Assessment 3

Exposure to Media Violence and Young Children with and Without Disabilities: Powerful Opportunities for Family-Professional Partnerships

Elizabeth J. Erwin Æ Naomi Morton

Published online: 14 August 2008

� Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2008

Abstract There is growing concern regarding the amount

and type of violence that young children are exposed to on

a daily basis. Through media, popular toys and video

games violent images are consistently present in children’s

lives starting at a very young age. This paper discusses (a)

the growing presence of young children’s exposure to

media violence, (b) the influence of media violence on

early childhood development and well-being, (c) the

impact of media violence on young children with disabil-

ities, and (d) recommendations for addressing this national

dilemma within the context of family-professional part-

nerships. A list of related web resources is also included.

Keywords Media violence � Young children with disabilities � Family-professional partnerships � Early childhood � Television and screen activities

Given recent advances in technology, changes in laws reg-

ulating television programming, and society’s commitment

to freedom of speech, young children are now exposed to

violent images more than ever before. Violence seeps into

the homes of most American families on a daily basis. There

is a dramatic increase in the number of children who directly

experience or witness family and community violence

(Osofsky 1995, 2001; Groves 1997). However, the focus in

this article is on violence that young children consistently

witness in their own homes through television programs,

videos, computer games and other products that are specif-

ically designed and marketed to them as entertainment.

‘‘Media is the most ubiquitous source of violence encoun-

tered by the majority of children’’ (Groves 1997, p. 272).

The Rise of Media Violence in the Lives of Young

Children

Television and other screen activities (e.g., computer games,

videos, the Internet) have become highly accessible to young

children. This raises questions about the quality and intensity

of the material to which young children are exposed.

Escalating Exposure to Media Violence in Early

Childhood

Young children and their families don’t have to leave their

homes to witness violence; it is brought directly into their

homes on a daily basis. Before young children even enter

kindergarten they are exposed to over 4,000 h of television

viewing (American Psychological Association 2005) and

by the time they leave elementary school children will have

witnessed 8,000 murders and 100,000 acts of violence on

just television alone (Levin 1998). Nearly 1,000 children’s

television programs were analyzed in Britain and results

revealed that 39% contained violence including 4,000

violent acts involving shootings and other forms of phys-

ical assault (Gunter and Harrison 1997).

In a study examining violence in over 2,700 television

programs across 23 channels of broadcast networks, public

broadcasting, and cable, Wilson et al. (2002) found that

nearly 7 out of 10 children’s shows contain some type of

E. J. Erwin (&) Department of Early Childhood, Elementary & Literacy

Education, College of Education and Human Services, Montclair

State University, Upper Montclair, NJ 07043, USA

e-mail: [email protected]

N. Morton

Newark, NJ, USA

123

Early Childhood Educ J (2008) 36:105–112

DOI 10.1007/s10643-008-0276-x

physical aggression and that, within a typical 1 h children’s

program, a child is likely to witness one violent act every

4 min. In comparisons between children’s and other types

of television programming, the study authors concluded

that ‘‘violence is more prevalent and concentrated in pro-

grams specifically targeted to viewers under age 13’’

(p. 27). The amount of violence in shows specifically

aimed at young children is inexcusable.

Incredibly, the average American child spends approx-

imately 1,023 h per year watching television which is

greater than the 900 h children spend in school each year

(National Center for Children Exposed to Violence 2003).

The Children’s Defense Fund (2004) suggested that the

28 h a week that the average child spends watching tele-

vision may be in part influenced by inadequate supervision

that more than six million children receive at home after

school. And these figures do not include the amount of time

children are engaged in other screen activities such as the

Internet, computer games, movies, and videotape viewing.

Unfortunately, it is not only American children for

whom television plays a dominant role in their lives. At the

General Conference of UNESCO in Paris, a study includ-

ing 23 countries around the world revealed that 93% of

children have access to a television set and that television

is the most influential source of information and enter-

tainment, superseding books and radio (Groebel 1997).

Further, this report suggested children around the world

spend at least 50% more time viewing television, than any

other activity including homework, outside play, time with

family, reading or computer time.

The frequency of violent or unrealistic acts children are

witnessing in the media continues to rise. For example,

about 20 years ago when violence in the media was not

nearly as rampant as it is today, the television show Power

Rangers depicted approximately 100 acts of violence in

one single episode (Levin 1998). The increasing presence

of violence in media is not just a problem in the United

States. In Israel when the World Wrestling Federation was

introduced to Israeli television, ‘‘the widespread imitation

of the wrestlers’ behavior produced an epidemic of serious

playground injuries’’ (Cantor 2000, p. 4).

In addition to the violence young viewers witness

through children’s television programs, they are also

exposed to violence through the news media. During din-

nertime over two-thirds of American families watch the

nightly news on television—thus conveying to children who

are too young to fully understand what they are exposed

to—that the world is a scary place and that world leaders as

well as terrorists often choose violence to solve conflicts

(Levin 1998, 2003a, b). In addition, children may be

exposed to another form of media violence that has grown

in popularity within recent years. Reality shows are such as

Survivor and Fear Factor, while not specifically marketed to

young children, deliberately glorify aggression, distrust and

fear. Even if children are not directly exposed to this type of

‘‘adult entertainment’’, they are still indirectly impacted via

overheard discussions about it from the adults in their lives

or innocently exposed to commercials advertising these

shows. Given the frequency of hostile and aggressive ima-

ges in the media and other entertainment sources, exposure

to media violence in early childhood has become a rapidly

growing problem in today’s society.

Marketing, Advertising and Selling of Violence to

Young Children

In addition to a steady rise in the frequency and the graphic

nature of violence depicted in the media, there is also a

sharp increase in inappropriate and dangerous products that

are marketed and advertised specifically to children. This

trend of violence in children’s media has been directly

attributed to the 1984 deregulation of children’s television

programming by the Federal Communication Commission

(Levin 1998). It was around this time that Levin observed

children’s shows were developed for the blatant and sole

purpose of selling toys and other products to young audi-

ences. In the year following deregulation, nine out of ten of

the top-selling toys were associated with children’s tele-

vision shows (Levin 2003a, b) and there was an estimated

500–700 percent increase in the sale of war-related toys

immediately following deregulation (Carlsson-Paige and

Levin 1988).

Levin (2003a) noted ‘‘link-ups between violent media and

toys have become an established part of childhood culture’’

(p. 15). This is a serious concern because these link-ups

encourage young children to recreate the violent images in

their play that they have just witnessed on the screen. Young

children are seduced into playing out scenarios with their

action figures or other media-related products that are often

inappropriate, unrealistic and aggressive.

Clearly, there are television stations and other media

agencies that responsibly choose to air programs that are

age-appropriate, educational and free of violence. How-

ever, the steady rise of violence in the media for young

children, coupled with the excessive amount of commercial

advertising and marketing of media-based products must

be examined within the context of how it is affecting the

lives of young children.

The Impact of Media Violence in Early Childhood

The body of research as well as national calls for action and

position papers written about the negative effects of media

violence on young children’s health and well-being con-

tinue to mount.

106 Early Childhood Educ J (2008) 36:105–112

123

What Do Professional Organizations Have to Say

About Media Violence?

National professional organizations are in full agreement

when it comes to the impact of media violence in early

childhood—the effects are harmful and detrimental to

children’s development. The American Academy of Pedi-

atrics (2000) issued a joint statement on the impact of

media violence, which was created by six major medical

and mental health organizations. In this report 1,000

research studies were reviewed over a 30-year time period

leading to the conclusion that children’s viewing of media

violence increases aggressive values and behaviors. Fur-

thermore, this position clearly articulated that the impact of

children’s witnessing violence through entertainment

sources such as the Internet, television, and video games is

‘‘measurable and long-lasting’’ (p. 1). In 1997, the Amer-

ican Academy of Pediatrics launched a national public

campaign called Media Matters to assist doctors, families

and children in an effort to raise awareness about the sig-

nificant impact that media has on health and well-being

(http://www.aap.org/advocacy/mmcamp).

The National Association for the Education of Young

Children (NAEYC) (1994) also maintained that there is

solid evidence suggesting the negative effect of young

children’s exposure to violence on their growth and

development. NAEYC’s position statement (1994) clearly

denounced media violence aimed at young children in any

form. This is not only a reflection of society’s acceptance

of violence but also a substantial contributor to the crisis

that has been created in this country.

According to reports by the Surgeon General’s Scientific

Advisory Committee on Television and Social Behavior,

which was created in 1969, as well as the National Institute

of Mental Health, the three primary effects of media vio-

lence on children are (a) reduced sensitivity to the pain and

anguish of others, (b) increased fearfulness, and (c) greater

aggressive or violent behavior toward others (American

Psychological Association 2005). In addition, The Ameri-

can Psychological Association (2005) maintained that

existing research suggests that exposure to violence in the

media leads to increased acceptance of aggressive attitudes

and behavior in children. Similarly, a 10 year review of the

research published in the journal of the American Academy

of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, summarized that

exposure to media violence led to more violent and

aggressive behavior as well as high risk behavior (e.g.,

drug and tobacco use, early sexual activity) in children and

youth (Villani 2001).

These reports clearly support the notion that media

violence has a detrimental impact on growing children’s

attitudes and behavior toward themselves as well as others.

Young children are receiving negative and inaccurate

information through media and toys about the world in

which they live and these images are shaping their per-

ceptions and actions.

How Does Media Violence Influence Children’s Health

and Well-Being?

Research suggested that television violence does increase

children’s real-life aggressive behavior, beliefs, and atti-

tudes (Boyatzis and Matillo 1995; Gentile et al. 2003; Paik

and Comstock 1994; Wood et al. 1991). In a 15-year lon-

gitudinal study, Huesmann et al. (2003) found that

exposure to media violence in childhood is not only asso-

ciated with aggressive behavior, but is also a predictor of

violent behavior. There is also a greater tolerance for

aggression in others when children are exposed to televi-

sion violence (Molitor and Hirsch 1994).

In addition to researchers, early childhood advocates

argue that witnessing media violence can have a negative

impact on children’s perceptions of reality. Children under

the age of eight are not prepared for or developmentally

capable of discriminating reality from fantasy or under-

standing the subtleties in communication, action or

motivation (NAEYC 1994). Because children are still

developing emotionally and cognitively they are likely to

imitate what they see on television without distinguishing

reality from fantasy thus becoming more indifferent and

less empathetic about aggression in the real world (Groves

1997; Kirsh 2005). Re-enacting in play what is seen in the

real world is how children begin to make sense of the world

around them. Imaginative play, which is a necessary and

vital part of early childhood learning, is negatively

impacted as the result of frequent exposure to violence in

the media (NAEYC 1994).

Media violence also demonstrates to young children that

aggression is an acceptable and viable option for solving

problems, abuses of power are necessary in interpersonal

relationships, and a distorted appeal of war (Carlsson-Paige

and Levin 1988). Young children are understandably con-

fused by the mixed messages they receive when parents or

practitioners tell them ‘‘not to hit’’ or to ‘‘take turns’’ when

they are routinely watching conflicts being resolved in the

media through aggressive behavior.

Repeated exposure to violent and negative images can

potentially influence young children’s sense of self. Fre-

quent stereotypical images in the media strongly influence

how young children perceive others, and ultimately

themselves.

As an African American man raising a son, I believe

that I have a responsibility to be a good role model to

my son and to dispel many of the negative stereotypes

that are attached to all men but particularly to African

Early Childhood Educ J (2008) 36:105–112 107

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American men. Television suggests that men are either

beer-drinking sportsmen, boring intellectuals, or

brutes who use violence to solve conflicts. The media

stereotype African American men even further: They

are portrayed as super athletes, individuals who are

addicted to alcohol and/or other drugs, or criminals.

They are rarely seen as caring, sensitive, responsible

people. …Our children are getting the wrong message. U.S. society glorifies violence, sexism and racism. We

must give our children the right messages about loving

and caring. (Beach 1996, p. 29)

Fear can be instilled into the minds of children at a very

young age through screen activities. Specifically, the

‘‘misconstrued world presented on television is seen as a

mirror of reality and [young] viewers become convinced

they will fall victim to violence’’ (Simmons et al. 1999,

p. 150). There is a strong possibility that new generations

of children will grow up feeling emotionally or physically

unsafe as well as develop irrational fears about the world in

which they live because of repeated exposure to media

violence during the early childhood years.

What is Known About Media Violence and Young

Children with Disabilities

Although the research and general consensus in the field

indicate the negative impact of media violence in early

childhood, it is less clear what influence this exposure has

on young children with disabilities. It is estimated that

approximately 3 million young children in this country

receive the diagnosis of oppositional defiant disorder

(characterized by frequent outbursts of anger and resent-

ment, displays of cruel and malicious behavior and a

recurrent loss of temper) and that this number is on the rise

(Webster-Stratton 1997). There also has been a remarkable

increase in the diagnosis of children with attention deficit

hyperactivity disorders (ADHD) that was virtually unheard

of 30 years ago. Kabat-Zinn (2005) suggested that the

recent increase in children with ADD is strongly linked to

media activities that are far too socially isolating, fast-

paced, sedentary and submissive.

Children watch hour upon hour of television or dis-

appear into computer games rather than play in

neighborhoods, in part simply to insure their safety, in

part out of habit, addiction and boredom. Their atten-

tion while watching television is an entirely passive,

asocial attention, a perpetual distraction from their own

interiority, and from embodied relationality (p. 144).

There is a limited but growing body of research on

factors related to media and ADHD and related disorders.

Landau et al. (1992) found that in the presence of toys,

boys with ADHD spend half as much time as typically

developing boys attending to television but when the toys

were not present, there were no differences. Olson et al.

(2007) conducted a review of the research on the effects of

violent video games on children in grades 3–12. One of the

themes they discovered was that many adolescent boys,

especially those with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Dis-

order symptoms, used violent video games as a way to

release anger. Interestingly, they also reported that for at

least one teenager with a learning disability, proficiency at

playing violent video games was a source of self-esteem

and gave him more positive standing in his peer group.

Very little, if any, research has been done on the

exposure to media violence in preschool children with

disabilities. There are a small but growing number of

studies on elementary aged children and adolescents with

disabilities and media violence. Grimes et al. (1997) con-

ducted a study of 8–12 year olds with Disruptive Behavior

Disorders (DBD). Brief scenes of movie violence were

shown to typically developing children and to children with

DBD. The children with DBD showed less emotional

response to the victimization of an innocent person and had

a greater tendency to consider the violence justified.

Gadow and Sprafkin (1993) conducted a series of

studies over a 10 year period on the effects of violent

television on students who had been classified by the

school district as emotionally disturbed or learning dis-

abled, and seemed to fit the criteria for DBD. They found

that children with emotional disabilities watched more

violent television than their typical peers and they also

favored characters that were aggressive. In addition, chil-

dren with emotional disabilities had less understanding that

what is portrayed on television is not always realistic. This

emerging body of work indicates that there is a dearth of

knowledge in the area of exposure to media violence and

children with disabilities, particularly in the early years.

Challenging the FCC, toy manufacturers and the media

may appear to be a daunting, although not impossible, task.

However, collaboration between early childhood profes-

sionals and families can be a powerful and immediate start in

tackling the current challenge of young children’s exposure

to media violence. By establishing a partnership between

families and practitioners, there are more opportunities to

better understand the dilemma, share information, work

cooperatively to find solutions and advocate together for the

best possible outcomes for young children. As Turnbull et al.

(2006) suggested, partnerships occur when ‘‘families and

professionals truly collaborate to achieve a collective wis-

dom’’ (p. 141). In other words, when information is shared

openly and honestly, families and professionals can trust and

inform one another—which ultimately leads to shared

decision-making and positive outcomes.

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Family-Professional Partnerships in Addressing

Children’s Exposure to Media Violence

Early childhood practitioners are perfectly positioned to

engage in a meaningful dialogue with families. The

importance and effectiveness of family-professional col-

laboration in working with young children with

disabilities has been well established (Bailey 2001; Dunst

2002; Turnbull et al. 2006). Early childhood educators

and related service providers often deliver services in

home-based and other natural environments so that

conversations about media and toys can evolve naturally.

These conversations about the presence and influence of

media violence are essential because families as well as

practitioners may not be aware of how witnessing vio-

lence can influence child development or might not be

informed of the extent or severity of the problem.

Likewise, educators and related service providers may

not fully understand the significant impact of exposure to

media violence on young children. Table 1 offers

resources that address media violence in early childhood.

The following list provides suggestions for how families

and professionals together can begin to eliminate media

and toy violence in young children’s lives.

Become Informed

Professionals and families are becoming increasingly

knowledgeable about the violence in media for young

children. As a result, information can continue to be shared

so that families, professionals, and caregivers begin to take

action. Table 1 provides a list of helpful web resources that

adults can turn to learn more about the influence of media

violence on young children and how to join others in

calling a stop to this problem.

Explore the Role and Influence of Media in One’s Life

Conversations between professionals and families about

television and other screen activities can be an excellent

place to examine the role that media plays in their lives.

Levin (1998) suggested the following questions to help

families as well as practitioners to identify the level of

importance and impact that media has on their personal lives.

• How do media contribute to and detract from my own life outside of work?

• Are there things about the media in my life that I would like to change? How can I begin to make the changes?

Table 1 Web resources related to media violence and young children

American Academy of Pediatrics

The American Academy of Pediatrics Children’s Health Topics on Internet and Media Use assists families in understanding the influence that

media has on children’s health and well-being and helps them and their children to make more informed decisions and become educated

consumers of media

http://www.aap.org//healthtopics/mediause.cfm

Coalition for Quality children’s media

The mission for this national, not-for-profit organization is to teach children critical viewing skills and to increase the visibility and availability of

quality children’s programs

http://www.cqcm.org

Campaign for a Commercial-Free Childhood

http://commericalexpoitation.com

This national coalition of health care professionals, educators, advocacy groups and concerned parents is aimed at countering the harmful effects

of marketing to children through action, advocacy, education, research, and collaboration

National Institute on Media and the Family

The world’s leading and most respected research-based organization on the positive and harmful effects of media on children and youth. This

group is an independent, nonpartisan, nonsectarian, and nonprofit organization that focuses on research, education, and advocacy

http://www.mediaandthefamily.org

PBS Parents’ Guide to Children and Media

The Public Broadcasting System (PBS) is a private, non-profit media organization that operates the nation’s 349 public television stations. A

trusted community resource, PBS uses the power of noncommercial television, the Internet and other media to enrich the lives of all Americans

through quality programs and education services that inform, inspire and delight

http://www.pbs.org/parents/issuesadvice/childrenandmedia/

Truce

This group, known as Teachers Resisting Unhealthy Children’s Entertainment, is comprised of educators around the country who are committed

to understanding how media and toys influence children’s learning and play

http://www.truceteachers.org

Early Childhood Educ J (2008) 36:105–112 109

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• How well do I understand the media and how does it affect my world?

• How can my own experiences with media and feelings about its role in my life help me better understand what

the experiences of media are like for children?

Examine of the Presence and Influence that Media Has

in a Child’s Life

Professionals and families can discuss all the screen

activities the child engages in during the week including

television, computer games, and videos. It would be helpful

to learn how often (times per week), when (what time

during the day), why (the appeal), and how long (hours per

day) the child is engaged in these various activities, and

with whom these activities typically occur. The types of

screen activities and toys the child chooses and the influ-

ence, if any, on his or her behavior, play, or interactions

would provide additional insight into the role of media in

the child’s life. It would also be important to learn what

children do and who they are with when they are not

engaged in screen activities.

Keep Children Safe by Creating Clear Boundaries on

What They See and Do

Young children rely on the adults who care for them to

keep them feeling physically and emotionally safe. Fami-

lies and practitioners can work together to create

environments that are free from violent and negative

images. Guarding children from news reports, reality

shows or other media that is intended for adults and older

children is one way of reducing the violence in which

children are exposed. The v-chip is one piece of technology

that is designed to help parents do this. All televisions

manufactured after January 2000 must include the v-chip,

which enables the television to detect the rating of a given

program and enables parents to block shows with certain

ratings. This is not a foolproof solution, as some shows

may contain violence, especially cartoon violence, yet be

rated as appropriate for children. It is, however a tool

parents can use to help protect children from accidental

exposure to inappropriate content. Unfortunately, it

appears to be seriously underutilized. One study found that

only fifteen percent of households have activated the chip

in their television sets (MacQueen 2007).

In addition, families and professionals can work closely

together to make informed and conscious consumer choi-

ces about the toys and materials that are bought and

brought into the child’s life. Adults can choose not to

purchase toys that reinforce stereotypes, violence or neg-

ative images such as media link ups as discussed earlier.

Uncover the Hidden or Overt Messages in Screen

Activities and Toys

Originally established as criteria for the selection of books

and materials, Neugebauer (1993) proposed some of the

following questions that may also be helpful in assisting

families and professionals in determining the underlying

messages in television and other media entertainment.

These questions include:

• Do the characters in the story have personalities like real people?

• Do the characters seem authentic in the way they act and react?

• Do the characters have power over their own lives? • Are the characters respectfully representing ethnic, age,

cultural, economic, ability and sexual differences?

• Do the characters treat others with respect, kindness and dignity?

• Do the characters solve problems in ways that are cooperative?

• Are there hidden messages that are demeaning in any way or that reinforce stereotypes?

• Does this show or toy as a whole represent the diversity of humankind?

In order to raise these questions with their children

parents must be aware of what shows their children enjoy,

and join their children in at least some of their TV viewing.

Simply watching together and discussing the actual

implications of any violence seen on the screen can have a

significant influence on reducing the impact of viewing

violence (Kirsh 2005).

Classroom teachers can support parents’ efforts to help

children think critically about media violence by planning

instruction on thinking critically about what is viewed and

how to make educated choices about television programs

as well as raising awareness about the how the portrayal of

violence in the media is typically unrealistic. Rosenkoetter

et al. (2004) conducted an experimental program where

they taught 31 lessons over the course of a school year on

these themes to first, second and third graders. They found

at the end of the year the girls had reduced their viewing of

violent television programs, reduced identification with

violent heroes, and reported less enjoyment of violent

television. While the boys did not decrease the amount of

violence they viewed, their aggressive behavior (as repor-

ted by classmates) did decrease significantly.

Involve Children in Making Wise Decisions

Depending on the age of the child as well as cultural beliefs

about child participation in decision-making, practitioners,

family members and children can work together to reflect

110 Early Childhood Educ J (2008) 36:105–112

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upon the choices that are made regarding screen activities.

Levin (1998) suggested teaching children to make their own

choices about television, films, videos and computer games.

For example, Levin advises helping children develop

advance planning for their screen time which involves

determining how much and when to watch programs or play

video games as well as making informed choices about the

specific content of these activities. There may be guidelines

established such as ‘‘I can watch two shows each day’’, ‘‘I

can’t turn on the television just because I am bored’’, ‘‘I

won’t turn on the television during a play date’’ or ‘‘I can

watch one show or play one computer game right before

dinner’’. Other guidelines might involve ‘‘I will not watch a

show where someone hurts another person or animal’’. In

essence, it is about setting up clear guidelines so that children

are actively involved in making healthy choices about the

quality and quantity of what they are watching.

Promote Peace

Children can be encouraged every day to choose peace in

their lives. Levin (2003b) suggested that adults have a pri-

mary responsibility to help children deal with the violence

that they see and hear. Families and professionals can engage

in conversations with children about negative or harmful

images on television. This can assist children in under-

standing, at an age-appropriate level, that the images are

inaccurate or mean-spirited. Instead of focusing on violence,

practitioners and families can work together to emphasize

peaceful approaches in daily activities and routines. There

are countless naturally occurring opportunities to discuss

peace with young children each and every day. For example,

children can be taught how to offer a trade to a sibling or

classmate as opposed to taking a toy with which someone

else is playing. Initiating honest and open conversations with

children about television shows when one character sud-

denly hurts another can be an important step in promoting

peace instead of tolerating violence.

As society becomes more enamored by cruel reality

shows, action-packed violent films, and aggressive computer

games, early childhood professionals and families must

work together to protect the youngest members of society.

Establishing and maintaining strong partnerships between

families and professionals must occur so collective and

informed actions are taken. This can ultimately lead the way

in creating environments where young children can feel safe,

happy and part of a cooperative community.

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