final research

FAX Transmittal Memo To: Dr. B From: UF Student Company: Orange County Public Schools Company: Location: Ronald Blocker Building Location:

Orlando, FL Telephone: 407-317-3200 Telephone: Fax: 407-317-3401 Fax: Total number of pages: November 21, 2015 Dear Dr. B, This fax contains my research proposal for a study to examine sport fan motivation at the high school level. My objective is to increase athletic enthusiasm in low-income schools such as Wekiva. Please consider the attached proposal. I look forward to discussing it with you in the near future. Sincerely,

Running Head: Sport fan motivation at the high school level 1

Sport fan motivation at the high school level: Increasing athletic enthusiasm in low-income schools

A Research Proposal

Prepared for Dr. B

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Table of Contents

Executive Summary ……………………………………………………………………………….3

Problem Statement ………………………………………………………………………………...4

Research Objectives ……………………………………………………………………………….4

Literature Review………………………………………………………………………………….5

Importance of Study ……………………………………………………………………………...14

Research Design………………………………………………………………………………….15

Sampling Design …………………………………………………………………………15

Instrumentation …………………………………………………………………………..15

Data Collection Procedures ………………………………………………………………16

Ethical Requirements …………………………………………………………………….16

Nature and Form of Results ……………………………………………………………………...17

Qualifications of Researcher ……………………………………………………………………..17

Budget ……………………………………………………………………………………………17

Schedule/Timeline ……………………………………………………………………………….18

Facilities and Special Resources …………………………………………………………………18

Appendix A: School Climate Survey – Teachers ………………………………………………..19

Appendix B: School Climate Survey – Students ………………………………………………...20

Appendix C: High School Athletes Survey ……………………………………………………...21

References ………………………………………………………………………………………..22

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Executive Summary

The purpose of this research proposal is to examine sport fan motivation at the high school

level. One particular school, Wekiva High School, is experiencing all-time low attendance records

and revenues in the athletic department. My objective is to find out why this is the case, and what

can be done to fix it. This study will attempt to identify factors that may contribute to a lack of fan

motivation at low income and Title I schools.

To determine what factors play a role in school spirit, we will study the school identity

and brand, the demographic of the communities servicing the school, what motivates students, if

ticket prices deter attendance, if incorporating student incentives will increase motivation, and

student satisfaction and perception of the school, teams, athletes, and facilities.

A literature review of 12 studies was conducted to find additional research on these

topics. Information was collected in regards to school violence, family and community

involvement, personalizing the school experience, school size, male vs. female perceptions of

school sports, and psycho-social aspects of sport. The full literature review can be found in the

complete document.

For this study, a sample of 328 students (82 from the freshman, sophomore, junior, and

senior classes, respectively) and 80 out of 100 available faculty will be randomly selected by

their student and employee numbers, respectively, using a random number table to complete a

series of surveys related to perceptions of school and perceptions of athletics as an athlete or

coach and as a spectator. Data will be compiled through the school year and the project will be

completed by April 2016.

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Problem Statement

School spirit and athletic participation and event attendance are at an all-time low. Drug

use is on the rise and vandalism is rampant. Students have very little respect for their teachers,

their peers, and themselves. Increasing school spirit and giving the students a sense of school

identity may help to decrease these negative behaviors. The athletic department is also severely in

debt. By creating a school identity, ticket sales will increase and students, parents, and alumni will

purchase merchandise to help increase revenue to the department.

We need to increase school spirit and athletic involvement despite low economic (Title I)

status at our school. We need to determine what we can do as school administrators to increase

school spirit and game attendance for our students. By increasing school spirit, creating a school

identity, and increasing game attendance, can we increase athletic involvement, improve our

athletic records by utilizing more of our students to satisfy our 8A state qualification, increase

school grade and attendance, and decrease negative behaviors?

Research Objectives

The purpose of this research study is to attempt to identify what we, as school officials, can

do to increase school spirit and game attendance for students. We are attempting to determine if

economic status of a school affects school identity and spirit, as well as game attendance. To

determine what factors play a role in school spirit, we will study the school identity and brand, the

demographic of the communities servicing the school, what motivates students, if ticket prices

deter attendance, if incorporating student incentives will increase motivation, and student

satisfaction and perception of the school, teams, athletes, and facilities.

To attempt to fix this problem, we will investigate a number of factors relating to school

behavior. We will attempt to measure the academic performance of the school and compare it to

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other schools of similar size with similar economic hardships. We will measure the attendance

records of the school day and also athletic events. We will also attempt to survey students and

determine why they feel they should or should not attend athletic events. I hypothesize that school

spirit can be increased among students through motivation and incentive programs. I also

hypothesize that low economic status will act as a deterrent to athletic attendance and involvement.

Literature Review

This literature review will include sections on school attendance, economic status, urban

school trends, student motivation, and sport consumer behavior.

Violence in Schools

Bowen and Bowen used research conducted with the National School Success Profile

(NSSP) and a survey conducted by the National Teens, Crime, and the Community Program (TCC)

to study how the neighborhoods in which students live can affect their behavior and success in

school. Students were asked to rate their environments in regards to how dangerous they perceived

them, which was then compared to race, attendance, behavior, and grades. This study focused

primarily on the psychological and emotional aspects of a violent environment as opposed to the

physical distress.

They found that an unsafe home environment (neighborhoods, family situations, etc.) lead

to increased problems with behavior and attendance in schools. Increased drugs and crime lead a

child to become less physically fit and emotionally stable over time. Alarmingly, Bowen found

that “students themselves believe crime and violence constrain their school performance” (Bowen

& Bowen, 1999).

Reynolds, Temple, Robertson, and Mann followed low-income children for 15 years and

evaluated their outcomes based on a government-based program designed to intervene before the

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children became delinquents. They used a center in Chicago focused on child-family services for

school aged children as the basis for their study. They compared children who attended preschool

prior to full day kindergarten with those who attended preschool activities prior to their first year

of traditional school and children in elementary school who had access to extended educational

programs. The researchers measured high school completion and drop-out rates, juvenile arrests,

violent and non-violent crimes, grade retention, and special education classifications for the

children 15 years after they were first observed (Reynolds, Temple, Robertson & Mann. 2001).

Reynolds and his team found that children who attended preschool were more likely to

complete high school than their counterparts. They were also less likely to have been arrested for

violent crimes, and drop out of school. Children who attended extended-day programs were less

likely to be retained for a grade and less likely to be referred for special education services. In

summary, students who were given early interventions for their low-income status showed better

educational and social outcomes than their counterparts.

We can use this study to begin interventions at a young age. If we start targeting our feeder

middle and elementary schools to become better fans of the high school they will be attending, we

can instill a sense of pride at a young age. If we can provide some of these extended educational

programs and intervene before the children become habitual delinquents, we can not only improve

our athletic attendance, but perhaps improve our school culture.

It stands to reason that if students do not feel safe at home, they are less likely to feel safe

or enjoy school. This may lead to a decreased school identity which could, in turn, decrease a drive

to become involved in extracurricular activities, or athletic events. Borman examined four models

designed to reform low-performing Title I schools into challenging schools. The models on which

they reported were The Grassroots Site-Based Reform Model, locally mandated reconstitution, a

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nationally recognized whole school reform, and partnership with a local external partner (Borman

et al., 2000).

Researchers at Johns Hopkins University and the University of Memphis conducted this

study for the purpose of attempting to determine which of the four school improvement models

was most effective. They chose school districts in four different regions of the country to eliminate

regional bias. All schools studied were in urban school districts, which directly relates to the school

that has the current issue at hand. All school districts were studied between 1996 and 1999 and

included classroom visits, data studies, and interviews of principals and teachers.

The researchers found that change in Title I schools starts with the teachers. Implementation at the

teachers’ level is imperative for success. If teachers do not believe in their practices students will

not adapt and will not show improvements. In order for teachers to implement changes to reform

a school, they must be supported by the administration, and must be able to work collaboratively

within their cohorts and believe in what they are doing.

This study has implications in our research question due to its usefulness in examining

Title I schools and how to increase student achievement and teacher success. Currently, teachers

have no “buy-in” to the practices they are asked to implement and have very little optimism in how

students achieve. Students are unruly and take no pride in their school or their athletic teams.

Examining these models may help us to develop a plan to increase these aspects of school culture.

Family and Community Involvement

Epstein and Sheldon, also from Johns Hopkins University, studied student attendance and

how it related to involvement of family and community. They suggested, in the case of dropouts,

that schools address attendance issues early before it becomes habitual (Epstein & Sheldon, 2002).

On a personal level, it is no secret that truancy will negatively impact the student. He will have

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less opportunities to learn material, and consequently score lower on achievement tests. Because

achievement tests can affect school grades and funding, the attendance of each individual student

is crucial in maintain a school’s status. The researchers suggested that improved school attendance

can be achieved by showing students that classroom time is important, and helping them develop

a sense of purpose by coming to school, effectively eliminating their anonymity.

Sport classifications are based not on school attendance, but school enrollment. If students

are enrolled but do not come to school, they are still counted in the determination of sport

classifications. Schools with low attendance rates suffer because they are evaluated based upon

number of students enrolled, not the number of students present and available to play. A common

theme among urban schools is the notoriety of violence and low-income children. Hellman and

Beaten studied public schools (17 high schools, 78 middle schools, and 78 elementary schools) in

Boston and observed their patterns of violence compared to the racial make-up and community

status of where the school resided (Hellman & Beaten, 1986).

Specifically, suspensions and reasons for them were documented during the study. When

broken down, the study showed that over 30% of school suspensions were for violence (threat of

bodily harm, bullying, etc.) while almost 4% were for possession of a dangerous weapon. The data

also showed that suspension rates were higher for black males than any other ethnicity. Hellman

and Beaten used this data to compare the community to the suspension rates at the school to

determine how the community may influence such behaviors. They examined family structure,

economic status, age, race, sex, and quality of housing compared to property crime rate, level of

offenses, frequency of police calls to the area, and violent crime rate. They found that suspension

rates are directly related to level of crime in the community as well as ethnicity.

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School environment, however, can change these trends. When the community influence is

controlled and schools exert a positive influence on the students, the number of suspensions can

be reduced. The study suggested for administrators to promote positive social interactions for the

school and community, control access to school buildings, and limit trespassing to limit school

disruptions. The researchers found that increasing family involvement and community activities

helped to increase school attendance. Providing family informational nights, “Pee-wee Football”

nights at varsity football games, extracurricular activities and programs, student awards and

achievement recognition, community service events (such as car washes and community clean-up

events) and increasing parent-teacher contact in regards to attendance and grades, could help to

improve the truancy issue. By improving attendance records at school, maybe we can increase

attendance at athletic events.

Personalizing the School Experience

Rutledge et. al. conducted a case study for the purpose of defining successful practices and

characteristics of high achieving schools. They argued that extracurricular activities are equally as

important as instructional and educational practices. “(Learning) in schools is a social process, in

which both adults and students benefit from environments that cultivate and encourage their social

emotional well-being” (Rutledge, et. al., 2015).

They examined quality of instruction, rigorous curriculum, individualized learning, culture

of learning, community connections, leadership, use of data, and performance accountability

across four schools in one district. They found that the highest difference between the high

performing and low performing schools was the opportunity for social engagement. High

achieving schools had teachers that made active connections with students and encouraged them

on a personal level.

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We can use this study as a basis for getting our teachers involved with our students.

Creating an adopt-a-player program for the football and basketball teams, providing opportunities

for safe social engagement such as dances, “white-out” nights at games, and parking lot tailgates,

can increase students’ social interaction with their school, the athletes, and their peers.

School Size

Paul Lindsay conducted a study to evaluate the participation, satisfaction, and attendance in

relation to high school population size. It has always been assumed that a bigger high school would

lead to increased student participation and attendance, simply because of size. Many publications

in the 1950s and 1960s supported this belief. There has been more recent research to suggest,

however, that smaller high schools provide a more comprehensive education for their students

(Lindsay, 1982).

When examining this problem, Lindsay also found research to suggest that larger size leads

to more violence, greater absenteeism, and decreased overall satisfaction. To study these findings,

Lindsay replicated a previous study conducted by Barker and Gump on the effects of high school

population size and its consequential effect on learning (Barker, 1964). Participants were rated on

athletics, drama, music, and student government and political clubs. Their satisfaction with

academic work and satisfaction with overall experience with the school were examined. The

schools involved in the study were categorized based on the population size of the senior class into

“small”, “medium”, or “large”.

Students in each of the four categories were classified as “participant” or “non-participant”,

and then their satisfaction was surveyed. Attendance rates were also sectioned into four categories.

Location of the school was categorized as “rural”, “suburban” or “urban”. Socioeconomic class

was separated into “high” and “low”, as determined by data compiled by the Research Triangle

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Institute, who also compiled a score for each student determining their academic ability, also

classified as “high” or “low”.

Lindsay found that participation in extracurricular activities was higher at smaller schools,

which was to be expected. Male participation in journalism and political clubs, drama, and music

was significantly higher at the smaller schools, while female participation was higher, but not as

much of a dramatic increase. The trend continued, with attendance and overall student satisfaction

being higher at the smaller schools as well. Students with higher socioeconomic status and students

with higher academic abilities participated in more extracurricular activities.

Fowler and Walberg conducted a similar study “to explore the possible dependence of educational

outcomes on staff attributes and organizational size”. They used state records for approximately

300 high schools to measure school outcomes related to violence (Fowler & Walberg, 1991). They

found that increased school size lead to increased suspensions, violence, arrests, low-income, and

minority.

Unfortunately, this information does not bode well for our school. We have approximately

2500 students, with 71% minority rate, and 69% receiving free and reduced lunch. We have a low

socio-economic status and we are a “C” school. Fortunately, Lindsay found that rural or urban

location did not show a dramatic change in participation when examining athletics. Perhaps, if we

focus on shaping the athletes into successful young people, we can overcome the negative aspects

of the school.

Male vs. Female: Perceptions of School Sport

A study conducted at Miami University compared male and female students and their fan

behavior. 76 undergraduate students were given course credit for completing a questionnaire

related to their sport fan choices and behaviors. The section of the survey titled, “Reasons for

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Being a Sport Fan” included “plays sports, enjoys cheering, watches sports, has sports heroes, has

sports memorabilia” and other related questions. The second section, titled, “Male and Female

Sport Fan Identification, Behavior, and Knowledge” included questions regarding “sport fan

identification, hours discussing sports, interest in sports, and sport knowledge” among others

(Deitz-Uhler, 2012).

Deitz-Uhler, et. al. found that males identified themselves as sports fans more strongly than

females and spend more time discussing sports, watching sports on television than their female

counterparts. They also found that males hold a greater interest in sports and, as a result, know

more than females about sports (Deitz-Uhler, 2012). They did find, however, that females attend

the same amount of sporting events as males. Females were likely to be sports fans because they

enjoy watching sports with family and like to cheer. Males were sports fans most likely because

they played sports, and enjoy discussing sports with peers.

If we apply this research to our own school trends, we see that males are more likely to

play sports and attend sporting events. We have struggled to meet the Title IX requirement year

after year for providing female sports. If we focus on the female students and attempt to get them

more involved, maybe we can change this dynamic. Similarly, if we focus on the female students

when addressing school spirit, we could also increase student attendance at athletic events.

Psycho-social Aspects of Sport

A study conducted by Daniel Funk and Jeff James also conducted a study examining the

psychological aspects of sport fan motivation. They studied the connections that individuals

associate when following sports teams. Their model, The Psychological Continuum Model (PCM)

was introduced in 2001 to provide a framework for future research when examining the psycho-

social aspects of sport fan motivation (Funk & James, 2001).

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“Awareness, Attraction, Attachment, and Allegiance” are the basis of the PCM framework.

Awareness refers to a fan’s awareness that a team exists, but they do not follow the team or care

to choose a favorite. Attraction occurs when a fan chooses a favorite team based on location or

because people around the fan have chosen that team as a favorite.

Attachment refers to when a fan becomes associated with a team based upon a sense of importance.

Finally, Allegiance is when the fan becomes loyal to the team and an unwavering devotion to the

team (Funk & James, 2001).

We need to use the PCM model in our own school. Currently, many students are in the

“Awareness” or “Attraction” phases. We need to move them into the “Attachment” and eventually

the “Allegiant” phases of the model. More research is needed on this model, but it has very

promising potential.

Joan Duda, at Purdue University, conducted a study to determine how high school students

perceive the importance of high school sports. She took approximately 150 male and female high

school athletes and distributed the Task Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ). The

purpose of this questionnaire was to identify factors that high school athletes find important in

high school sports (Duda, 1989). Duda found that females are more task-oriented than males, who

are more ego oriented. This means that females are more likely to play sports to win. They are

competitive and feel that they have something to prove. Males, on the other hand, are more likely

to play to boost themselves up and “look good.”

Conclusion

Overall, these studies are all equally important to the question at hand. How can we

increase school spirit and athletic involvement despite low economic (Title I) status at our school?

We can look at the size of the school, the community from which the students are drawn, socio-

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economic status, male vs. female population, and attendance records. Changing the culture of the

school is the most important issue to address. Once we change that, we can focus more on the

athletics and increasing school spirit.

Importance of the Study

Last year, the Wekiva Athletic Department finished the school year nearly $30,000 in

debt. Football was the only sport out of 22 sports that made a profit, and they made less than

$5,000. These debts were attributed to lacking ticket sales, payment for officials, field

maintenance, and athletic training supplies. Field maintenance cost the department roughly

$10,000 for the football field and $5000 for the baseball and softball fields. This was due in part

to students vandalizing and damaging equipment and buildings. Wekiva has been open for eight

years and has never seen a winning season in any sport. Athlete numbers are low, and students

do not care for nor take pride in their school.

This perception must change. We must increase athletic involvement to increase ticket

sales and bring the athletic department out of debt. Increasing athletic involvement will increase

roster numbers and, with hope, increase talent. Creating more athletes can change the perception

of our school and increase school pride in addition to sport fan motivation. Completing this study

will help us to determine what we can do to improve these factors currently affecting us.

Research Design

Sampling Design

The simple random sample will consist of students, teachers, administrators, and other

staff of the target school (Wekiva High School). Our student population is approximately 2400,

therefore a sample size of 328 will be obtained by randomly selecting 82 students each from the

freshmen, sophomore, junior, and senior classes. Out of the 100 faculty, 80 will be randomly

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selected. Each participant will be selected using a random number table to eliminate bias.

Appropriate sample size was determined by a chart provided by Dr. Michael Sagas (Sagas,

2015). Subjects will be selected from Wekiva High School and Apopka High School, a school

that is relatively the same size as Wekiva, but does not face any of the challenges being studied

in this research study. Selection procedures will be identical between the two schools.

Instrumentation

To measure perceptions of school culture, students, faculty, and staff will be given a

series of surveys. Students will be given the surveys through their English classes, as every

student in every grade is required to take an English class. Many students will be apathetic to the

study and may choose not to participate. Those that participate in every survey will receive an

invitation to a party at the end of the year.

Data Collection Procedures

Teachers will be given the School Climate Survey for School Staff developed by

the New Jersey Department of Education (Appendix A). Teachers will answer a variety of

questions related to perception of safety, student achievement, faculty and staff relationships, and

school pride (NJ Dept. of Ed., 2015). Similar surveys will be given to students, also developed

by the New Jersey Department of Education (Appendix B). Students will also be given a survey

related to athletic participation and perceptions of achievement (Appendix C). Students that do

not participate in a sport will have questions pertaining to their perceptions of athletics as

spectators (Survey Monkey, 2015).

Attendance records and grade point averages for the student numbers selected will be

collected and analyzed to assess whether school attendance and academic achievement relate to

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sport participation. Census data from the Wekiva High and Apopka High school zones will be

analyzed to determine socio-economic status and drugs use in the areas servicing the schools.

Ethical Requirements

This study does not need IRB approval, as subjects will remain anonymous and will

never be identified or disclosed to the researchers. The only identifying information will be

students’ and staff’s identification numbers assigned by the school district. Participants will

never interact with the researchers and will never experience any physical testing.

Nature and Form of Results

Data Analysis

All data will be analyzed by an external consultant and details of this analysis can be

provided to the sponsor upon request.

Qualifications of Researcher

Research holds a Bachelor’s Degree and is pursuing a Master’s of Science in Sport

Management from the University of Florida….etc.

Budget

Budget Items Charge

Survey Rights

Distribution

Travel Costs

$3,000

$1,500

$3,000

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Equipment/Supplies

Printing Costs

Data Entry

$2,850

$1,200

$300

Total $11,850

This study will require funds for survey printing and distribution. Travel costs will

include mileage between schools and the Educational Leadership Center, where the primary

office will be located. Data compilation and entry will be conducted by a third party and results

will be provided to the research group. Results can be made available upon request.

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Schedule/Timeline

Facilities/Special Resources

With approval from the Orange County School Board for this study to be conducted, no

special resources or facility costs will be incurred. Surveys will be distributed to students during

the school day and to teachers via email.

September 2015

• Project Start.

October 2015

• Preliminary Research will be conducted. • Exploratory Interviews will be conducted to determine final research questions. • Research Prospectus will be written and submitted.

November 2015

• Questionnaires will be revised and adapted to accommodate targeted subjects. • Subjects will be selected and consent will be obtained for minors. • Research Proposal will be developed.

December 2015

• Final Research Proposal will be submitted for approval. • Editing and Coding will take place to prepare databases for questionnaire entry.

January - February 2016

• Questionnaires will be distributed to subjects (students and teachers).

March 2016

• Data will be collected and analyzed. Data will be entered into database for analysis.

April 2016

• Report will be generated and research questions will be answered. • Project Completion.

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Appendix A

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Appendix B

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Appendix C

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References

Barker R.G., Gump R.V. Big school, small school: High school size and student behavior.

Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1964.

Borman, G.D., Rachuba, L., Datnow, A., Alberg, M., McIver, M. Stringfield, S., Ross, S. (2000).

Four models of school improvement: Successes and challenges in reforming low-performing,

high-poverty Title I schools. Johns Hopkins University.

Bowen, N.K., Bowen, G.L. (1999). Effects of crime and violence in neighborhoods and schools

on the school behavior and performance of adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Research.

14(3), 319-342.

Deitz-Uhler, B., Harrick, E.A., End, C., Jacquenmotte, L. (2000). Sex differences in sport fan

behavior and reasons for being a sport fan. Journal of Sport Behavior. 23(3) 219-231.

Duda, J.L. (1989). Relationship between task and ego orientation and the perceived purpose of

sport among high school athletes. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology. 11, 318-335.

Epstein, J.L., Sheldon, S.B. (2002). Present and accounted for: Improving student attendance

through family and community involvement. The Journal of Educational Research. 95(5),

308-318.

Fowler, W.J., Walberg, H.J. (1991). School size, characteristics, and outcomes. Educational

Evaluation and Policy Analysis. 13(2), 189-202.

Funk, D.C., James, J. (2001). The psychological continuum model: A conceptual framework for

understanding an individual’s psychological connection to sport. Sport Management Review.

4, 119-150.

Hellman, D.A., Beaton, S. (1986). The pattern of violence in urban public schools: The influence

of school and community. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency. 23(2), 102-127.

Running Head: Sport fan motivation at the high school level 23

Lindsay, P. (1982). The effect of high school size on student participation, satisfaction, and

attendance. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis. 4(1), 57-65.

NJ Dept. of Ed. (2015). New Jersey school climate survey. Retrieved from

http://www.state.nj.us/education/students/safety/behavior/njscs/.

Reynolds, A.J., Temple, J.A., Robertson, D.I., Mann, E.A. (2001). Long-term effects of an early

childhood intervention on educational achievement and juvenile arrest. 285(18), 2339-2346.

Rutledge, S.A., Cohen-Vogel, L., Osborne-Lampkin, L., Roberts, R.L. (2015). Understanding

effective high schools: Evidence for personalization for academic and social emotional

learning. American Educational Research Journal. 1-33.

Sagas. M. (2015). Sampling: Part 1 [PowerPoint Slides]. Retrieved from

https://ufl.instructure.com/courses/319718/files/26013351/download?wrap=1.

SurveyMonkey. (2015). High school sports – Student feedback survey template. Retrieved from

https://www.surveymonkey.com/mp/high-school-sports-student-feedback-survey-template/.