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Reproduction

Chapter 6

Clan & the Nuclear Family

Chapter 12

Learning Objectives

Describe how many cultures have created images to aid them in achieving fertility.

Identify the ways in which various cultures have pictured reproduction, progeny, and sexuality.

Trace the mother and child theme throughout time and across several cultures.

Discuss how class is depicted through the art of various cultural groups.

Describe how works of art identify a particular clan.

Map 2

Map 2 The Development of Agriculture.

Introduction

Human reproduction and sexuality are basic for the survival of the human race.

Art has aided and pictured human fertility, reproduction, and sexuality with:

charmlike figures.

phallic symbols.

fetishes.

erotic images.

paintings and sculptures of marriage and children.

Henry Moore’s work (Fig. 6.1) references both modern and ancient art that visually expresses the power of human reproduction.

Figure 6.1

6.1 Henry Moore. Draped Reclining Mother and Baby, 1983. Bronze, 8' 8 1/2" long. Fukuoka Art Museum, Fukuoka Prefecture, Japan.

Figure 6.2 (1 of 2)

6.2 Female Fertility Figure, found at Çatal Hüyük, Anatolia (modern-day Turkey), c. 6000 BCE. Terra-cotta, 7 3/4" high.

Figure 6.2 (2 of 2)

This small, regal figure is enthroned and attended by lions.

She was found in a grain bin, suggesting her role in the success of her culture’s fecundity.

THE PROMISE OF FERTILITY

Fertility Goddesses and Gods

Earliest fertility artifacts from the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods were small sculptures of females depicted:

as fleshy.

with swollen bellies.

with accentuated breasts and thighs.

Figure 6.3 (1 of 2)

6.3 Venus of Willendorf, Austria, c. 25,000–20,000 BCE. Stone. 4 3/8” high. Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna.

Figure 6.3 (2 of 2)

Although sometimes labeled a fertility goddess, this small sculpture was likely more a charm or a fetish.

She may have been used:

during childbirth.

to ward off death.

to wish for good health.

for good fortune.

Figure 6.4 (1 of 2)

6.4 Idol from Amorgos, Cycladic Islands off mainland Greece, 2500–2300 BCE. Marble, 2' 6" high. The Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, UK.

Figure 6.4 (2 of 2)

Slender and delicate, this abstract nude with pointed toes seems to emphasize feminine youth.

These “plank-idols” were found in burials, and may have been meant to give new life to the dead.

Figure 6.5 (1 of 2)

6.5 God Te Rongo and His Three Sons, Cook Islands, Polynesia, c. 1800–1900. Wood, 2' 3 3/8" high. The British Museum, London.

Figure 6.5 (2 of 2)

In the 19th century, male fertility pieces were produced by Oceanic cultures.

In comparison to the rest of the figure, the large penis emphasizes the virility of Te Rongo.

Male sculptures were carved for religious rituals by Ta’unga, or “priests.”

The art object was:

meant to endure, passing from one generation to the next.

a symbol of prestige and rank.

exclusive to those of power and rank.

a source of sacred information.

Figure 6.6 (1 of 2)

6.6 Figure of a Deity: A’a Rurutu, Austral Islands, collected in 1820. Wood, 3' 8" high. The British Museum, London.

Figure 6.6 (2 of 2)

In central Polynesia, ancestor deities known as “Tangaroa” figures represent a creator in the act of creating human beings.

This figure’s body and face are covered with crawling, infantlike beings.

The back of the deity is hollowed out and contains additional small figures, which may refer to the mythical creation of humankind or the creation of a specific ancestral line.

Figure 6.7 (1 of 2)

6.7 Initiation Rites of Dionysos, Villa of Mysteries, Pompeii, Italy, c. 50 CE. Fresco.

Figure 6.7 (2 of 2)

This fresco depicts a solemn ritual associated with sexual intercourse and fertility by the mystery cult of Dionysos.

The illusionist frieze (a decorative horizontal band found in architecture) shows figures striking classic Greek poses against “Pompeian Red” panels.

The nearly life-size figures, with convincing volume and anatomy, move and turn in a shallow space on a trompe l’oeil (“fool the eye”) ledge.

Figure 6.8 (1 of 2)

6.8 Potawatomi Male Figure (love doll), Crandon, Wisconsin, 1800–1860. Wood and wool fabric, 9" high.

Figure 6.8 (2 of 2)

Potawatomi Male Figure was used as a charm to cast a spell on someone whose attentions were desired.

This male love doll was used as “medicine” to control human behavior and health.

To have successful “medicine,” the owner of the doll would have been spiritually prepared and, through dreams or visions, been given special powers by the spirits.

Figure 6.9 (1 of 2)

6.9 Standing Female Figure, Bamana, Mali, Africa, 19th C. Wood, copper, beads, and metal: 1' 8 1/2" high. Detroit Institute of Arts.

Figure 6.9 (2 of 2)

The Bamanian female figure made of wood and metal is associated with a female fertility cult.

These figures were brought out in public to aid women who were having difficulty conceiving or giving birth.

Figure 6.10 (1 of 2)

6.10 Ashanti Akua’ba Doll, Ghana, Africa, c. 20th century. Wood, 1' 1" high. The British Museum, London.

Figure 6.10 (2 of 2)

Akua’ba Ghana are fertility sculptures created:

for women having difficulty conceiving.

to ensure a healthy and beautiful baby.

In these figures, we see the interpretation of beauty reduced to uncomplicated, minimal forms.

ART DEPICTING PRIMORDIAL AND HUMAN COUPLES

Couples have been depicted throughout the ages as:

the primordial or first couple.

the mother and father of humankind.

representing the marriage ritual within cultural contexts.

Figure 6.11

6.11 Masaccio. The Expulsion from Paradise, Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence, Italy, 1427. Fresco.

Primordial Couples and Couples' Roles

Adam and Eve are found in the Jewish, Christian, and Muslim religions as a primordial (first) couple.

Told to “be fruitful and multiply,” Adam and Eve were later painfully expelled from the Garden of Eden.

In The Expulsion (Fig. 6.11), we see:

Eve’s anguished cry.

Adam’s pain.

their shame and agony.

Figure 6.12 (1 of 2)

6.12 Dogon Seated Couple. Mali, Africa, c. 19th–20th century. Wood, 2' 5" high. Gift of Lester Wunderman, 1977. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

Figure 6.12 (2 of 2)

Seated in a frontal position, the Dogon seated couple shows the harmony of the first male and female, both of whom are equally exalted.

Details of the sculpture represent:

their roles in life.

their high position.

the importance of balance in an ordered human culture.

Figure 6.13

6.13 Jan van Eyck. Wedding Portrait, Flanders, Northern Europe, 1434. Oil on wood panel, 2' 8" × 2' 1". National Gallery Collection, London.

Human Couples

The union of human couples is documented in art across cultures.

The Wedding Portrait (Fig. 6.13) is more than a double portrait, it is a wedding certificate, with obvious and hidden symbolism:

in the bedroom rather than church, suggesting hope for many children.

the woman holds her clothing as if pregnant.

shoeless, they are on holy ground.

he raises his hand in a gesture of blessing.

one candle burning in the chandelier represents divine presence.

the frame of the mirror depicts the passion of Christ.

oranges on the chest and windowsill represent the conquest of death.

the dog symbolizes fidelity.

on the bedpost finial is a statuette of St. Margaret, patron saint of childbirth.

van Eyck depicts witnesses, including himself, in the mirror.

Figure 6.14 (1 of 2)

6.14 Aztec Marriage Couple, from the Codex Mendoza, Mexico, 1434. Bodleian Library, University of Oxford.

Figure 6.14 (2 of 2)

Aztec Marriage Couple depicts a man and woman seated on a mat, the bride powdered with yellow earth and adorned in red feathers.

The formal vows took place in the groom’s home, the marriage performed by tying together their wedding garments—tying the knot.

ART ABOUT LOVEMAKING

Lovemaking is essential in procreation.

Sexuality is a libidinal urge that is gratifying, positive, and even energizing.

Various cultures have their own ways of defining and depicting this universal act.

Figure 6.15 (1 of 2)

6.15 Oil Lamp with Love-making Scene. Rome, 1st century BCE. Ceramic. Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples.

Figure 6.15 (2 of 2)

This lamp shows a couple in an intimate gaze while engaging in sexual intercourse.

An inscription found in Pompeii on a wall from an ordinary house reads “Hic Habit Felicitas” or “here lies happiness.”

Figure 6.16 (1 of 2)

6.16 Moche Pottery Depicting Sexual Intercourse, Peru, c. 1000–1250. Ceramic. Museo Arqueologico Rafael Larco Herrera, Lima, Peru.

Figure 6.16 (2 of 2)

Numerous sexual acts between a man and a woman appear in pottery.

Moche pottery is matter of fact—the depictions of lovemaking are explicit and candid.

They may have been designed as visual aids for sex education, illustrating human reproduction and perhaps birth control as well.

Figure 6.17 (1 of 2)

6.17 Kitagawa Utamaro. A Pair of Lovers, frontispiece from Poem of the Pillow, Japan, 1788. Wood block relief print, 9 3/4" × 1' 2 3/4". Victoria and Albert Museum, London.

Figure 6.17 (2 of 2)

This work reflects the ukiyo (“floating world”) theme, which refers to the Buddhist concept of the transience of life.

Gently and intimately erotic, this print captures a private moment between lovers.

It is a visual poem of line, pattern, and color that composes the floating world image of the lovers’ pleasure.

These shunga prints (spring pictures) centered on female beauty, the theater, and entertainment, and were collected like posters or baseball cards today.

Figure 6.18 (1 of 2)

6.18 Radha and Krishna in the Grove. Kangra School, Kangra, India. Gouache on paper, 4 7/5" × 6 3/4.” Victoria and Albert Museum, London.

Figure 6.18 (2 of 2)

Erotic images appear regularly on Hindu temples and in miniature paintings of the 17th and 18th century.

This miniature painting of ideal sexuality depicts the diety Krishna in a tender lovemaking scene with the shepherdess Radha.

Radha and Krishna in the Grove was meant to be instructive, and the mythical sexual act was intended to be reincarnated regularly among living couples.

Figure 6.19 (1 of 2)

6.19 Relief Carving from the Kandarya Mahadeva Temple, Khajuraho, India, c. 1000.

Figure 6.19 (2 of 2)

Many carvings on Hindu temples are erotic.

Full-bodied figures are carved in relief depicting men and women in sexual union and masturbation, reflecting the open celebration of the blend of human sexuality with spirituality in Hindu beliefs.

Hindu religion believes that carnal bliss is a virtue and a path leading to redemption.

ART ABOUT SEXUALITY IN WESTERN CULTURE

Sexuality is complicated in modern Western art because:

of power relationships between men and women.

homosexuality and heterosexuality are also part of political debates.

sexuality is used to sell products.

abstract works on sexuality capture the energy, but leave other specifics undefined.

Figure 6.20

6.20 Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres. Grande Odalisque, France, 1814. Oil on canvas, 2' 11" × 5' 4". Louvre, Paris.

The Feminine Body and the Gaze

This nude Turkish harem woman (odalisque) (Fig. 6.20) was intended to be an erotic image for European men.

Nineteenth-century female nude paintings in Europe and the U.S. were made for privileged men.

It is significant that there is only a woman in this scene. Without a lover, the odalisque is sexually available for the viewer, who gazes upon her and “consumes.”

The viewer took the place of the imagined Turkish sultan, who had many women at his disposal.

Figure 6.21 (1 of 3)

6.21 Edward Manet. Olympia, France, 1863. Oil on canvas, 4' 3 1/4" × 6' 2 3/4". Musée d’Orsay, Paris.

Figure 6.21 (2 of 3)

Manet’s Olympia scandalized the public because:

her sexuality and nudity were contemporary and Western.

Olympia was recognizable as a famous Paris courtesan.

her unromantic expression made clear that sex and money would be exchanged.

it shattered romantic illusions.

it reveals the difference in social status according to race.

Figure 6.21 (3 of 3)

Manet’s defenders praised the work for its innovative qualities:

thick paint applied directly on the canvas

flat, bright color

light areas separate from the dark, few midtones

gestural mark making

flatness versus illusion of depth

IMAGES OF PREGNANCY, CHILDBIRTH, AND PROGENY

Images of childbirth are seen in many cultures and have existed for ages.

Maya pregnant figures represent the bearers of human offspring, as well as mothers of nature and progenitors of plant life.

Some Moche sculptures of childbirth may have been teaching tools for birthing positions and techniques.

More recent Western examples of pregnancy in art show the physical effects of pregnancy on a woman’s body.

Figure 6.28 (1 of 2)

6.28 Alice Neel. Pregnant Woman, 1971. Oil on canvas, 3' 4" × 5'.

Figure 6.28 (2 of 2)

Neel’s painting shows the physical effects of pregnancy on one woman’s body and self:

Her swollen belly and enlarged nipples contrast with her bony arm and ribs.

Her blood-flushed belly makes the rest of her skin look yellow.

Her facial expression seems wooden, passive, dazed, or fearful.

The man’s portrait behind her may suggest intimacy, distance, possession, or protection.

Figure 6.29 (1 of 2)

6.29 Kidder Figure, Mayan, Guatemala, 250 BCE–CE 100. Ceramic vessel, 10" × 7 1/2" × 6 3/4".

Figure 6.29 (2 of 2)

The Kidder Figure is a pregnant seated female.

She emphasizes her enlarged abdomen by resting her hands on it.

Her face reflects contentment and joyous anticipation of the birth event.

Figure 6.30 (1 of 2)

6.30 Moche Pot Depicting a Woman Giving Birth Assisted by Midwives, Peru, c. 1000–1250. Ceramic. Museo Arqueologico Rafael Larco Herrera, Lima, Peru.

Figure 6.30 (2 of 2)

This Moche ceramic vessel depicts childbirth in a straightforward manner, just as their depiction of sexual intercourse in Fig. 6.16.

The scene seems to be clinically illustrating an event rather than a moment of emotion, anticipation, or pain.

This vessel may have taught birthing position and technique to expectant mothers and midwives.

Figure 6.31 (1 of 2)

6.31 Rogier van der Weyden. Virgin and Child in a Niche, Flanders, c. 1432–1433. Oil on panel, 7 1/4” × 4 3/4”. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna.

Figure 6.31 (2 of 2)

This image of Christian beliefs represents the potential of human progeny (Adam and Eve) and the birth of their Savior of Humankind (Virgin and Child):

Mary is enthroned in a delicately carved space, crowned the Queen of Heaven.

She tenderly nurses the newborn Jesus.

Jesus is calm yet ominous because of Old Testament prophecies.

The Christian primordial couple, Adam and Eve, appear as carvings on the niche.

Figure 6.32 (1 of 2)

6.32 Mother and Nursing Child, Cahokia, Illinois, Mississippian Period, 1200–1400. Ceramic effigy vessel. St. Louis Science Center.

Figure 6.32 (2 of 2)

The simple, geometric form of this mother and baby adds to the stability and calm of the sculpture.

Representing a mother and her progeny in life, the effigy vessel may have ensured her potential to bear children in the afterlife.

CLAN

A clan is a group of people joined by blood or marriage ties.

The Extended Family

Art helps solidify extended families by:

making major ancestors available to the living clan members.

depicting important events in the clan’s history.

acting as an important element in clan rituals.

Ancestors

Ancestors have a major impact on the prestige of the living.

Ancient Romans believed their ancestry was tremendously important, preserving portraits of them and venerating their memory.

At first, ancestor portraits were death masks made of soft wax.

Around the 1st century BCE, affluent Romans had copies of death masks made in marble.

The Statue of Togata Barberini (Fig. 12.13) is an example of Roman portrait sculpture made for worship.

He is holding portrait busts that boast of his lineage.

Figure 12.13

12.13 Statue of Togato Barberini, Rome, early first century CE. Marble, 5' 5" high. Palazzo Barberini, Rome.

Figure 12.14 (1 of 2)

12.14 Portrait Heads from Tomb 6, Lambityeco, Oaxaca, Mexico, 640–755. Stucco, each head 10 1/2" × 11 1/2".

Figure 12.14 (2 of 2)

These Mexican portrait heads likely represent the founding parents of a clan.

Both parents were important because lineage was traced through the male and female sides.

Ancestors provided legitimacy for rulers of this ancient culture and were consulted on difficult matters.

These heads are located on the lintel above a tomb entrance and may represent the first individuals buried within.

Clan History

Art is instrumental in preserving clan history and clan cohesion.

The Interior House Post (Fig. 12.15) is one of four posts carved for the Raven House, a clan of the Northwest Coast Kwakiutl.

Raven House was a lineage house, which is built when a new lineage was founded because of death or marriage.

Sculptures like this post were prominent in ritual feasts when the leadership of the clan changed.

Interior House Post symbolism:

Thunderbird represents a chief.

Curved beak and curved ears suggest supernatural powers.

Extra eyes on the wings and torso imply power.

Below the thunderbird is a bear, associated with an elder or high-ranking person.

Figure 12.15

12.15 Arthur Shaughnessy. Interior House Post, Gilford Island, British Columbia, Canada, c. 1907. Kwakiutl. Carved and painted red cedar, 15' × 11' × 2' 10". Seattle Art Museum.

Figure 12.16

12.16 Examples of formline design in Northwest Coast art: (A) ovoid form; (B) typical U complex with semiangular curves; (C) split U with outline (after diagrams by Bill Holm).

Art Used in Clan Rituals

Clan ties are strengthened through rituals and art is an essential part of rituals.

The Asmat of Papua New Guinea engage in rituals to pass on the life force of the deceased clansmen to the rest of the group.

Carved poles called Bis or Bisj Poles (Fig. 12.17) represent deceased clansmen (ancestors).

The large openwork projections on the top figures are phalluses, representing power in warfare and fertility.

After the rituals, the poles were left to rot in groves of palms where they would pass their vitality on to the plants that were a food staple.

Figure 12.17

12.17 Bisj Pole, Asmat, Papua New Guinea, mid-20th century. Wood, paint, fiber; 17' 8" × 3' 3" × 5' 3". Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

Figure 12.18 (1 of 2)

12.18 Bamgboye of Odo-Owa. Epa Headdress called “Orangun,” Yoruba, Erinmope, Nigeria, 1974. Wood and paint.

Figure 12.18 (2 of 2)

Art, ritual, and clan identity are intertwined among the Yoruba people.

The Epa Festival is held every other year for three days to promote fertility and the well-being of the community.

The Epa Headdress called “Orangun” was used in masquerades to honor the family.

Although such masks weigh more than fifty pounds, young dancers would perform athletically in them.

The Nuclear Family

In industrialized societies, the clan has dwindled to the nuclear family.

The relationships between members of a nuclear family are investigated in The Family (Fig. 12.19).

Marisol’s figures are blocks of wood which are drawn on and minimally carved, each maintaining its own separateness while interlocking with the group.

The shoes and doors are found objects.

The poorness of The Family contrasts with the affluence of the nuclear family commonly presented on U.S. television in 1962.

Figure 12.19

12.19 Marisol. The Family, Venezula, 1962. Painted wood and other materials in three sections; overall, 6' 10" × 5' 5 1/2" × 1' 3 1/2". The Museum of Modern Art, New York.

Figure 12.20 (1 of 2)

12.20 Elizabeth Murray. Sail Baby, United States, 1983. Oil on three canvases, 10' 6" × 11' 3". Walker Art Center, Minneapolis.

Figure 12.20 (2 of 2)

Murray’s Sail Baby is an abstract painting about family life.

Three rounded canvases suggest the bouncy energetic bodies of infants or children.

The bright colors recall the palette of childhood.

The grouping of the three shapes suggests the closeness of siblings, all with similarities but each a unique individual.

Figure 12.21 (1 of 2)

12.21 General Idea. Baby Makes 3, Canada, 1984–1989. Lacquer on vinyl, 6' 6 3/4" × 5' 3".

Figure 12.21 (2 of 2)

Baby Makes 3 expands the definition of the family.

The image created by General Idea presents a homosexual approach to the nuclear family.

The work both pokes fun at the idea of the happy nuclear family and shows how gays and lesbians re-create family and social structures.

General Idea critiqued many aspects of popular culture that so heavily promote the heterosexual nuclear family.

Discussion Questions

How are predetermined gender roles depicted in art?

How are art, magic, and ritual intertwined to promote human fertility?

What primordial couples exist in various cultures and how do their representations differ?