week 7

Prophecy, Prophesying” (or “Preaching, First Century") PROPHECY, PROPHESYING Paul’s sole *knowledge of the *faith was prophetic and charismatic from start to finish. For example, his apostolic calling came by way of supernatural revelation on the Damascus road (Acts 9:1-5). Shortly after, Paul received a *vision that a disciple named Ananias would come and lay hands on him in *prayer so that he might see again and receive the *Holy Spirit (Acts 9:10-18). Paul later took part in the charismatically empowered, multiracial *church in Antioch of Syria. It was here that the Holy Spirit inspired prophets and teachers to commission Paul’s special *ministry to the *Gentiles (Acts 13:1-2). Furthermore, Paul is careful to note that his *gospel was not of human origin. On the contrary, he received it by divine revelation (Gal 1:1, 11-16). He claims that his proclamation of the good news was not in word only, but in *signs and wonders wrought by the power of the Holy Spirit (1 Cor 2:4; Rom 15:18-19). All of this means that for Paul, Christianity is supernatural and charismatic through and through and that prophecy and prophesying occupied a special place in his theology and religious experience. 1. Paul’s Religious Heritage, Personal Experience, and Apostolic Role 2. Prophet and Prophecy in Paul 3. Was Paul a Prophet? 4. Prophecy for Today? 1. Paul’s Religious Heritage, Personal Experience, and Apostolic Role. Prophecy and prophesying were not at all foreign to Paul’s world, both the Greco-Roman world and that of Judaism. For example, the famed Oracle of Delphi, located at the foot of Mount Olympus, was the home of Greek prophetesses and priests. Here the Pythia, as early as 1400 BC, would prophesy for a fee, wielding considerable influence over commoners and kings alike. In like manner, as many as ten sybils would prophesy throughout the Mediterranean world. These prophetesses, in their journey

to the spirit world, were known to enter wild frenzies only to culminate in a trancelike state and prophesy. Additionally, the imperial cult of the caesars had no lack of priests, sacrifices, and soothsayers. Thus, prophets, prophetesses, oracles, and divination were common throughout the first-century world. Nevertheless, when speaking of prophecy and prophesying in Paul, one should start with his personal religious heritage in Judaism. Here one can speak of three distinct loci: his life as a Jew, his practice as a Pharisee, and his *identity as an *apostle of *Christ. As a practicing Jew of the first century, Paul would have been very familiar with the prophets of old. Prophets and prophesying were part and parcel with Judaism from the beginning (Gen 20:7; Ex 7:1; Num 11:25-29). Many, if not most, of the Jews of Paul’s day revered the ancient prophets (Mt 1:22; 2:1-6). The devout prayerfully waited for the Prophet, the promised Messiah of God (Jn 6:14; 7:40). The Gospels repeatedly identify Jesus as that prophet (Mt 21:11; Mk 6:15; Lk 7:16; 24:19) who fulfilled all the messianic prophecies (Mt 26:56; Lk 1:70). Last, Jesus self-identified as a prophet (Mt 13:57; Mk 6:4). The point here is that Paul, and his newfound faith in Christianity, were immersed in a religious context defined by the prophets and prophesying. Furthermore, all of this would have been amenable to Paul’s pre-Christian life as a Pharisee. Like his father before him, Paul was a Pharisee, one of the strictest sects in Judaism (Phil 3:3-6; Acts 23:6). His life as a Pharisee became the hermeneutical lens through which he viewed *God and the Scriptures. For example, in contrast to the Sadducees, who accepted only the Pentateuch as authoritative, the Pharisees embraced the full range of Scripture, from Genesis to Malachi, as the word of God. So, from Enoch to Abraham (Jude 14; Ex 33:1) and from Moses to Malachi (Deut 34:10; Mal 1:1), the ministry and message of the prophets informed the religious heritage of Paul. It follows that for him, the promise of the gospel came by way of the prophets (Rom 1:2). Indeed, Paul claims that the law and the prophets testify to the *righteousness of God revealed in the gospel (Rom 3:21). However, Paul’s life as a Pharisee was open to an even more expansive understanding of prophecy. For Pharisees, the work of God that defined the prophet in the Scriptures was not confined to the Scriptures. For them,

divine revelation did not end with pen strokes on parchment. Unlike the Sadducees, who viewed the universe as “closed,” the Pharisees believed that the Spirit of prophecy was still active among God’s people (Acts 23:6-9). Thus, when Nicodemus, also a Pharisee, comes to inquire of Jesus by night, Jesus speaks about the sovereign work of the Holy Spirit (Jn 3:8). For Pharisees, the Spirit still spoke to those who had ears to hear. In the same way, Paul believed that the Spirit of prophecy and revelation (1 Cor 14:1) was an ongoing religious phenomenon for his time. It was this kind of openness to the voice of God that prepared Paul to receive the greatest revelation of all: the revelation that would make him an apostle of Christ. All of this means that, from beginning to end, God used prophets and prophecy to direct and inform the apostle Paul (Acts 13:1-2; 21:10). Not only this, but Paul evidenced prophetic gifts in his own ministry, mentored prophets and prophesied throughout the church, and established authoritative *teaching on prophecy for the ages (Rom 15:18-19). Indeed, Paul would go on to pen more on the gifts of the Spirit and prophecy than any other writer in the New Testament (1 Cor 12–14). For all these reasons, the subjects of prophets and prophecy form an important part of Paul’s life and *letters. 2. Prophet and Prophecy in Paul. The English words prophet and prophecy are derived from Greek. Both are compound words consisting of the prefix pro- and the ancient Greek root pha. Pro can be understood temporally, as in “prior to” or “in advance,” yet can also have a directional meaning, as in “forth.” The root pha originally meant “to shine” or “to bring to light” but in time came to mean “to speak” (Krämer, 6:783n7). In summary, a prophet was one who not only revealed God’s will in advance but also spoke forth God’s word in the present. Paul masterfully employs all these meanings, with some form of the noun “prophet” (prophētēs) or “prophecy” (prophēteia) appearing twenty-three times in his letters and the verb “prophesy” (prophēteuō) eleven times. For Paul, God’s promise of the gospel came by way of the prophets of old (Rom 1:2; 11:3; 16:26). Paul teaches that the prophets testified to a righteousness of God that did not depend on the *law (Rom 3:21). Also, as

was the case with Jesus, Paul notes that the prophets suffered unto *death for their prophetic word (1 Thess 2:15). Yet Paul also speaks of charismatically empowered prophets in the church. Such persons are gifts of Christ (Eph 4:11), ordered by God (1 Cor 12:28) and graced by the Spirit (1 Cor 12:10; 14:37). They are second only to the apostles (1 Cor 12:29) and are recipients of divine revelation through the Spirit. As such, they are foundational for the faith (1 Cor 12:29; Eph 3:5). Nearly two-thirds of Paul’s use of prophet/prophesy words are linked to *gifts of the Holy Spirit. Well over a third of these references mentions prophecy and speaking in *tongues (glossolalia) in the same verse (1 Cor 12:10, 28; 13:8; 14:4-6, 22, 39). Finally, all these usages occur within the context of corporate *worship. For Paul, prophecy is numbered among the charismata and is a sign for believers (Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 12:10; 13:8; 14:22, 39). For him, prophecy is preferable to speaking in tongues, except if the latter are interpreted (1 Cor 14:5). Indeed, regarding the value of spiritual gifts, Paul entertains a kind of hierarchy, with *love trumping all the gifts (1 Cor 13:1-2, 13). Paul asserts that all may prophesy, both men and *women, but they cannot all prophesy at the same time (1 Cor 11:4-5; 14:23-26, 31). Even though the gifts originate from and are distributed by the Holy Spirit, the faithful can control the expression of the gifts (1 Cor 12:4-11; 14:32). This fact allows Paul to give directives for the orderly use of gifts in the church, including the gift of prophecy (1 Cor 14:27-29). Paul’s counsel here strikes a note of caution. Where there is power, there is also the abuse of power. The same holds true for prophecy. There were false prophets in first-century Judaism (Acts 8:9-24; 13:6), and Jesus repeatedly warns against false prophets and prophecy (Mt 7:15; Mk 13:22; Lk 6:26). Although Paul never explicitly addresses the issue of false prophets in the church, he does admonish believers to be vigilant. No one can say, “Jesus is cursed,” by the Holy Spirit (1 Cor 12:3). Also, the church is to test prophecies to see whether they are good (1 Thess 5:20-21). Although the manifestation of gifts proved problematic at times, in the end Paul endorsed, encouraged, and protected the gift of prophets and prophecy in the church (1 Cor 14:1, 39; 1 Thess 5:20). In fact, Paul elevates prophets second only to the apostles (1 Cor 12:28; Eph 2:20; 3:5;

4:11). Similarly, Paul exhorts believers to zealously pursue all the gifts of the Spirit yet gives priority to prophecy (1 Cor 14:1). Yet Paul admits that the value and tenure of prophecy are limited. Prophetic revelation in the church is partial when compared to the full revelation of Christ that is to come (1 Cor 13:8-9). The obscurity inherent to a fallen world inhibits prophecy (1 Cor 13:12). In fact, all the spiritual gifts, whether tongues, prophecy, or the gift of knowledge, will have run their course when believers see Jesus face to face (1 Cor 13:2, 8, 12). 3. Was Paul a Prophet? Linguistically, Paul never explicitly refers to himself as a *prophet. His preferred self-designations are “apostle” and “*servant” (Rom 1:1; Gal 1:1). In addition, he calls himself a preacher and a teacher (2 Tim 1:11), but never a prophet. Yet if one asks whether Paul functioned as a prophet in the church, the evidence points in another direction (Witherington, 1998, 130-31). For example, when describing his *calling, the apostle states that God separated him from his mother’s womb (Gal 1:15), a phrase reminiscent of the great prophets of old (Jer 1:5; Is 49:1). He understands that he alone is God’s mouthpiece to make known one of the greatest revelations of all time, that is, that uncircumcised Gentiles can now be counted among the people of God (Rom 16:25; Eph 3:8-9). He prophesies about the end time in terms that are uniquely his own (1 Cor 15:51-55; 1 Thess 4:15-18; 2 Thess 2:1-12). On the other hand, Paul carries forward the jargon of the ancient prophets, frequently speaking of “the day of the Lord” (1 Thess 5:2; 2 Thess 2:1-2; 1 Cor 1:8; 5:5; Phil 1:6, 9-10). Paul’s prophetic contribution here is that “the Lord” in the phrase “the day of the Lord” is Jesus, thus making Jesus equivalent to YHWH (Fee, 140). On the order of Elijah, Paul’s ministry was confirmed with signs and wonders and miracles (Rom 15:18-19; 2 Cor 12:12), even raising the dead (Acts 20:9-10). Like Elijah, Paul was caught up into heaven. Yet unlike Elijah, Paul came back (2 Cor 12:2-4)! He has all confidence that divine visions and revelations will come to him as a matter of course (2 Cor 12:1). He writes the commandments of the Lord, and any true prophet will acknowledge this (1 Cor 14:37). In summary, there can be little doubt that Paul was indeed a prophet. Moreover, he was an apostolic leader of the

prophets in the church, and he spoke forth directives that they were to obey (1 Cor 14:29). 4. Prophecy for Today? Paul has provided a richly textured portrait of prophets and prophecy in the early church. The critical question is whether this portrait is applicable to the church today. One view is that prophecy ceased by the end of the apostolic era. It is argued that once the apostles have passed from the scene, the canon has closed because “that which is perfect” has come (1 Cor 13:10). Consequently, according to this view, every partial revelation, whether tongues or prophecy, has come to an end. Yet this view has rightly been criticized as anachronistic. Paul, as well as the other writers of the NT, were not aware of composing the canon. Moreover, it is generally agreed that the phrase “when that which is perfect has come” is an eschatological expression referring to the second coming of Christ and not the close of the canon (1 Cor 13:12; see also Porter, 267). Another view is that prophecy in Paul is the same thing as *preaching. It is contended that prophecy is simply the intelligible proclamation of the gospel that conveys the foundation of the faith by way of theological discourse (Gillespie, 165, 198, 263). Yet some have challenged the conflation of prophecy and preaching in Paul on linguistic and methodological grounds (Witherington 1998, 130-35). For example, Paul employs distinct jargon for preachers and prophets and never conflates the two. For Paul, the preacher (kēryx, Rom 10:14; 1 Tim 2:7; 2 Tim 1:11) preaches (kēryssō, Rom 10:15; 1 Cor 9:27) the message (kerygma) of Christ. In no instance in Paul is the preacher said to be prophesying. By comparison, the prophet (prophētēs) prophesies (prophēteuō, 1 Cor 14:5) prophecy (prophētēia, 1 Cor 12:10) and, as such, is not described as preaching. No doubt some preachers prophesied in the church and some prophets preached the gospel, but to say that preaching and prophecy are the same thing is untenable. Most scholars acknowledge that prophecy in Paul is not a sermon prepared in advance but rather a spontaneous gift of the Holy Spirit expressed in corporate worship (Schreiner, 360-61). Prophecy for Paul is a supernatural revelation, granted by the Spirit, that he has personally experienced and

that he affirms in the lives of fellow believers (Fee, 140-41; Witherington 1992, 82). Finally, the thought that the sovereign gifts of the Spirit would come to an end at his death is not found in Paul. What then can be said about prophecy and the contemporary church? Pentecostals and charismatics, the fastest-growing sector in Christendom, assert that all the gifts of the Spirit are for the church today (see Johnson and Zurlo, 26, 936). For them, miracles, revelations, and supernatural gifts that were so evident in the church then are simply part and parcel with normal Christian life now (Keener, 162-63). It should be remembered, however, that an important aspect of the charismata for Paul is “exhortation” (Rom 12:8; 1 Cor 14:3). To that end, Paul exhorts that the gifts of the Spirit should promote unity, edify the church, and bring glory to God (1 Cor 10:31; 12:1-11; 14:3, 12, 16). Paul continues that even when there is a dramatic operation of the gifts in the church, unless they are infused with the authentic love of God, they amount to nothing (1 Cor 13:1-3; Bailey, 347-65). See also APOSTLE; GIFTS OF THE SPIRIT; PREACHING, FIRST-CENTURY; PROPHET, PAUL AS; TONGUES; VISIONS, ECSTATIC EXPERIENCE; WORSHIP. BIBLIOGRAPHY. J. W. Aernie, Is Paul Also Among the Prophets? An Examination of the Relationship Between Paul and the Old Testament Prophetic Tradition in 2 Corinthians, LNTS 467 (London: Bloomsbury, 2012); D. E. Aune, Prophecy in Early Christianity and the Ancient Mediterranean World (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1983); K. E. Bailey, Paul Through Mediterranean Eyes: Cultural Studies in 1 Corinthians (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2011); L. S. Cook, On the Question of the “Cessation of Prophecy” in Ancient Judaism, TSAJ 145 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2011); S. G. Eastman, Recovering Paul’s Mother Tongue: Language and Theology in Galatians (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2007); G. D. Fee, Jesus the Lord According to Paul the Apostle: A Concise Introduction (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2018); T. W. Gillespie, The First Theologians: A Study in Early Christian Prophecy (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1994); T. Johnson and G. Zurlo, World Christian Encyclopedia, 3rd ed., vol. 3 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2020); C. Keener, Spirit Hermeneutics: Reading Scripture in Light of

Pentecost (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2016); H. Krämer, “προφήτης,” TDNT 6:783-96; S. E. Porter, The Apostle Paul: His Life, Thought, and Letters (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2016); K. O. Sandnes, Paul—One of the Prophets? A Contribution to the Apostle’s Self-Understanding, WUNT 2/43 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1991); T. R. Schreiner, Paul: Apostle of God’s Glory in Christ (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2001); A. C. Thiselton, The Living Paul: An Introduction to the Apostle’s Life and Thought (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2009); B. Witherington III, Jesus, Paul, and the End of the World: A Comparative Study in New Testament Eschatology (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 1992); idem, The Paul Quest: The Renewed Search for the Jew of Tarsus (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 1998). W. A. Simmons PROPHET, PAUL AS Paul never explicitly identifies himself as a prophet, yet his language, hermeneutics, and self-description suggest that in some sense Paul understood his apostleship in terms of the OT prophetic tradition. Scholars have debated which of the major prophets—Isaiah (Holtz) or Jeremiah (Rengstorf, 439-40)—served as Paul’s principal template. Both prophets have contributed significantly to Paul’s thinking (Doering). 1. Relationship Between Apostle and Prophet 2. Prophetic Call 3. Prophetic Gospel 4. Prophetic Comparison 5. Prophetic Criticism 1. Relationship Between Apostle and Prophet. Recent research has rightly recognized the close relationship between *apostle and prophet (Aernie; Agnew, 90-96; Evans 1999; Rugg; Sandnes, 17-20). By definition, prophets are those who have been “sent” (Heb. šālaḥ; Gk. apostellō) by Yahweh. Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel are “sent” by *God to the people of *Israel (Is 6:8; Jer 1:7; Ezek 2:3; see Rengstorf, 419). Throughout Israel’s history God has sent his “servants the prophets to them” (Jer 7:25). Malachi prophesies that God will “send [his] messenger”

(Mal 3:1) and “will send Elijah the prophet” (Mal 4:5). Similar language is employed in the NT, in reference both to OT prophets and to Jesus’ disciples/apostles (Mt 23:37; Mk 1:2; Lk 9:2; 10:3; 13:34; 22:35; Jn 1:6; 3:28; Rom 10:15). In later traditions, the prophets are called “apostles” (see Mek. on Ex 12:1 [Pisḥa §1], where God says to Jonah: “I have other apostles [šelûḥîn] like you”). The great lawgiver and prophet Moses is “sent” (Ex 3:10, 12-15; 4:28; 7:16; Deut 34:11). In later Jewish and Samaritan traditions Moses is also called a šālîaḥ (Mek. Rabbi Simon Yohai on Ex 3:10-11; Avot R. Nat. A §1; Ex Rab. 3.4 [on 3:12]; 3.14 [on 4:10]; Memar Marqa 5:3; 6:3). 2. Prophetic Call. In Galatians Paul adopts prophetic language in describing his apostolic calling. His reference to God, “who set me apart from my mother’s womb and called me through his *grace . . . that I might preach him among the *Gentiles” (Gal 1:15-16), is clearly reminiscent of the call of Jeremiah (Jer 1:5: “Before I formed you in the womb I knew you. . . . I appointed you a prophet to the Gentiles”) and of the language found in Isaiah (Is 49:1, 5: “He called my name from my mother’s womb . . . to gather Jacob and Israel to him”). Even Paul’s criticism of his Galatian *opponents (Gal 1:7-8: “there are some who trouble you and wish to distort the *gospel of *Christ. But even if we, or an angel from heaven, should preach to you a gospel contrary to that which we preached to you, let him be accursed”) likely echoes biblical language employed against false prophets and others who would encourage God’s people to worship false gods (Deut 13:12-13, 15 LXX: “And if . . . evil men in one of your cities . . . say, ‘Let us go and worship other gods . . . ,’ you will curse it”; see also Deut 13:1-5, 6-11; 20:17-18). Prophetic language is also found in Paul’s description before Herod Agrippa II of his Damascus road experience (compare Acts 26:16-17 with LXX Jer 1:7-8; Ezek 2:1-3). Although the speech is a Lukan composition, the language may accurately reflect Paul’s sense of a prophetic *call. There is evidence, moreover, that prior to the Galatian crisis Paul understood himself as a prophet and that he did not adopt this vocabulary ad hoc to deal with the problem he faced in the churches of Galatia. His

language in 1 Thessalonians, which is probably his earliest extant epistle, suggests that Paul’s prophetic self-understanding originated with his apostolic calling. His expression of sincerity (1 Thess 2:4: “even as we have been tested by God . . . to please God who tests our hearts”) echoes the words of Jeremiah (Jer 11:20 LXX: “Lord, who judges justly, testing the reins and the hearts . . .”). Both Paul and Jeremiah uttered these words in the face of opposition (compare 1 Thess 2:2 with Jer 11:19). Later Paul again takes up the theme of persecution (1 Thess 3:4: “For when we were with you, we told you beforehand that we were to suffer affliction, just as it has come to pass”; cf. 2 Cor 11:23-27), which recalls the *tradition of the suffering and persecuted prophet (see Lk 13:33-34; Pesiq. Rab. 26.2: “Jeremiah said, ‘Master of the universe, I cannot prophesy to them. What prophet ever came forth to them whom they did not wish to slay?’”). Paul’s eschatological warning (1 Thess 5:3: “When people say, ‘There is *peace and safety,’ then sudden destruction will come upon them as travail comes upon a woman with child”) echoes similar solemn warnings found in the OT prophets (see Jer 6:14, 24; 8:11, 21; 14:13-14; Ezek 13:10, 16; Hos 14:1). The prophetic tradition “was active in shaping Paul’s presentation of himself with respect to the Christian community of Corinth” (Aernie, 112). Paul is compelled to proclaim the gospel; failure to do so will bring *judgment (1 Cor 9:16; see Jer 20:9; Stuhlmacher, 152). Finally, it is important to observe that the very nature of Paul’s *conversion invites comparison with the prophets. Just as the prophets received revelations and *visions of God and/or heaven, particularly in connection with their call to prophetic office (Is 1:1; 6:1-13; Ezek 1:1; 8:4; Obad 1; Nah 1:1; Hab 2:2), so also Paul received revelations and visions (1 Cor 15:8; 2 Cor 12:1-4; Gal 1:12, 16; 2:2; cf. Acts 9:3-9; 22:6-11; 26:13-20). 3. Prophetic Gospel. Paul’s understanding of the apostolic obligation to proclaim the gospel is informed by the words of Isaiah 52:7: “And how can men preach unless they are sent? As it is written, ‘How beautiful are the feet of those who preach good news’” (Rom 10:15; see Is 53:1; Dinter, 48). Moreover, when Paul says, “Woe to me, if I should not preach the gospel” (1 Cor 9:16), he echoes the exclamations of the OT prophets (Is 24:16; Jer 13:27; Hos

9:12). Paul’s anguish (Rom 9:2: “I have great sorrow and unceasing anguish in my heart”; Rom 11:1: “Has God rejected his people?”) also is reminiscent of prophetic anguish: “Hast thou utterly rejected Judah?” (Jer 14:19). Paul’s allusion to and application of Isaiah 64:3 in 1 Corinthians 2:9 (“what eye has not seen”) coheres with rabbinic discussion of the divine source of the prophetic message: “No eye has seen what God . . . will work for him who waits for Him” (b. Abod. Zar. 65a). “All the prophets prophesied only for the messianic age, but in the world to come the eye has not seen, O Lord, beside you [what he has prepared for him who waits on him]” (b. Shabb. 63a). 4. Prophetic Comparison. Despite the fact that relatively few Israelites had responded in faith to the Christian message, Paul was convinced that God had not rejected Israel (Rom 11:1-2). He grounds this conviction on the example of Elijah (Rom 11:3-4; see 1 Kings 19:10, 18) and on Isaiah’s remnant theology (Rom 9:27-29; 11:5; see Is 1:9; 10:22). What is interesting here is Paul’s comparison with Elijah. Evidently the apostle saw himself very much like Elijah of old, who felt alone and threatened. Just as God had preserved a remnant of the faithful in Elijah’s time, so now in the eschatological period God once again has preserved a faithful remnant. It is important to note too that Paul did not regard himself as an apostate from Judaism (Rom 11:1: “I myself am an Israelite, a descendant of *Abraham, a member of the tribe of Benjamin”) but rather as an apostle (and prophet) to an apostate Israel, even as Elijah the prophet had been sent to an apostate Israel. 5. Prophetic Criticism. Paul’s application of Scripture to his own generation is similar to the hermeneutics of prophetic criticism employed by the true prophets of the OT (Evans 1984). “True prophecy,” as J. A. Sanders has explained, is theocentric, not ethnocentric. Unlike most of the “false prophets,” who prophesied peace and safety, the true prophet understood sacred tradition and history from the divine point of view. Nowhere can this be seen more

clearly than in the prophets’ respective interpretations of Israel’s sacred tradition. Ezekiel warns his contemporaries not to assume, as false prophets would have them believe, that since “Abraham was only one man, yet he got possession of the land, [then] we [who] are many” will surely be able to possess the land (Ezek 33:24). Jeremiah tells his contemporaries not to listen to the false prophets who assure the inhabitants of *Jerusalem that there is nothing to fear because of the presence of the *temple: “Do not trust in these deceptive words: ‘This is the Temple of the *Lord’” (Jer 7:4); “No evil shall come upon you” (Jer 23:17). One of the most startling examples comes from Isaiah, who alludes to two of David’s great victories over the Philistines: “The Lord will rise up as on Mount Perazim [see 2 Sam 5:17-21], he will be wroth as in the valley of Gibeon [see 2 Sam 5:22-25]; to do his deed—strange is his deed! and to work his work—alien is his work!” (Is 28:21; Evans 1986, 96-97). But unlike the false prophets, Isaiah does not find in these victories assurance that Israel will once again be victorious against her enemies. On the contrary, Isaiah has “heard a decree of destruction from the Lord God of hosts” (Is 28:22). God is angry and ready to defeat sinners on the field of battle; only this time the sinners are the Israelites, not their enemies. “Paul’s understanding of God’s continuing activity was prophetic and dynamic. God could, as in the days of Isaiah, do a ‘new thing’” (Is 43:19; Dinter, 52). The new thing that God was doing in Paul’s time was to take a noncovenant people and make a people of God out of them (Rom 9:25-26; see Hos 1:10; 2:23). Imprecations originally uttered against Israel’s enemies are applied against Israel herself: “Let their table become a snare and a trap, a pitfall and a retribution for them” (Rom 11:9; see Ps 69:22-23; Evans 1984, 567-68). This remarkable application of the sacred tradition is not anti-Jewish—for Paul is a loyal Jew (see Rom 9:1-5; 11:1-2)—but rather prophetic in the same sense as what one sees in prophets such as Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel. Paul is no more anti-Jewish than were these great prophets of old. If Paul’s interpretation and application of the Scripture of Israel are to be properly understood, it will be necessary to take into account the apostle’s prophetic self-understanding. See also APOSTLE; CONVERSION AND CALL OF PAUL; GOSPEL; PROPHECY, PROPHESYING.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. J. W. Aernie, Is Paul Also Among the Prophets? An Examination of the Relationship Between Paul and the Old Testament Prophetic Tradition in 2 Corinthians, LNTS 467 (London: Bloomsbury, 2012); F. H. Agnew, “The Origin of the NT Apostle-Concept: A Review of Research,” JBL 105 (1986): 75-96; P. Dinter, “Paul and the Prophet Isaiah,” BTB 13 (1983): 48-52; L. Doering, “The Commissioning of Paul: Light from the Prophet Jeremiah or the Self-Understanding of the Apostle?,” in Jeremiah’s Scriptures: Production, Reception, Interactions, and Transformation, ed. H. Najman and K. Schmid, JSJSup 173 (Leiden: Brill, 2016), 546-65; S. G. Eastman, Recovering Paul’s Mother Tongue: Language and Theology in Galatians (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2007); C. A. Evans, “Paul and the Hermeneutics of ‘True Prophecy’: A Study of Romans 9–11,” Bib 65 (1984): 560-70; idem, “Isaiah’s Use of Israel’s Sacred Tradition,” BZ 30 (1986): 92-99; idem, “Paul and the Prophets: Prophetic Criticism in the Epistle to the Romans,” in Romans and the People of God: Essays in Honor of Gordon D. Fee on the Occasion of His 65th Birthday, ed. S. Soderlund and N. T. Wright (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1999), 115-28; T. W. Gillespie, “A Pattern of Prophetic Speech in First Corinthians,” JBL 97 (1978): 74-95; S. Grindheim, “Apostate Turned Prophet: Paul’s Prophetic Self-Understanding and Prophetic Hermeneutic with Special Reference to Galatians 3.10-12,” NTS 53 (2007): 545-65; T. Holtz, “Zum Selbstverständnis des Apostels Paulus,” TLZ 91 (1966): cols. 321-30; J. M. Myers and E. D. Freed, “Is Paul Also Among the Prophets?,” Int 20 (1966): 40-53; T. Nicklas, “Paulus—der Apostel als Prophet,” in Prophets and Prophecy in Jewish and Early Christian Literature, ed. J. Verheyden et al., WUNT 2/286 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2010), 77-110; K. H. Rengstorf, “άποστέλλω, κτλ.,” TDNT 1:398-447; S. P. Rugg, “The Prophet in the Apostle: Paul’s Self-Understanding and the Letter to the Romans” (PhD diss., Boston College, 2017); J. A. Sanders, “Hermeneutics in True and False Prophecy,” in From Sacred Story to Sacred Text (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1987), 87-105; K. O. Sandnes, Paul—One of the Prophets? A Contribution to the Apostle’s Self-Understanding, WUNT 2/43 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1991); P. Stuhlmacher, “The Pauline Gospel,” in

The Gospel and the Gospels, ed. P. Stuhlmacher (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1991), 149-72. C. A. Evans PROPITIATION. See ATONEMENT; ROMANS, LETTER TO THE; SACRIFICE, OFFERING.