.164 0.014
Physical Aggression 0.351 0.104 0.164 0.001 0.068 0.169 0.136 0.071 0.214
Child Involvement 0.193 0.055 0.170 0.001 0.069 0.033 0.070 0.029 0.634
Girls
Cooperation -0.113 0.043 -0.132 0.010 0.070 -0.090 0.046 -0.106 0.048 0.106
Avoidance-Capitulation 0.046 0.027 0.087 0.092 0.059 0.025 0.028 0.047 0.382
Stonewalling 0.128 0.044 0.150 0.004 0.072 0.056 0.061 0.066 0.362
Verbal Aggression 0.051 0.028 0.091 0.073 0.065 0.017 0.041 0.031 0.671
Physical Aggression 0.172 0.078 0.114 0.028 0.062 0.084 0.095 0.054 0.377
Child Involvement 0.071 0.048 0.075 0.139 0.057 0.011 0.063 0.012 0.859
Note. Model 1: Each predictor was entered individually to assess its univariate association with each outcome (Cooperation, Avoidance-Capitulation, Stonewalling, Verbal Aggression, Physical Aggression, and Child Involvement). Model 2: All predictors (Cooperation, Avoidance-Capitulation, Stonewalling, Verbal Aggression,
Physical Aggression, and Child Involvement) were entered simultaneously.
Abbreviations: Unstandardized coefficient (B), Standard Error (SE), Standardized coefficient (β), p-value (p).
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0222021.t003
Table 4. The link between interparental conflict and children’s internalizing problems.
Model 1 Model 2
B SE β p Adjusted R2 B SE β p Adjusted R2
Boys
Cooperation -0.100 0.042 -0.119 0.019 0.028 -0.092 0.045 -0.110 0.040 0.105
Avoidance-Capitulation 0.051 0.026 0.098 0.053 0.025 0.035 0.028 0.065 0.216
Stonewalling 0.069 0.043 0.081 0.111 0.022 -0.011 0.061 -0.013 0.857
Verbal Aggression 0.033 0.028 0.060 0.234 0.020 0.042 0.040 0.077 0.290
Physical Aggression 0.132 0.086 0.077 0.125 0.022 0.134 0.117 0.069 0.253
Child Involvement 0.035 0.046 0.038 0.449 0.017 -0.052 0.060 -0.057 0.390
Girls
Cooperation -0.098 0.041 -0.124 0.017 0.035 -0.077 0.031 -0.095 0.012 0.120
Avoidance-Capitulation 0.098 0.026 0.197 <0.001 0.060 0.081 0.026 0.165 0.002
Stonewalling 0.191 0.040 0.247 <0.001 0.079 0.109 0.056 0.139 0.044
Verbal Aggression 0.081 0.027 0.156 0.003 0.049 0.021 0.037 0.041 0.572
Physical Aggression 0.193 0.073 0.139 0.008 0.038 0.107 0.087 0.074 0.221
Child Involvement 0.125 0.045 0.143 0.006 0.040 0.005 0.058 0.005 0.937
Note. Model 1: Each predictor was entered individually to assess its univariate association with each outcome (Cooperation, Avoidance-Capitulation, Stonewalling, Verbal Aggression, Physical Aggression, and Child Involvement). Model 2: All predictors (Cooperation, Avoidance-Capitulation, Stonewalling, Verbal Aggression,
Physical Aggression, and Child Involvement) were entered simultaneously.
Abbreviations: Unstandardized coefficient (B), Standard Error (SE), Standardized coefficient (β), p-value (p).
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problems. Regarding boys, only one predictor—cooperation—was significantly associated
with internalizing problems in Model 1. In Model 2, cooperation was significantly inversely
associated with internalizing problems (β = -0.110, p = 0.040). Analyses of data pertaining to girls produced different results. In Model 1, all predictors (cooperation, avoidance-capitula-
tion, stonewalling, verbal aggression, physical aggression, and child involvement) were signifi-
cantly associated with internalizing problems. In Model 2, cooperation was significantly
inversely associated with internalizing problems (β = -0.095, p = 0.012), while avoidance-capit- ulation (β = 0.165, p = 0.002) and stonewalling (β = 0.139, p = 0.044) were significantly posi- tively associated with internalizing problems.
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between specific interparental con-
flict tactics and children’s internalizing and externalizing problems with a focus on gender.
The findings of this study highlight the significant impact of specific interparental conflict on
children’s behavioral problems, demonstrating that these vary according to the gender of the
child. More specifically, multivariate analysis targeting boys revealed that cooperation was
significantly inversely associated with both externalizing and internalizing problems, while
avoidance-capitulation and verbal aggression were significantly positively associated with
externalizing problems. In contrast, multivariate analysis targeting girls revealed that coopera-
tion was significantly inversely associated with both externalizing and internalizing problems,
while avoidance-capitulation and stonewalling were significantly positively associated with
internalizing problems. In short, this study found that constructive marital conflict was
inversely related to externalizing and internalizing problems in both boys and girls. However,
boys tend to respond to specific destructive marital conflict by manifesting adjustment prob-
lems in terms of externalizing behavior, whereas girls tend to respond with internalizing
behavior. These findings are consistent with those of previous studies [3].
It is worth noting that destructive marital conflict associated with behavioral problems not
only includes active conflict such as verbal aggression, but silent conflict such as avoidance-
capitulation and stonewalling. Numerous studies have focused on active conflict tactics—such
as verbal hostility and physical aggression—as forms of destructive conflict or understood
destructive conflict as including both active and silent conflict tactics (e.g., stonewalling and
withdrawal or avoidance). Such studies have suggested that these types of destructive marital
conflict tactics negatively influence child outcomes [5–7,17]. However, this study found that
active conflict tactics and silent conflict tactics—such as avoidance-capitulation and stonewal-
ling—were independently significantly associated with behavioral problems. Avoidance-capit-
ulation involves passive strategies that minimize confrontation and maintain harmony at all
costs. Stonewalling is the passive-aggressive withdrawal from active conflict through behavior
such as sulking and giving one’s partner the “silent treatment.” These strategies are relatively
ineffective because they do not allow the underlying source of conflict to be resolved [24]. In
contrast, cooperation is an effective conflict strategy that involves an attempt to “meet half-
way,” ensuring that the needs of both individuals are met. The spillover hypothesis suggests
that the negativity or positivity experienced in the interparental relationship may influence or
transfer to the parent-child relationship [32,33]. As such, silent conflict tactics may be trans-
ferred to the parent-child relationship. A lack of parental emotional or physical availability
interferes with the child’s ability to form secure attachments and receive emotional support
[34,35]. Defined as the omission of sufficient care to meet a child’s basic needs, child neglect is
a major risk factor in psychopathology, including the development of internalizing and
Gender variation in the effects of marital conflict on children
PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0222021 September 12, 2019 9 / 14
externalizing problems [36,37]. Poor parent-child relationships put children at risk of perva-
sive and cumulative consequences across their lifespan.
In this study, destructive marital conflict tactics—specifically, avoidance-capitulation and
verbal aggression—were significantly positively associated with externalizing problems in
boys. In contrast, destructive marital conflict tactics—specifically, avoidance-capitulation and
stonewalling—were significantly positively associated with internalizing problems in girls. Sev-
eral mechanisms are likely to be different between girls and boys in terms of the relationship
between marital conflict and the risk of developing emotional and behavioral problems.
Although both boys and girls are vulnerable to the effects of marital conflict, gender appears to
moderate the potential outcomes and processes by which this relationship occurs [3]. In other
words, the reaction of children to marital conflict tends to differ according to gender. As
noted, prior research has suggested that boys tend to respond to marital conflict by manifest-
ing adjustment problems in terms of externalizing behavior, whereas girls tend to respond
with internalizing behavior [3]. In this study, destructive marital conflict tactics were signifi-
cantly positively associated with externalizing problems in boys, while destructive marital con-
flict tactics were significantly positively associated with internalizing problems in girls. The
literature suggests some explanations for this.
Gender differences in the socialization process may affect how boys and girls form apprais-
als and coping behaviors [38]. Boys may be more reactive to stress and better observers of mar-
ital conflict than girls [3]. Although there is evidence that boys and girls are similarly exposed
to their parents’ conflicts, some studies suggest that parents may feel boys are more resilient
than girls and consequently feel less obligated to shield them from conflict [39]. In this study,
while boys and girls are similarly exposed to their parents’ conflicts, boys tend to be exposed to
more strict parenting attitudes than girls (see S1 Table). Boys have also been found to be more
likely to propose task-oriented interventions for parental conflict than girls [40]. Providing a
perspective on how parents’ relationships influence the relationship experiences of children in
adulthood, social learning theory suggests that children learn social behavior, in part, from
observing their caregivers’ social interactions and relationships [41]. Indeed, boys exposed to
marital conflict may be more likely to replicate parental anger [42]. Boys may feel especially
threatened by marital conflict and react with aggressive behavior, often responding to adult
anger with aggression and anger. As such, appraisals of coping efficacy and the threat posed by
marital conflict may be more crucial for boys because boys tend to respond with adjustment
and behavioral problems.
In contrast to boys, girls exposed to marital conflict tend to evidence more internalizing
symptoms. Girls are more likely to react to marital conflict with fear [40] and have been found
to exhibit distress in the face of adult anger [43]. It may be that the change from a secure to
insecure environment and the resultant loss of emotional security as a result of marital conflict
feels especially threatening to girls [3]. They tend to respond to stress with self-blaming behav-
ior and other cognitions associated with internalizing symptoms. As such, evidencing a ten-
dency toward self-blame for parental conflict, girls tend to develop internalizing problems.
Limitations
This study has several limitations. First, the study design was a cross-sectional study. The
direction of effect between marital conflict and children’s behavioral problems is usually
assumed to be that marital conflict impacts upon children’s behavior. However, some studies
have reported bidirectional relations between interparental conflict and children’s behavioral
problems, noting that a child’s problematic behavior is likely to interact with interparental
conflict in predicting developmental outcomes [44]. There are also bidirectional relations
Gender variation in the effects of marital conflict on children
PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0222021 September 12, 2019 10 / 14
between a child’s irritable and defiant temperament and destructive marital conflict. For
instance, temperamental precursors, physiological responsivity to stress, and other child char-
acteristics have been shown to have a reciprocal relationship with the environment to influ-
ence the development of psychopathology [45,46].
Second, in this study, the CPS and SDQ were only completed by caregivers, likely introduc-
ing reporting bias. Regarding the CPS, questionnaire data are a less robust means of quantify-
ing parental discipline than direct observation. Consequently, the completion of a single
observation opinion-based questionnaire can be considered a crude and potentially inadequate
means of obtaining data about marital conflict. Future research should explore marital conflict
strategies from the perspectives of both children and parents. Regarding the SDQ, reports
from other parties—such as teachers—may help in evaluating the dynamics more accurately.
As such, future research should combine teacher and caregiver SDQ scores.
Third, as the purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between specific
interparental conflict tactics and children’s internalizing and externalizing problems, we
did not include parenting styles in the analysis. Future studies should look at whether specific
marital conflict resolution mechanisms match parenting styles in order to test this spillover
hypothesis.
Fourth, the impact of certain marital conflicts may be influenced by cultural differences.
For instance, a previous study verifying differences in how marital conflict is operationalized
in Japan versus the United States suggests that the degree of conjugal verbal and physical
aggression was exceedingly high in American spouses followed by Japanese couples [47]. This
finding may reflect the nature of culture in each society, specifically an expressive American
culture and reserved Japanese culture. As this study considers Japanese subjects, it may under-
estimate the impact of verbal and physical aggression on children in comparison to other
countries.
Fifth, this study’s definition of ‘parents’ did not require that they be biologically related to
the subject. The mixed sample—comprising both biologically related and unrelated parents—
may have influenced the link between specific marital conflict tactics and children’s mental
health symptoms. As such, further study should consider biological relatedness.
Finally, this study did not use a genetically informed design, preventing the exploration of
genetics or biological factors. This may be worth pursuing in future research. For instance,
marital stress is associated with elevations in child cortisol levels and the later emergence of
behavioral developmental symptoms [48]. It is also important to consider child temperament
as it may moderate the association of family adversities with child outcomes or may act in
reciprocal relationships with these factors. As such, further study should take genetic factors
into account.
Conclusion
The findings of this study demonstrate that interparental conflict is associated with children’s
behavioral problems. This study found that constructive marital conflict tactics were signifi-
cantly inversely associated with externalizing and internalizing problems in both boys and
girls. Destructive marital conflict tactics—specifically avoidance-capitulation and verbal
aggression—were significantly positively associated with the development of externalizing
problems in boys. In contrast, destructive marital conflict tactics—specifically avoidance-capit-
ulation and stonewalling—were significantly positively associated with the development of
internalizing problems in girls. Thus, it is important to distinguish specific marital conflict tac-
tics and consider the child’s gender when examining the relationship between marital or inter-
parental conflict and its impact on a child’s psychological well-being. Furthermore, active
Gender variation in the effects of marital conflict on children
PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0222021 September 12, 2019 11 / 14
conflict tactics (such as verbal aggression) and silent conflict tactics (such as avoidance-capitu-
lation and stonewalling) were independently significantly associated with externalizing or
internalizing behavioral problems. The associations between child symptoms and exposure to
specific marital conflict highlight the need for effective prevention and intervention strategies.
Moreover, these findings add to the substantial literature documenting the relationship
between family processes and the development of disruptive behavior disorders in children. It
is vital that further efforts to understand the association between marital conflict and child
development focus on how parents express and manage conflicts in their relationship.
Supporting information
S1 Table. Exposure to marital conflict and parenting practices by child gender.
(DOCX)
Acknowledgments
We are grateful for the cooperation and insights of the children, parents, and preschool teach-
ers who participated in this study. We are also grateful to the two reviewers, Dr. Ilana Seff and
Dr. Bree Akesson, for their insightful comments and suggestions.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization: Rikuya Hosokawa.
Data curation: Rikuya Hosokawa.
Formal analysis: Rikuya Hosokawa.
Funding acquisition: Rikuya Hosokawa.
Investigation: Rikuya Hosokawa.
Methodology: Rikuya Hosokawa.
Project administration: Toshiki Katsura.
Resources: Rikuya Hosokawa.
Software: Rikuya Hosokawa.
Supervision: Toshiki Katsura.
Validation: Rikuya Hosokawa.
Visualization: Rikuya Hosokawa.
Writing – original draft: Rikuya Hosokawa.
Writing – review & editing: Toshiki Katsura.
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