Literature Review

Running head: STRESS AND ADOLESCENCE

Stress and coping for adolescents

John Smith

James Cook University

STRESS AND ADOLESCENCE 2

Stress and coping for adolescents

The biological, psychological and social effects of stress on an individual have been

researched extensively over time. Only recently has literature begun to focus on the influence

stress has on young people during the vulnerable stage of adolescence. Cognitive and

emotional attributes play a critical role in the types of coping strategies one chooses to adopt,

thus how adolescents cope cannot be limited to one sole strategy, but is a combination of

many. This paper will specifically focus on the types of life stressors young people encounter

and the coping strategies they implement. Also to be examined is how adolescent stressors

and coping strategies differ to that of adults. Through review of relevant coping literature, the

notion of coping as a dynamic process will be emphasised.

Adolescence, stress and coping

Adolescence is the transition between childhood and young adulthood during which

young people experience physiological, cognitive and social changes (Dumont & Provost,

1999; Murberg & Bru, 2004). The age bracket for adolescence varies according to different

literature (de Anda et al., 2000; Spirito, Stark, Grace and Stamoulis, 1991) however this

paper defines adolescents as between 12 and 19 years of age. Williams and McGillicuddy-De

Lisi (1999) suggest that during this transition, young people have difficulty adjusting and

often struggle with unfamiliar issues.

Stress is a concept that cannot be explained using a static definition thus it is

important to be aware that different descriptions exist in both recent and seminal literature.

Delahaij, Dam, Gaillard and Soeters (2011) explain stress using a biopsychosocial approach,

suggesting that stressful reactions affect the emotional, physiological and cognitive state of

an individual. This definition describes stress as a reaction. Alternatively, Caltabiano,

Sarafino and Byrne (2008) view stress as a discrepancy. They state that stress occurs when

there is a perceived discrepancy between the demands of a situation and an individual’s

STRESS AND ADOLESCENCE 3

resources available to deal with that demand (Caltabiano et al., 2008). Greater discrepancy

between resources and demand therefore causes a greater stressful reaction (Caltabiano et al.,

2008). The act of handling this response is referred to as coping.

Compas, Connor-Smith, Saltzman, Thomsen and Wadsworth (2001) suggest that

coping focuses on achieving goals to resolve the stressful situation and minimise emotional

reaction. Similarly, Delahaij et al. (2011) describes coping as a relationship between

cognitive and behavioural processes that attempts to lessen the resources/demand

discrepancy. Coping strategies are labeled as either of two major types. These include

emotion-focused and problem-focused coping (Delahaij et al., 2011; Dumont & Provost,

1999; Fromme and Rivet, 1994; Lohman & Jarvis, 2000) Emotion-focused coping involves

regulating emotional response to a stressor and reducing psychological discomfort, whilst

problem-focused coping includes altering the situation to minimise or eliminate the source of

the stressor (Dumont & Provost, 1999; Fromme & Rivet, 1994).

The type of strategy a young person utilises depends largely on perceived control

(Spirito et al., 1991). Problem-focused strategies are used if a solution to the problem is

considered within the individual’s capabilities, whilst emotion-focused strategies are used if

the situation is perceived to be out of the individual’s control (Spirito et al., 1991). Despite

this distinction it is important to recognise that coping is a dynamic process that often

involves a combination of both strategies, depending on the nature of the stressful

circumstances (Caltabiano et al., 2008; Delahaij et al., 2011; Herman-Stahl, Stemmler &

Peterson, 1995; Lohman & Jarvis, 2000; Williams & McGillicuddy-De Lisi, 1999; Yahav &

Cohen, 2008).

Adolescent stressors

The effect of daily stressors can be particularly harmful to the psychological and

physiological wellbeing of young people (Yahav & Cohen, 2008). The stressors adolescents

STRESS AND ADOLESCENCE 4

experience range from the school environment to home and family life, and extend as far as

global social issues (de Anda et al., 2000). Spirito et al. (1991) identified four main stressful

domains in their research on young people - school, siblings, parents and friends. Increasing

academic pressure, sibling and parental conflict, peer pressure and romantic relationship

problems were the main issues children encountered daily (Spirito et al., 1991). This data was

based on a sample of adolescents aged 12-13 years, thus it is possible the stressors could

differ to those encountered by an older sample. The article is also relatively dated therefore it

is possible that the types of stressors prevalent today have changed.

In concurrence with the article by Spirito et al. (1991) however, de Anda et al. (2000)

also identified school as a major stressor for adolescents. Pressure surrounding future goals

was reported as most stressing, with personal expectations, academic performance and

homework also significant anxiety provoking situations. (de Anda et al., 2000). de Anda et

al.’s (2000) list of adolescent stressors is extensive and included issues unrelated to school

such as body image, social issues, relationships, violence and death. The age range for this

sample was 15-18 years of age, which suggests that older adolescents have less egocentrism

and greater concern for issues outside of the personal domain of school and home.

Persike and Seiffge-Krenke (2012) conducted a multicultural analysis of adolescent

stressors and found that academic achievement and parental control were of most concern,

whilst anxiety about peers and relationships was less than expected. Similar to de Anda et al.

(2000) and Spirito et al. (1991), Persike and Seiffge-Krenke (2012) suggest that adolescents

are increasingly concerned about school, future employment and further education.

Comparisons of these studies indicate that time has not significantly altered the types of

stressors adolescents experience.

STRESS AND ADOLESCENCE 5

Coping with stress

Stress and coping literature identify an extensive range of coping strategies that young

people adopt (de Anda et al., 2000; Moskowitz, Stein & Lightfoot, 2013; Skinner & Zimmer-

Gembeck, 2006; Williams & McGillicuddy-De Lisi, 1999). Some examples of emotion-

focused coping include relaxation, distraction, escape, helplessness and withdrawal

(Caltabiano et al., 2008; de Anda et al., 2000; Skinner & Zimmer-Gembeck, 2006). Examples

of problem-focused coping include problem-solving and support-seeking (Skinner &

Zimmer-Gembeck, 2006).

An individual’s ability to handle stress is determined by the relationship between

personal attributes such as cognitive, emotional and behavioural development (Delahaij et al.,

2011; Skinner & Zimmer-Gembeck, 2006). The highly influential work of Lazarus (1966) as

cited by Folkman, Tedlie and Moskowitz (2004), emphasised the role of cognitive

interpretation in both stress perception and coping. Folkman et al. (2004) suggests that how

an individual appraises a situation determines the level of stress experienced. Williams and

McGillicuddy-De Lisi’s (1999) study on stress also focuses on the role of cognitive

development in appraisal and coping. Results indicated that due to having a wider coping

repertoire, older adolescents utilised more adaptive strategies than those younger (Williams

& McGillicuddy-De Lisi, 1999). This suggests that experience with stress prepares

adolescents for certain problems, thus allowing the individual to cope adaptively (Williams &

McGillicuddy-De Lisi, 1999). It is important to note however that the data was gathered over

a short time and from a sample of predominantly white, middle-class students. This allows

little room for generalisation to the wider population, however effectively demonstrates the

role of cognition in stress coping.

Visconti, Sechler and Kochenderfer-Ladd (2013) suggest that emotional attributes

such as self-esteem are what influence the coping strategies individuals utilise. Visconti et al.

STRESS AND ADOLESCENCE 6

(2013) hypothesised that children with low self-esteem would lack the confidence to deal

with life stressors independently, thus were likely to engage in emotion-focused coping.

Unfortunately this hypothesis was unsupported. Dumont and Provost’s (1999) study of

adolescent coping however supports the relationship between low self-esteem and unhealthy

coping strategies. The results demonstrate a negative correlation between avoidant coping

and self-esteem levels, indicating that those lacking positive coping methods also lack

healthy self-esteem (Dumont & Provost, 1999). It is unknown however, whether this

correlation is bidirectional. Despite these limitations, results suggest that those that think

highly of themselves will be more capable and confident to handle problems in a positive

manner (Dumont & Provost, 1999).

During the stressful transition of adolescence, young people are at risk of engaging in

dangerous behaviour such as alcohol and drug use, as an attempt to deal with increased stress

levels (Rose & Bond, 2008). Caltabiano et al. (2008) support this notion and indicate that

older adolescents are more likely to engage in these types of maladaptive emotion-focused

coping. Rose and Bond (2008) also suggest that adolescents lacking healthy coping skills and

exposed to stressful environments are at a higher risk of substance abuse. This study however

emphasises that cognitive appraisal and perception of the stressful situation is what

determines the level of risk (Rose & Bond, 2008). Conversely, Fromme and Rivet (1994)

contend that an adolescent’s coping repertoire is what determines the likelihood of using

destructive behaviour to cope. This study argues that young people that lack any form of

coping strategies, regardless of maladaptive or adaptive nature, have a greater likelihood of

using substance abuse to cope with stress (Fromme & Rivet, 1994). This research emphasizes

the importance of promoting healthy coping skills in young people.

de Anda et al.’s (2000) research on adolescents disagrees with Fromme and Rivet

(1994), and Rose and Bond (2008). This study found that very few respondents of the

STRESS AND ADOLESCENCE 7

adolescent sample reported using drugs and alcohol as a coping strategy. The results however

failed to identify a coping method with a frequency higher than moderate. Despite this

limitation, adolescents reported using adaptive coping methods most often, with reading a

book, watching television or listening to music scoring the highest on frequency and

effectiveness (de Anda et al., 2000). These findings indicate that not all young people turn to

dangerous behaviour to cope with life stressors.

Adults and adolescents

Sources of stress for adults differ by extremity to those of adolescents, however the

coping mechanisms used to deal with these problems are relatively similar. Whilst major

stressors for young people include school, family and peer relationships (de Anda et al.,

2000), adults experience problems such as job insecurity or loss, financial problems and

family issues like separation or divorce (Caltabiano et al., 2008; Lohman & Jarvis, 2000).

How individuals handle these stressful circumstances largely depends on knowledge

and experience, as well as how the event is perceived. Dumont and Provost (1999) suggest

that adults and adolescents perceive the severity of problems differently. Younger people are

likely to be frustrated by frequent daily problems whilst adults are capable of differentiating

between minor stressors which can be resolved easily, and major stressors which require

more attention (Dumont & Provost, 1999). Fromme and Rivet (1994) argue however that like

adolescents, adults with unhealthy coping skills often turn to avoidant strategies such as

alcohol to handle stress. Thus it is clear that, how adults and adolescents cope with stress

does not differ in the type of coping strategies, but rather is determined by the nature of an

individual’s coping skills. Those with an unhealthy coping repertoire will struggle to deal

with stressful situations, regardless of age (Fromme & Rivet, 1994).

Conclusion

STRESS AND ADOLESCENCE 8

Adolescence is a transitional period of major physical and emotional change that can

result in significant psychological stress for young people. A combination of situations such

as school, academic pressure, anxiety about the future and family/peer relationships play a

role in creating angst for adolescents. The type of coping strategies individuals use is highly

dependent on cognitive and emotional development. Adaptive coping often leads to

emotionally healthy individuals, whereas maladaptive coping can lead to destructive

behaviour such as substance abuse. The main point emphasised throughout the paper is that

how individuals cope with certain life stressors is a dynamic, fluctuating relationship between

different components. In order to examine this relationship further, further research focusing

on adolescents and stress is encouraged.

STRESS AND ADOLESCENCE 9

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