History and Philosophy of Teaching and Learning

1

History of Adult Teaching & Learning

Stacey G. Barnes

College of Doctoral Studies: Grand Canyon University

TLC 801: History & Philosophy of Teaching & Learning

Dr. Patti Beltram

May 3, 2023

Commented [PB1]: History of Teaching and Learning (220 pts) Having a sense and perspective of the history of teaching and learning allows the practitioner to build a foundation of knowledge upon which to construct deeper and larger perspectives of the teaching and learning process. It also allows for a clearly focused understanding of teaching and learning from the American perspective, which provides opportunities to conduct research and gain knowledge in clearly applicable, relevant, and defined ways. In this assignment, you will consider the common perspectives and key theories of teaching and learning in the American context. General Requirements: Use the following information to ensure successful completion of the assignment:

•This assignment uses a rubric. Please review the rubric prior to beginning the assignment to become familiar with the expectations for successful completion.

•Doctoral learners are required to use APA style for their writing assignments. The APA Style Guide is located in the Student Success Center.

•This assignment requires that at least two additional scholarly research sources related to this topic, and at least one in-text citation from each source be included.

•You are required to submit this assignment to Lopes Write. Refer to the directions in the Student Success Center.

Directions: Write a paper (1,250-1,500 words) that synthesizes the common perspectives and key theories of teaching and learning in the American context. Include the following in your paper:

1.An overview of the common historical perspectives of teaching and learning in America. (Section 1) 2.An overview of the historically key theories of teaching and learning in America. (Section 2) 3.A synthesis of the common perspectives and key theories of teaching and learning in America. What do these suggest when taken as a single entity? (Section 3)

2

History of Adult Teaching & Learning

Consider the educational landscape throughout American history. Founded on classical

ideals (Carr, 2010), it has taken a meandering journey that reflects time, place, people, and

beliefs. There have been periods of systematic reform, such as Horace Mann’s inception of

normal schools (Reese, 2013); individuals advocating for change, as seen in John Dewey’s desire

for a more holistic approach to education (Demetrion, 2022); and glimpses into the future, as the

global community faces questions regarding climate, resources, justice, and flourishing

(Gouthro, 2019). The American perspective is vast and deep, spanning centuries, traversing

across the continent, and ever evolving as the humans and systems within. For much of

American history, education has focused on the teaching and learning of children (Kober &

Rentner, 2020); yet these children grow up to be adults, and learning does not stop once one

becomes an adult (Hodge et al., 2022). The last hundred years have seen a growth in adult

teaching and learning (O’Banion, 2019). As such, applying a historical lens to the American

perspective of adult teaching and learning can aid in a greater awareness of the past, the present,

and the future of what it means to educate adults. The purpose of this paper is to provide an

overview of the common historical perspectives of adult teaching and learning in America, as

well as an overview of the historically key theories of adult teaching and learning in America,

leading up to a synthesis of ideas when taken as a single entity. The thesis statement of this paper

is that an understanding of the historical perspectives and key theories of adult teaching and

learning in America highlights two themes: the contextual nature of perspectives and theories

and the teacher as reflective practitioner.

Common Historical Perspectives of Adult Teaching & Learning in America

This following section presents a discussion of the common historical perspectives of

adult teaching and learning in America. There are five common historical perspectives identified

Commented [PB2]: 5 - You have identified the purpose and your thesis statement for this paper; both are well developed.

Commented [PB3]: Section 1: An overview of the common historical perspectives of teaching and learning in America.

Commented [PB4]: Your body paragraph needs development. Body paragraph should include a topic sentence (tell me what you are going to say), your provide your argument, you provide evidence and then have a conclusion (tell me what you told me). Please see this source for suggestions: https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/common_writ ing_assignments/argument_papers/body_paragraphs.html A good rule of thumb for a fully developed paragraph is:

•Topic Sentence

•State a claim in one sentence or two.

•Have evidence with a quote, story, statistic, etc. in a sentence or two.

•State a claim in one sentence or two.

•Have evidence with a quote, story, statistic, etc. in a sentence or two.

•State a claim in one sentence or two.

•Have evidence with a quote, story, statistic, etc. in a sentence or two.

•Summary of paragraph

3

in Pratt & Collins’ (2000) Teaching Perspectives Inventory (TPI). Building on prior work, Pratt

(1992; 1998; 2002) observed five common perspectives within adult education: transmission,

developmental, apprenticeship, nurturing, and social reform. These five perspectives

contextualize a teacher’s behaviors, intentions, and assumptions regarding teaching and learning.

The transmission perspective suggests that learning occurs through lecture-based delivery

of content (Pratt & Collins, 2000), as the teacher is the expert and, as such, must present content

systematically and accurately. Additionally, transmission suggests that the learner assumes

responsibility for mastering content. The second perspective, developmental, suggests that

learners construct their own knowledge by engaging in reasoning and problem solving within a

field to change ways of thinking. The teacher activates the learner’s prior knowledge and skills,

scaffolds content, employs questioning strategies, and links prior knowledge with new

knowledge to foster the intellect.

The third perspective is that of apprenticeship, which sees teachers as experienced

practitioners who use demonstrations, observations, and guided practice (Pratt & Collins, 2000).

Learners are active participants who engage in authentic, real-world tasks and progressively do

more of the work. Apprenticeship considers both the individual and societal aspects, developing

both identity of self and identity within a community. The fourth perspective of nurturing takes a

holistic view of learning, as teachers nurture learners, conveying trust, respect, and support.

Teachers create a safe learning environment that enhances learners’ motivation, communicates

high expectations, and empowers learners’ self-efficacy. The fifth and final perspective is that of

social reform, presenting teachers as agents committed to social issues and change. The teacher,

guided by ideals that benefit the good of society, asks probing questions and encourages learners

to become social advocates who critically examine texts, events, and practices.

Commented [PB5]: Your body paragraph needs development. See above for advice and resources.

4

These five perspectives provide insight into the roles and responsibilities of both the

teacher and the learner; no perspective is better or worse, (Pratt & Collins, 2000), simply one

way of viewing teaching and learning. In addition to understanding common perspectives in

adult teaching and learning, an understanding of key theories can be beneficial.

Overview of Historically Key Theories of Adult Teaching & Learning in America

The following section will examine historically key theories applicable to adult learning

and teaching. Hodge et al. (2022) categorized learning theories into four groups: scientific,

humanistic, contextual/societal, and post-humanistic. While theories may not fit perfectly within

these categories, it provides one way to explore key theories applicable to adult teaching and

learning.

Scientific approaches rely on the use of observation, hypothesis, and experimentation

(Hodge et al., 2022) and include theories of behaviorism, cognitivism, and pragmatism.

Behaviorism, advanced by scientists such as Pavlov and Skinner, suggests that observable

behaviors can be learned and are influenced by external forces. Cognitivism suggests that

learning relies on external factors and internal thought processes, and it includes theorists like

Glasser and Piaget. Pragmatism, most credited to Dewey, emphasizes the practical application of

ideas to improve daily life (Demetrion, 2022). Use of these theories can be seen in training

programs and evidence-based practices of the military, instructional technology, and medical

fields (Hodge et al., 2022).

Humanist approaches take the learner’s needs and self-directedness into account (Hodge

et al., 2022) and include adult learning theories of andragogy and transformative learning.

Andragogy, pioneered by Knowles, assumes that adults learn differently than children and use

their experiences as the basis for learning. Building on this, transformative learning, theorized by

Mezirow, asserts that critical reflection can lead to transformations in the learner’s perspective

Commented [PB6]: Your body paragraph needs development. See above for advice and resources.

Commented [PB7]: 5 - Sections are like body paragraphs but larger. You have multiple paragraphs organized to have a topic sentence, multiple arguments with evidence to support each argument, then conclusion. Nicely organized section that addresses the rubric criteria.

Commented [PB8]: Section 2: An overview of the historically key theories of teaching and learning in America.

Commented [PB9]: Your body paragraph needs development. See above for advice and resources.

5

(Schnepfleitner & Ferreria, 2021). These humanistic approaches to adult learning and teaching

highlight the autonomy and self-actualization of adult learners.

Contextual and societal theories view learning as essentially a human concern (Hodge et

al., 2022) and includes theories of social constructivism, Marxism, feminism, and situated

learning. Social constructivism asserts that learning occurs through interactions with others and

includes proponents like Vygotsky. Marxism, developed by Karl Marx, suggests that all ideas are

products of social and economic factors, and, as such, learners are concerned with navigating

systems to attain autonomy, whereas proponents of feminism, like Nancy Fraser, seek to address

issues of oppression and power (Gouthro, 2019). Lave and Wenger’s (1991) situational learning

theory argues that learning involves active participation within a community of practice.

Contextual and societal theories can empower adult learners as they navigate identity formation,

social engagement, and meaning making.

Post-humanistic theories recognize that humans are not at the center, exploring the

connection between human and non-human (Hodge et al., 2022) and emerging in recent years in

response to technology, the effect of human behavior on Earth, neoliberalism, and COVID-19.

For example, the actor network theory seeks to understand who and what is involved in learning.

Post-humanistic theories can aid adult educators and learners in rethinking what it means to be

human, reframing relationships between individuals and the material world, and recognizing the

interconnectedness of all things.

These theoretical approaches provide frameworks for teaching and learning, and, when

coupled with historical perspectives, highlight two key themes.

A Synthesis of Perspectives & Theories of Adult Teaching & Learning in America

The following section presents a discussion of the key themes of the historical

perspectives and theories of adult teaching and learning in America. When taken as a single

Commented [PB10]: Your body paragraph needs development. See above for advice and resources.

Commented [PB11]: Your body paragraph needs development. See above for advice and resources.

Commented [PB12]: Your body paragraph needs development. See above for advice and resources. Be sure you cite evidence/claims in each paragraph.

Commented [PB13]: 5 - Sections are like body paragraphs but larger. You have multiple paragraphs organized to have a topic sentence, multiple arguments with evidence to support each argument, then conclusion. Nicely organized section that addresses the rubric criteria.

Commented [PB14]: Section 3: A synthesis of the common perspectives and key theories of teaching and learning in America. What do these suggest when taken as a single entity?

6

entity, two themes emerge from these perspectives and theories: the contextual nature of

perspectives and theories and the teacher as reflective practitioner.

Contextual Nature of Perspectives and Theories

First, perspectives and theories are contextual in nature; they are products of the

individuals and circumstances of their time (Carr, 2010). Additionally, perspectives and theories

build on each other, opposing and overlapping each other, and cannot be neatly segregated into

categories. What they do provide, however, is evidence for continued development, refinement,

and transformation of approaches. For example, Dewey’s educational reform stemmed from

behaviorist learning theory, eventually led to cognitive development theories by Piaget and

Skinner (Carr, 2010), and was further developed by Knowles’ theory of andragogy (Gouthro,

2019). Events can spark reconstruction of approaches, such as the development of vocational

training and enhanced teacher training in the post-WWII era, or events can lead to the creation of

theories in response to emerging phenomena like climate change and artificial intelligence

(Hodge et al., 2022). Perspectives and theories will continue to evolve as America continues to

evolve as a nation, and critical questioning can aid in addressing social and global issues

(Gouthro, 2019). As such, applying a historical lens not only aids in a theoretical understanding

of approaches, but also in applied practices.

Teacher as Reflective Practitioners

A second theme that emerges is in the practical application of perspectives and theories,

as teachers engage in reflective practice. The world is complex and constantly changing, with

adaptability, flexibility, and reflection as traits to aid in understanding and navigating within this

world (Gouthro, 2019). A teacher may employ more than one perspective in teaching (Pratt &

Collins, 2019), at times employing transmission to deliver content or modeling ways of being via

Commented [PB15]: Introduction of section with topic sentence(s) No deduction for fully developed paragraph

Commented [PB16]: Nice subsections with headings

7

apprenticeship to fit the context or the learner’s needs, and a teacher may subscribe to more than

one theory of learning (Gouthro, 2019; Hodges et al., 2022), such as tapping into prior

knowledge via constructivism or empowering learners through humanistic or nurturing

approaches. This adaptability of strategies and flexibility of thought are by-products of engaging

in reflection. Reflective practice can enable a teacher to be better informed about teaching

practices and how adult learners learn (Gouthro, 2019); reflective practice can empower a

teacher to evaluate, justify, and enhance their approaches (Pratt & Collins, 2000); and reflective

practice can challenge a teacher to critically consider their underlying values and beliefs that

shape their pedagogical identity (Pratt et al., 2019). With a deeper understanding of perspectives

and theories, a teacher will be more equipped to meet the needs of the adult learner.

Conclusion

An understanding of the historical perspectives and key theories of adult teaching and

learning in America can aid the adult educator in both an awareness of the contextual nature of

perspectives and theories and empower reflective practitioners. There are a variety of ways to

teach, as seen in the five perspectives of transmission, developmental, apprenticeship, nurturing,

and social reform (Pratt & Collins, 2000), and a number of theories that inform how adults learn,

including but not limited to pragmatism, social constructivism, and transformative learning

(Hodge et al., 2022). Through a greater awareness of the diverse ways in which teachers teach

and adults learn, educators can seek to find answers to critical questions (Barrow, 2010): What

can educators learn when they study the past? How can knowledge of the ways in which adults

learn enhance pedagogy? How does the changing nature of humans and the systems within

which they live impact teaching and learning? These questions can lead an educator to a deeper

knowledge of the complexities involved in adult teaching and learning, sparking introspection

Commented [PB17]: 5 - Outstanding section with subheadings! Sections are like body paragraphs but larger. You have multiple paragraphs organized to have a topic sentence, multiple arguments with evidence to support each argument, then conclusion. Nicely organized section that addresses the rubric criteria.

Commented [PB18]: 5 - Argument is logical and can be followed by any reader. You had a good introduction and conclusion.

Commented [PB19]: 3 - There are paragraphs that need improvement. Please see the resource: https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/mechanics/in dex.html

8

and self-awareness, articulation of assumptions and beliefs, and informed practices that enhance

both the teaching and learning experience (Gouthro, 2019). As the educational landscape

continues to shift and morph, theories and perspectives will continue to change to fit the needs of

the individual, American society, and the global community. It is through continued reflection

that a teacher can understand the evolution of teaching and learning, be equipped with

pedagogical knowledge to adapt approaches that fit the context and need, and envision a future

where teachers and learners, individuals and societies, and humans and non-humans can flourish.

Commented [PB20]: 5 - Your paper has good APA formatting throughout the paper.

9

References

Barrow, R. (2010). Schools of thought in philosophy of education. In R. Bailey, R. Barrow, D.

Carr, & C. McCarthy (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of philosophy of education (pp. 21-35).

Sage.

Carr, D. (2010). The philosophy of education and educational theory. In R. Bailey, R. Barrow, D.

Carr, & C. McCarthy (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of philosophy of education (pp. 37-53).

Sage.

Demetrion, G. (2022). Mediating work and culture through Dewey’s integrative vision of

vocational education. Adult Literacy Education, 4.

http://doi.org/10.35847/GDemetrion.4.2.4.

Hodge, S., Knight, L., Milana, M., Waller, R., & Webb, S. (2022). Theorising adults, theorising

learning. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 41(4/5), 399–404. https://doi-

org.lopes.idm.oclc.org/10.1080/02601370.2022.2116792

Gouthro, P. A. (2019). Taking time to learn: The importance of theory for adult education. Adult

Education Quarterly: A Journal of Research and Theory, 69(1), 60–76.

https://doi.org/10.1177/07417136188156

Kober, N., & Rentner, D. S. (2020). History and evolution of public education in the US. Center

on Education Policy.

Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation.

Cambridge University Press.

O’Banion, T. U. (2019). A brief history of workforce education in community colleges.

Community College Journal of Research & Practice, 43(3), 216–223. https://doi-

org.lopes.idm.oclc.org/10.1080/10668926.2018.1547668

Commented [PB21]: First line indent is throwing off your heading.

10

Pratt, D.D. (1992). Conceptions of teaching. Adult Education Quarterly, 42,4.

https://doi.org/10.1177/074171369204200401

Pratt, D. D. (1998). Five perspectives on teaching in adult and higher education. Krieger

Publishing Co.

Pratt, D. D. (2002). Good teaching: One size fits all? New Directions for Adult and Continuing

Education, 93, 5–15.

Pratt, D. D., & Collins, J. B. (2000). The teaching perspectives inventory (TPI). Adult Education

Research Conference. https://newprairiepress.org/aerc/2000/papers/68/

Pratt, D. D., Schrewe, B., & Pusic, M. V. (2019). Pedagogical validity: The key to understanding

different forms of “good” teaching. Medical Teacher, 41(6), 638–640. https://doi-

org.lopes.idm.oclc.org/10.1080/0142159X.2018.1533242

Reese, W. J. (2013). In search of American progressives and teachers. History of Education,

42(3), 320-334.

Schnepfleitner, F. & Ferreira, M. (2021). Transformative learning theory—is it time to add a

fourth core element? Journal of Educational Studies and Multidisciplinary Approaches,

1(1). https://doi.org/10.51383/jesma.2021.9 Commented [PB22]: 5 - Your APA reference list page is mostly formatted correctly.

Commented [PB23]: 5 - Paper included 2 or more sources. Scholarly research sources are topic related, and obtained from highly respected, professional, original sources.