FINAL REPORT.E [PERFECTO]

By

Stephanie L. Dull

Florida International University Student

April 21, 2018

701 NW 1st Court  Miami, FL 33136

April 18, 2018

Lee Hefty Director of Environmental Resources Management (DERM) Miami-Dade County, Environmental Resources Miami, FL 33136

Dear Mr. Hefty,

Here is my report, Casual Analysis of Coral Bleaching. In preparing this report I have learned a great deal about coral bleaching, as a result, I have realized what a grave problem it is, especially for South Florida. I believe that the findings in this report will be of use to the Division of Environmental Resources Management in Miami-Dade County. Thank you for your guidance throughout this process.

Coral bleaching is a problem for the entire world’s oceans, not just South Florida. South Florida is in the unique position though, of possessing the only near-shore reef in the continental United States. The coral reef is one of the region’s major tourist attractions, providing recreational areas for fishing, diving, and snorkeling, but with widespread mortality of coral occurring in Miami-Dade and Broward counties, the coral reef is at great risk.

Two thirds of the coral from Key Biscayne to Fort Lauderdale are already dead or reduced to less than half of their live tissue, and there have also been reports of coral bleaching as far up the South Florida coast as Palm Beach County. While coral bleaching may not be an easy issue to solve, it is important to do all that can be done to prevent any further damage to the coral, and hopefully, give it the time and resources it will need to recover.

Preserving the ocean’s wonders for future generations has always been a passion of mine, and this project has really been a labor of love for me. I hope that you will feel the same way while reading it. Feel free to contact me by phone at 352-575-4468 or by email at [email protected] if you have any questions.

Sincerely,

Stephanie L. Dull

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Table of Contents

Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………………..……iii

Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………….1

Data Section ……………………………………………………………………………………....2

Key Aspects of Coral Bleaching ………………………………………………………….2

What is Coral ...…………………………………………………………………………2

Why is Coral Important ...………...…………………………………………………….2

What is Coral Bleaching ………………………………………………………………..3

What Causes Coral Bleaching ………………………………………………………….3

Where is this Happening ……………………………………………………………….4

What does this mean for South Florida ………………………………………………...4

Proposed Solutions ……………………………………………………………………….5

Option One: Marine Protected Areas …………………………………………………..5

Option Two: Reef Watch Program ……………………………………………………..5

Option Three: Educate and Promote Local Businesses ………………………………..6

Option Four: Create Partnerships with the NOAA …………………………………….6

An Overall Comparison by Relative Advantage ………………………………………..7

Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………………..8

Summary and Interpretation of findings ………………………………………………….8

Recommendations ………………………………………………………………………...8

References ………………………………………………………………………………………...9

Abstract

Combating the issue of coral bleaching in South Florida is dependent on local government’s effectiveness in developing ways to reduce and prevent pollution as well as destruction due to tourism, overfishing, and destructive fishing practices.

Coral bleaching has become an issue in South Florida, as well as globally. During Coral bleaching, the coral turns white and can contract fatal diseases. This is due to a combination of global and local stresses, including rising water temperatures, pollution, tourism, overfishing, and destructive fishing practices. These stressors cause the coral to expel the symbiotic algae living in their tissues, turning completely white. Although coral can survive a bleaching event, bleached coral are under more stress and have a greater chance of dying.

Proposed Solutions to this issue are create marine protected areas on the coast of South Florida to help protect and restore the coral reefs and to create a coral reef watch program comprised of local volunteers who will work with experts and professionals to periodically observe and record coral health. Also, work to educate the local businesses and consumers to reduce, reuse, and recycle, to reduce pollution, and promote “Reef Protector” businesses in the area that are helping to decrease the effects of global warming and climate change, as well as educating locals as well as tourists, and doing their part to protect the coral reefs. Finally, local government can create partnerships with the NOAA to help prevent damage to the coral caused by tourism as well as overfishing and destructive fishing practices.

All of the proposed solutions are cost effective and a relatively easy to implement. The running of the programs should be able to be worked into the local Department of Environmental Resources Management. This department, along with the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) would be a source for local volunteer programs such as a “Reef Watch” program, or a program for local businesses, to report to. The local government of South Florida should consider these recommendations to help protect the coral reefs and allow them to recover.

iii

Introduction

In recent years the issue of coral bleaching has become increasingly severe and has expanded to almost every reef in the world, including the reefs in South Florida. Within the last couple of years there has been an unprecedented die-off of a large amount of the coral off the coast of South Florida. Coral has been dying at such an accelerated rate that coral which was determined, healthy was confirmed dead only 3 months later. South Florida’s coral are turning white and contracting fatal diseases due to coral bleaching, caused by a combination of global and local stresses. Around two thirds of the coral reefs from Key Biscayne to Fort Lauderdale have been affected, with them either being confirmed dead, or being reduced to less than half of their live tissue. If steps are not taken to reduce the damage to the coral, as well as to help repair the reefs, there will no longer be any coral left in South Florida waters.

In order to protect South Florida’s coral reefs, local government needs to address the issues of pollution, tourism, overfishing, and destructive fishing practices.

The Agency for Marine Research and Development (ARVAM) defines coral bleaching as “a process whereby the coral colonies lose their colour, either due to the loss of pigments by microscopic algae (zooxanthellae) living in symbiosis with their host organisms (polyps), or because these zooxanthellae have been expelled” (Quod & Charpy, 2008).

More information about this is provided in the section “What is Coral Bleaching?” on pages and.

Despite the relevance of coral reefs to the ecosystems and biodiversity of South Florida, as well as the protection the coral reefs provide to the coastline, not enough is being done to protect them. By presenting information gathered from professionals and literature, this report will provide a clearer picture of the issue of coral bleaching, as well as what can be done to help prevent it. The intention is to provide local government in South Florida with the information necessary to develop an effective plan to help save the coral reefs.

Data Section

Key Aspects of Coral Bleaching In order to determine the best solution, it is important to know what coral is and why it is important, what coral bleaching, as well as what causes the bleaching.

What is coral? Coral can be divided into two basic groups, hard coral and soft coral. The main difference, as the names imply, is that hard corals have a hard calcium carbonate skeleton and soft corals lack a hard skeleton, making them soft and flexible (Helgason, 2017). “Corals are colonial animals. They are made up of hundreds of tiny animals called polyps which bud and divide asexually into identical clones” (Helgason, 2017). There are photosynthetic marine algae called zooxanthellae that live in a symbiotic relationship with the coral. The zooxanthellae use the coral for protections, in exchange, through photosynthesis, they produce the energy the coral needs to build its skeleton (Helgason, 2017). The zooanthellae are also what gives the coral its vibrant colors.

Why is coral important? Coral is very important to the ecosystem of the ocean, as well as the world as a whole. Coral reefs are known as the tropical rainforests of the oceans because they are home to many invertebrates, vertebrates, and plants, and have extremely high levels of biodiversity and productivity (Buchheim, 2013). When considering the ocean as a whole, the ocean covers the majority of the planet, but despite the fact that coral reefs only cover a small part of that ocean, the majority of the ocean’s organisms are found in the reefs. According to the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI), “shallow water coral reefs occupy somewhere between 284,000 and 512,000 km2 of the planet. This area-about 198 thousand square miles in an ocean of 140 million square miles-represents less than 0.015 percent of the ocean. Yet coral reefs harbor more than one quarter of the ocean's biodiversity” (n.d.).

A healthy coral ecosystem provides natural resources such as food and drugs. It also provides a high level of diversity within species, social, recreational, and cultural activities, as well as services that the environment depends, on such as the natural break down of pollutants, the creation of soil, and the recycling and purification of water and air. If the coral were to die, this would greatly reduce the biodiversity of the ecosystem, inevitably causing a breakdown of the ecosystem’s health and function ("Human Impact on the Reef", 2009). Biodiversity and the survival of the coral is very important if the other organisms in the ocean are to survive. “A diverse range of species provides a larger gene pool, giving natural communities survival  options when environmental conditions and climates change. Species evolve over time as natural selection favours the ‘best’ of these survival options. Therefore, extinction poses a greater threat to species for which there is limited diversity” ("Human Impact on the Reef", 2009). Coral also protects the coastline from waves and damaging winds, provides habitats, and is the source nutrients and nitrogen for many marine organisms.

Many countries also depend on the reefs for food as well as their livelihoods, through fishing and tourism businesses. Especially smaller and less developed countries. “An estimated 30 million small-scale fisherman and women depend on reefs for their livelihoods, more than one million in the Philippines alone. In Indonesia, fish supported by the reefs provide the primary source of protein” (Innis, 2016). Coral reefs are a large source of the world’s fisheries, with about half of all of the federally managed fisheries in the U.S. depending on coral reefs. “NOAA’s National Marine Fisheries Service estimates the annual commercial value of U.S. fisheries from coral reefs to be over $100 million. Reef-based recreational fisheries generate over $100 million annually in the United States” (NOAA, 2011). Coral reefs also support local jobs and tourism. The National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) estimates that coral reefs provide about $375 billion each year in the form of economic good and services. In southeast Florida alone, the coral reefs are assessed at $8.5 billion. They generate $4.4 billion in local sales, $2 billion in local income, and 70,400 full and part-time jobs (2011).

What is coral bleaching? Coral bleaching is a general response to stress, by the coral. The Agency for Marine Research and Development (ARVAM) defines coral bleaching as “a process whereby the coral colonies lose their colour, either due to the loss of pigments by microscopic algae (zooxanthellae) living in symbiosis with their host organisms (polyps), or because these zooxanthellae have been expelled” (Quod & Charpy, 2008). Coral can sometimes recover from bleaching if it is not severe, but if they continue to be stressed, or there are back to back bleaching events, they are subject to mortality.

What causes coral bleaching? The main reason that coral becomes bleached is temperature changes in the water. This mostly occurs when the water becomes to warm, but has also been shown to be caused by unusually cold weather as well. For example, “in January 2010, cold water temperatures in the Florida Keys caused a coral bleaching event that resulted in some coral death. Water temperatures dropped 12.06 degrees Fahrenheit lower than the typical temperatures observed at this time of year” (NOAA, 2010). Most of the coral bleaching events thus far have been shown to be caused by increasing ocean temperatures due to global warming. It is still unknown whether high temperatures independently affect the diseases and bleaching of the coral, or if the affect happens indirectly through a series of biological responses that are connected. “Typically, massive bleaching events in the past have been associated with higher than average water temperatures (~1 degree C) in the summer months, when corals are already close to their temperature threshold” (Miller, et al., 2009). According to Ove Hoegh-Guldberg, the director of Australia’s Global Change Institute, both on land and in the oceans, 2015 was the hottest year yet to be recorded, and “rising temperatures due to climate change have pushed corals beyond their tolerance levels” (Innis, 2016).

Many of the stressors to the coral causing reef bleaching, are related to local reef overexploitation and environmental degradation. These stressors include pollution, tourism, overfishing, and destructive fishing practices. Pollution from increasing coastal development puts reefs in jeopardy. The pollutants runoff the land in the form of nutrients, sediments, and other pollutants. These pollutants “smother coral reefs; accelerate the growth of damaging algae; lower water quality; and make corals more susceptible to disease” (NOAA, 2017). Other than rising sea temperatures, overfishing and destructive fishing practices are the most widespread threats to coral reefs. This is a problem on nearly all U.S inshore reefs. “Destructive fishing methods like dynamite, gill nets and beach seines are highly unsustainable because they typically do not target particular fish species and often result in juveniles being killed in the process. Damage to the coral reef structure further reduces the productivity of the area, thus adversely affecting both the reef-dependent fish populations and also the livelihoods of fishers and nearby communities” ("Overfishing and Destructive Fishing Threats", 2018) Explosives shatters coral and kills tissues on nearby coral colonies, destroying large sections of reef. Cyanide that is sprayed or dumped on the reef in order to stun and capture fish while keeping them alive also damages and kills the coral. Also, some types of fishing gear such as gill nets and beach seines damage the reefs by capturing of flattening corals, and nets and traps that are left behind or lost can smother, entangle, and dislodge coral ("Overfishing and Destructive Fishing Threats", 2018).

Impacts of over fishing and destructive fishing techniques become exasperated when combine with the other stressors of climate change, pollution, and coral disease. Tourism can destroy the reef in some of the same ways as destructive fishing techniques. Tourism in the U.S. is the largest source of employment producing $700 billion annually. Pollutants are generated and released into the ocean due to the development of marinas, ports and resorts, recreational boats damage reefs, and snorkelers and divers tend to accidently break coral. Recreational fishing also increases the pressure on already depleted species of fish in the reefs (NOAA, 2017).

Where is this happening? “Nearly all of the world’s major coral reef regions (Caribbean/ western Atlantic, eastern Pacific, central and western Pacific, Indian Ocean, Arabian Gulf, Red Sea) experienced some degree of coral bleaching and mortality during the 1980s” (Buchheim, 2013). There have been mass coral mortalities reported since the 1870s in all of the major reef providences. What is alarming now is that the scale and frequency of these bleaching events has been dramatically increasing since the 1970s. More than 60 of the 105 mass casualty coral events reported between 1979-1990 were bleaching events, compared to the preceding 103 years where there were only 3 bleaching events out of the 63 mass casualty coral events reported (Buchheim, 2013). “Damaged or dying reefs have been found from Réunion, off the coast of Madagascar, to East Flores, Indonesia, and from Guam and Hawaii in the Pacific to the Florida Keys in the Atlantic” (Innis, 2016). In 2016, Meaghan Johnson, a marine scientist at the Nature Conservancy said that the reefs in the Florida Keys were going into their third year straight of bleaching which had never happened before (Innis, 2016).

What does this mean for South Florida? Widespread mortality of coral has been found in Miami-Dade and Broward counties, and in 2016 scientists witnessed a coral colony collapse off the coast of Hollywood as well (Flesher, 2016). Brian Walker, a Nova Southeastern University research scientist collaborated on a survey of the coral from Key Biscayne to Fort Lauderdale and discovered that two thirds were dead or reduced to less than half of their live tissue. “Once colorful corals have turned white, having expelled the algae that provide them with nutrition and color, an action that leaves them vulnerable to a range of diseases. Many lost their tissue entirely, becoming lifeless structures of calcium carbonate” (Flesher, 2016) There has also been reports of coral bleaching as far up the South Florida coast as Palm Beach County, although those reefs tend to be mostly spared due the fact that they are deeper and closer to the gulf stream. (Flesher, 2016). Florida’s southeast reefs are one of the region’s major tourist attractions, providing recreational areas for fishing, diving, and snorkeling.

Proposed Solutions. Without intervention from the local governments South Florida may lose all of its coral reefs to coral bleaching. Some ways to help prevent this are to create marine protected areas, create a reef watch program, educate and promote local businesses, and create partnerships with the NOAA.

Option One: Marine protected areas. Marine protected areas (MPA) are a great tool to consider when attempting to protect the South Florida reefs. An MPA is “any marine area reserved by laws or regulations to provide protection for part or all of the resources within the area. The protected resources can be natural or cultural (e.g., a historical shipwreck)” (NOAA, 2017). An MPA can also include "no-take" areas, which means that no resources can be removed from that area, and other specifically zoned areas. NOAA can work with local government to train state and territory resource managers to identify and assist with developing the best areas for MPAs. The NOAA can also help effectively design and create a network of MPAs to better achieve the needed levels of protection. “NOAA and partners are developing an inventory of MPAs with coral reefs, and creating networks of MPAs, enhancing their effectiveness” (NOAA, 2017). There is a National Marine Sanctuary established in the Florida Keys that protects over 50 different species of coral and is also home to 500 species of fish along with a countless number of other marine organisms (NOAA 2017).

If extensive coral bleaching occurs, causing the death of extensive amounts of coral, the reef can only recover when new coral recruits settle and grow on the reef. New coral growing is a long, time-consuming process, even in the best of conditions. Growing a new reef after one has been damaged by bleaching can take decades and the new reef will never be the same as the one that existed before. “In general, massive corals tend to grow slowly, increasing in size from 0.5 cm to 2 cm per year. However, under favorable conditions (high light exposure, consistent temperature, moderate wave action), some species can grow as much as 4.5 cm per year” (“What are corals?”). Even if the reef is recovering, if it suffers another stressful event such as another bleaching, it can easily perish. Recovery can also be very slow or inhibited altogether if the area is also suffering from pollution or other stressors. Crating marine protected areas will help the coral regrow by preventing other stressor such as tourism, overfishing, and destructive fishing practices.

Option Two: Reef Watch Program. Another great way to prevent any further harm to the coral reefs and allow them time to heal is to create a reef watch program. A reef watch program would utilize a volunteer group of professional and recreational divers interested in the protection and conservation of the coral reefs. Volunteers will be taught how to grade the coral, in order to tell how well it is doing and any issues that might be occurring on the reef. For example, the Florida Keys has a BleachWatch Program that is modeled after Great Barrier Reef’s BleachWatch. It is a “team of trained recreational, commercial and scientific divers who help monitor and report on conditions at the reefs. After each visit to the reef, the divers complete a data form, either printed or online, and send it to the BleachWatch coordinator” (MOTE, 2017).   The volunteers are also given an underwater wristband that they can use as a guide and a reminder key to help them grade the coral. These reef watch programs are required in order to monitor coral bleaching before, during, and after each event, and to help us understand this problem.

Option Three: Educate and Promote Local Businesses. Educating local businesses and promoting their positive actions and changes can help solve many of the problems facing the coral reefs. Since many of the stressors to the coral that is causing reef bleaching, are related to local reef overexploitation and environmental degradation, educating local businesses and promoting positive changes can make a large difference and can help protect the coral. Although local businesses may not be able to directly affect the temperature changes in the ocean, they will be able to make an immense difference in reducing the other stressors that are damaging coral, such as pollution, overfishing, and destructive fishing practices. There are many local businesses that have charter services for snorkeling and diving, as well as fishing charters. It is the responsibility of these business owners to ensure that they are educating their employees as well as their patrons about safe practices and ways to enjoy the reefs without damaging them. They need to make sure that patrons and employees know not to touch the reef or anchor a boat on the reef. Boats need to look for a sandy bottom or use moorings when available in order to not damage the coral. Coral is delicate and any contact with the coral will damage it and possibly cause it to die. Local businesses can also help reduce pollution by offering slight discounts to customers who conserve, for example, if they bring their own bags or go without a bag to reduce plastic trash, or start a recycling program, encouraging people to bring in their used plastics by offering a coupon or points towards a rewards program. They can also work to help reduce water usage by their businesses as well as by educating patrons on the issue, and just in general, spreading the word. Many of South Florida businesses depend on tourism to be successful and simply spreading the word on ways to conserve, reduce pollution, and protect the reefs, can make strides towards, saving the coral along with promoting their business.

Another aspect of educating and promoting local businesses is giving them an incentive. Local government can create a program similar to the way the better business bureau works, but which focuses on the sustainability and conservation efforts of the businesses. Through reviews, inspections, and feedback from the companies they can determine which business are adhering to an established set of guidelines. The businesses that are doing their part to reduce pollution, and to educate about protecting the reefs can achieve a “Reef Protector” status or something similar that they can use to promote their business and to let customers know that they care about the health of the reef. Many tourists that visit to view and experience what the coral reefs have to offer also like to see that local businesses care about and contribute to the coral reef ecosystem management effort. This program would attract more tourism and promote local businesses all while helping to protect the reefs.

Option Four: Create Partnerships with the NOAA. Considering that South Florida has the only near-shore reefs in the continental United States, it is very important that we protect these reefs from further damage and begin to rehabilitate them from the damage that has already been done. The National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), can be a great resource to local governments in this endeavor. South Florida needs to work on creating and improving upon partnerships with the NOAA. The NOAA can partner with local government to train state and territory resource managers to identify and assist with developing the best areas for MPAs. The NOAA has taken the first step in identifying what needs to be protected by characterizing and mapping the shallow coral reef ecosystems in most of the waters of the United States (NOAA, 2017). The NOAA also “is coordinating an international partnership called the Global Socioeconomic Monitoring Initiative for Coastal Management. This program provides monitoring tools and survey techniques that measure human attitudes and values, which helps managers develop plans to meet society's needs while ensuring coral reef protection” (NOAA, 2017). Working with them more would allow South Florida to use the NOAA’s resources and expertise to help develop a better program for its specific needs. The NOAA also employs scientists who are exploring ecological approaches to restoration. These scientists are researching the growth of coral, the release of herbivorous sea urchins, and the removal of coral predators in order to find better ways to rehabilitate the reefs. They are also working on developing ways to add juvenile coral into degraded reefs, induce fertilization in the coral, and to collect coral gametes during spawning events (NOAA, 2017). Being able to have all of this research and resources to expand on local restorations efforts would be very beneficial.

An Overall Comparison by Relative Advantage.

All four of the solutions presented are feasible and can be implemented with little or no cost to the local government and local tax payers. At most, there would be a need for a couple of employees in charge of coordinating the programs, receiving feedback, and acting as a liaison between local area efforts and the NOAA. There may also be a need for employees to enforce certain things like the MPAs. This may be able to be worked into the job descriptions of current employees working in the local Department of Environmental Resources Management. Creating a MPA may take some time and money but the responsibilities of local government will be diminished by working with the NOAA on this. Creating partnerships with the NOAA will only require staff willing to do so. The NOAA will assist in training state and territory resource managers to identify and assist with developing the best areas for MPA and other programs, costing the local areas very little. Concerning a reef watch program, the program would be organized and staffed by volunteers and would just need somebody to report the information to and somebody to liaison with the NOAA with the results. This would also cost little to no money other than an employee or two. The same applies to the programs involving local businesses. The businesses would be responsible for implementing the changes and incentive programs and would only need somebody to report back to.

Conclusion

Summary of Findings

It is extremely important that South Florida addressed the issue of Coral Bleaching in its local reefs. In recent years the issue of coral bleaching has become increasingly severe and has expanded to almost every reef in the world, including the reefs in South Florida. These reefs are very important, not only to the ecosystems and biodiversity of the ocean, but to all of us on land as well. Coral reefs provide natural resources such as food and drugs, as well as a plethora of social, recreational, and cultural activities. Coral also provides services that the environment depends, on such as the natural break down of pollutants, the creation of soil, and the recycling and the purification of water and air. The coral reefs of the world also are home to more than one quarter of the ocean's biodiversity. Although local efforts may not solve global warming, they can always help prevent further damage to the environment. Without intervention and protection, South Florida’s coral reefs may perish forever.

Interpretations of Findings

Through local efforts, South Florida’s reefs may be able to be protected from further damage, as well as rehabilitated. If local government can work together with the NOAA to create effective conservation programs, not only the coral reefs can be saved, but also the economy and local businesses, both of which rely heavily on tourism to local beach areas, including the reefs. Through the implementation of volunteer based programs such as a “Reef Watch” program and programs that can encourage local businesses to become “Reef Protectors,” local government can do a lot to protect the reefs, without spending much money. These programs will help educate business owners as well as the public, leading to a reduction in pollution, damage to the reefs by tourists, over fishing, and destructive fishing practices. The creation of MPAs will also help to protect these areas and can be accomplished by partnering with the NOAA for their assistance.

Recommendations

If you agree that something needs to be done in order to protect and to begin to rehabilitate South Florida’s coral reefs, please consider the following suggestions:

1. Establish Marine Protected Areas (MPA)

2. Create a volunteer based “Reef Watch” program

3. Educate local businesses on best practices to protect the coral reefs. Create a program that will designate the businesses that comply with conservation efforts, and that work to educate the public on the matter, as a “Reef Protector.”

4. Create partnerships with the NOAA. This will increase the effectiveness of local programs and research as well as diminish the costs associated with running such programs.

References

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