history

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Student’s Name

Institution

Course

Date

The Protestant Reformation

The Protestant Reformation that occurred during the 16th century was an important

historical era that marked a significant shift in the social, religious, economic, and political

landscape in Europe and across the globe. Factors that gave rise to the Protestant Reformation

included growing concerns and discontent with the corrupt influence and power of the Catholic

Church during the era. Questionable church practices prevalent during the era that led to the

resurgence of the Protestant Reformation included excessive papal wealth, the selling of

indulgences and simony as well as clerical violations of biblical and church rules of behavior.

The resultant split in Christianity particularly in the European powers resulted in far-

reaching social and political changes. Some of the most notable changes included the elevation

of women’s status, strengthening of the British Monarchy, and competition for spreading

religious beliefs to colonies. The rise of the Protestant Reformation also saw the emergence of

many leaders whose ideals favored the revolt and protest from the Catholic Church, with the

most notable leader being Martin Luther King.

Other challengers of the Catholic Church’s authority prior to the advent of Luther

included Jan Huss and John Wycliffe, both of whom had question the church’s practices long

before Luther came to the field. Luther, on the contrary, inspired other reformers including John

Calving who also played a significant role in the Protestant Reformation. Even though these

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early reformers faced stiff opposition from secular rulers, the Church, and their own communities

while facing consequences such as excommunication and even death, most were able to achieve

their dreams and lead to the realization of their objectives to highlight the ills committed by the

Catholic Church.

Thirty Year’s War

Fought in the 17th century, this war remains one of the most brutal and longest wars in

human history. More than eight million casualties resulted from the military battles of the

conflict as well as from disease and famine attributable directly to the war. The war marked a

decisive point in deciding the power that would eventually rule Europe. Although it initially

started as a battle between Protestant and Catholic states forming the Holy Roman Empire, over

the course of the next 30 years it evolved to become a battle of superiority for governing Europe.

Even though the Peace of Augsburg had granted religious freedom to citizens, Emperor

Ferdinand II who ascended to the Roman Empire throne in 1619 endeavored to force citizens to

adhere to Roman Catholicism. This was a major trigger of the Thirty Year’s War, as the

Bohemian states comprised primarily of Protestants sought to break away from the Roman

Empire. The significance of the Thirty Year’s War is undeniable. This confluent essentially ended

all the religious ways and hostilities that were confronting European nations before and during

the 17th centuries. It also fuelled the gradual secularization of Europe stemming from the

disappointment of churches not being unable to stop the atrocities and the wars.

With increased secularization, people in the 17th century became less reliant on religious

doctrine to shape or influence their lives. They could be able to make autonomous decisions

without having to worry about the repercussions that they may be subject to for violating the

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previously established religious laws and doctrines. This paved the way for movements dedicated

towards fighting for freedom and equality in the society.

United States Constitutional Convention and resulting Constitution

The United States Constitutional Convention was a significant convention that directly

contributed to the resultant US Constitution. This convection, which occurred in Philadelphia

from May 14 to September 17, 1787, was important for setting the groundwork of how the

governance of the United States should be. Even though the original intent of calling the

convection was to revise the existing Articles of Confederation, men like Alexander Hamilton

and James Madison had bigger plans and championed for the creation of a new government

instead of fixing the existing one.

The existing Articles of Confederation had numerous flaws that prompted the meeting of

the convention to revise it in order to address the flaws. Some of these flaws included limiting

the ability of the government to make international treaties and its inability to avail enough

revenue to the deferral government. Delegates who attended this convention chose to elect

George Washington and gave him the power of presiding over the convention.

The significance of the US Constitutional Convention was the drafting and promulgation

of the US Constitution, which the delegated adopted on September 17, 1787 and later distributed

it to states for ratification. The Committee of Detail, chaired by John Rutledge and comprising of

other members such as Edmund Randolph, Nathanial Gorham, James Wilson, and Oliver

Ellsworth, was responsible for drafting the Constitution. The constitution played a major role in

establishing principles of justice, providing for common defense, securing the blessings of

prosperity and liberty, insuring domestic tranquility, and enabling the formation of a more perfect

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union. It accomplished this through defining the powers of the government, delineating the

functions of the governmental branches, and highlighted the power of the people especially after

the later addition of the Bill of Rights in 1791.

The Columbian Exchange

The Columbian Exchange, which refers to the exchange of food crops, populations, ideas,

and diseases between the Old World and the New World following Christopher Columbus’

voyage to the America’s in 1492, affected every aspect of the society greatly. The Old World,

which encompasses the entire Eastern Hemisphere, benefited from this exchange in various

ways. For example, it benefited from discoveries of new metal supplies in addition to gaining

new staple crops including cassava, maize, sweet potatoes, and potatoes. New World countries

also benefited from the transfer of various crops. The exchange increased the availability of Old

World crops, most notably coffee and sugar into the New World.

Besides bringing gains, the exchange also brought about loses. Contact with the

Europeans facilitated disease transmission to previously isolated communities and populations,

which caused devastations that far exceed even Europe’s 14th century Black Death. Deadly

bacteria and viruses brought by the Europeans to the New World included cholera, measles,

small pox, and typhus, fir which populations such as Native Americans had no immunity.

Similarly, European sailors, on their way home, brought diseases such as syphilis from the New

World. Even though it was less deadly, syphilis brought great social disruption in the Old World.

It is worth mentioning that the Columbian Exchange also had far reaching implications to

other continents such as Asia and Africa. New World discovery of quinine aided European

colonization and further exploration of tropical regions. Furthermore, the cultivation of lucrative

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crops in the American coupled with the devastating effects of disease on native populations

resulted in an increased labor demand, which subsequently fuelled the practice of slavery that

lasted between the 16th and 19th centuries.

Stamp Act

Passed by the British parliament in 1965, the Stamp Act was one of the legislations that

raised major discontent in the American colonies. Passed by the British Empire following the end

of the Seven Years’ War, the purpose of this legislation was to collect taxes that would enable

Great Brain to recover from the massive debt that it had incurred through its participation in the

French and Indian War. The Stamp Act essentially imposed taxes on all printed documents in

American colonies including playing cards, legal documents, and newspapers. For Americans,

the Stamp Act was a demonstration of the increasing tyranny of Britain and many of the

colonialists opposed this tax.

Colonists reacted with violence and anger to the Stamp Act, with major riots breaking out

in cities across the Atlantic coast. Colonial representatives also organized various movements to

protest the act, with a major convention occurring in New York City on October 7, 1965, to call

for the abolition of this legislation. Opposition was so strong that eventually parliament voted on

March 18, 1766 to cancel or repeal the act. Founding fathers including George Washington,

Benjamin Franklin and John Adams also voiced their stiff opposition to this retrogressive piece

of legislation. It was because of legislations such as the Stamp Act, the Currency Act, and the

Sugar Act that provided the fuel for revolutionaries to stand up against the British Empire and

eventually win independence after the American War of Independence.

Capitalism

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Capitalism emerged as an economic system based upon private ownership of production

means. The major characteristics of this system included capital accumulation, private property, a

price system, voluntary exchange, wage labor, and competitive markets. Owners of property,

wealth, or production determined investment and decision-making in this system. The rise of the

class society was a major consequence of the emergence of the capitalist system. It divided

members of the society into the lower classes, who primarily comprised of peasants and

members of the upper class, who essentially comprised of wealthy land and property owners.

As the capitalism ideology spread through the society, the government found itself having

an important role to play in the regulation of the system. Under the capitalist society,

governments do not prevent the ownership of private society or prohibit individuals from

working wherever they please. Economic functions carried by the government under this system

include enforcing private contacts, supervising public utilities and issuing money. Unlike in a

socialist society where the government owns and controls the means of production, the capitalist

system empowers people to own the means of production.

Because of the emergence of the capitalist system, various critics emerged to challenge

the nature of this system. One of the most notable critics of the capitalists system was Karl Max.

He held the belief that capitalism also contributed to creating and sustaining unequal

opportunities among members of the society. This view is particularly evident in the

contemporary society characterized by the “haves” who own the means of production in the

society and the “have-nots” who do not control any wealth or property. The divisions brought

about by capitalism are also apparent in the disparities that exist in the 21st century between the

developed and the developing countries.

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Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

The declaration of the rights of man and citizen was another important milestone in

ensuring the freedom and liberation of man in the contemporary society. This declaration,

approved on August 26, 1789, held the assumption that contempt, neglect, and ignorance of

man’s rights was the sole cause for corruption of governments and public calamities. The sacred

rights of citizens and men as promulgated by the declaration included the understanding them are

born and shall remain free.

The drafter of the declaration held the rights of man to be universal, implying that they

were valid in every place and at all times. It formed the basis for nations to free individuals as the

law protected all people equally. The declaration was also a core statement of the French

Revolution values inspired by the philosophers of the Enlightenment Period. It defined the

natural rights of man to encompass liberty, security, prosperity, and resistance to oppression.

The provisions of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen played a key role in

the deposition of the French monarchy. These provisions have also influenced contemporary

history in a significant manner. For example, it has been the benchmark for the formulation of

international human rights laws that similarly emphasize on the importance of respecting the

dignity, liberty, and free will of all human beings.

Thomas Paine

Born in 1737 in Norfolk, England, Thomas Paine was a writer and political philosopher

who supported the revolutionary causes in America as well as in Europe. He was a major public

relations figure during the time of the revolutions, writing many letters and publications that

favored the revolutionary causes. One of his most notable publications was Common Sense. In

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this publication, he advanced the view that independence from Great Britain must come sooner

or later, since America had lost its touch with the mother country.

Paine championed for a representative and democratic government, arguing that

government could be safe only when it was representative and permitted the conduct of frequent

elections. Not surprising was his call for declaration of independence from Britain. Because of

the many copies that Paine’s Common Sense was able to sell, which was approximately 500,000

copies, his influence in the Declaration of Independence is undeniable.

Paine also volunteered to the Continental Army during the Independence War. It was

during this period that he started writing the sixteen American Crisis Papers that he published

between 1776 and 1783. These papers became instrumental in the American Revolution and call

for independence. His book entitled “Rights of Man” that he published in 1791 was also highly

influential. It represented a rebuttal of Edmund Burke’s writing that attacked the French

Revolution that Paine himself supported. He also wrote other publications such as “Letter to

George Washington” in which he attacked the founding father, who was his former friend, and

accused him of corruption and fraud while in military and also when as President.

First Industrial Revolution

The First Industrial Revolution represented a significant milestone in humanity. It was a

transition to new processes of manufacturing from the period spanning from around 1750 to

1840. This transition encompassed various developments. It included or involved going from

hand production techniques to machines and emphasized on improved efficiency of water power.

The First Industrial Revolution also saw the emergence of new iron production and industrial

manufacturing processes. Great Britain offered the cultural and legal foundations that enabled

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entrepreneurs to set the stage for the First Industrial Revolution. Key factors that facilitated this

revolution included a period characterized by stability and peace, lack of trade barriers between

Scotland and England, availability of coal all over Britain particularly in Wales, the emergency

of the free market economy, and the existence of the rule of law that respected the sanctity of

contracts.

Important technological developments that lead to the emergence of the First Industrial

Revolution and the subsequent revolutions included the development and adaptation of

stationary steam engines, the advent of mechanized cotton spinning, and the rise of iron

production. The First industrial revolution laid the foundation for the Second Industrial

Revolution characterized by a mix of science and industry. The symbol for this revolution period

was steel and mass production. The First as well as the Second Industrial Revolution had great

impacts on society including raising welfare conditions and leading to an improvement in health

conditions as well. It also facilitated the production of machinery that would find meaningful

application in other notable historical events such as World War I.

The Agricultural/Agrarian Revolution

The Agrarian Revolution arose out of necessity. The population growth witnessed during

the preceding centuries necessitated an increased demand of food that led to this revolution. A

factor that contributed to the increased food production characteristic of the Agrarian Revolution

was the emergence of a new system of farming, the four-field crop rotation. Under this system,

farmers would grow four different types of crops over four years in four different fields, ensuring

that the field was never left unproductive or fallow as in the old method of farming of open-field.

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The new way of organizing land resulted in the enclosure system, which permitted large

landowners to erect walls or fences around what had been communal land in the village. This

consequently enabled them to expand land and subsequently produce more products for the

market. These large landowners became rich, invested in new machinery, and required fewer

workers to toil their lands. The number of small farms started to decline as a consequence of the

Agrarian revolution and many farmers relocated to cities.

The agricultural revolution similarly had a great impact on society. For instance, the new

crop rotation patterns paved the way for the attainment of better crop yields, supported an ability

to raise more livestock, and provided a greater variety of crops such as vegetables and wheat.

Apart from the diversification of agriculture, the revolution also led directly to industrialization

because of the immense availability of raw materials. Other improvements occurred in

transportation systems such as railroads and roads while simultaneously leading to rural-urban

migration. The problem of hunger also declined because of the mass production of food.