Research proposal.

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by Michael F. Cogan

exploring Academic

outcomes of Homeschooled

students

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Introduction

Homeschooling is a type of education which typically occurs in

the home with the child’s parent or guardian serving as the pri-

mary educator. Prior to the advent of compulsory education in the

1700s, homeschooling was the primary form of education of the

masses as the concept of hiring a teacher or tutor was available

only to the elite (DiStefano, Rudestam and Silverman 2004). In

the United States, compulsory education laws were adapted by

nearly every state by the early 1900s. In essence, these compul-

sory laws decreased the number of homeschooled students dra-

matically as many states determined homeschooling was a con-

troversial form of education and in many cases illegal (Knowles,

Muchmore and Spalding 1994).

In the 1970s, it was estimated there were 13,000 K-12 students

receiving their education through a homeschooling format in the

United States (Lines 1991). Currently, homeschooling is legal in

all 50 states and is considered to be one of the fastest growing

segments of K-12 education in the United States (Ray 2009). The

National Center for Education Statistics (Bielick 2008) recently

released an estimate indicating the number of homeschooled stu-

dents between the ages of 5 and 17 has increased from 800,000

in 1999 to 1,508,000 in 2007. This represents an 88 percent

increase in the number of homeschooled students in the US dur-

ing this period. Based on these estimates, homeschooled students

represent approximately 3 percent of children attending K-12 in

the US. As a group, the population of homeschooled students in

the US is nearly as much as the population of students in New

York City and Los Angeles combined (US Department of Educa-

tion 2008) One of the few estimates related to the college school

attendance patterns of homeschooled students comes from the

Higher Education Research Institute (HERI) Cooperative Institu-

tional Research Program (CIRP) survey. This instrument includes

a question asking the respondent to indicate the type of high

school they graduated from. This question has been included in

the CIRP instrument eight of the past 18 years (2008, 2007,

2005, 2004, 2001, 1998, 1993, and 1991). HERI estimated

there were approximately 11,500 freshman students who gradu-

ated from a homeschool (0.08 percent) and subsequently enrolled

in one of the 1,693 institutions participating in the CIRP in 2008

(Pryor, et al. 2008).

There is a paucity of current research related to the outcomes

of homeschooled students in higher education. In part, this

lack of understanding is due to the relatively small number of

homeschooled students known to have attended college. Addi-

tionally, higher education may not have felt a need to address

the issue as the dramatic increase of homeschoolers is at the

K-12 level and many of these students have yet to enter post-

secondary education. In 2004, The Journal of College Admission

dedicated a full issue to the topic of homeschooled students

entering higher education. One article focused on the percep-

tions of admission officers tasked with admitting homeschooled

students (Jones and Gleckner 2004). The authors collected

survey information from 55 admission officers primarily located

in the western United States. The authors found that the ma-

jority of admission officers believed homeschooled students

would perform (GPA, credits earned, retention) at or above the

level of traditionally homeschooled students; however, nearly

35 percent indicated homeschooled students would have a

more difficult time socially when compared to their traditional

peers. In the same issue, Ray (2004) found homeschooled

students achieved higher standardized test scores (e.g., ACT)

compared to traditional-school students. In addition, the results

indicated gender, family income and parent education level

had little effect on these test scores. The author continued by

describing what he believed to be misconceptions related to

the socialization skills of students attending a homeschool.

Abstract

This exploratory study examines the academic outcomes of homeschooled students who enter a

medium size doctoral institution located in the Midwest. Descriptive analysis reveals homeschool

students possess higher ACT scores, grade point averages (GPAs) and graduation rates when

compared to traditionally-educated students. In addition, multiple regression analysis results reveal

that students who are homeschooled earn higher first-year and fourth-year GPAs when controlling

for demographic, pre-college, engagement, and first-term academic factors. Further, binary logistic

regression results indicate there is no significant difference between homeschooled student’s fall-to-

fall retention and four-year graduation rates when compared to traditionally-educated students while

controlling for these same factors.

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The author highlighted this point with the following

statement:

Experience and anecdotes have led many people

to believe that homeschool parents were either

move-to-the-country anarchist goat herders, or

right-wing Bible thumpers, and their children

were either mathematically-limited, due to Ma-

ma’s fear of math, or child prodigies in rocket-

science who were unthinkably socially hindered.

In response, Ray (2004) conducted a study in

which 7,306 adults who had been homeschooled

completed a survey in order to determine their

community and civic engagement patterns. The au-

thor concluded that students who had been home-

schooled for seven or more years (N=5,254) were

more likely to have earned college credit, partici-

pated in community service, and voted in the past

five years when compared to the general population

in the United States (Ray 2004).

Sheffer (1995) addresses the issue of socialization

related to homeschool students in her work focusing

on women’s psychology and child development.

She states:

They have talked about trusting themselves, pur-

suing their own goals, maintaining friendships

even when their friends differ from them or dis-

agree with them. Finally, those home-educated

girls maintain their self-confidence as they pass

into womanhood.

The National Education Association asserts that

homeschooling “cannot provide the student with a

comprehensive education experience” (2007–08

NEW Resolutions document). This perception has

led to the creation of several organizations dedicated

to the education of homeschooled students. One

such organization is Patrick Henry College (VA).

This institution was established in 2000, in part,

to serve Christian homeschooled students. Senior

administrators estimate that approximately 85

percent of the student body was homeschooled prior

to enrolling at the college. Little is known of this group

concerning academic outcomes as the institution is not

required to participate in the Integrated Postsecondary

Education Data System (IPEDS) reporting since

they do not receive federal funding. The college has

received much attention from the media since its

inception due to a conservative approach, religious

nature and lack of diversity. (JBHE 2001; Kirkpatrick

2007; Buncombe 2004). An article in the New Yorker

is one example in which homeschool students are

characterized by the media concerning socialization:

Homeschoolers are not the most obvious raw ma-

terial for a college whose main mission, since its

founding, five years ago, has been to train a new

generation of Christian politicians. Politics, after

all, is the most social of professions, and many

students arrive at Patrick Henry having never

shared a classroom with anyone other than their

siblings. In conservative circles, however, home-

schoolers are considered something of an élite,

rough around the edges but pure in their focus,

capacity for work, and ideological clarity a view

that helps explain why the Republican establish-

ment has placed its support behind Patrick Henry,

and why so many conservative politicians are hir-

ing its graduates (Rosin 2005).

Recently, an institutional study attempting to de-

scribe the academic outcomes of homeschooled

students was conducted at Wheaton College (IL)

(Saunders 2009). The author reported that 10

percent of the student body is homeschooled. The

researcher developed a statistical model in order to

predict whether a student intended to return to the

institution for their sophomore year or not. One of

the independent variables in the model was school

type. This variable was designed to identify whether

school type contributes to a retention model de-

signed to predict academic outcomes. The author

concluded that the type of school attended was not

a statistically significant predictor; however, the

author relied on the students’ expressed intent to

return to the institution rather than the actual at-

tendance patterns of the respondent.

Every homeschooler

has huge dreams because of

the freedom to imagine

without the discouragement

of official red tape and

negative peer pressure, yet

those dreams are often shattered

when these same individuals

apply to college and hit financial

brick walls.

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As stated earlier, the literature surrounding homeschooled student’s

academic outcomes in college is incomplete. Currently, very little is

known concerning the short-and long-term outcomes of this group

from an empirical perspective. Sufficient evidence does exist that

homeschooled students do achieve higher standardized test scores

than traditionally schooled students (Ray 2004; Rudner 1999;

Wartes 1991). The evidence is decidedly absent concerning home-

school student grade attainment, persistence and completion rates

once they enter the postsecondary environment.

Purpose

The purpose of this research is to explore the academic outcomes

of students attending homeschool prior to their enrollment at the

focus institution. More specifically, homeschooled students will

be compared to their non-homeschooled peers in order to deter-

mine similarities and differences between the groups. In addition,

students who were homeschooled prior to enrollment will be en-

tered into four existing regression models as a categorical variable

(yes/no). The addition of this categorical variable will provide the

researcher with evidence to support or refute anecdotal evidence

related to homeschool students attending the focus institution.

Population

The institution participating in the study is a medium-sized private

university with a Carnegie Classification of doctoral. The institution

is located in a metropolitan area in the upper Midwest. The overall

student population is nearly 11,000 with approximately 57 percent

classified as undergraduates. Each fall, the institution enrolls a fresh-

man class of approximately 1,320 students. The institution maintains

a comprehensive data warehouse with a census file created on the

10th day of the semester. The majority of data used in this study was

extracted from this census file. In order to answer the aforementioned

questions, three datasets were developed. The first dataset consists

of all incoming freshman students entering the institution during the

fall semester between 2004 and 2009 (N=7,776). This dataset con-

tains 76 students (approximately 1.0 percent) who reported attending

homeschool prior to enrollment. This dataset will be used to describe

student characteristics by high school type. The second dataset in-

cludes the same group of students entering the institution between

2004 and 2008 (N=6,424). The 2009 class was excluded from this

dataset as students had yet to complete a full year at the institution

at the time of the study. As such, this group will not have the req-

uisite dependent variables (first-year GPA and fall-to-fall retention).

Due to missing data, 5,505 (86 percent) of the observations were

used to address first-year GPA and fall-to-fall retention outcomes.

This dataset contains 70 students (approximately 1.3 percent) who

reported attending homeschool prior to enrollment. The third dataset

included all incoming freshman students entering the institution dur-

ing the fall semester in 2004 and 2005 (N=2,488). These groups

were selected as they possess the two dependent variables necessary

for the analysis (four-year cumulative GPA and four-year graduation

rate). Due to missing data, 2,070 (83 percent) of the observations

were used to address fourth-year GPA and four-year graduation out-

comes. This dataset contains 27 students (approximately 1.3

percent) who reported attending homeschool prior to enrollment.

Limitations

As mentioned in the previous section, the homeschooled stu-

dent population used in this study attended a single institution.

Additionally, the number of homeschool students is relatively small.

As such, the results of this analysis should not be considered in-

ferential to the general population of undergraduate students in

the US. Rather, the results of this research should be considered a

starting point in order to better understand academic outcomes of

homeschool students entering postsecondary education.

Variable Selection

Dependent Variables

The focus institution maintains a clear goal of graduating students

who enroll at the institution as freshmen. As such, senior adminis-

trators pay close attention to four academic outcome measures to

include first-year GPA, fourth-year GPA, fall-to-fall retention, and

four-year graduation.

The first outcomes of interest are first-year and fourth-year GPA.

When considering grades, Pascarella and Terenzini (2005)

state, “Even given their limitations, however, college grades

may be the single best predictors of student persistence, degree

completion, and graduate school enrollment. Grades are one of

the most consistent predictors of these outcomes in both large,

nationally representative studies and in far more numerous

single institution studies.” This has been supported at the focus

institution as students who persist tend to maintain higher

GPAs when compared to those who do not persist. For example,

freshman students returning for their second year maintained

a first-year GPA of 3.12 compared to a 2.51 for those who did

not return. In addition, students graduating in four years tend

to maintain higher GPAs (3.39) than those who graduate in five

or more years (2.84). Therefore, it is essential to isolate factors

that may influence these quantitative variables.

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The second outcomes of interest are the persistence and degree

attainment measures. Bean (2005) has developed a significant

body of knowledge indicating that institutional fit or institu-

tional commitment are critical components when considering

a student’s decision to continue at the institution or leave.

Pascarella and Terenzini dedicate a section to the plethora of

research emphasizing the positive relationship between social

interaction and the student’s decision to persist at the institu-

tion. The authors conclude their review by stating, “It seems

clear that various forms of academic and social engagement are

central elements in the persistence decision-making process

(2005).” As such, understanding the influence pre-college and

first-term factors have on persistence and completion is critical

to understanding and improving academic success. The per-

sistence and completion definitions provided by the National

Center for Education Statistics are useful for understanding the

persistence and completion patterns of the study population.

In this case, the variable is dichotomous in nature with success

and failure serving as the two values of interest. As such, stu-

dents who are retained from their first fall to the following fall

(88 percent) and those students graduating in four-years (58

percent) are considered successful (1). Those who do not return

the following fall or do not graduate in four years are considered

to be ‘not successful (0).’

Independent Variables

Demographics

The first group of factors selected for the model control for de-

mographic characteristics possessed by the incoming students

included whether a student received a Pell Grant during their first

term at the institution. This served as a proxy for socioeconomic

status. This dichotomous variable is coded one (1) for receiving

a Pell Grant and zero (0) for not receiving a Pell Grant. Underrep-

resented minority is another characteristic used in the model and

the students were given the opportunit to self identify their race

as African American, Asian, Hispanic, Native American, white,

or refuse to respond. In order to create a dichotomous vari-

able, African-American, Asian, Hispanic, and Native-American

students were assigned a one (1) while white students were as-

signed a zero (0). Students who refused to provide this infor-

mation were excluded from the model. Male is a dichotomous

variable in which men were assigned a one (1) and women were

assigned a zero (0).

Engagement

The Catholic variable addresses the religious nature of the

focus institution. Students who self-reported their religious af-

filiation as Roman Catholic were assigned a one (1) while all

other students were assigned a zero (0). The focus institution

pays attention to this measure as the mission of the institu-

tion is to be inclusive and accepting of all religious views held

by faculty, staff and students. The On-Campus Residence is a

dichotomous variable in which students living on campus dur-

ing their freshman year are assigned a one (1) and those who

did not were assigned a (0). Percent PT Faculty is a measure

designed to capture the percentage of adjunct-taught credits

a freshman student is exposed to during their first semester at

the institution. Each student was assigned a value expressing

the percentage of courses taught by adjuncts. For example, a

student enrolled in four courses with two of the courses taught

by adjuncts would be assigned a value of 50 percent (2/4).

J-Term is a variable that indicates whether a student enrolled

in a time intensive course at the institution between their first

fall semester and the following spring. Students enrolling in a

J-Term course were assigned a one (1) and those who did not

enroll were assigned a zero (0).

Pre-Enrollment Academics

Three factors associated with previous academic behaviors were

included. Students have the opportunity to provide the type of

high school they attended prior to enrolling at the focus institution

(public, Catholic, private non-Catholic, and homeschool). Public,

Catholic, and private non-Catholic were aggregated in order to de-

velop a dichotomous variable (homeschool) in which homeschool

students were assigned a one (1) and all others assigned a zero

(0). The ACT Composite variable for each student is the highest

score submitted by the student on the ACT exam, the most com-

mon exam submitted by students during the admission process.

Transfer Credit is a variable which includes all college level credit

earned and transferred to the focus institution prior to enrollment.

This variable consists of credit earned through postsecondary in-

stitutions, military, Advanced Placement, etc.

First Term Academics

Completed Schedule is a dichotomous variable in which students

complete their entire schedule during the fall semester (1). Stu-

dents who fail or withdraw from at least one credit during the fall

semester are considered to have not completed their schedule

(0). Part-Time Status is a dichotomous variable in which students

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enrolled in 13 or more credits were assigned a one

(1) while students enrolled in 12 or fewer were as-

signed a zero (0). The value for full-time students

was set at 13 for two reasons. First, 11 freshman

students entering the institution between 2004 and

2008 enrolled in fewer than 12 credits. Second,

prior research at the institution has revealed that

students enrolled in 12 or fewer credits maintain

significantly lower GPAs and experience lower re-

tention rates than those who enroll in 13 or more.

As such, the part-time status variable was restruc-

tured for this research project and does not reflect

the course load policies of the focus institution.

Analysis

Two separate approaches were used to identify

the relationship between high school type and

academic outcomes. First, a series of bivariate

tests (ANOVA and Chi-Square) were employed to

identify one-to-one relationships. Next, a series

of multivariate analysis techniques were used to

consider multiple explanatory variables (GPAs,

retention and graduation rates). Due to the pres-

ence of two dependent variable types (quanti-

tative and categorical), two different statistical

tests were employed. These tests were multiple

regression analysis (GPAs) and binary logistic re-

gression analysis (fall-to-fall retention and four-

year graduation rates). In both cases, the sta-

tistical tests enable the researcher to estimate

the values of a dependent variable from known

outcomes of a group of independent variables.

Further, each test provides the researcher with

a coefficient and standard error for each of the

independent variables. Positive coefficients indi-

cate the factor exerts a positive influence on the

dependent variables while negative coefficients

exert a negative influence.

Results

As mentioned earlier, a series of bivariate analyses

were conducted to better understand the relationships

between high school type and selected measures. Ta-

ble 1 provides a breakdown of the different groups

with p-values set at .01 (***), .05 (**), and .10 (*).

Table 1. Selected Factors by High School Type1

Public Catholic Private Home p x

Demographics

Male 48.3% 55.8% 56.4% 71.1% *** 50.3%

Received Pell 14.8% 9.8% 8.8% 34.2% *** 13.8%

Underrepresented Minority 12.2% 10.4% 10.8% 6.8% * 11.8%

Engagement

Catholic 47.0% 86.9% 48.9% 68.4% *** 54.9%

Live on Campus 92.9% 94.2% 86.6% 72.4% *** 92.7%

Percent PT Faculty 47.8% 46.7% 47.5% 46.7% 47.5%

Enrolled in J-term 17.3% 18.4% 20.6% 14.3% 17.6%

Pre-College Academics

ACT Composite 25.0 25.1 25.6 26.5 *** 25.0

Transfer Credits 6.6 3.6 2.9 14.7 *** 6.0

HS GPA 3.56 3.49 3.43 3.74 *** 3.54

Transfer GPA 3.43 3.46 3.42 3.65 *** 3.44

First Fall Academics

Completed Schedule 87.7% 88.9% 85.6% 91.4% 87.9%

Part-Time Status (<13) 7.8% 6.9% 10.7% 9.2% 7.8%

Fall GPA 3.07 3.09 3.11 3.37 *** 3.08

Persistence

Fall-to-Spring Retention 96.3% 95.8% 96.5% 94.3% 96.2%

Fall-to-Fall Retention 87.5% 87.6% 89.5% 88.6% 87.6%

One-Year Cumulative GPA 3.12 3.12 3.13 3.41 *** 3.12

Four-Year Cumulative GPA 3.16 3.13 3.18 3.46 * 3.16

Four-Year Graduation 58.6% 54.2% 51.5% 66.7% 57.5%

1 p-values: .01 (***), .05 (**), and .10 (*)

Summary of Bivariate Analysis

Demographics

Homeschooled students (71.1 percent) were more likely to be male when

compared to the overall population of undergraduate students (50.3 percent).

Additionally, homeschooled students (34.2 percent) were 2.5 times more likely

to receive a Pell Grant when compared to the entire group (13.8 percent).

Homeschooled students (6.8 percent) were less likely to self-identify as a

person of color compared to the overall population (11.8 percent).

Engagement

When considering engagement factors, students reporting a high school type of

homeschool were more likely to self-identify as Roman Catholic (68.4 percent)

compared to the overall population (54.9 percent). Further, homeschooled stu-

dents (72.4 percent) were less likely to live on campus when compared to the

entire freshman cohort (92.7 percent).

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Pre-College Academics

Homeschooled students (26.5) reported a significantly higher

ACT-Composite score when compared to the overall cohort (25.0).

In addition, homeschooled students (14.7) earned more college

credit prior to their freshman year when compared to the overall

population (6.0). Homeschooled students reported significantly

higher high school GPAs (3.74) and transfer GPAs (3.65) when

compared to the overall group (3.54 and 3.44 respectively).

First Fall Academics

Homeschooled students (3.37) earned a significantly higher fall

semester GPA when compared to the overall cohort (3.08).

Persistence Measures

Homeschooled students (3.41) earned a higher first-year GPA when

compared to the overall group (3.12). Additionally, homeschooled

students (3.46) earned a significantly higher fourth-year GPA when

compared to the freshman cohort (3.16).

Multivariate Analysis

First and Fourth Year GPAs

As stated earlier, an additional approach to understanding

academic outcomes of homeschooled students is to conduct

multivariate analysis in order to control for additional factors. More

specifically, students were identified based on their enrollment in a

homeschool. The dichotomous variable (yes/no) was then entered

into two regression models with the variables listed in Table 2.

When considering GPAs, the homeschool variable had a positive

impact on first-year GPA when considering all of the factors. This

positive impact continued to the fourth year (Table 2).

Fall-to-Fall Retention and Four-Year Graduation Rates

The homeschool variable did not significantly contribute to the

fall-to-fall retention or four-year graduation models (Table 3). In

other words, the homeschool variable had neither a positive nor a

negative impact on these academic outcomes. However, home-

school students did achieve a higher retention rate (88.6 percent)

compared to the overall population (87.6 percent). Further, home-

school students achieved a higher graduation rate (66.7 percent)

when compared to the overall population (57.5 percent).

Conclusion

The growth in homeschooling has been phenomenal with the popu-

lation of this group nearly doubling in the past eight years. Despite

this, little is known about this group once they enter the higher

education arena. This exploratory study examines the academic

MiCHAEL CoGAN serves as the director of institutional research and analysis at the University of St. Thomas in Saint Paul, MN. Cogan has been involved in higher education for 15 years with a special interest in measuring academic outcomes of students entering college from nontraditional backgrounds.

outcomes of homeschooled students who enter a medium-size

doctoral institution located in the Midwest. Descriptive analysis

reveals homeschool students possess higher ACT scores, GPAs

and graduation rates when compared to traditionally-educated

students. In addition, multiple regression analysis results reveal

that students, at this particular institution, who are homeschooled,

earn higher first-year and fourth-year GPAs when controlling for

demographic, pre-college, engagement, and first-term academic

factors. Further, binary logistic regression results indicate there

is no significant difference between homeschooled student’s fall-

to-fall retention and four-year graduation rates when compared to

traditionally-educated students while controlling for these same

factors. Still, the results should be carefully considered in regards

to this particular institution as the study took place at one institu-

tion with a small sample size (N=76). Nonetheless, this study

shows that this group of students outperforms their traditionally-

educated peers when considering the GPA measures. Perhaps

more importantly, this group of students performed at the same

level as their peers when considering fall-to-fall retention and

four-year graduation rates. As this group continues to grow, it is

imperative that institutional researchers lead the way in develop-

ing a strong understanding of academic outcomes of homeschool

students. As such, further research should be conducted on a

wider scale to better understand the academic outcomes of this

group. For example, state offices of higher education located

in Minnesota and Florida require in-state institutions to provide

student level data on an annual basis. These datasets would pro-

vide an ideal opportunity to further explore the GPAs, retention

rates and graduation rates of homeschooled students. Although

the population observed in this study should not be considered

generalizable to all undergraduates at all schools, the results

do provide college admission counselors with further evidence

that homeschooled students are prepared for college and may

even be considered as high achievers when compared to non-

homeschooled students.

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Table 2. Multiple Regression Coefficients for First-Year and Fourth Year Cumulative GPA2

First-Year GPA Four-Year GPA

B Std Error p B Std Error p

Demographics

Male -.161 .015 *** -.204 .026 *

Received Pell -.028 .023 -.038 .038

Underrepresented

Minority

-.061 .025 ** -.085 .040 **

Engagement

Catholic .042 .015 *** .029 .026

Live on Campus .090 .031 *** .027 .004

Percent PT Faculty .001 .000 *** .000 .001

Enrolled in J-term .069 .020 *** .036 .032

Pre-College Academics

ACT Composite .053 .003 *** .056 .004 ***

Transfer Credits .005 .001 *** .005 .002 ***

Home School .188 .081 ** .218 .133 *

First Fall Academics

Completed Schedule .899 .023 *** .922 .036 ***

Part-Time Status (<13) .211 .031 *** .220 .048 ***

Constant .605 .077 *** .611 .122 ***

2 p-values: .01 (***), .05 (**), and .10 (*)

Table 3. Logistic Regression Coefficients for Fall-to-Fall Retention and Four-Year Graduation3

First-Year GPA Four-Year GPA

B Std Error p B Std Error p

Demographics

Male .294 .087 *** -.272 .151 *

Received Pell -.096 .130 -.069 .209

Underrepresented

Minority

-.341 .143 *** -.024 .221

Engagement

Catholic .162 .086 * .237 .149

Live on Campus .521 .145 *** .563 .231 **

Percent PT Faculty -.004 .002 ** -.006 .004

Enrolled in J-term .948 .147 *** 1.038 .261 ***

Pre-College Academics

ACT Composite -.005 .015 -.015 .025

Transfer Credits .022 .006 *** -.028 .011 **

Home School .137 .498 .164 .695

Fall Academics

Completed Schedule 1.501 .099 *** 1.719 .157 ***

Part-Time Status (<13) .494 .151 *** .512 .245 **

Constant 3.259 .662 *** 3.466 1.019 ***

3 p-values: .01 (***), .05 (**), and .10 (*)

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