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SOURCES IN EUROPEAN WOMEN'S HISTORY

Lisa DiCaprio City Collegeof New York, CUNY

Merry E. Wiesner University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee

HOUGHTON MIFFLIN CaMP ANY BOSTON NEW YORK

396 Chapter 11 World War I and the Russian Revolution

found steady work but often experienced poor and even dangerous conditions. Women also replaced men at the front in heavy industry, public transportation, and agriculture. Various forms of volunteer activities, such as nursing and the pro- vision of assistance to refugees, also engaged women, especially those of the mid- dle class. Although there were certain common elements, the home front was not

the same in each country, but varied in accordance with the existing forms of po- litical rule. In Ireland, often described as the first and last colony of England, Irish republicans took advantage of England's vulnerability during the war to launch the Easter Rising of 1916 for Irish independence. In Germany and Russia, women led food protests and street demonstrations which undermined political support for monarchical rule and played a crucial role in the revolutions of 1917 and 1918.

Throughout Europe, however, the horrific losses of soldier's lives inspired peace initiatives and vows to prevent such a war from ever occurring again.

131. Vera Brittain Diary Entries and Poems on the War

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Vera Brittain (1893-1970) was a feminist, pacifist, and international peace activist. Best known for her Testament o/Youth (1933), she was a prolific author of jour- nalistic articles, novels, memoirs, and diaries. Initially enthusiastic about Britain's entry into the war, Brittain changed her views as the war's horrors and futility be- came ever more apparent, the effects of which she directly witnessed when she temporarily left Oxford in 1915 to serve as a nurse in the Voluntary Aid Detach- ment (V.A.D.). Brittain also experienced deep personal losses, as her fiance Roland Leighton, brother Edward, and two close friends were all killed in the war. She

first attempted to publish her diary ofWodd War I in 1922, in response to a pub- lishing competition, but it was rejected and only seven years later did Brittain begin to write Testament o/Youth. Although its discussion ofWodd War I draws extensively on her diary, she continued to believe that it should appear separately. The diary was finally published in 1939 on the eve ofWodd War II. Explaining the crucial difference between the diary and Testament o/Youth, Brittain noted: "But diaries give one effect which Testament o/Youth, because of its very perspective & the long period it covered, could only partially convey-the cumulative effect of day-by-day suspense & anguish, the unillumined length of the night which had done so much permanent quenching of youthful hope & energy before it was fin- ished."[ Brittain wrote these diary entries during a three-week period from July 29, 1~n4, when Austria declared war on Serbia, to August 25. The second selec- tion, "The German Ward," is from the fall of 1917 when she was treating German prisoners of war in France. It is one of severa1 poems Brittain published in 1918 in Verses o/a V.A.D. and Other War Poems.

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'See Brittain's notes for "Introduction to War Diaries," written around 1939, which are included in the editor's introduc-

tion to Chronicle o/Youth: War Diary 1913-1917 (London, Gollancz 1981), p. 15. Her diary of World War II was pub- lished posthumously as Wartime Chronicle: Diary 1939-1945 (London, Gollancz 1989).

From Vera Brittain: War Diary, 1913-1917: Chronicle a/Youth, edited by Alan Bishop with Terry Smart. @ 1981 by Vic- tor Gollancz, Ltd.

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A. War Diaries

Wednesdayjuly 29th

War was declared to-day between Austria and Servia. Of course it is feared that the whole of

Europe will be involved. This critical state seems to have arisen so suddenly out of the long-time hostile attitude of Teuton & Slav, represented in the feeling of Servia towards Austria-Hungary, that it is difficult to follow each step. But Germany & Italy in case of Rus- sia's intervention to protect Servia are bound to assist Austria by the Triple Alliance, while France is allied to Russia & we are connected

with both by an Entente Cordiale, though without a definite alliance. The Irish question seems quite to have sunk into the background beside these momentous issues.

Saturday August 1st According to the paper this morning, the last hope of peace is about to be abandoned, and Germany is mobilising. . . .

Sunday August 2nd

Mother tried to get a paper when she went down to the Baths, but they were all sold up; however the Ellingers lent us theirs. But it was not so much what was in the papers that caused excitement as the rumours that were spreading about all day. It is said the Germans have de- clared war against Russia & that also they have attacked Luxembourg. The situation is very grave indeed.

Monday August 3rd To-day has been far too exciting to enable me to feel at all like sleep--in fact it is one of the most thrilling I have ever lived through, though without doubt there are many more to come. That which has been so long anticipated by some & scoffed at by others has come to pass at last-Armageddon in Europe! On Saturday evening Germany declared war upon Russia & also started advancing towards the French fron- tier. The French, in order to make it evident that they were not the aggressors, wasted some

World War I and the Home/ront 397

houts & then the order to mobilise was given. Great excitement in France continued through- out the night & yesterday the Germans attacked France without declaring war. Uncon- firmed tUmour says that in one place they have been repulsed with heavy losses. They also broke a treaty in occupying the neutral Duchy of Luxembourg. Luxembourg's neutrality was guaranteed in 1807 by England, France & Ger- many, & thus Germany's attack upon it is said to be a direct challenge to Great Britain. Some of the papers seem to think that the Austrian- Servian war was only a blind & that Germany was at the bottom of the whole affair-the

"mailed fist" anxious to strike. At any rate Ger- many has destroyed the tottering hopes of peace and has plunged Europe into a situation the like of which, The Times says, has never been known since the fall of the Roman Empire. The great fear now is that our bungling Govern- ment will declare England's neutrality. If we at this critical juncture were to refuse to help our friend France, we should be guilty of the gross- est treachery & sacrifice our credit for ever. Be- sides we should gain nothing, for if we were to stand aside & let France be wiped out, a terrible retribution would fall upon us from a strength- ened & victorious Germany.

I sat this morning after breakfast reading various newspapers for about two hours. A ru- mour is going round to-night that England has declared to Germany that if a German sets foot in Belgian territory her (England's) navy will immediately act. There are many who think that this policy of vacillation is losing us the opportunity to strike a telling blow-that we should send troops to prevent the Germans get- ting into Belgium instead of waiting till they are Ill.

I should think this must be the blackest

Bank Holiday within memory. Pandemonium reigned in the town. What with holiday-trip- pers, people sttuggling for papers, trying to lay in stores of food & dismayed that the price of everything had gone up, there was confusion everywhere. Mother met Mrs. Whitehead in the town; she is in great anxiety because she has

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one son in Russia, one-lack-in Servia, and another on his way from India. Marjorie Briggs, who was to have been married on Saturday, was married in a hurry on Friday as her husband had to have joined his regiment on Saturday. The papers are full of stories of tourists in hope- less plights trying to get back to England. Paper money is useless & the majority of the trains are cut off. It is rumoured that there is

fear in Paris that a fleet of German Zeppelins are going to destroy Paris from above in the night.

", Tuesday August 4th Late as it is & almost too excited to write as I am, I must make some effort to chronicle the

stupendous events of this remarkable day. The situation is absolutely unparalleled in the his- tory of the world. Never before has the war strength of each individual nation been of such great extent, even though all the nations of Eu- rope, the dominant continent, have been armed

before. It is estimated that when the war begins 14 millions of men will be engaged in the con- flict. Attack is possible by earth, water & air, & the destruction attainable by the modern war machines used by the armies is unthinkable & past imagination.

This morning at breakfast we learnt that war is formally declared between France & Ger- many, that the German ambassador has left Paris & the French ambassador Berlin. Ger-

many has declared to Belgium that if her troops are allowed to pass unmolested through Bel- gian territory she will protect her interests in the Treaty at the end of the war. Belgium has indignantly refused any such violation of inter-

national honour, and the King of the Belgians has appealed to King George for aid. . . .

All day long rurnours kept coming that a naval engagement had been fought off the coast of Yorkshire. I went up to the tennis club this afternoon, more to see if I could hear anything than to play, as it kept on pouring with rain. No one knew any further definite news, but we all discussed the situation. I mentioned Ed-

ward's & Mautice's keenness to do something

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definite & Bertram Spafford said they ought ei- ther to apply to Mr Heathcote or Mr Goodman, who were the chief Territorials here, or to go to the Territorial headquarters in Manchester. I told him yesterday that the fact of a strong healthy man like himself being absolutely ig- norant of military tactics was a proof that our military system was at fault somewhere. He said that at the Manchester Grammar School, where he went, they had no corps, & that many men were in the same case as himself.

The war will alter everything &, even if I pass my exam., there would probably be no means to send both Edward & me to Oxford at

the same time. There is nothing to do now but wait. When I got in I found Edward had pro- cured an evening paper with the startling news that England had sent an ultimatum to Ger- many, to expire at midnight to-night, demand- ing the immediate withdrawal of her troops from Belgium. Germany declared earlier in the day that if it became necessary to her tactics to treat Belgium as an enemy she would do so. German troops are said to have crossed the Bel- gian frontier & reached Verviers. Sir E. Grey's speech has caused great satisfaction in France.

Immediately after dinner I had to go to a meeting of the University Extension Lectures Committee. Small groups of people, especially men, were standing about talking, & in front of the Town Hall was quite a large crowd, as on the door was posted up the mobilisation order, in large black letters, ordering all army recruits to take up the colours & all Territorials to go to their headquarters. Edward has been reading the papers carefully & says that at present only the trained army & the Territorials are wanted & there is no demand for untrained volunteers.

Though anxious to fight he says he will wait until he hears that people like himself are needed; he is of course very young & not over- experienced. . . .

I could not rest indoors so got Mother & Daddy to come out with me to look for further

news. In the town the groups of people had in- creased, and suppressed excitement was every- where in the air. There was a crowd round the

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Post Office; at first I thought they were at- tracted by the mobilisation order up in the window, but it turned out that Mr Heathcote

& his motor car were there, with Mrs Heath- cote inside driving. He was in his uniform, which looked as if he were going to-night, & was very busy sending telegrams off. We next went to the station & found there that a last edition extra of the Chronicle had been issued

but all the copies were sold. However Smith the foreman, who told us his son had gone to the front, gave us his copy. It contained the thrilling news that Germany has formally de- clared war on Belgium! This looks like an an- swer to our ultimatum, & will perhaps free us from the necessity of waiting until midnight for our answer. . . .

Mrs Kay told us that her son Tom, Mrs Johnson's chauffeur, has been told he is re-

quired as he belongs to the Army Medical Corps. His wife, who had a baby only last Fri- day, is terribly excited because he has to leave her, as she only gets about 2/- a day when he is gone, & has three tiny children on her hands. Mrs Kay says she will have to look after them. She thinks all her four sons who are Reservists

will have to go abroad as they have all volun- teered for foreign service. Luckily she takes it all calmly & philosophically, though she seems to think she will never see them again.

To sum up the situation in any way is im- possible, every hour brings fresh & momentous events & one must stand still & await catastro-

phes each even more terrible than the last. All

the nations of this continent are ready with their swords drawn, & Germany the aggressor with her weaker ally Austria stands alone facing an armed Europe united against her. She has broken treaty after treaty & disregarded every honourable tie with other nations. Italy, her old ally, has reaffirmed her neutrality, & thus as- sists our side by remaining out of the conflict. This conflict is a mortal struggle between her- self & France; life to the one will mean death to the other. Indeed this war is a matter of life &

death to us, & Daddy says the key to the whole situation is the British navy & that as that

World War I and the Home/ront 399

stands or falls the fate of Europe will be decided.

Wednesday August 5th All the news of last night was confirmed this morning, and it is further announced that the time limit given by Britain for an answer to her ultimatum expired without a reply coming from Germany, and that war between England & Germany is formally declared. Papers seemed to differ as to whether England must be said to have made war on Germany or Germany on England. Some say that the Germans have started hostilities against us by sinking a British mining ship and chasing a British cruiser. Thus, as the papers point out, Germany has declared war on four powers-Russia, France, Belgium and Britain, within 3 days. Nothing like it, they say, has been known since the time of Napoleon, and even Napoleon did not make war on his neighbours at so mad a rate... .

The French have sunk a German cruiser, & have seized a dreadnought and another cruiser. Heavy firing has been heard from Margate, but nothing has been seen. Mrs Kay brought the pleasing information this afternoon that Mrs Johnson is going to keep the chauffeur son's place open for him & has promised to pay the 8/ - a week rent for his wife & children. All de-

cent firms are keeping open the Reservists' places for them, & in addition to this Harrods

Stores have promised 10/- each family to the families of those who have been called out from

assisting in the shop. I showed Edward an appeal in The Times &

the Chronicle for young unmarried men between the ages of 18 & 30 to join the army. He sud- denly got very keen & after dinner he & Mau- rice wandered all round Buxton trying to find out what to do in order to volunteer for home service. . . .

Thursday August 6th

To-day has principally been one of the weary waiting kind. Nothing very definite has happened. . . .England's policy & the papers are

400 Chapter 11 World War I and the Russian Revolution

naturally secretive about the position of her Fleet. The chief news is that the Germans have

been repulsed with heavy losses while trying to storm the Belgian fortification of Liege. The Belgians are said to have behaved magnificently & while the defenders of the forts were engaged in keeping the invaders at bay, a Belgian brigade arrived & crowned the splendid efforts of the defenders with success.

To-day I started the only work it seems possi- ble as yet for women to do-the making of gar- ments for the soldiers. I started knitting sleeping-helmets, and as I have forgotten how to knit, & was never very brilliant when I knew, I seemed to be an object of some amusement. But even when one is not skillful it is better to pro- ceed slowly than to do nothing to help.

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Friday August 7th

This morning came the somewhat depressing news that the British cruiser H.M.S. Amphion, which sank the German liner Kiinigin Luise, ran into a mine & was blown up. 131 men were drowned. The information cast a gloom over breakfast, during which meal Daddy worked himself into a thorough temper, raved away at us, & said he would not allow Edward to go abroad whatever happened-"Whatever you do, don't volunteer until you're quite sure there's no danger," sort of thing. Edward replied quite calmly that no one could prevent him serving his country in any way he wanted to.

The Belgian fortress of Liege is still holding out, though it is very hard pressed. 25,000 Belgians are holding it against a reinforcement of 100,000 Germans. The opposition is a serious hindrance to Germany, who reckoned on storming Liege with scarcely any trouble. All day long I knitted away. Various reports kept coming in of battles, different dread- noughts being sunk, multitudes of Germans being killed, but none of them were con- firmed.

Maurice & Edward wandered about all day waiting for an answer & at last they got it. Just at dinner-time Mrs Goodman came to see us &

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said that she had heard from her husband- who is Territorial officer at Chesterfield-that there was no room for more recruits in the 6th

Derby & Notts, Regt. but that the adjutant was delighted with their letter & had selected it from many hundred other applications & sent it to the War Office. Edward's & Maurice's quali- fications are considered excellent & vastly supe- rior to the majority of those who volunteer. Daddy was quite angry about the letter being sent to the War Office, but E. said that Daddy, not being a public school man or having had any training, could not possibly understand the impossibility of his remaining in inglorious safety while others, scarcely older than he, were offering their all. E. is of course rather young to volunteer really, being only eighteen. Maurice was nineteen to-day. E. faces the prospect of whatever he may have to do with perfect tran- quillity, & says that even death can only come once. We spoke of the entire absence of future prospects which war seems to produce; E. said that but for this he would have been eagerly speculating about Oxford, but now he scarcely thought of it at all. Intellect, except in very high places, seems scarcely to count at all in time of war-the ordinary average soldier fights just as well for his ignorance as any cul- tured man for his knowledge. And then the value of human life becomes so cheap, so that while the loss of ten men under tragic circum- stances amid ordinary conditions would fill the whole country with horror, the news of the loss of thousands is now regarded with a philosoph- ical calm and an unmoved countenance. My beloved brother! What will become of him?

But as I told him this evening, dreary as life is without his presence here, dreary as are the prospects of what may lie before him, yet I would not have his decision back, or keep him here.

Saturday August 8th No news has arrived for Edward or Maurice

from the War Office, but as it is so inundated with requests, doubtless we shall not hear for several days.

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holds out. A rumour that arrived last night is confirmed this morning, that is, 25,000 Ger- mans have been killed before the Liege forts. The Germans asked for a truce so that they could bury their dead, but so far the truce has not been granted. I am incapable of feeling glad at such a wholesale slaughter of the Germans, whatever use it may be to us. I can only think of the 25,000 mothers who bore & reared those men with toil, & of the wives & families, never

ardent for war or for a quarrel with us, which they leave behind them.

The two Germans cruisers which took refuge in Messina harbour have courageously left the neutral waters, & drew the British ships in hot pursuit. They prefer death to disarmament; it is a splendid instance of German patriotism.

This afternoon I went to the St. John's ban- daging class. Of course I have never been to one before, never having taken a real interest, but I managed to take in quite a lot & learnt how to do 3 different kinds of bandages. With the greatest industry in the world however one can- not get a certificate & therefore cannot volun- teer as a nurse for six weeks.

Edward received a letter from Roland saying that he had applied for a commission in a Nor- folk regiment but as yet had heard nothing. He hopes very much to get it. I cannot but think it a terrible waste of good material that such an intellect as that should put itself readily in dan- ger, but E. says Roland has an excellent mili- tary brain, & is quite worth a commission. R. says that several timid people in LowestOft, be- cause they are at the nearest point to Germany in England, fear every moment to be suddenly attacked by the enemy's fleet. A good deal of excitement exists there.

Monday August 10th No special news has come through from the front to-day. Probably momentous happenings are going on, but the blinds are drawn down and we know nothing of them as yet. Certainly great bodies of French & German troops seem to be approaching one another round about AI-

World War I and the Homefront 401

sace Lorraine. The Japanese are stirring them- selves & there are rumours of their joining the war on the side of England. . . .

Tuesday August 11th

Very little news has come through to-day, probably owing to the censorship of the War news....

Friday August 14th These days I seem to wake up weary; they are both long & full of work of a somewhat tiring nature. But one must not grumble at that; the great thing to be thankful for is the having something to do, for without that life would be unbearable. This morning as it happened the knitted helmets had to be given in to Mrs Heathcote, & we have no more materials in the house at present, so I had no sewing for the War to do at the time. I occupied myself in learning up parts of the First Aid book, and practising what bandages I could do single handed. This afternoon we had the bandaging class; it was very hot, but luckily not quite such a crowd of cackling women was present.

About lunch-time Maurice rang up to say he goes to Oxford tomorrow. He expects to have a month's drilling & then be given a commission & go to fight. When Edward & Daddy came in we tOld them about it. Edward said little, but thought a great deal, I've no doubt; he said to me later that this Oxford business could not be entered into without the written consent of

their parents. Mother in her heart of hearts does not feel altOgether happy about his not going, but can do nothing when Daddy, not possess- ing the requisite courage, refuses to let him un- dertake any military duties whatsoever.

Just after dinner Eirene Dodd rang up, want- ing me to go & help to move some things at the Red Cross headquarters, which is the old Royal Hotel. I walked home with Eirene & then said

goodbye to Maurice-though I am going to see him off in the morning, & walked a little way down the road with Edward & him. I tOld him

to come back "couvert de gloire" & that then I

402 Chapter 11 World War I and the Russian Revolution

would show him off with great pride to all the community in general.

I could have written a much more interest-

ing account of to-day than this, but am alto- gether too weary for literary efforts-the war seems to swallow up even one's best gifts. . .

Tuesday August 18th

The paper officially announces this morning that the British Army-the Expeditionary Force-has all been landed in France without a

single casualty. The French seem to welcome with great joy the nation which for the first time is fighting with [them} in a European war. Meanwhile very little fresh news comes of the conflict. Japan has sent Germany an ulti- matum with regard to certain territory seized by the Germans in China.

Thursday August 20th

The paper announced this morning that the British army was in the fighting line, but the statement was denied by the War Office in the evening. At night Mother, E. & I went to the Upper Circle at the Opera House to see Martin Harvey in The Breed of the Treshams, one of those melodramatic plays which seem to be dying out but which are rather a relief after the problem & rather plotless pieces that hold the stage just now.

Friday August 21st ... I heard this morning, to my joy, that Roland Leighton, owing to his defective eyesight, has not passed the necessary exam, for serving in the army, & therefore cannot go. I am glad be- cause I did not want that brilliant intellect to

be wasted, & that most promising career to be spoilt at its outset.

Saturday August 22nd News came to-day that the Germans have pushed back the Belgians and occupied Brus- sels, which sutrendered without resistance for

the sake of the safety of its large population of unarmed civilians. The Germans appear to have entered the city in an arrogant & bullying

spirit, offering the inhabitants every kind of in- sult imaginable. The leading article in the Daily Mail this morning tried to point out to us the horrors that the poor gallant little nation is undergoing. The article was entitled "The Agony .of Belgium". It seems wrong to play tennis when such terrors are convulsing Eu- rope-but if one is used to regular exercise, the cessation of it only leads to weariness, morbid- ness, and general unfitness.

Sunday August 23rd I had a letter from Roland this morning, longer than he usually sends me, & according to him written for the pute pleasute of writing to me rather than because he had anything to say. He seems very distressed because his eyesight is keeping him out of the army.

Monday August 24th Rather more news than usual came from the

front to-day. The Russians have obtained a bril- liant victory over the Germans in Eastern Prus- sia, & are advancing quickly in their myriads. Also the Servians have so thoroughly defeated the Austrians on the banks of the Drina that

the Austrian Campaign against Servia is practi- cally abandoned.

But, while the news from one frontier is so

reassuring, the news from the other, in which we are of course most concerned, is scarcely en- couraging. This evening comes the report that Namut, which was expected to hold out at least as long as Liege, has surrendered to the enemy. This is admitted to be a great German military achievement. Some British troops were engaged all yesterday in battle. No list of casualties has appeared as yet.

Tuesday August 25th Very grave news from the front this morn- ing,-so much so that all faces look grave, & there are vague rumouts in the paper about sudden conclaves at the War Ministry & audi- ences given by Lord Kitchener in the early morning. The report of the fall of Namur is confirmed; it seems to have been taken without

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a struggle. Without doubt, the heavy punish- ment inflicted on brave Liege, the fall of Brus- sels, & the feeling in Belgium that she has had to bear the whole shock of the war in the north

without much assistance from her allies, all tended to weaken the resistance of the defend-

ers of Namur. In consequence of this unex- pected blow, the Allies have been obliged to withdraw from the Meuse towards the French frontier. At the other end of the battle the Ger-

mans in Lorraine have forced the French back, & taken Luneville, which is some miles over the French frontier. The French admit that their

plan of attack has been a failure & that they were better prepared for a defensive movement. All the papers are very pessimistic & no one talks about scare-mongering now; the scare has become only too real, & the warning is lost in the actual.

Two British Army Corps-the 1st & the 2nd-have fought their first battle against the Germans at Mons & have held their ground. No actual casualty lists are yet issued, but the num- ber of them this evening is estimated by Sir John French at 2,000. Eight German Zeppelins, the existence of which no one suspected, are said to be intending to sail over England, dropping dy- namite on our ports & probably on our rich cities like London. Truly we of this generation are born to a youth very different from anything we ever supposed or imagined for ourselves. Trouble & disasters are menacing us the narure of which we cannot even guess at. . . ,

B. "The German Ward" ("Inter arma caritas")

When the years of strife are over and my recol- lection fades Of the wards wherein I worked the weeks

away,

From Verses of a V.A.D. and Other War Poems by Vera Brir- tain, with a new introduction by Paul Berry and Mark Bostridge. @ 1995 by Imperial Wat Museum Department of Printed Books, London.

World War I and the Homefront 403

I shall still see, as a vision rising 'mid the Wartime shades, The ward in France where German wounded

lay.

I shall see the pallid faces and the half-suspi- ClOUS eyes,

I shall hear the bitter groans and laboured breath,

And recall the loud complaining and the weary tedious cries, And sights and smells of blood and wounds and death.

I shall see the convoy cases, blanket-covered on the floor, And watch the heavy stretcher-work begin,

And the gleam of knives and bottles through the open theatre door, And the operation patients carried in.

I shall see the Sister standing, with her form of youthful grace, And the humour and the wisdom of her smile,

And the tale of three years' warfare on her thin expressive face- The weariness of many a toil-filled while.

I shall think of how I worked for her with

nerve and heart and mind,

And marvelled at her courage and her skill, And how the dying enemy her tenderness

would find

Beneath her scornful energy of will.

And I learnt that human mercy turns alike to friend or foe

When the darkest hour of all is creeping nigh, And those who slew our dearest, when their

lamps were burning low, Found help and pity ere they came to die.

So, though much will be forgotten when the sound of War's alarms

And the days of death and strife have passed away,

I shall always see the vision of love working amidst arms

In the ward wherein the wounded prisoners lay.