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Experiencirg Theotre

Anne Fletcher Southern I llinois U niversity

Scott R. Irelort Western Michiga n U niversity

I '0 c t/-f [i'.f3llT,if,,5hi ns c(]mpany, r nc

Ind ianapolis/Cambriclge

EXPLORATION THREE play's ideas c where design speaking, the Moreover, tht ual appointnr toward a unif

I often tlme i how the plar ! play was dar : statements c i In this exerci

i These imal i of delight, fo i they should r i to search for i for Oedipus I i might turn tc i images fil1ed i with a warn') i and Birrg lr,or i you with reg; !

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An Overa [[

Whether r' ing, or sound r questions. Th( the emotional from this rau to many puzz tion must fun process is not about how de: collaborating

Designers & the Scenog rop hic I moginotion

The particular materials ond resources which scenography drows upon overlop with those of theatre design. Broadly, these

include scenic environments, oblects, castumes, light and sound.

However, because scenogrophy focuses more on performance,

other elements become equally importont. Consideration of

space and time are centralto scenography.

-Jostin McKinney and Philip Butterworth, Ihe

Ca mb ri d g e I ntrod ucti on to Sce n og ro phy, 6.

In this exploration we take a look at the overlapping elements that comprise scenography -the art of creating entire performance envi- ronments primarily using structure, space, light, costume, and sound- the "total package." Another way to think about it is in terms of how a piece looks on stage in its entirety-its mise en scdne. We focus on set, light, costume, and sound design, and how designers in each of these separate areas go about their work in order to arrive at a unified production, which is, again, a seamless combination of creativity that produces a live performance that looks and sounds like it belongs to- gether. To tackle all of this, we begin with a look at an overall process of developing a scenographic imagination-a way of seeing the world of the play onstage. This chapter focuses primarily on Aristotle's el- ements of music and spectacle as they work together to support the

IM M ERSION #3 The Scenoglaphic Imagination, Mood & Environment

1. Recall a favorite place. This can be any place, inside or outside, but it needs to be specific.

2. Write a vivid description of that place, including both the sounds and the light. Challenge yourself to remember specific details like how the sunlight played on the leaves in a garden, or the wind rustled through the trees. Be specific.

5. Describe the colors and textures. 4. Consider what mood was created or how you felt when in that environment. How

did you feel? Why?

play's ideas or themes. We flrst address the traditional design process where designers work as part of an entire production team. Generally speaking, the director leads the team as an artistic manager of sort. Moreover, the design team meets both as a group and through individ- ual appointments with one another to make sure they are all working toward a unifled production.

#23 Visual Metaphor and Inspirational Images

Often times designers are asked to respond to a play with a simple statement of how the play made them feel (i.e. "The play made me feel all hot and sweaty" or "The play was dark" or "The play made me think of a fancy Valentine"). These kinds of statements can help lead to a visual metaphor (i.e. "The road was a ribbon of light"). In this exercise you move from words and sentences to images.

These images can be abstract. Inspirational images for a play that evoke feelings of delight, for example, need not be pictures that illustrate the play's action. In fact, they should not be literal. The idea is not to search for images of the play but, rather, to search for images that speak to the play instead of the play itself. For example, for Oedipus Rex, a designer will not search for inspiration by googling Oedipus but might turn to words like pride or fate. For one play, you might turn to color and flnd images fllled with yellows or pinks. For another, you might flnd a picture of a person

with a warm and engaging smile. Use your imagination. Search engines like Google and Bingwork well. Prepare an explanation of why and how these images appeal to you with regard to the play.

Note: A similar exercise can be done without a particular play by creating a set of notecards with different emotions or ideas written on them. In this version of the exercise, each student picks a random card and then goes through magazines or internet images to creqte a collage to describe their word.

An Overa[[Approach

\Mhether working on a scenic environlrent-{a set), costume, light- ing, or sound design, the design process is one of asking and answering questions. These questions stem not only from the script but also from the emotional and intellectual response designers have to the text.It is from this raw material that designers come up with creative solutions to many puzzles along the way, for the design elements of a produc- tion must function practically as well as artistically. \Mhile the design process is not necessarily linear, what follows is a helpful way to think about how designers move from reading a play to generating ideas to collaborating with other members of the production team in order to

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An Approach to the Overa[[ Design Process This is freely adapted from |. Michael Gillette in Chapter Trvo ofhis Theatrical Design and Produc- tion: An Introduction to Scenic Design and Construction, Lightitg, Costwne, and Makeup, Sth Edition, \9-33.

> Say Yes: Making the personal commitment to sen'e the flnal production. > Analyze: Gather information by reading the script at least three times. > Research: Review past productions as well as historical background. > Percolate: Let the information gel. > Choose: Sift through all the ideas and select those most relevant to the pro-

duction.

> Execute: Move from two dimensional papenr'ork to three dimensional reali- zation.

> Reflect: Think about what worked, what did not. and why. Repeat these steps as needed, always returning to the text and to information from

production meetings.

Fig. 3-1-An Approach to the OveratI Design Process

create a full design, realizing both their individual and the collective ideas on stage.

The most obvious place to begir-r is bv saving "yes" to a pro,ect. In doing so you, the designer, are committing to use your skills, gifts, and talents in a way that serves the flna1 production. Next, you begin analy- sis and interpretation. Gathering inforlnation from the text for further research is a large part of any anah'sis and interpretation process. To do this to the best of your creative abilin, r'ou will need to read the play multiple times. The first time r ou encounter the text read it for enioyment, as if you were watching it. Dr.rring the second reading, pay special attention to any areas of the tert rr'here you are most connected to what is happening and react to these. \bu might simply write them down, or you may want to flnd or drarr' an image that comes to mind or collect other images on Pinteresr so that voLl can reconnect with this impulse later. These are often referred to as inspirational images. In- spirational images will help to convev ideas u'hen meeting with the director and other members of the production team. On the third read- through of the play, consider practical design aspects and physical needs such as entrances and erits. quick changes of costumes, or rapid movement from location to location.

With both inspirational images anctr practical design questions in hand, complete with those questions that are unanswered, it is time to do more in-depth analr,sis into both the production background and

the historic search offer have been p torical resei geography, also importt the written flnal creatir,

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the historical background of the text itself. Production background re- search offers insights into design pitfalls to avoid or design choices that have been particularly successful in other productions of the play. His- torical research is an in-depth review of socioeconomic circumstances, geography, time, place, period, and style reflected in the script. It is also important to review form, style, genre, and theme as they relate to the written text. All of this research will eventually come to influence final creative choices made.

Percolation is perhaps one of the most important steps of design work. This maytake one night, or it maytake a fewweeks. Nevertheless, it is important to give yourself the chance to flnd a clear path through the information before you choose design elements. In making these choices, you will want to sort through all of your ideas and select only those that clearly communicate your overall thinking behind the de- sign, with specific examples of how it might look on stage (design con- cept). Of course, since all elements of production must work together, with the director guiding the process, your concept cannot clash with the rest of the production. For example, a production team might take the idea that a particular play, steeped in characters'memories, is like an old-fashioned photograph. The design concept might, then, revolve around sepia tones and blurred edges. Old photographs might serve as inspirational images for the collaborators to reference while designing so that they all work towards the same look on stage.

With your choices made, it is now time to execute the design using the appropriate paperwork, drawings, color charts, etc. Part of execut- ing the design also includes solving practical problems that arise as the two-dimensional paperwork takes shape in the three-dimensional scenographic world. Much of this problem solving is talked about in both design meetings and production meetings where designers and other members of the production team meet, first to come up with a design and then to talk about how to make the chosen designs happen by opening night.

Fig. 3-2- Elements of SuccessfuI Design

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-l Elements of SuccessfuI Design

> The design fully serves the final production. > The design is unifled with the whole. > The design communicates specifics about the world unfolding in live action. > The design dares watchers to have more than iust surface reactions. > The design is dynamic, changing to match the evolving mood, tone, or content.

Critics, reviewers, and watchers often come away from a live the- atre event with commentary about the scenographic world they experi- ence. But what constitutes a successful design? That type of fudgment is rather subjective and can differ greatly from watcher to watcher. One of the primary indicators of a successful design, though, is how well it serves the overall production. Another good indicator of success is how detailed the flnal elements are and how those details communicate specifics about the world unfolding in live action. A third indicator of a design that is successful is the way it dares watchers to have more than iust surface reactions to what is seen. One final element of a success- ful design is that of dlmamism. Does the design flt an evolving mood, changing tone or the content of the piece? Does it reinforce character? Emotions? Action? lVhile individually beautiful and revealing pieces of art, when all elements are working together does the world of the play in performance clearly communicate a unifled vision?

Theatre Spaces

Starting with Ancient Egyptians and progressing until today, a va- riety of theatre spaces, formal places for live performance to occur, have emerged. Designers must be able to create for each\of the ma- ior types of theatre spaces as well as for "found" spaces;spaces not created for the purpose of producing live performanc€ bu{ adapted for theatrical use (garages, town squares, outdoor locations, etc.). The four main types of performance spaces are Proscenium, 3/+ Thrust, Arena, and Alley. There is a fifth commonly used space, Blackbox or flexible space, that can be reconfigured as one ofthe other types or in new and different ways.

Knowing these spaces is important to decision making when creat- ing the design environment. The s/+ThruSt space is called this because it has seating on three of its four sides with the performance space jut- ting out into the seating area. A Proscenium space can also be called a picture-frame theatre because an architectural element knourn as an arch creates what looks like a picture frame that separates the seat- ing area from the performance area. The Alley theatre space is a long walkwaywith seating, most often, on two sides. InProject Runway and America's Next Top Model, the 'runway" is similar to an alley perfor- mance space. The way that an NBA basketball court is set up closely resembles the Arena theatre space, with a performance area at center and seating on all four sides. As mentioned, the Blackbox, or flexible space, is literally a box-shaped room painted black. This allows a pro- ducing agency to arrange the seating/performance space in any way theywould like.

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Fig. 3-3-Top Left: Proscenium, Top Center: 3/+ Thrust, Top Right: Square Btackbox, Bottom Left: Arena, Bottom Center: Alley, Bottom Right: Btackbox or Flexible. Diograms courtesy of Anthony Reed.

Executing the Scenic Design

The scenic environment is usually the first thing any watcher sees, and the scenic (set) designer is the person in charge of creating scen- ery for a performance. Before a scenic environment can be placed in a space, the designer has many choices to make, puzzles to solve, and questions to answer while working with hisAer director. In executing the design it is important to determine when (period) and where (lo- cation) the scripted plot takes place not only according to the given circumstances as established in the script but also with regard to the particular production approach because the director and production team might decide to move the action from what is stated in the script to another time and place (i.e. Shakespeare's Romeo and luliet in a hip suburb of Verona). It is also vital to note what the world looks like (style) and into what genre the written text might flt. Combining the given circumstances the playwright provides with emotional and artis- tic response(s) from reading and rereading the text allows the designer to develop a central image or scenic metaphor as part of a larger con- cept. Reactions from the other members of the production team will also have influence. Having made choices and discussed them with the director, the scene designer begins to generate drawings and models so that other collaborators can sense what the set will look like in the

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performance space. These are shared in production meetings. As the scenic environment is being built, a designer must still be prepared to solve problems and puzzles as they arise. Solutions to these problems and puzzles come not only from the written text and research but also from the knowledge the designer has about how building materials work to create structures and space.

Executing the Scenic Design 1. Determine given circumstances. 2. Use both given circumstances and research to devise concept, central image, andl

or a scenic metaphor.

5. Draft a ground plan. 4. Attend production meetings not onl1'to soh,e problems but also to coordinate

with the other design areas.

5. Solve puzzles and problems as thev arise u'hile the design is being built. 6. Keep reading and rereading the rrritten text as necessary to flnd clues and

inspiration.

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Methods and Materials of Scenic Design

The ground plan is a "bird's eye view" of the space, scenic ele- ments, and architecture and includes the outline of walls, placement of furniture, location of door and windows, and suggested entrance and exit points-all viewed from above the theatre space. This is the pri- mary piece of paperwork used by a scenic designer in communicating how a setting flts into a given performance space.

Another important drawing is a front elevation, which is the scenic environment drawn "full face." This drawing is fundamental in helping carpenters see how to build the design. A paint elevation is a color version of the front elevation. This drawing helps others envision a full color version of the setting. Scenic designers might also build a white model, which is an unpainted, scale model of the scenic environment (Fig. 5-4). All of these communication tools workingtogether provide a clearer picture of the physical layout of the performance space.

When making sketches, drawings, and models, a designer must con- sider how many settings there are, how the scenery will be moved (if at all), and how much money it will cost to build the setting as drawn.

The two fundamental components of any setting are the platform and the flat. A platform is used to make floors and can be made to different heights. Traditionally made with a 2x4lumber frame and ply- wood top, tubular steel and plexiglass are other options. If a platform has casters on it, then it is known as a wagon. A flat is used to make walls. Usually put together using a Ix4lumber frame, there are two types of coverings for flats. A hard covered flat is a piece of scenery

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Exercise =24 Scenic Design: The Ground Plan and Elevation

1. Using graph paper or a straight edge drarr- a top riew of your room. Lines will represent the walls. Make sure to leave blank spaces forrrtrere doors and windows are located. Since this is a top view, a simple rectarrgte can stand for a bed and small squares may serve as chairs. Do not rr.on1" about exact scale; just try to keep furnishings relative to each other in size, and keep er-erything in a top view only. You have drawn a ground plan ofyour room-

2. Turn the paper and view your drawing from all four sides. Put it at eye level, and imagine what someone viewing it from a particular direction would see. A straight-on view is an elevation.

5. Now imagine how you might transform tbat fnrr-sided space into a set in a Proscenium theatre space. Make choices about rrlrat has to move or be removed so the watchers can see into the world of the pl4-.

4. Lastly, create a front view of the center area of rour drawing. Try to keep furniture in relative scale (proportion) and to ar"oid firmiture floating in space.

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covered with thin plywood called lauan or Philippine mahogany. The advantage of this flat is that it not on[. bounces sound back towards the seating area but also lasts a long time. A soft covered flat is one that has a fire-treated fabric knonrr as rnuslin on it. Stretched like a painter's canvas, this type of flat is lightu"eight and is easy to move. This flat, though, does have the terdency not only to suck up sound but also to break more easily than tlre hard covered flat. Flats can also be used as masking, preventing audience members from seeing into backstage areas. Painted drops,lqs" andborders are also used to com- plete the design. These are krrortn as'soft goods'because they are fab- ric based. A drop is a large painted background literally hung from a steel pipe (known as a batten) ffiat is attached to or suspended from the grid and then dropped to the floor- Legs are tall, relatively skinny curtains (usually black), and borders are long, wide curtains (usually black) that work together both to frame the scenic environment and to hide areas watchers should not see, s'mils1 to the way a valance and curtains might in work 1.our home rrindows. With technological advances, projected scenic enrimnments are becoming more and more popular. In most cases, scenic designers can integrate fllm sequences and moving images into the orerall enrironment by using technology su ch as I s a do r a, Hip p ataer, Pandora's fux or Arka o s .

Building Btocks of Scenic tlesign

Much of the drawing and modelirry mentioned above can be done either by hand or with compnrter-aided design (CAD) equipment. In

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Ehr*= either case the building blocks of scenic design remain line, mass, com- position, texture, color, and value. Skilled manipulation of these build- ing blocks is fundamental to creating a functional, interesting scenic environment.

Line is the starting point of any design as it creates a silhouette in the performance space. Whether round, angular, or somewhere in be- tween, line can both convey meaning and guide watchers' eyes through the space. To do so, scenic designers most often use line to create geo- metric shapes such as triangles, hexagons, squares, rectangles, or cir- cles. If the mood, tone, or content calls for it, then the designer can use irregular or flowing forms of natural shapes, like those of large trees. It is also possible for a scenic designer to incorporate abstract uses of line, which look like distortions.

Mass in design considers how builc', or healry, a setting is. Mass indicates weight. Is the set piece solid? Composition is putting to- gether the pieces while considering vertical and horizontal planes and whether or not the setting needs to be balanced or asymmetrical. Tex- ture is always a part of a scenic enr-ironment. It refers not only to the visual surface but also to the tactlle surface of materials in use-slick, rough, fuzzy,firm.

Color is iust that, and, along lr ith value (density or vibrancy of the color), provides essential touches to an1'design. This is because the

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The Scene Designer: Review The Scene Designer's role clearly illustrates the n'ays in which each member of the

production team executes tasks that are both functional and aesthetically pleasing or artistic, trying to create a unified production.

Some Building Blocks of Scenic Design Include:

> Line > Mass > Height > Color > SymmetryorAsymmetry A major factor in the creation of a set design is the number of scene changes (dif-

ferent locations and the number of times they appear) the play requires and how they can be made smoothly and efficiently, rrtrile making an artistic contribution to the production as a whole.

Many designers employ what they call a -scenic metaphor" to complement the play's thematic concerns.

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The Support Staff

Usually the scenic designer has help in moving from ideas and il- lustrations to an actual, physical environment. Three key members of the support staff include the technical director, scene shop foreman, and carpenter(s). The technical director is someone who not only oversees the building of the scenic design but also manages all other aspects of technical production. Some duties include budgeting for each production, keeping materials in stock, training workers in safety and procedures, keeping projects on deadline, and the like. The scene shop foreman is usually the person who takes charge of the scene shop area where the entire scenic environment is built. The foreman relies on carpenter(s) to get the set built and placed properly in the performance space. Closely related to the work of these staff members is that of the properties or prop designer. In either case, props (objects held or used in the production) are used to enhance the mise-en-scine and are sometimes vital to the play's action. The person in charge of creating them is sometimes referred to as the props designer.

Costu m e Design

Watchers arrive at live theatre expecting to see garments that tell a story and define character. A great place to begin thinking about how costumes work in live theatre is with your own clothing. Consider for a moment what your current garments say about you. lVhat story do they tell? How do they communicate your social position or status? To what extent do they or do theynot indicate gender? Occupation? When do your garments show modesty or lavishness? Do they showcase an unyielding personality or one that is free-spirited? To what extent do they indicate the occasion for which you are dressed? These types of considerations are similar to those of a costume designer as they go about creating clothing for characters in a live performance.

Executinq the Costume Desiqn

In thinking about how clothing works in live performance, the cos- tume designer, like the scenic designer, considers several elements. One of the designer's first tasks is to identify the given circumstances not only of the text but also of each character in the plot. Just as with scenic design, this information is important when matching garments

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to period, place, style, and tone. The design must indicate the world we are watching even before any character speaks a line. Closely related to this, the design should indicate characterization, not just a character. Is someone in the play an ordinary or extraordinary person? Are they shy or outgoing?

Evidenced-based (from the script) decisions will influence color and fabric choices. We have included a chart that can be utilized in tracking the sorts of selections a costume designer must make based on both artistic and practical considerations.

As with scenic design, combining text-based information with emotional and artistic response(s) from reading and rereading the text allows the costume designer to develop hisAer concept. This concept helps guide all choices, including how to indicate relationships among characters. Having made these selections in private, the designer needs to consult not only with the director but also with the other designers to make sure the garments are consistent with the entire world of the

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Exercise #25 Deconstructing Costume Design

Contributed by Stephi Molitor lorandby

IAlhat does your outfit communicate to others?

In this exercise, you witl start with an outfit and work backwards to "decode" what cloth- ing says about the person who is wearing it.

Instructions:

1. Come to class (or try this with someone outside of class) in an outflt that really says something about YOU. It might be your letter iacket, your lucky "iob interview" clothes, your hunting gear-clothes that communicate who you are as a person.

2. Partner with someone you do not know well. Introduce yourselves, but do not discuss any other information besides your names. Observe your partner's outfit. \iVhat conclusions can you draw about this person based on what s/he is wearing? Can you guess their major? Their hobbies? \Mhat about their age, religion, geographic location, job (Given Circumstances)? Write downwhatyou learn from your partner's clothing. Be honest, kind, and fair; you are not passing fudgment but, rather, simply observing.

5. Note your partner's choices in color, fabric, accessories-all the elements of Costume Design. lVhat is unique about their outfit?

4. After both of you have had a chance to record your observations, discuss your findings. How accurate was your "decoding" ofyour partner's clothing in relation to who they are?

5. Share your results in small groups or with the class.

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Fig. 3-11-Sample Costume Plot

play. Much of this happens in production meetings, either face-to- face or electronically. With all of this input it is time to turn general ideas, doodles, and sketches (often called thumbnails) into fully realized color drawings of character clothing (renderings), complete with fabric swatches. This paper trail, electronic or otherwise, aids in building the three-dimensional costume. A garment cannot be completed, however, without taking into account the performer's body and his or her movement needs. For example, designing a costume for a wheelchair bound character is different from designing a costume for an able-bodied dancer.

Methods and Materiols of Costume Desion

Costume renderings are a fundamental communication tool used by the costume designer. These drawings usually provide ideas for line, color, fabric choices, embellishments, and perhaps even character-spe- cific accessories. A good deal of this kind of drawing can be done either by hand or with the help of computer software such as Corel Painter, Paint Shop Pro, Adobe software, or iPad applications. Another impor- tant drawing is the pattern. Either purchased in a store and adapted or drafted by the designer, a pattern provides the outline of every piece

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Fig. 3-12-Color Costume Rendering with Swatches. Courtesy of Wendi Zeo.

of a garment so that it can be built from scratch. \Mhen building a gar- ment from scratch, a prototype is often made from muslin or canvas. This helps the designer see what adjustments need to be made to the pattern before cutting into the more expensive fabric to be used in the flnal costume piece. Fabric and a variety of other clothing-grade soft goods are the primary materials in costume design and construction. A good costume designer is aware of a broad range of textiles. Some types of materials frequently used include leather, cotton, wool, silk, denim, nylon, polyester, linen, jute, and rayon, to name a few options. These can be embellished with lace, ruffles, fringe, metallic ornaments, fur, feathers, and the like. Swatches of these often accompany renderings so that everyone involved in the production process can get a sense of what the flnal costume should look like. If not building a costume, then the designer might offer a photographic image of a garment that will be pulled from the company's stock of already-made costumes or pur- chased and adiusted to fit not only character but also performer. Key to all of this is the ability to bring together the building blocks of cos- tume design through sewing, stitching, and otherwise securing pieces in ways that will hold up to the rigors of repeated live performance.

Fig. 3-13-E,

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Executing the Costume Design 1.. Determine period, place, style, and tone based on the written text.

2. Use both given circumstances and research to devise a concept. 3. Draft basic sketches and renderings that indicate characterization and

relationships.

4. Attend production meetings not only to solve problems but also to coordinate with the other design areas.

5. Solve puzzles and problems as they arise while the design is being built, making sure each garment meets the movement needs of a given performer.

6. Keep reading and rereading the wdtten text as necessary to find clues and inspiration.

Fig. 3-13-Executing the Costume Design

Buildinq Blocks of Costume Desiqn

Line, fabric, color and value, embellishments, and accessories are the building blocks of costume design. Line refers not only to the cut of a garment but also to the pattern or grain of a given fabric. Long ago designers figured out that using a horizontal line adds width to a character while a vertical line can either add a sense of height or indicate dignity. The diagonal line often indicates a sense of excite- ment or excitability. Closely related to this is fabric (woven or knit- ted flbers). Depending on the textile chosen, fabric can influence sil- houette or outline, provide a sense of bulk, offer a distinct texture, or even encompass line in a pattern or grain. Color and value are also important considerations because of the psychological effect they can have on watchers. The pattern on fabric is important, too, and often beginning costume designers fail to recognize that tiny, busy patterns cannot be seen by audience members gathered in a large seating area or house. Embellishments or trims can be anlthing from fringe, lace, and ruffles to fancy buttons, zippers, and snaps. Sometimes flashier elements such as sequins, fur, or feathers are used as well. Accessories are items such as hats, purses, and walking sticks. These are the flne details that further delineate one character from another. Other ways that these building blocks can manifest in a design include the areas of hair, makeup, and masks. While large producing organizations may have separate individuals in charge of designing these items, more of- ten than not they fall under the purview of the costume designer. This makes sense, though, given how each relates to character and charac- terization.

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Exercise #26 Character, Texture, Color

Created by Casey Watkins

Costume Design & Character Choose a character and write five words/phrases describing the character (Old

maid, snob, etc.). Using copied bodies without clothes (croquis) and including dif- ferent body types if possible, collage or draw Use markers, colored pencils, or paints and/or pens to draw costumes on the figures based on one or more character(s) from a play you have read. Discuss how line,/texture/color, etc. can inform the audience about the character(s).

You can also use collage for this exercise.

Texture & Color Use fabric swatches of various types-everything from upholstery to chiffon-and

in groups come up with a character description of the type of person who would wear something made out of each type of fabric. Be able to state why the character would wear that fabric. Continue and do the same exercise with color swatches. Now, combine texture (type of fabric), color, and trims.

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We should note here that, in practice, play analysis for the costume designer operates on a practical as well as artistic level. Once the costume designer is familiar with themes and images, character, etc., s/he must plot costume changes and analyze the design from scene- to-scene to make sure that the clothing matches the action of the play.

The Costume Support Staff

The costume shop manager makes sure that the building of cos- tumes stays on track and on (preferably under) budget. Like the scene shop foreman, the shop manager trains workers and relies on cutters, stitchers, and drapers to help move a design from renderings to proto- type to flnished garment.

These individuals are responsible for cutting out fabric/patterns, sewing, and seeing how the sewn item can best flt on a performer.

Lishting Desisn

The primary puzzle the lighting designer must solve is that of vis- ibility. That is, since the primary function of light in the natural world is to illuminate objects so that living beings can distinguish one from another, the lighting designer must be able to replicate this full range

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The Costume Designer: Review Like the other designers, the costume designer works in coniunction with the rest

of the production team. The costume designer must be cognizant of how the cos- tumes will work on stage. The costume designer must pay attention to the practical considerations of the play (How many costume changes are there? Can the actors make them in time? Do the actors have to execute any gymnastic activities? Do they need to fight or dance? ) as well as the aesthetic considerations ofvision (idea/ theme) and concept. Costumes, of course, might suit the characters' ages, genders, socioeconomic status, occupation, etc. They also might indicate the era (century, decade, year), season, or time of day reflected in the world ofthe play. But, the direc- tor and production team might choose to set the play in a completely different style (time, place, etc.) from the way in which it is written. Regardless, costumes (and all the design elements) must meet certain criteria.

Costumes

> Reveal characters' personalities and given circumstances, the reality of the world of the play, such as age, gender, health, social status, educational level,

Reflect mood, theme, style of production

Be unifled with the whole production

Have psychological effect on the audience

Meet the physical needs of the production's staging

Some Costume Vocabulary:

> Silhouette: The outline or general shape of garments on the body > Vertical line: Gives a sense of height, dignity, strength > Horizontal line: Provides a sense of width > Diagonal line: Often indicates excitement or at least excitability > Weight: How heavy is the fabric, particularly when placed on the body? > Texture: rNhat does the fabric feel like or what feeling might it evoke? > Color: Brightness, saturation, or hue offabric(s)

Fig. 3-14-The Costume Designer: Review

of seeing indoors. It does a watcher no good to attend any live event if the performance cannot be seen. Like the other designers, the lighting designer always begins with the reading and rereading of the written text for given circumstances information. Similar to the scenic and costume designer, the lighting designer is looking to establish time (i.e. day or night) and place (i.e. inside or outside) as well as matching the tone of the written text and the mood of each scene. As with scenic and costume design, this information, along with any artistic and emo- tional response(s) to the written text, allows the designer to develop a concept. With this information in hand, it is time to have a discussion

55:

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Executing the Lighting Design 1. Determine how to provide visibility using given circumstances. 2. Use both given circumstances and research to devise concept. 3. Draft appropriate drawings, computer models, and paperwork. 4. Attend production meetings not only to solve problems but also to coordinate

with the other design areas.

5. Adjust initial ideas to match not only performer movements but also other design elements.

6. Watch rehearsals when necessary to solve problems and flnd inspiration.

Fig. 3-15-Executing the Lighting Design

about the style of production so that lighting choices can reinforce not only the directorial concept but also the other design elements. Once the lighting designer has the okay from his or her director to move forward, s/he creates drawings, chooses colors, and thinks about the placement of light cues, or what might simply be called changes in light.

This preliminary work can only be flnalized after the lighting in- struments are hung, the dimmers are patched (meaning electricity runs to the appropriate lighting instruments), performers arrive, and the other design elements are completed during the rehearsal process. Most of the finalizing of lighting choices is done during technical re- hearsals, which are for the purpose of coordinating and refining design elements as they are integrated with performers. Because light needs something to hit in order to be appreciated, it is only after the other above mentioned elements are in place that the lighting designer can completely reinforce the overall style of production. lVhile reading the written text can be a way to gain information in the early days of plan- ning, it is the scenic environment, costume design, and performers' bodies moving about the space that allow for full inspiration.

Methods ond Moteriols of Liqhtinq Desion

The light plot and cue sheet are two of the most important pieces of paperwork a lighting designer can use to communicate ideas, be- cause they offer the best way to visualize light without ever turning on a lighting instrument. Since the light plot is an overhead view of the position for each lighting instrument, it can help the designer en- sure that there are enough pools of light to illuminate the performance space. The cue sheet, paperwork on which all the lighting changes or cues are listed and described, assists the director in visualizing when light changes at any given moment in live performance. This

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Fig. 3-17-Use

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paperwork is not only important in production meetings but also in paper tech (a rehearsal held off stage without actors, literally done on paper) and cue-to-cue (a rehearsal of changes in light- ing with actors or stand-ins from beginning to end of the piece be- ing performed). Without lighting instruments, though, most de- signs cannot be realized in live performance.

The two most common light- ing instruments in use today are the soft-edged spotlight and the sharp-edged spotlight. Also known as a Fresnel, the soft- edged spotlight produces a wide

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beam of light and is usually used for a medium throw distance. Using a colored fllter known as a gel can change the color of light coming from the instrument.

The ellipsoidal reflector spotlight (ERS) produces a sharp, con- centrated beam of light. It is usually used because it has a longer throw distance and produces a sharper, more focused beam of light. The four shutters on the side of the barrel and a set of brackets on the end of the lens tube are good clues to identifying an ERS. The shutters allow manipulation of the shape of a beam of light into a square, triangle, or half-moon. The brackets at the end of the lens tube allow for the addi- tion of accessories such as a color-changing unit. Near the top shutter there is also a slot where a steel cutout called a gobo can be inserted

Fig. 3-17-Uses of Spottight lnstruments. Courtesy of Jomes Diemer.

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Light Cues Production Name: Designer's Name:.

Cue Sheet Date: Page _ of

Page # Cue # Description of Cue Notes 5 1 Pre-show and house full

5 2 Pre-show and house half

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12 5 Lights dim little, it is now deep evening, cool blue

Fig. 3-18-Sampte Cue Sheet

to mold a beam of light into the skyline of NewYork, a grouping of tree limbs, |uly 4th flreworks, or any other shape that can be cut out. It is the flexibility of the ERS that makes it one of the favorite instruments of lighting designers.

Par cans are basically "coffee cans" with lamps in them and scoops are large, usually round-shaped instruments that can be used to flll in areas that need more light. Strip lights and border lights are a bank of floodlights meant to illuminate broad areas like a drop. The follow spot is just that, a beam of light on a swivel used to follow a performer as s/he moves. More recently, designers have started using automated or intelligent lights. These somewhat ball-shaped instru- ments are computer programmed, rotate, and can do all of the opera- tions described above, and much more. In fact, much of this advanced technology can now be controlled by iPod or iPad remotes held by the lighting designer (or an assistant) while working from one cue to an- other during technical rehearsals.

More and more theatre companies, colleges, and universities are adding LED (light-emitting diode) lamps to their lighting instrument inventories. LEDs are expensive to purchase, but over time, they are both more efflcient and last longer than other lamps,lending appeal to the ecologically-minded in the industry. They need no warm-up time, but because they are affected by temperature, they do require cooling fans or other means of heat dissemination. Colors produced with LEDs are strongly saturated and offer lighting designer great opportunities.

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The world of stage lighting will change exponentially as LED lighting not only augments but also ultimately replaces other kinds of lighting equipment we have discussed here.

The angles and placements of lighting instruments are crucial to accomplishing the sculpting effects the lighting designer desires. Both the lighting angles and positions list and images provide some of the most important positions used in live performance.

Fig. 3-19-Light Angtes. Courtesy of Jomes Diemer.

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l-hi*e Buildinq Blocks of Liqhtinq Desiqn

Much of the paperwork and idea generating can be done either by hand or with the aid of computer software such as Lightwright or Au- toPlotWV. Whichever way the designer chooses to generate his or her paperwork, visibility, composition, mood, and reinforcement are four basic building blocks of lighting design. Lighting designers often break these down further into specific elements so that they can have more flexibility when putting finishing touches on a design. These elements include intensity, direction, color, shape, dimension, movement, and texture. The primary way to control visibility is through intensity, or degree of brightness. Composition in lighting design refers not only to indicating where the center of action in each scene should be but also to defining objects, persons, and their relationships. Direction indi- cates where the light is pointed or focused and what it is illuminating, while shape specifies the way a beam of light leaves the lighting in- strument (i.e. round or triangular). The size of the beam as it leaves the lighting instrument is its dimension, and the texture of a light is the way it looks on a surface (i.e. "trees gobo"). Mood is the overall psycho- logical effect of the scene as indicated by lighting. The easiest way to manipulate this building block is through the use of color. The lighting designer often thinks in terms of warm colors (in the redlyellow family) and cool colors (blue/green). Reinforcement is considering how light, workingwith the other design elements as well as performers, can sup- port moment-to-moment occurrences in live performance. Movement is a unique way to enhance any composition by controlling how and where light appears. The more practice someone has experimenting with and manipulating of these building blocks, the easier it will be to complete a successful design.

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On Lighting Design

1. Bring in three art images/photos from magazines, websites, or other publications.

2. Student designers swap images so they do not have their own. Choose one.

3. Write three words that describe the emotion evoked in the images. 4. Using no more than five flashlights (or cell phones with flashlight applications)

and gel scraps, recreate the emotion in color.

5. Discuss. Now, using light, try to create a "scene." Students can make up the situation, but

they must be able to describe color(s) and use at least two lighting directions. Most importantly, they need to iustify their choices.

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The Lighting Designer: Review

Just like the other designers, the lighting designer works in coniunction with the rest of the production team to put across an agreed-upon concept to the audience. As with the other designers, the lighting designer utilizes properties or tools specific to this production area. The lighting designer manipulates the elements or qualities of light to obtain desired effects.

The Obiectives of Lighting Design: > Provide visibility-nothing much matters if the audience cannot see! > Help establish time and place > Help create mood > Reinforce the concept > Provide focus and create visual composition-where should the audience look? > Establish rhythm and movement One lighting designer explains, "It is as important to make sure the audience is

not lookingwhere they should not be as it is to make them look where they should!"

The Lighting Designer must also remain cognizant of practical lighting (lamps, fireplaces, overhead lights) that must appear to be operated by switches, lights in refrigerators, and ovens, etc.

The Lighting Designer uses these Qualities of Light: > Intensity: How bright or how light; establishing the intensity is called "set-

ting levels."

> Color: \Mhite light is not really white. Colors must be mixed, unless, of course the designer wants the actors' skin to be colored or the fabric of the costumes to be falsely colored. The colored "plastic" that goes in front of the lamp is called a "gel."

> Direction: A general wash is usually established to light the stage, overall. > Form: How an object is lit can help deflne or obscure its shape. The Lighting

Designer works with the Set Designer as the Set Designer determines line, mass, etc.

> Movement: In essence, the Lighting Designer utilizes the elements or quali- ties of light to accomplish the objectives of lighting. In reading the script, the Lighting Designer notes given circumstances such as times of day, weather, 1o- cation changes, etc.

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Fig. 3-20-The Lighting Designer: Review

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The Liohtinq Support Stoff

The lighting designer often relies on a master electrician (crew head in charge of hanging the light plot) and a crew of electricians to hang, focus, and gel his or her light plot. During live performance, the light board operator is charged with following the cues written by the designer and called by the Stage Manager. If there is a follow spot, then there is a dedicated operator for that instrument as well. The lighting designer is often also in charge of any projections or special effects that might be called for in the production design. If this is the case, then sAe often works closely with the scenic designer to make sure all projections and effects complement the setting. Usually these de- sign elements also have board operators or machine operators during live performance. Depending on the size and budget of a production, a proiection designer may be brought on board to facilitate both the creation and the execution of a video design. More and more in con- temporary theatre, a media/video designer is emerging as the stand- alone individual in charge of such technologies.

Thinking back to Aristotle's Elements of Drama for a moment, the set designer and costume designer address spectacle more than the other elements in search of a way to portray plot, character, and idea. The lighting designer's work is not only dealing with spectacle in that it is seen but also with music in that sAe contributes significantly to the rhyhm and tempo of a production in how light moves around the performance space.It is the sound designer's iob to focus almost exclu- sively on the element of heard music.

Sou nd Design

Tasks associated with sound design range from something as sim- ple as making a rotary dial phone ring or as complex as providingvocal reinforcement for musical singers, a full orchestra, and non-singing performers to even creating underscoring or a soundscape for an entire production, like in fllms. The sound designer must pay attention not only to practical sounds called for by the production, like phones or doorbells, but also to the implied sounds that emerge from the sub- text (what is meant but not said). The sound designer also thinks about offering pre-show, post-show, and intermission music. In these ways and more sAe contributes greatly to the mood of the production.

Executinq the Sound Desiqn

The biggest challenge for any sound design professional is selecting aural components that are appropriate not only to the written text but

also to th sound de: sound(s), vocal enh signer se1 circumste son, etc. i reading. 1 discussior that any < other des placemen to rehear: the perfor will augm design, re and inspi offers the

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also to the overall production design. In practice this means that the sound designer is concerned with audibility of sound(s), motivation for sound(s), transition and other incidental music or sound(s), and live vocal enhancement (if needed). Like the other designers, the sound de- signer sets about reading and rereading of the written text for given circumstances information. Of course time of day, period, place, sea- son, etc. are important given circumstances that must be noted when reading. This raw material is more than enough information to start a discussion with the director about the style of production, making sure that any choices reinforce not only the directorial conceit but also the other design elements. While thinking about cue placement, speaker placement, and other aspects of sound reinforcement often starts prior to rehearsals, it is not until the sound designer attends rehearsals in the performance space that he or she can fully plan how a soundscape will augment the action unfolding in live performance. As with lighting design, reading the written text can only provide so much information and inspiration. It is the collaboration of all the other elements that offers the best clues to flnishing touches.

Methods ond Materiols of the Sound Desiqn

The sound cue sheet is the primary piece of paperwork generated by the sound designer. Similar to the light cue sheet, the sound cue sheet keeps track of when an aural effect turns on, when it turns off, and what it does. Much of the sound designer's methods and materials are tied to the types of technology they have to use for a given design. Digital technologies from the 1990s, featuring mini-disks and players, DAI recorders, CDs, samplers, and eventually desktop computer soft- ware contributed greatly to the expansion of sound design. Currently software such as iTunes and GarageBand, Metasynth, and Audaci$l com- bine the recordability of the above formats with the processability of the computer. Even amplification technology inside of microphones and speakers has advanced, expanding the types of design choices

Executing the Sound Design 1. Determine given circumstances of the aural world.

2. Use both given circumstances and research to devise a soundscape.

3. Create appropriate tracks for text-based sounds. 4. Attend production meetings not only to solve problems but also to coordinate

with the other design areas.

5. Watch rehearsals to enhance environment.

ideas and adiust the existing sound

Fig. 3-21-Executing the Sound Design

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that can be made for a live performance. These advances have afforied sound designers the same creative controllability that lighting, projec- tion, and special effects design has had for years. Two other types of important materials include music and sound effects. Designers think about myriad ways to use music for cues or transitions and as ambient filler. Sound effects either reinforce stage action or provide informa- tion to the watcher. Three common types of effects are textual refer- ent, atmosphere creation, and evocative response. A textual referent is a sound design choice taken directly from the written text while at- mosphere creation referent refers to the use of sound or music to re- inforce mood. In the context of sound design, the evocative response effect is a sound design choice meant to evoke emotions in a watcher as sAe sees the scene unfold. Sound designers have vast knowledge of da- tabases, listings, and other library sources from which to pull. Though methods and materials will continue to shift at a rapid rate as technol- ogy improves, the root of inspiration remains the blueprint provided by the playwright.

Buildinq Blocks of the Sound Desiqn

Fourbuildingblocks of sound design include consideration of envi- ronment, audibility, duration, and route. There are two different types of sound environments-the physical environment and the virtual environment. The physical sound environment is that which we hear and deals with the physics of sound and acoustics while the virtual sound environment refers to the use of digital equipment in creating the design. Audibility is how loud or soft, how processed or natural the presented soundscape is in live performance. Both the duration of a certain sound effect or music cue and the route it takes to reach watch- ers are important considerations as well. The cruel paradox of these buildingblocks is that if theyworkwell then no one notices. When they do not work, watchers are guaranteed to comment.

The Sound Support Stoff

Sound design is often a solitary position. At some larger venues sound professionals are charged with hanging speakers, running cable, and wiring microphones, but in more cases than not it is the designer who handles creating the physical sound environment. As this role continues to grow and expand, there is little doubt that the support staff will as well.

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Exercise #28 On Sound Design

1. Find an open scene or monologue (perhaps the one you wrote).

2. Using phone ring tones, substitute the words used in the scene with the tones that match what is meant by each line but not said (subtext).

3. Be able to explain why each tone is an appropriate replacement for the word. 4. Present your ideas.

Make sure to think about context as you go about making your choices.

Exercise #29

On Listening

Listen to instrumental music of different kinds andlor recordings of sounds in nature, like those often used in meditation.

List the emotions these selections evoke in you and be able to explain why you feel them.

Develop a collage of color, images, etc. that illustrates the emotions evoked in #2.

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Exercise #30 On Soundscapes

C o ntribute d by B evin My ake

\.{/hat is a soundscape?

We often tend to isolate sounds, considering them one by one and/or separat- ing them into categories ofpractical versus natural-a doorbell or telephone, a bird chirping, etc. Sound is really much more layered and nuanced. In other words, we hear more than one sound at a time.

1. To experience that layering-a natural soundscape, go somewhere new (a coffee shop, a park, an industrial site, a busy street, a wooded area). Bring a notebook.

2. Focus on listening to the scene, not watching the activity around you, and try to identify every sound you hear. Make a list of the sounds.

5. Try to think of a scene from a play or a situation into which those sounds might flt.

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Exercise #31 A Group Exercise on Design Collaboration:

A Mock Production Meeting

This exercise will likely take two class meetings. The obiective is to simulate the feeling and work of a production team collaborating.

! Instructions: Each person (or pair) will take on a design role, or if preferred (or if work- I ing alone), that of scenographer. (We recognize thatwe have notyet experienced the role I of the director, so this will be an exercise in design collaboration. Later, we will offer I another one that includes the entire production team.) I

i Discuss a scene from a playyou have read and then, together, flrst inwords, then i with visuals and sounds, etc., make decisions about howyou would produce it in the I context of the entire play. Go back and review the design section of this book. This i exercise should include discussion-give and take, or collaboration. I For example, is there an image off which the entire design might be based? A met- I aphor around which all the designers might work? Is your production going to be i realistic? Non-realistic? Why? I facn Production Team Member (or combination) is responsible for accomplishing ! and presenting the following: i

> Set & Properties Designer-Reaction or emotionwords, inspirational images, description of what the set looks like. Do a quick pen or pencil ground plan. \Mhat type of theatre stage is utilized? How does your work reflect the overall vision & concept for the production? Even though you are working on only one scene, the setting must either work for the entire play or set changes must be taken into account. Be sure to include properties in your design. How do set and props reinforce the play's theme(s)?

> Lighting Designer- Reaction or emotion words, inspirational images, de- scription of lighting effects. \Mhat mood are you setting for this scene? For the play? \Mhat colors might you use? Direction(s)? Intensity? etc.? How can the qualities of light work to reinforce the play's message and enhance rather than contradict set and costumes? Be sure to remember practicals if there are any.

> Costume Designer- Reaction or emotion words, inspirational images, de- scription of costumes. lVhat are the characters wearing? Who are they? \Mhen in time are they? Remember to include line, color, silhouette. Choose appro- priate accessories. Would the characters wear the same costumes throughout the show or would they change? Might just pieces or props be added to change effects? How?

> Sound Designer-\Mhat sounds or music might you use at top and bottom of the show? Are there special cues within the piece itselfi Is natural sound in- volved? Music to underscore? A theme across the play? Are practical sounds important? How can the sound be layered or tracked? How does sound rein- force the play's mood or theme(s)?

Your work should be presented together, compiled as one neat set of papers andl or presented orally. It should be clear that all ofthe elements presented belong to- gether in the same production.

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Ctosing Thoughts

In this exploration we offer a view of the overlapping elements of scenographythat indicates a wonderfullyvivid, rich, and ever-expanding creative world. The scenographic imagination described here is one not only of inspiration and artistry but also one of intellect and research. No matter what approach someone takes to execute a design, reading a play remains the key to unlocking the potential of any written text. The following exploration into the performer, director, and production dramaturg will provide another interesting view of how a written text is translated from page to stage. As you can see from the overlapping exercises for each design area-Set, Properties, Costume, Lighting, and Sound-in addition to their work on play analysis, designers all seek visual (and often aural) inspiration. Vital to the theatrical process is that, together with the director, they work iointly to put across a unified production: they collaborate. The production team generally meets on a regular basis, often weekly. Through sharing their research and imagery and discussing the overall vision and concept for the production, they make decisions.

For Fu rther Exploration

American Theatre Wing. "Crafting Worlds: TheatricaI Design," Work-

ing in the Theotre. American Theatre Wing. August 2013. Web.

American Theatre Wing. "Sound Designer." ln the Wings. American Theatre Wing. August 2013. Web.

Jane Collins and Andrew Nisbet, eds.Theatre ond Performonce

Design: A Reoder in Scenography (London and New York: Rout-

ledge,2010). Print.

E[len E. Jones.A Procticol Guideto GreenerTheotre: lntroduce Sus- toinobility lnto Your Productions (New York and London: Focal Press, 2014). Print.

Darwin Reid Payne. The Scenogrophic lmaginotion,3rd Edition (Carbondale, lL: SIU Press, 1993). Print,

Rob Roznowski and Kirk Domer. Colloborotion in Theotre: A Proc- ticol Guide for Designers ond Directors (New York: Palgrave Mac- mitlan,2009). Print.

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