Article Review 2 for Counseling

Featured Research

Exploring the Job Duties That Impact School Counselor Wellness: The Role of RAMP, Supervision, and Support

Nicole M. Randick 1 , Shannon Dermer

2 , and Rebecca E. Michel

3

Abstract The authors examined the predictive relationship between the performance of job duties informed by the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) National Model and overall wellness of school counselors. We also examined the relationship between organizational factors (i.e., Recognized ASCA Model Program, supervision, and support), the frequency of job duties performed, and overall wellness. The results revealed a predictive relationship between some of the job duties school counselors perform and wellness. We provide implications for school counseling practice and training programs.

Keywords ASCA National Model, organizational factors, school counselors, wellness

Wellness, defined as a way of life that fosters “the optimum

state of health and well-being that each individual is capable of

achieving” (Myers, Sweeny, & Witmer, 2000, p. 252), is a

central foundation of the school counseling profession. The

American School Counselor Association’s ASCA Ethical Stan-

dards for School Counselors require school counselors to per-

form duties identified by the ASCA National Model (ASCA,

2012, 2016; Standard B.3.c) and to “monitor their emotional

and physical health and practice wellness to ensure optimal

professional effectiveness” (Standard B.3.f). Therefore, school

counselors must balance the dual task of supporting their stu-

dents’ academic, social/emotional, and career development

while also ensuring that their own wellness needs are being

met (ASCA, 2012, 2016; Bryant & Constantine, 2006; Limberg,

Lambie, & Robinson, 2016).

School counselors must balance the dual task of

supporting their students’ academic, social/

emotional, and career development while also

ensuring that their own wellness needs are being

met.

When their job duties are aligned with ASCA National

Model (2012) guidelines, school counselors feel more sup-

ported, have a greater commitment to their work, and experi-

ence increased job satisfaction (Baggerly & Osborn, 2006;

Pyne, 2011; Scarborough & Culbreth, 2008). Increased support

and supervision create a culture of professional wellness and a

more positive work environment for school counselors

(Bernard & Goodyear, 2009). Specifically, school counselors

who received supervision reported feeling more supported in

their role, competent, and empathetic with students (Moyer,

2011; Murphy & Kaffenberger, 2007; Young & Lambie, 2007).

Although school counseling supervision has been shown to

foster a supportive working environment, other organizational

factors make working in a school challenging. For example,

when school counselors have incomplete information about

how to perform their jobs, they experience role ambiguity,

which can result in decreased job satisfaction, stress, impair-

ment, and burnout (Cervoni & DeLucia-Waack, 2011; Leu-

werke, Walker, & Shi, 2009; Wilkerson & Bellini, 2006).

Other challenges include increased demands, unmanageable

caseloads, working in unsupportive systems, high levels of

emotional exhaustion, and receiving little to no supervision

(Culbreth, Scarborough, Banks-Johnson, & Solomon, 2005;

McCarthy, Kerne, Calfa, Lambert, & Guzmán, 2010; Moyer,

2011; Wilkerson & Bellini, 2006).

ASCA encourages programs to align school counselors’

work responsibilities with the ASCA National Model (2012),

and fully aligned programs can apply to receive Recognized

1 Adler Graduate School, Minnetonka, MN, USA 2

Governors State University, University Park, IL, USA 3 DePaul University, Chicago, IL, USA

Corresponding Author:

Nicole M. Randick, EdD, Adler Graduate School, Minnetonka, MN 55343, USA.

Email: [email protected]

Professional School Counseling Volume 22(1): 1-11

ª 2019 American School Counselor Association

Article reuse guidelines: sagepub.com/journals-permissions

DOI: 10.1177/2156759X18820331 journals.sagepub.com/home/pcx

ASCA Model Program (RAMP) designation (Young & Kaf-

fenberger, 2011). School counseling programs that are aligned

with the ASCA National Model have a positive impact on

student academic success (Gruman, Marston, & Koon, 2013;

Salina et al., 2013; Wilkerson, Pérusse, & Hughes, 2013); how-

ever, little is known about such programs’ impact on school

counselors. The purpose of this study was to understand how

school counselors function within their expected roles and what

organizational factors (i.e., RAMP, supervision, and support),

if any, predicted school counselors’ overall wellness.

School Counselor Job Duties

The role of the school counselor has evolved over the past

several decades from one that primarily provided guidance

services to one that administers comprehensive school counsel-

ing programs that target academic, career, and social/emotional

development through leadership, advocacy, collaboration, and

accountability (ASCA, 2012; Education Trust, 2009; Pérusse &

Goodnough, 2001). The ASCA National Model (2003, 2005,

2012) established the framework for how a school counselor

should function within a comprehensive school counseling

environment, specifying both appropriate and inappropriate

roles. Reasonable job duties include a combination of counsel-

ing, consultation, curriculum, and coordination duties (ASCA,

2012; Scarborough, 2005). These roles include providing indi-

vidual and small group counseling services to students, con-

sulting with stakeholders, conducting classroom lessons,

analyzing disaggregated data, designing interventions, and

facilitating school-wide responses for crisis management

(ASCA, 2012; Campbell & Dahir, 1997; Scarborough, 2005).

The ASCA National Model (2012) recommends that school

counselors spend 80% or more of their time in direct or indirect student services. When secondary school counselors spent

more time engaging in ASCA-aligned duties, they were more

skilled in implementing support systems that directly impacted

student’s academic, social/emotional, and career development

(Olsen, Parikh-Foxx, Flowers, & Algozzine, 2016).

Although the ASCA National Model (2012) clearly speci-

fies appropriate and inappropriate job duties of school counse-

lors, many work within school districts where they are required

to engage in noncounseling duties such as scheduling, main-

taining records, and testing (Hatch & Chen-Hayes, 2008; Leu-

werke et al., 2009; Moyer, 2011; Perera-Diltz & Mason, 2008;

Scarborough & Culbreth, 2008). Some administrators and other

educators may not be aware of school counselors’ training,

appropriate job duties, or how they can make a difference in

students’ lives. Principals may be unaware of the ASCA

National Model or may have different perceptions about the

duties of school counselors (Bringman, Mueller, & Lee, 2010;

Leuwerke et al., 2009; Pérusse, Goodnough, Donegan, &

Jones, 2004). For example, McCotter and Cohen (2013) found

that New Jersey middle school counselors and principals had

differing perceptions about student needs across academic,

social/emotional, and career domains. When administrators,

teachers, and students expect school counselors to engage in

duties misaligned with their expertise, counselors are unable to

complete the duties they were trained to perform (DeMato &

Curcio, 2004; Gruman et al., 2013; Scarborough & Culbreth,

2008). Spending time on these noncounseling activities pre-

vents school counselors from engaging in counseling duties,

which have been shown to have the greatest impact on stu-

dents’ academic, social/emotional, and career outcomes (Carey

& Dimmitt, 2012; Lapan, Gysbers, & Kayson, 2006; Olsen

et al., 2016; Wilkerson et al., 2013; Whiston, Tai, Rahardja,

& Eder, 2011).

Organizational Factors

The changing landscape of school missions, goals of school

counseling programs, and student needs (Gruman et al.,

2013; Olsen et al., 2016), coupled with difficult caseloads

(Lawson, 2007; McCarthy et al., 2010), further increase the

demands put on school counselors. For example, the recom-

mended student-to-school-counselor caseload is 250:1; how-

ever, the average caseload is 482:1, nearly twice the

recommended ratio (ASCA, 2017). Maintaining large case-

loads while being responsible for meeting the academic,

social/emotional, and career needs of all their students can be

overwhelming for school counselors (Gruman et al., 2013;

McCarthy et al., 2010; Salina et al., 2013). One way to contend

with increasing demands and complexity of caseloads is to

support school counselors through professional supervision.

The quality and quantity of supervision contributes to school

counselor wellness. Supervision is recognized as an effective

mediator of stress and work overload for school counselors

(Moyer, 2011; Page, Pietrzak, & Sutton, 2001; Young & Lam-

bie, 2007). When school counselors received supervision based

on the ASCA National Model with clearly defined role func-

tions within a supportive environment, they experienced

reduced stress and increased wellness (Lambie & Williamson,

2004; Moyer, 2011; Young & Lambie, 2007). Baggerly and

Osborn (2006) found that the combination of performing

ASCA National Model school counseling duties and receiving

supervision increased school counselors’ job satisfaction and

decreased attrition. Similarly, school counselors reported

reduced role stress when they felt their job duties matched their

expectations and training and they had peer supervision avail-

able (Culbreth et al., 2005). On the other hand, lack of super-

vision was a predictor for increased feelings of incompetence,

showing frustration with the school setting, and a lack of com-

passion for students (Moyer, 2011; Page et al., 2001; Witmer &

Granello, 2005).

When school counselors are supported in their role, they are

more likely to perform ASCA-aligned duties that foster posi-

tive student outcomes. For example, in their development of a

school-wide student support program, All Hands on Deck, Sal-

ina and colleagues (2013) found the establishment of trust from

administration was a precipitating factor in school counselors’

increased performance of student support services. Similarly,

2 Professional School Counseling

Gruman and colleagues (2013) found the collaboration

between teachers, administrators, and school counselors to be

essential for school counselors to meet the mental health needs

of high school students.

In summary, when counselors lack wellness in their own

lives, they are no longer able to “nurture wellness in others”

(Lawson, Venart, Hazler, & Kottler, 2007, p. 6). Studies on

school counselor wellness have been sparse even though

decreased wellness has been found to reduce the quality of

services that counselors provide (Wilkerson & Bellini, 2006;

Young & Lambie, 2007). Research suggests that when school

counselors work within a comprehensive school counseling

program and perform supervised duties for which they are

trained, they have a greater impact on student outcomes, are

more satisfied at work, experience less stress, report greater

wellness, and remain in their jobs longer (Clemens, Milsom,

& Cashwell, 2009; Salina et al., 2013). However, when schools

do not support a comprehensive school counseling program,

this contributes to role ambiguity, conflict, and stress for school

counselors attempting to navigate the roles they were trained to

perform (Cervoni & DeLucia-Waack, 2011; Curry & Bick-

more, 2012; Page et al., 2001).

Method

The purpose of this study was to investigate how school coun-

selors function within their roles and what organizational fac-

tors (i.e., RAMP, supervision, and support), if any, were most

influential in leading to increased levels of school counselor

wellness. Building from existing literature, we used the follow-

ing questions to guide the research study. First, does a positive

relationship exist between performance of actual counseling

duties (i.e., counseling, consultation, curriculum, and coordina-

tion) and overall wellness functioning among school counse-

lors? Second, does a negative relationship exist between

performance of noncounseling duties (e.g., clerical, fair share,

administrative) and overall wellness functioning among school

counselors? Third, does performance of actual counseling

duties (i.e., coordination, curriculum, counseling, and consulta-

tion) predict overall wellness functioning among school coun-

selors? Fourth, do organizational demographic factors (i.e.,

working at an RAMP school, supervision, and the degree to

which the counselor feels supported) predict overall wellness

and performance of actual counseling duties?

Derived from the above research questions, the following

hypotheses guided the inquiry:

� Hypothesis 1: A positive relationship exists between the performance of counseling duties (i.e., counseling

[Hypothesis 1a], consultation [Hypothesis 1b], curricu-

lum [Hypothesis 1c], and coordination [Hypothesis 1d])

and overall wellness functioning.

� Hypothesis 2: A negative relationship exists between performance of noncounseling duties (e.g., clerical, fair

share, administrative) and overall wellness functioning.

� Hypothesis 3: The performance of actual counseling duties (i.e., coordination [Hypothesis 3a], curriculum

[Hypothesis 3b], counseling [Hypothesis 3c], and con-

sultation [Hypothesis 3d]) predicts overall wellness

functioning.

� Hypothesis 4: Organizational demographic factors (i.e., working at an RAMP school [Hypothesis 4a], supervi-

sion [Hypothesis 4b], and the degree to which the coun-

selor feels supported [Hypothesis 4c]) predict frequency

of performing counseling duties (i.e., counseling, con-

sultation, curriculum, coordination).

Participants and Procedures

We invited more than 25,000 school counselor members of the

ASCA via e-mail to voluntarily participate in the study, which

was approved by the institutional review board. We also dis-

tributed a separate e-mail invitation to several state, university,

and professional school counselor listserves. We posted two

follow-up messages requesting participation approximately 1

week and 3 weeks after the initial invitation. Participants were

asked to provide informed consent through the SurveyMonkey

online data collection system and complete the School Coun-

selor Activity Rating Scale (SCARS; Scarborough, 2005), the

Five-Factor Wellness Inventory (FFWEL; Myers & Sweeney,

2005b), and an organizational and descriptive questionnaire.

Of the possible respondents, 124 individuals began the sur-

vey and only 108 successfully completed the survey scales;

these constituted the sample employed for this study. Most

participants worked full-time (n ¼ 98, 90.74%) in elementary schools (n ¼ 41, 37.96%), middle schools (n ¼ 24, 22.22%), or high schools (n ¼ 43, 39.81%). Experience levels ranged from less than 5 years of experience (n ¼ 34, 31.48%), to between 5 and 10 years of experience (n ¼ 37, 34.26%), to more than 10 years of experience (n ¼ 37, 34.26%). Participants identi- fied as female (n ¼ 103, 95.37%) and male (n ¼ 5, 4.63%), and race was reported as Caucasian (n ¼ 96, 88.89%), African American (n ¼ 8, 7.41%), and Hispanic (n ¼ 3, 2.78%); one participant chose not to report race.

Measures

SCARS. The SCARS (Scarborough, 2005) measures the fre- quency of how school counselors actually spend their profes-

sional time versus how they would prefer to spend their time

performing professional activities informed by the ASCA

National Model. The 48-item scale was designed to closely

follow the recommendations of best practices found in the

ASCA National Model and the results of a literature review

of the common activities of counselors, including (a) counsel-

ing, (b) consultation, (c) curriculum, (d) coordination, and

(e) other activities (e.g., clerical, fair share, and administrative

duties). Participants rate each item on a Likert-type scale that

ranges from 1 (I never do this) to 5 (I routinely do this). The

Randick et al. 3

SCARS scores can be reported as total or mean scores for both

actual and preferred activities (Scarborough, 2005). For this

study, we used only the actual job duties portion of the scale

to collect frequency ratings. Cronbach’s as for this sample were as follows: .86 for counseling, .82 for consultation, .94

for curriculum, and .89 for coordination.

Five-Factor Wellness Inventory. The FFWEL measures compo- nents of wellness in the Indivisible Self Model of Wellness

(IS-Wel; Myers & Sweeney, 2005a). The IS-Wel was devel-

oped based on the Wellness Evaluation of Lifestyle (WEL;

Myers & Sweeney, 2005a), which is a holistic model of well-

ness grounded in Adlerian theory. This includes the idea that

the self is composed of the mind, body, and soul, which

together influence the meaning we give to our experiences

within our social context. Exploratory and confirmatory factor

analyses of the WEL yielded a single-order factor, total well-

ness, 5 second-order factors (i.e., Creative Self, Coping Self,

Essential Self, Physical Self, and Social Self), and 17 third-

order factors (e.g., love, nutrition, self-care).

The FFWEL was designed to be taken in approximately 15

min, with different versions for children, adolescents, and

adults. We used the adult version (FFWEL-A) of the instru-

ment in this study; it includes 7 demographic items and 91

items measuring each of the wellness factors in the IS-Wel.

The first section of the FFWEL consists of items focused

around the areas of wellness. These items elicit information

from individuals about behaviors, emotions, and feelings

relating to one’s health, quality of life, and longevity. The

items appear in random order and each is answered using a

Likert-type scale, ranging from 1 (strongly agree) to

4 (strongly disagree). Calculating the scores produces a score

in the range of 25–100, with higher scores indicating higher

levels of wellness (Myers & Sweeney, 2005b). For the pur-

pose of this study, we used only the total wellness score

because it encompasses a total score for all the five factors

of wellness, representing the level of wellness for optimal

functioning (Myers & Sweeney, 2005b).

Analysis of consistency (using Cronbach’s a) performed during the development of the FFWEL supported the overall

wellness score and each of the secondary factors. The authors

of the instrument reported a high degree of construct validity

(Myers & Sweeney, 2005b) and examined internal consistency

again after a 5-year period. Myers and Sweeney (2005b) estab-

lished and reported reliabilities for the subscales as follows:

Total Wellness ¼ .98, Creative Self ¼ .96, Coping Self ¼ .89, Social Self ¼ .96, Essential Self ¼ .95, and Physical Self ¼ .90.

Organizational and descriptive questionnaire. We developed the 12-item questionnaire based on existing literature, guiding

research questions, and feedback from experts in the field of

school counseling. The choices for most questions were yes,

somewhat, or no. Some items required respondents to choose

from a list of answers. The questionnaire was designed to col-

lect information specific to RAMP, supervision, support, and

training. Table 1 presents the questions and results. The ques-

tionnaire also included questions about grade level, employ-

ment status, years of experience (reported above), and what

activities counselors felt least supported in performing

(reported in results).

Data Analysis

We analyzed the data using SPSS Version 22.0. A preliminary

analysis of the data included identifying (a) if the assumptions

of the analyses were met, (b) reliability and validity of the

measures, (c) distributions of the variables, and (e) the extent

of missing data (Cone & Foster, 2006). We also screened the

data for skewness, kurtosis, and outliers. The sample showed

skewness between �.8 and þ.8 and kurtosis between �2 and þ2, showing no issues. Missing data analyses found that 16 of the respondents did not respond to all of the questions; we

discarded those responses, leaving our sample size relatively

small (N ¼ 108). We computed the mean and standard devia- tion (SD) for the Total Wellness score from the FFWEL and

calculated frequencies and percentages for all descriptive and

organizational variables.

Table 1. Frequencies and Percentages of Organizational Variables.

Organizational Variable Sample Percent Frequency

Working in RAMP school Yes 4.63 5 No 95.37 103

Implement ASCA National Model Yes 19.44 21 Somewhat 58.33 63 No 22.22 24

Training in ASCA National Model Yes 48.15 52 Somewhat 25 27 No 26.85 29

Familiar with ASCA National Model Yes 85.19 92 Somewhat 12.96 14 No 1.85 2

School support for ASCA National Model Yes 25 27 Somewhat 55.56 60 No 19.44 21

Supervision No 47.22 51 Licensed school counselor 4.63 5 School principal 38.89 42 Teacher 0 0 A faculty member 1.85 2 Other 7.41 8

Supervision based on ASCA National Model Yes 7.37 7 No 92.63 88

Note. RAMP ¼ Recognized ASCA Model Program; ASCA ¼ American School Counselor Association.

4 Professional School Counseling

To answer the first and second hypotheses, we performed a

bivariate correlation by examining participants’ mean subscale

scores from the SCARS (Scarborough, 2005) and the overall

wellness score from the FFWEL (Myers & Sweeney, 2005b).

An analysis of the Pearson correlation coefficients determined

the degree to which the variables were related. We analyzed the

remaining two hypotheses using regression analysis to deter-

mine which variables best predicted the criterion variable. To

determine the distinct contribution of actual counseling duties

from the SCARS (i.e., counseling, consultation, curriculum,

and coordination) on the overall wellness score from the

FFWEL (Myers & Sweeney, 2005b), we used a hierarchal

regression. And to analyze each predictor variable (i.e., RAMP

school, supervision, and support) to determine whether they

contributed any new information in predicting the criterion

variable (Total Score on the Actual Job Duties Scale), we used

a backward stepwise regression.

Results

On the SCARS, school counselors reported the frequency of

performing actual job duties. The job activities reported most

often included coordination duties (M ¼ 37.97, SD ¼ 10.08), followed by “other” noncounseling duties (M ¼ 30.34, SD ¼ 6.96) and counseling duties (M ¼ 29.29, SD ¼ 6.612). The least reported activities were curriculum duties (M ¼ 24.45, SD ¼ 10.078) and consulting duties (M ¼ 24.30, SD ¼ 5.29).

We also collected information on the ASCA National Model

activities in which school counselors felt least supported. The

least supported activities, listed in rank order, were delegating

clerical or noncounseling duties (n ¼ 77, 71.3%), appropriate use of counselor time (n ¼ 63, 58.3%), ability to carry out classroom guidance curriculum (n ¼ 41, 38%), collecting and analyzing data (n ¼ 34, 31.5%), preventive role in school dis- cipline (n ¼ 33, 30.6%), system support duties (n ¼ 31, 28.7%), ability to provide individual student planning (n ¼ 20, 18.5%), and responsive services/interventions (n ¼ 16, 14.8%).

Hypothesis 1

To test the first hypothesis, we conducted Pearson correlations

for each counseling-related subscale of the SCARS (Scarbor-

ough, 2005) and the total wellness score on the FFWEL (Myers

& Sweeney, 2005b). Employing Cohen’s (2008) effect size

cutoffs, we found a small to moderate positive relationship

between counseling and wellness, r(106) ¼ .234, p < .05, thus supporting Hypothesis 1a. Similarly, a small to moderate pos-

itive relationship between consultation and wellness, r(106) ¼ .216, p < .05, provided support for Hypothesis 1b. With regard

to Hypothesis 1c, we found a small yet significant positive

relationship between curriculum and wellness, r(106) ¼ .013, p < .05. Finally, we found the strongest relationship in this

sample between coordination and wellness, r(106) ¼ .35, p < .01, and this moderate positive relationship provided support

for Hypothesis 1d. All in all, our results fully supported

Hypotheses 1a, 1b, 1c, and 1d.

Hypothesis 2

To assess Hypothesis 2, we calculated a Pearson correlation

between total wellness score on the FFWEL (Myers & Swee-

ney, 2005b) and noncounseling duties (i.e., other activities) as

measured by the SCARS (Scarborough, 2005). The total well-

ness score and noncounseling duties were not significantly

related, r(106) ¼ .019, p ¼ .848.

Hypothesis 3

To evaluate Hypothesis 3, we conducted a hierarchical regres-

sion to determine whether any of the four counseling-related

subscales from the SCARS (Scarborough, 2005) could be used

to predict total wellness on the FFWEL (Myers & Sweeney,

2005b). We entered the variables one at a time in the model to

determine predictability and potential changes to the value of

the coefficient of determination. Based on theory, the order of

entry was coordination, curriculum, counseling, and consulta-

tion. The entry of each variable added the controlling effect of

that variable and how the new variable interacted with the

previous to determine overall predictability. The results are

displayed in Table 2.

The first model, which included only coordination, showed

a significant result in determining wellness, B ¼ 0.230, t(107) ¼ 30.38, p < .001. That model accounted for 11.7% of varia- bility explained in the criterion variable, providing support for

Hypothesis 3a. Adding curriculum to the model increased the

overall variation explained to 13.6%, but curriculum itself was not shown to be a significant predictor, B ¼�0.131, t(107) ¼ �1.819, p ¼ .072. The third variable, counseling, did not change the overall value of r

2 , still contributing 13.6% of the

variation explained. The variable itself was not seen to be

Table 2. Prediction of Counseling Duties on Wellnessa From Regression Analysis.

Model Variable b SE t p r2 p

1 Intercept 70.397 2.317 30.388 <.001 .117 <.001 Coordination 0.230 0.059 3.901 <.001

2 Intercept 71.588 2.384 30.034 <.001 .136 <.001 Coordination 0.283 0.065 4.340 <.001 Curriculum �0.131 0.072 �1.819 .072

3 Intercept 70.128 2.801 25.035 <.001 .136 <.001 Coordination 0.248 0.074 3.350 .001 Curriculum �0.156 0.076 �2.045 .043 Counseling 0.116 0.117 0.993 .323

4 Intercept 70.264 3.031 23.180 <.001 .128 .001 Coordination 0.252 0.080 3.163 .002 Curriculum �0.156 0.077 �2.034 .044 Counseling 0.123 0.129 0.947 .346 Consultation �0.019 0.156 �0.121 .904

aCriterion variable ¼ wellness.

Randick et al. 5

significant, B ¼ 0.116, t(107) ¼ 0.993, p < .323. Last, we introduced consultation into the overall model; this caused the

overall variance explained to drop to 12.8%. Consultation also was shown not to be a significant predictor of wellness, B ¼ �0.019, t(107) ¼�0.121, p < .904. Coordination was the only model shown to be significant and thus fully supported Hypoth-

esis 3a.

Hypothesis 4

To test Hypothesis 4, we used a backward stepwise regression

with an exclusion level of .05 to determine whether any orga-

nizational demographics (i.e., RAMP, supervision, and sup-

port) could be used to predict frequency of counseling duties

(i.e., counseling, consultation, curriculum, and coordination),

as measured by the SCARS (Scarborough, 2005). Table 3 lists

the results of the unstandardized coefficients. The stepwise

modeling showed significance (p < .05) for all subscales. Sup-

port was the only significant variable for all subscales of the

SCARS (Scarborough, 2005). Support was a significant pre-

dictor for counseling, B ¼ 1.08, t(107) ¼ 3.06, p ¼ .003; consulting, B ¼ 0.74, t(107) ¼ 2.53, p ¼ .013; curriculum, B ¼ 1.87, t(107) ¼ 3.878, p < .001; and coordination, B ¼ 11.22, t(107) ¼ 5.203, p < .00. Thus, Hypothesis 4b was fully sup- ported. RAMP was a significant predictor for coordination, B ¼ 2.56, t(107) ¼ 2.796, p ¼ .006, and counseling, B ¼ 5.81, t(107) ¼ 2.02, p ¼ .046, thus providing partial support for Hypothesis 4a. Supervision did not show any predictability

on the SCARS (Scarborough, 2005) subscales; thus, Hypoth-

esis 4c was not supported. As such, 11% of the variation of the frequency of performing counseling duties can be attributed to

support and RAMP, 5% of the variation in consultation can be attributed to support, 12% of the variation in curriculum to support, and 25% of the variation in coordination to support and RAMP.

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to investigate which factors

predict levels of wellness among school counselors. Partici-

pants reported engaging in the following activities (listed in

rank order) as defined by the SCARS (Scarborough, 2005):

coordination, noncounseling duties, counseling, curriculum,

and consultation. This is consistent with previous reports by

school counselors that they engage in some combination of

ASCA-endorsed and nonendorsed activities (Moyer, 2011;

Perera-Diltz & Mason, 2008) and identify their main role as

coordinating and maintaining comprehensive school counsel-

ing programs that have an impact on student achievement

(Wilkerson et al., 2013). The performance of coordination

duties was the only significant predictor of wellness and the

majority of the participants in this study performed these duties

more frequently than other responsibilities. In general, the

wellness scores from this study were elevated compared to the

general norm group for the instrument, which suggests school

counselors in this study had high levels of overall wellness.

The performance of coordination duties was the

only significant predictor of wellness and the

majority of the participants in this study performed

these duties more frequently than other

responsibilities.

School Counseling Duties

Coordination duties were the most frequently performed duty

and a significant predictor for increased wellness, accounting

for 11.7% of variation in wellness. Although small, this result warrants further discussion. Coordination duties include activ-

ities such as conducting needs assessments, working with an

advisory committee to analyze needs based on data, coordinat-

ing school-wide efforts to respond to crisis, and informing

parents and stakeholders about the role and function of the

school counselor (ASCA, 2012; Scarborough, 2005). Overall,

coordination duties tend to be self-driven, collaborative, and

action oriented, with immediately visible results, making it

more likely for counselors and others to see the impact of their

work. When school administrators trust and empower school

counselors to coordinate their activities, counselors are able to

meet the academic, social/emotional, and career needs of their

students. Salina and colleagues (2013) concluded that when

school counselors became more autonomous and performed

duties aligned with coordination, such as parent outreach,

teacher and administrator collaboration, and use of data to

make decisions, they were viewed as leaders in the school. The

nature of coordination duties may contribute to overall well-

ness through helping school counselors feel like leaders, com-

petent, and in control. Previous research has indicated that a

lack of control in one’s job may jeopardize one’s wellness

(Culbreth et al., 2005; Young & Lambie, 2007).

We found a small to moderate positive relationship between

counseling duties and wellness and a moderate positive rela-

tionship between consultation duties and wellness. Counseling

duties include those in which counselors performed individual

and small group counseling services to students on personal,

Table 3. Prediction of RAMP, Supervision, and Support on Frequency of Counseling Duties.

Predictor Variables

Constant Support RAMP Supervision r2

Counseling 23.53 1.08* 5.81* — .11 Consultation 20.57 0.74* — — .05 Curriculum 14.95 1.87* — — .12 Coordination 24.43 11.22* 2.56* — .25 Wellness — — — — —

Note. RAMP ¼ Recognized ASCA Model Program; ASCA ¼ American School Counselor Association. *Significant at a ¼ .05.

6 Professional School Counseling

family, and academic issues (ASCA, 2012). Consultation

duties include those duties aligned with consulting with school

staff, community agencies, and administrators concerning stu-

dent behavior, development, and support services (Dinkmeyer,

Carlson, & Michel, 2016). Although counseling and consulta-

tion duties were not the most frequently performed duties,

participants reported receiving a higher level of support for the

associated activities (e.g., preventive role in school discipline,

system support duties, ability to provide individual student

planning, and responsive services). Baggerly and Osborn

(2006) suggested that school counselors might experience frus-

tration when they did not perform socially oriented duties like

counseling and consulting, leading to stress and decreased

career satisfaction. In this study, the performance of counseling

and consultation duties did not predict wellness and was not the

most frequently performed duties. Perhaps if they were per-

formed more often, the results would have been stronger, given

their positive relationships.

Curriculum duties include conducting classroom lessons on

personal growth, personal safety, career development, and con-

flict resolution (Scarborough, 2005); this category had a small

relationship with wellness. Curriculum duties were not shown

to be a significant predictor of wellness. These were second to

last in reports of frequency of duties performed and more than

one third of school counselors (n ¼ 41, 38%) reported a lack of support to carry out classroom lessons. Time demands, per-

forming noncounseling activities, and lack of support have

been cited as possible reasons school counselors perform cur-

riculum duties less often (Gruman et al., 2013; Moyer, 2011).

Further, the lack of training on conducting classroom lessons

has been linked to higher levels of role conflict and ambiguity

(Culbreth et al., 2005). Training in carrying out activities that

increase student achievement, such as classroom curriculum,

may increase school counselors’ self-efficacy and sense of

importance in their role (Wilkerson et al., 2013; Young &

Kaffenberger, 2015), thus impacting their wellness.

Noncounseling Duties

In reviewing the mean scores from the SCARS instrument,

noncounseling duties were the second most frequently per-

formed duties behind coordination duties. Other studies

(Moyer, 2011; Perera-Diltz & Mason, 2008) also found that

school counselors spend a significant amount of time on non-

counseling duties. The school counselors in this study reported

feeling least supported in delegating clerical work (n ¼ 77, 71.3%) and managing appropriate use of their time (n ¼ 63, 58.3%), which may account for this higher frequency. Even though the performance of inappropriate duties was higher than

some appropriate duties (i.e., counseling, curriculum, and con-

sulting), and school counselors may prefer to engage in activ-

ities aligned with the ASCA National Model (Scarborough &

Culbreth, 2008), this did not adversely affect the wellness of

the respondents in this study. The majority of participants (n ¼ 74, 68.6%) had more than 5 years of experience as a school

counselor, which may have affected their level of comfort with

their job duties. As individuals feel more confident in their

roles, they have greater self-efficacy and self-confidence, lead-

ing to higher overall well-being (Bryant & Constantine, 2006;

Scarborough & Culbreth, 2008). The high level of noncounsel-

ing duties may have more of a negative impact on the wellness

of school counselors with less experience. Furthermore, a sali-

ent part of counselor wellness (Bryant & Constantine, 2006;

Lawson & Myers, 2011) is often related to the perceived ability

to perform duties that make an impact on others, regardless of

the duties being appropriate or not (Baggerly & Osborn, 2006).

Even though the performance of inappropriate

duties was higher than some appropriate

duties, . . . this did not adversely affect the wellness of the respondents in this study.

Organizational Variables

Although none of the organizational variables were significant

in predicting overall wellness, several organizational variables

were predictive of performing duties aligned with the ASCA

National Model (ASCA, 2012). The degree to which school

counselors felt supported by administration to use the ASCA

National Model was a significant predictor for the increased

performance of all counseling, consulting, curriculum, and

coordination duties. Among survey respondents, 80.56% (n ¼ 87) felt supported in their schools to implement the job duties

outlined within the ASCA National Model. Furthermore,

77.77% (n ¼ 84) implemented or somewhat implemented the ASCA National Model within their work. These results are

consistent with Scarborough and Culbreth’s (2008) finding that

school counselors who attempted to incorporate the national

standards (Campbell & Dahir, 1997) in their practice engaged

in outcome-producing tasks, were supported by others, and

were more likely to perform ASCA National Model duties.

These findings suggest that support is an important variable

in influencing the performance of job duties among school

counselors.

The degree to which school counselors felt

supported by administration to use the American

School Counselor Association National Model was

a significant predictor for the increased

performance of all counseling, consulting,

curriculum, and coordination duties.

Working in an RAMP school was a significant predictor for

performing coordination and counseling duties. As discussed

previously, the performance of coordination duties was found

to predict wellness. From this, we can infer that working in an

RAMP-designated school increased the likelihood of perform-

ing duties found to be predictive of increased wellness. Work-

ing in an RAMP-designated school was also predictive of the

Randick et al. 7

school counselor reporting more counseling duties than school

counselors in non-RAMP schools. Results also support previ-

ous research that school counselors working in RAMP schools

are more often using data to validate their counseling interven-

tions, sharing the results with stakeholders, and providing ser-

vices to bridge achievement gaps (Young & Kaffenberger,

2011). This is not surprising because data-informed decisions

and services have become the cornerstone of working within an

RAMP school (Wilkerson et al., 2013).

With regard to supervision, almost half of the respondents

(n ¼ 51, 47.22%) received no supervision and 38.89% (n ¼ 42) received supervision from their school principal. As to the

nature of supervision, 92.63% (n ¼ 88) of respondents reported not receiving supervision based on the ASCA National Model.

Supervision did not predict increased frequency in performing

the duties outlined within the SCARS instrument, nor was it a

predictor for wellness, perhaps because so few participants

were receiving supervision based on the ASCA National

Model. These results are consistent with the literature on the

reported lack of supervision school counselors receive (Moyer,

2011; Page et al., 2001). Other scholars have reported that a

lack of supervision in combination with difficult and stressful

caseloads (McCarthy et al., 2010) increased the demands on

school counselors and impacted their overall wellness (Law-

son, 2007; Young & Lambie, 2007). Although the current study

did not measure for caseloads, we found a pervasive lack of

supervision within this sample of school counselors. The power

differential between principals and school counselors (Arm-

strong, MacDonald, & Stillo, 2010; Lieberman, 2004) and per-

ceptions of appropriate and inappropriate duties (Bringman

et al., 2010; Leuwerke et al., 2009; Pérusse et al., 2004) may

influence the quantity and quality of supervision school coun-

selors receive.

Limitations

These results should be considered within the limitations of this

study. First, the use of self-report instruments does not control

for response bias related to respondents’ actual job duties or

levels of wellness. Moreover, participants who perceive them-

selves as well may have been more willing to take this survey.

Since its implementation, the ASCA National Model has

undergone minor modifications, and the SCARS survey was

based on the original 2003 model so may not account for these

changes. The generalizability of the results of this study also is

limited. School counselors were recruited from professional

organizations and state, university, and professional school

counselor listserves and may answer survey questions differ-

ently than school counselors who are not members of those

groups. The lack of gender and race diversity is also a limita-

tion, with the majority of participants identifying as female

and Caucasian. Future researchers should strive to include a

more diverse sample of participants. Despite these limitations,

the study offered several implications and areas for future

research that school counselors and counselor educators

should consider.

Implications for Practice, Training, and Research

The results of this study have several implications for improv-

ing school counselor wellness. First, school counselors appear

to enjoy duties that are self-driven, collaborative, action

oriented, and results driven. These characteristics are captured

in coordination duties such as coordination of interventions

with students, parents, teachers, and other significant stake-

holders. These activities may help decrease school counselor

burnout and may help create a more positive school environ-

ment. Having experienced, happier, more satisfied school

counselors in a positive school environment most likely means

students will receive higher quality services.

The results also have implications for training programs.

First, training programs may want to increase training in

wellness-enhancing skills such as taking leadership roles, coor-

dination activities, and increasing skills for performing curri-

culum duties. Participants struggled with curriculum duties and

might benefit from further training and professional develop-

ment on how to develop and implement classroom lessons,

especially in meeting the data-driven needs of students. Sec-

ond, training programs should include the skills school coun-

selors need to be able to identify support systems, evaluate

support levels, and create supportive environments. Investigat-

ing the variables of support (e.g., type, frequency, source) that

school counselors receive would provide additional insight into

the results of this study. School counselor training programs

might consider providing training on peer supervision and how

to support peers in the school setting because this might be the

primary means of support for school counselors. Third, school

counselors in training might consider seeking out more oppor-

tunities within their practicum and internship sites to learn

about data collection strategies, monitoring student progress,

and effectively communicating with administrators, parents,

and stakeholders.

Training programs may want to increase training in

wellness-enhancing skills such as taking leadership

roles, coordination activities, and increasing skills

for performing curriculum duties.

Learning how to collaborate with school administration is

an important skill. Research has indicated that administrative

support impacts a school counselor’s wellness and ability to

engage in ASCA National Model duties (Cervoni & DeLucia-

Waack, 2011; Young & Lambie, 2007). Thus, school counse-

lors must continue to partner with administrators to ensure they

can engage in the counseling duties for which they are trained.

School counselors should follow the ASCA’s (2012) recom-

mendation to complete the use-of-time assessment twice a year

to determine how much time they are spending in each

8 Professional School Counseling

component of the ASCA National Model. If they find they are

spending less than the recommended 80% in direct or indirect student services, they should address this with their adminis-

trator and use this information to create the school counselor’s

annual agreement.

Future researchers should continue to explore the potential

relationships among organizational factors, performance of

ASCA National Model duties, and wellness to better under-

stand wellness-enhancing activities. Future research could add

to the knowledge base of school counselor wellness by repro-

ducing this study with a larger population of school counselors

who are and are not implementing the ASCA National Model.

Longitudinal studies across RAMP and non-RAMP programs

could provide insight into what wellness dimensions are most

affected by this designation, especially methods used by school

counselors to make data-driven decisions. Investigating the

effects of school counselor performance and wellness on stu-

dent outcomes is important and would aid the field in under-

standing what school counselor activities increased their

wellness and enhanced student success. Qualitative studies on

school counselor wellness would help expand the meaning and

practice of wellness, including the impact of supervision and

support. Another area for future study is investigation of the

factors that help counselors contribute to the maintenance of

their training. Many of the school counselors in this study

reported not receiving supervision, and of those who received

supervision, the majority were not receiving supervision based

on the ASCA National Model. Principals were the primary

supervisors for the school counselors in this study; therefore,

another potential area of future study would be a survey of

principals on their comfort level with supervising school

counselors.

A study of school counselor self-care activities could pro-

vide insight into the internal variables that lead to increased

wellness, addressing Wilkerson and Bellini’s (2006) sugges-

tion that internal emotional variables impact stress that can lead

to burnout. Studies on the wellness challenges among different

work settings (e.g., elementary, middle, and high school) could

provide information regarding unique organizational stressors

(e.g., caseloads) and influences. This information could help

school counselors develop wellness-enhancing changes and

interventions within each setting. Finally, a crucial topic to

explore is how, despite all the stressors in the educational sys-

tem today, school counselors are able to maintain such a high

degree of overall wellness in their lives.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to

the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, author-

ship, and/or publication of this article

References

American School Counselor Association. (2003). The ASCA National

Model: A framework for school counseling programs. Alexandria,

VA: Author.

American School Counselor Association. (2005). ASCA National

Model: A framework for school counseling programs (2nd ed.).

Alexandria, VA: Author.

American School Counselor Association. (2012). ASCA National

Model: A framework for school counseling programs (3rd ed.).

Alexandria, VA: Author.

American School Counselor Association. (2016). ASCA ethical stan-

dards for school counselors. Alexandria, VA: Author. Retrieved

from https://www.schoolcounselor.org/asca/media/asca/Ethics/

EthicalStandards2016.pdf

American School Counselor Association. (2017). ASCA releases

updated student-to-school-counselor ratio data. Alexandria, VA:

Author. Retrieved from https://www.schoolcounselor.org/asca/

media/asca/Press%20releases/ASCA-Student-to-SC-Ratios-Press-

Release-10_2017-Final.pdf

Armstrong, S. A., MacDonald, J. H., & Stillo, S. (2010). School

counselors and principals: Different perceptions of relationship,

leadership, and training. Journal of School Counseling, 8, 2–27.

Retrieved from http://jsc.montana.edu/articles/v8n15.pdf

Baggerly, J., & Osborn, D. (2006). School counselors’ career

satisfaction and commitment: Correlates and predictors. Profes-

sional School Counseling, 9, 197–205. doi:10.1177/2156759X

0500900304

Bernard, J. M., & Goodyear, R. K. (2009). Fundamentals of clinical

supervision (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.

Bringman, N. M., Mueller, S. M., & Lee, S. M. (2010). Educating

future school principals regarding the role of professional school

counselors. Journal of School Counseling, 8. Retrieved from http://

jsc.montana.edu/articles/v8n3.pdf

Bryant, R. M., & Constantine, M. G. (2006). Multiple role balance, job

satisfaction, and life satisfaction in women school counselors. Pro-

fessional School Counseling, 9, 265–271. doi:10.1177/

2156759X0500900403

Campbell, C. A., & Dahir, C. A. (1997). The national standards for

school counseling programs. Alexandria, VA: American School

Counselor Association.

Carey, J., & Dimmitt, C. (2012). School counseling and student out-

comes: Summary of six statewide studies. Professional School

Counseling, 16, 146–153. doi:10.1177/2156759X0001600204

Cervoni, A., & DeLucia-Waack, J. (2011). Role conflict and ambigu-

ity as predictors of job satisfaction in high school counselors.

Journal of School Counseling, 9, 1–30. Retrieved from http://jsc.

montana.edu/articles/v9n1.pdf

Clemens, E. V., Milsom, A., & Cashwell, C. S. (2009). Using leader-

member exchange theory to examine principal-school counselor

relationships, school counselors’ roles, job satisfaction, and turn-

over intentions. Professional School Counseling, 13, 75–85. doi:

10.1177/2156759X0901300203

Cohen, B. H. (2008). Explaining psychological statistics (3rd ed.).

Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.

Randick et al. 9

Cone, J. D., & Foster, S. L. (2006). Dissertations and theses from start

to finish: Psychology and related fields. Washington, DC: Amer-

ican Psychological Association.

Culbreth, J. R., Scarborough, J. L., Banks-Johnson, A., & Solomon, S.

(2005). Role stress among practicing school counselors. Counselor

Education and Supervision, 45, 58–71. doi:10.1002/j.1556-

6978.2005.tb00130.x

Curry, J. R., & Bickmore, D. (2012). School counselor induction and

the importance of mattering. Professional School Counseling, 15,

110–122. doi:10.1177/2156759X1201500301

DeMato, D. S., & Curcio, C. C. (2004). Job satisfaction of elementary

school counselors: A new look. Professional School Counseling, 7,

236–245.

Dinkmeyer, D., Carlson, J., & Michel, R. E. (2016). Consultation:

Creating school-based interventions (4th ed.). New York, NY:

Routledge.

Education Trust. (2009). The new vision for school counselors: Scope

of their work. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from https://

edtrust.org/resource/the-new-vision-for-school-counselors-scope-

of-the-work/

Gruman, D. H., Marston, T., & Koon, H. (2013). Bringing mental

health needs into focus through school counseling program trans-

formation. Professional School Counseling, 16, 333–341. doi:

10.1177/2156759X1201600506

Hatch, T., & Chen-Hayes, S. F. (2008). School counselor beliefs about

ASCA National Model school counseling program components

using the SCPCS. Professional School Counseling, 12, 34–42.

doi:10.1177/2156759X0801200104

Lambie, G. W., & Williamson, L. L. (2004). The challenge to change

from guidance counseling to professional school counseling: A

historical proposition. Professional School Counseling, 8,

124–131.

Lapan, R. T., Gysbers, N. C., & Kayson, M. (2006). How implement-

ing all Missouri guidance programs improves academic achieve-

ment for all Missouri students. Jefferson City: Missouri

Department of Elementary and Secondary Education.

Lawson, G. (2007). Counselor wellness and impairment: A national

survey. The Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education and

Development, 46, 20–34. doi:10.1002/j.2161-1939.2007.tb00023.x

Lawson, G., & Myers, J. E. (2011). Wellness, professional quality of

life, and career-sustaining behaviors: What keeps us well? Journal

of Counseling & Development, 89, 163–171. doi:10.1002/j.1556-

6678.2011.tb00074.x

Lawson, G., Venart, E., Hazler, R. J., & Kottler, J. A. (2007). Toward

a culture of counselor wellness. The Journal of Humanistic Coun-

seling, Education and Development, 46, 5–19. doi:10.1002/j.2161-

1939.2007.tb00022.x

Leuwerke, W. C., Walker, J., & Shi, Q. (2009). Informing principals:

The impact of different types of information on principals’ percep-

tions of professional school counselors. Professional School Coun-

seling, 12, 263–271 doi:10.1177/2156759X0901200404

Lieberman, A. (2004). Confusion regarding school counselor func-

tions: School leadership impacts role clarity. Education, 124,

552–559.

Limberg, D., Lambie, G., & Robinson, E. H. (2016). The contribution of

school counselors’ altruism to their degree of burnout. Professional

School Counseling, 20, 127–138. doi:10.5330/1096-2409-20.1.127

McCarthy, C., Kerne, V., Calfa, N., Lambert, R., & Guzmán, M.

(2010). An exploration of school counselors’ demands and

resources: Relationship to stress, biographic, and caseload charac-

teristics. Professional School Counseling, 13, 146–158. doi:

10.1177/2156759X1001300302

McCotter, S., & Cohen, S. (2013). Are middle school counseling

programs meeting early adolescent needs? A survey of principals

and counselors. The Journal of Counselor Preparation and Super-

vision, 5, 6–27. doi:10.7729/51.0015

Moyer, M. (2011). Effects of non-guidance activities, supervision, and

student-to-counselor ratios on school counselor burnout. Journal of

School Counseling, 9, 1–5. Retrieved from http://jsc.montana.edu/

articles/v9n5.pdf

Murphy, S., & Kaffenberger, C. (2007). ASCA National Model ®

: The

foundation for supervision of practicum and internship students.

Professional School Counseling, 10, 289–296. doi:10.1177/

2156759X0701000311

Myers, J. E., & Sweeney, T. J. (2005a). Counseling for wellness:

Theory, research, and practice. Alexandria, VA: American Coun-

seling Association.

Myers, J. E., & Sweeney, T. J. (2005b). Manual for the five factor

wellness inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Mind Garden.

Myers, J. E., Sweeney, T. J., & Witmer, J. M. (2000). The wheel of

wellness counseling for wellness: A holistic model for treatment

planning. Journal of Counseling & Development, 78, 251–266.

doi:10.1002/j.1556-6676.2000.tb01906.x

Olsen, J., Parikh-Foxx, S., Flowers, C., & Algozzine, B. (2016). An

examination of factors that relate to school counselors’ knowledge

and skills in multi-tiered systems of support. Professional School

Counseling, 20, 159–171. doi:10.5330/1096-2409-20.1.159

Page, B. J., Pietrzak, D. R., & Sutton, J. M., Jr. (2001). National survey

of school counselor supervision. Counselor Education and Super-

vision, 41, 142–150. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6978.2001.tb01278.x

Perera-Diltz, D. M., & Mason, K. L. (2008). Ideal to real: Duties

performed by school counselors. Journal of School Counseling,

6, 1–36. Retrieved from http://jsc.montana.edu/articles/v6n26.pdf

Pérusse, R., & Goodnough, G. E. (2001). A comparison of existing

school counselor program content with the Education Trust initia-

tives. Counselor Education and Supervision, 41, 100–110. doi:

10.1002/j.1556-6978.2001.tb01274.x

Pérusse, R., Goodnough, G. E., Donegan, J., & Jones, C. (2004).

Perceptions of school counselors and school principals about the

national standards for school counseling programs and the trans-

forming school counseling initiative. Professional School Counsel-

ing, 7, 152–161.

Pyne, J. R. (2011). Comprehensive school counseling programs, job

satisfaction, and the ASCA National Model. Professional School

Counseling, 15, 88–97. doi:10.1177/2156759X1101500202

Salina, C., Girtz, S., Eppinga, J., Martinez, D., Kilian, D., Lozano, E.,

& Shines, T. (2013). All hands on deck: A comprehensive, results-

driven counseling model. Professional School Counseling, 17,

63–75. doi:10.1177/2156759X0001700112

10 Professional School Counseling

Scarborough, J. (2005). The school counselor activity rating scale: An

instrument for gathering process data. Professional School Coun-

seling, 8, 274–283.

Scarborough, J. L., & Culbreth, J. R. (2008). Examining discrepancies

between actual and preferred practice of school counselors. Jour-

nal of Counseling & Development, 86, 446–459. doi:10.1002/

j.1556-6678.2008.tb00533.x

Whiston, S. C., Tai, W. L., Rahardja, D., & Eder, K. (2011). School

counseling outcome: A meta-analytic examination of interven-

tions. Journal of Counseling & Development, 89, 37–55. doi:

10.1002/j.1556-6678.2011.tb00059.x

Wilkerson, K., & Bellini, J. (2006). Intrapersonal and organizational

factors associated with burnout among school counselors. Journal

of Counseling & Development, 84, 440–450. doi:10.1002/j.1556-

6678.2006.tb00428.x

Wilkerson, K., Pérusse, R., & Hughes, A. (2013). Comprehensive

school counseling programs and student achievement outcomes:

A comparative analysis of RAMP versus non-RAMP schools. Pro-

fessional School Counseling, 16, 172–184. doi:10.1177/

2156759X1701600302

Witmer, J., & Granello, P. (2005). Wellness in counselor education

and supervision. In J. E. Myers & T. J. Sweeney (Eds.), Counseling

for wellness: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 342–361). Alex-

andria, VA: American Counseling Association.

Young, A., & Kaffenberger, C. (2011). The beliefs and practices of

school counselors who use data to implement comprehensive

school counseling programs. Professional School Counseling, 15,

67–76. doi:10.1177/2156759X1101500204

Young, A., & Kaffenberger, C. (2015). School counseling profes-

sional development: Assessing the use of data to inform school

counseling services. Professional School Counseling, 19, 46–56.

doi:10.5330/1096-2409-19.1.46

Young, M. E., & Lambie, G. W. (2007). Wellness in school and

mental health systems: Organizational influences. The Journal of

Humanistic Counseling, Education and Development, 46, 98–113.

doi:10.1002/j.2161-1939.2007.tb00028.x

Author Biographies

Nicole M. Randick, EdD, is a core faculty member and direc-

tor of assessment and online learning at Adler Graduate School

in Minnetonka, MN.

Shannon Dermer, PhD, is an interim dean of the College of

Education at Governors State University in University Park, IL.

Rebecca E. Michel, PhD, is an assistant professor at DePaul

University in Chicago, IL.

Randick et al. 11