dissertation reviews

Running head: DISSERTATION REVIEWS 1

Dissertation Reviews

Liberty University

Advanced Research and Writing

EDUC798-D03

Dr. Lovik

May 1, 2016

DISSERTATION REVIEW 2

Peer Mentoring: Effects on Ninth Grade Student Achievement

Summary

The purpose of Hardegee’s (2012) quantitative study was to determine if students who

received peer mentoring as first time ninth graders would affect scores on “post-test interim

assessment scores, passing rates, and numerical averages in Integrated Algebra I” (Hardegree,

2012, p. 3). Hardegee (2012) predicted that there would not be a significant gap between the

group of students who received the peer tutoring program and students who did not in

performance on the final benchmark test. Additionally, it was predicted that the pass/fail rate and

individual course averages were independent from the peer mentor program (pp. 16-17).

In Hardegee’s (2012) research the students were broken into two groups: the students

who were a part of the peer mentoring program and the students who did not receive a peer

mentor, the control group. The peer mentor group consisted of 40 students who met with their

peer mentor once a week for one class period. The control group also consisted of 40 students

creating equal control and experimental groups. Both groups contained students who were

equally at risk of failing Integrated Algebra I. The single independent variable was identified as:

the experimental peer mentor program. Dependent variables included: numerical averages at the

end of the course, pass and failure rates student scores on the final benchmark (Hardegree, 2012).

The literature that expounded on the problem of students falling behind when they fail

Integrated Algebra I and highlighted the national legislation of No Child Left Behind (NCLB)

and the standardized testing that accompanied the NCLB. Schools are graded based upon the

student performance on standardized course exams (Hardegree, 2012). Hardegree (2012)

summarizes from multiple sources that the improvement of American schools will not be

because of an exam, but rather the innovations and hard work completed by teachers and

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students (p. 21). The need for innovation in the classroom dates back to 1992 when 60 percent of

Americans identified education as a crucial issue. Literature included indicates that there is not

new strategies, but decades old research; specifically, students aiding other students (Hardegree,

2012).

The framework that the researched is based upon is Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky, and his

“fundamental concept of the sociocultural theory, indicating that the mind can be mediated by

the relationships that are encountered with those around us” (Hardegree, 2012, p. 22). Vygotsky

theorized that people do not directly alter the physical world, but mold the physical world with

our labor activities and tools. Through this association of changing the world with labor

activities, such as peer mentoring, using Vygotsky’s theory, one can assume that learners can

assist one another by helping each other acquire and refine knowledge.

The literature review also includes topics such as: training of mentors, Algebra I and high

failure rates, ninth grade transition, settings, design types, and dependent variables found in peer

mentoring.

The two control groups were randomly selected from a large public high school in the

metro Atlanta area with diverse representation of all types of learners. The students were selected

by using the system’s curriculum and scheduling program (SASI). To be included in the random

selection the students had to score between a 50-69% on the first six weeks of the 2010-2011

school year and be a first time ninth grade student. One group of 40 students were assigned a

peer mentor, the experimental group, and the control group did not receive mentor assignment.

The students who were assigned a cross age peer mentor met with the mentor once a week for 12

weeks for 38 minute sessions. The peer mentors received training and were randomly assigned to

the experimental group. The 38 period represented a time called Academic Content Time (ACT);

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the intent of ACT is to remediate, advise and intervene. Students who were a part of the control

group attended the ACT class and complete the programs within while the experiment group met

with mentors (Hardegree, 2012).

Hardegree (2012) concludes that there was no evidence that having a peer mentor would

increase academic achievement of first time ninth grade students in Integrated Algebra I which

challenges previously conducted middle or junior high school setting to a high school setting.

research. The recommendation for future research is one calls for school districts to examine the

cost benefit analysis of a peer mentor program with specific calls to determine how to measure

academic success to financial cost.

Analysis

Hardegree’s (2012) studies design is very clearly laid out. The criteria for selection of

participants in both the control group and experimental group are equal and consistent. The

explanation of how students are chosen to be a peer mentor and subsequent mentor training

creates a base level for all mentors. This helps to eliminate some variances in the mentor

selection and implementation design. The explanation of the ACT program is very clear and

outlines how time was created for the peer tutoring program to be implemented.

Hardegree’s (2012) investigation into Integrated Algebra I course success is of interest to

many schools and school districts; there is a definite need for research that addresses how

schools can implement programs to intervene in the failure of the first Math course taken in high

school. Another strength to the study is all participants were chosen at random and without bias.

Also, the cross-age peer tutors all met certain academic requirements, held teacher

recommendations, and received some form of training before endeavoring to assist the Integrated

Algebra I students.

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While the study is very clear about the frequency and schedule of meetings between

student and peer tutor only 456 minutes, or 7.6 hours, were dedicated to intervention from the

peer tutor. Another limitation to the study would be that the peer tutors and freshmen students

were randomly assigned. Of the 40 peer mentors in the study, only six were trained at the

monthly during the school year at the local county Chamber of Commerce. This left six junior

and senior students responsible to take detailed notes and spread the training practices

information to the other peer tutors which totaled 54.

One design improvement, that could allow the 7.6 contact hours that the tutor and student

spend together to increase the impact of tutoring, would be to create a questionnaire that was put

into a database and matched the peer tutors with the students together based on responses. As

early as a 1983 study, Wheeler (1983) details how she took a class of struggling high school

readers and used a cross-age group model to tutor elementary students who had a difficulty

reading and poor attitudes about reading. The initial program was expanded and there was

marked success. The success is attributed to the students sharing a commonality in their ability,

or lack, to read. Alsup, Conard-Salvo, and Peters (2008) present research that outlines how

college students who are in training programs to become secondary English teachers benefit

from tutoring in the campus Writing Lab at Purdue University. Alsup, Conard-Salvo, and Peters

(2008) research suggests that “the tutoring practicum gives students a practical and theoretical

foundation for writing center work” (p. 330). This practice of matching students based on the

tutors’ strengths and the students’ needs is mutually beneficial. Again in a 2000 study, tutoring

effectiveness was evaluated based on matching students by gender, ethnicity and previous

tutoring experiences (Rheinheimer, 2000). What Rheinheimer (2000) reports is that matching

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based on gender did not impact the student outcome; however, with increased time spent with the

tutor the level of achievement increased.

The findings and results would be more persuasive if there had been more experimental

and control groups. The groups could have also been replicated in the spring semester. With the

findings being consistent across multiple semesters and various groups, the conclusions would be

more profound. Another piece of information that would be informative to determine

effectiveness is to know what the students were missing during the ACT instructional time while

the experimental group’s students were with their mentor. Was the information presented in ACT

time necessary for the students to perform well in the classroom including Integrated Algebra I?

Also, while the students went to their mentor, the Hardegree (2012) research design outlined that

there was room for 60 students to receive tutoring, but only 40 were selected for the study to

allow other students to attend tutoring. During the time that the students were with their tutors,

was the additional ebb and flow of students from outside of the experiment group distracting or

detrimental?

Other data that needed to be touched on is: what would a student or tutor do if there was

an absence, how many times were the students in the experimental group and the control group

absent from school, were any of the students, in either the control group, experimental group, or

mentor group, identified with a learning disability(s) ? Of the six students that received the

monthly training, did their students perform better is a question that the researcher leaves

unanswered. If the Integrated Algebra I students were paired with the mentor student that

received training, did the Integrated Algebra I student perform better than a student whose

mentor was not in attendance at the actual training, depending on the data, would it warrant

furthering the training for all peer mentors?

DISSERTATION REVIEW 7

Personal Analysis and Practical Application

Peer tutoring is a program that can be an implemented during SMART lunch. When

looking that the effectiveness of the Hardegree (2012) study, it is clear that a cross-age peer

tutoring program must be designed with care. Time spent within the tutoring session must be

meaningful and relevant to the struggling student. Relevance can be found in analyzing the

structure of this particular study as compared to other cross-age peer tutoring programs and how

to best implement a tutoring program into SMART lunch.

Another consideration or application to examine, when implementing a peer tutoring

program, is do you select students who struggled as freshmen as mentors? The Wheeler (1983)

study suggest this should be given some consideration. The purpose of a peer tutoring program is

to improve student mastery of skills to help students earn credits toward graduation. As high

school requirements and expectations continue to increase, there will be a continued need from

students who need assistance. In 2012, Bowers, Sprott and Taff (2012) estimate the national

average of graduation as between 70 to 80 percent. More specifically to Madison High school,

the graduation rate is 80.6 percent. In a small school of roughly 600 students, this equates to an

astounding 116 students not completing requirements to graduate with their cohort

("Accountability," 2016). Clearly, there are interventions needed to combat this astounding

number. These interventions, according to Bowers, Sprott, and Taff (2012), are many times

accurately targeting the correct population only 60 percent of the time. With this in mind, the

question that needs to be addressed is: how can SMART lunch, cross-age peer tutoring, and

identified at risk students be used in conjunction to raise the graduation rate?

The design of this study is an example of how qualitative research could be conducted to

analyze the effectiveness of SMART lunch. Data could be gathered on the end of course testing

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results (Biology, English II, and Math I) from schools who have a SMART lunch program, the

experimental group, and compared to schools who use a traditional lunch program, the control

group. Other data sets between the experimental and control groups that might be analyzed could

include: dropout rates, numbers of courses failed or no credit received, attendance rates and NC

final exam scores (any core course that is not an NC Final).

One could match the experimental and control school based on enrollment, demographics

and funding. This would help to compare schools with likeness, similar staffing, resources, and

building space. The data of a large urban school as compared to a rural school might skew the

results. Conversely, once could compare schools on opposite ends of the spectrum that both

incorporate SMART lunch to examine if the program works better in a small or large school.

The research Hardegree (2012) presents is also applicable in understanding how a

tutoring program may not always fit the needs of students, courses, and schools. The call to

further investigate the cost-benefit analysis of tutoring is beyond the money that is spent on

training, and maintaining a peer tutoring program. A school must ask itself: if the benefit for the

tutors is positive, and what are the students gaining from tutoring that outweighs instructional or

non-instructional activities and time missed?

This is relevant to the field of education as the increased pressure to perform on

standardized tests increase and funding remains stagnant or reduced. A peer tutoring program is

an option that some schools will explore to create a sustainable way to provide students with a

support.

Overall, the research Hardegree (2012) presents data that one cannot ignore. When

planning structures there are many considerations that must be explored, a school must ensure

that they are not causing academic hindrance, of either the tutor or student, rather than the

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learning progression. The research presents a conscience picture of way to compare control and

experimental groups when using a programs that creates an example of how schools that use

SMART lunch and schools who have traditional lunches can be compared.

DISSERTATION REVIEW 10

References

Accountability and testing results. (2016). Retrieved from

http://www.dpi.state.nc.us/accountability/reporting/

Alsup, J., Conard-Salvo, T., & Peters, S. J. (2008). Tutoring is real: The benefits of the peer tutor

experience for future English educators. Pedagogy, 8(2), 327 - 347.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/15314200-2007-043

Bowers, A. J., Sprott, R., & Taff, S. A. (2012, December 1). Do we know who will drop out? A

review of the predictors of dropping out of high school: Precision, sensitivity, and

specificity . High School Journal, 96(2), 77-100. Retrieved from

http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,custuid&custid=s8455

861&db=f6h&AN=87647488&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Hardegree, Jr., M. S. (2012). Peer mentoring: Effects on ninth grade student achievement

(Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/educ_doc_dis/.

Rheinheimer, D. C. (2000, Winter). Gender matching, floor effects, and other tutoring outcomes.

Journal of Developmental Education, 24(2), 10-18. Retrieved from

http://ncde.appstate.edu/publications/journal-developmental-education-jde

Wheeler, P. M. (1983, February). Matching abilities in cross-age tutoring. Journal of Reading,

26(5), 404-407. http://dx.doi.org/http://www.jstor.org/stable/40034496

DISSERTATION REVIEW 11

Dissertation Review

Kristina Lowe

Liberty University

Advanced Research and Writing

EDUC 798- D03

Dr. Lovik

May 1, 2016

DISSERTATION REVIEWS 12

Effects of Summer School Transition Program and Grade Level on Seventh, Eight, and Ninth

Grade Students’ Grades, Attendance, and Behavior

Summary

Smith’s (2012) research identifies the problem of students transitioning from one school

to the next as an area of academic concern particularly freshmen entering high school. To combat

the issues of freshmen having more disciplinary action and courses failed, one approach to

combat the issue is to implement a transition program to serve as a guide between middle school

and high school. Transition programs can include activities such as guest speakers, school site

visits, meetings with guidance counselors, and team building activities among others. Well

designed and established transition programs can attribute to such things like improved course

performance and lower drop-out rates. Smith’s (2012) goal is to understand if a transition

program has any effect on a students’ grades, attendance, or behavior.

Smith (2012) proposed that there would not be a correlation with students’ attendance in

a transition program and their school year attendance, nor a difference in the students’ grades.

Furthermore, Smith (2012) theorizes that there will not be a difference between the group who

attended a transition program and those who did not in the areas of number of students who

failed a course, and the number of behavior referrals. The participants in Smith’s (2012) are self-

selected, and the data for the study was pre-existing. The study was conducted examining for a

cause and effect relationship, thus a causal-comparative design was determined most appropriate.

The transition program encompassed rising seventh, eighth, and ninth grade students who

attended a three week program free of cost from 8:00-1:00 with free transportation, breakfast,

and lunch. The transition program was not open to all students; they were selected based on the

criteria of: low test scores, course grades, remedial courses taken, teacher recommendations and

DISSERTATION REVIEWS 13

state testing data. The students were instructed by the teachers they would be assigned to the

following school year.

Smith (2012) explains the relevance of the study as a tool to provide students and

administrators with data that would allow districts to make informed decisions regarding

transition programs using available funding in the most resourceful way. The transition programs

also allow students to build positive relationships with teachers; additionally, transition programs

provide small group learning experiences. Literature reviewed in support of the research is

organized into the following areas:

(a) relevant theories, (b) educational legislation in regard to school performance, (c) the

characteristics of students considered at-risk, (d) the importance of the ninth grade year

for future academic success, (c) the problems associated with high school dropouts, (e)

the problems associated with high school dropouts, (f) the warning signs students send

prior to dropping out of school, (g) characteristics and perspectives on transition and

transitional programs, (h) the importance of relationships in educational settings, (i) the

effects of various transitional programs. (Smith, 2012, p. 14)

Smith (2012) conducted a quantitative study that used a causal-comparative research

design. The study used pre-existing student data to understand the correlation, if any, summer

school transition program had on students’ grades, attendance, and behavior. The dependent

variables were numerically measured and examined in a pre-treatment versus post-treatment

comparison for both the control group and the experimental group. By using this method it

allowed the research to account for some external factors throughout the school year that would

affect all students. Smith (2012) designed the study “to control circumstances that could have an

impact on the dependent variables” (p. 62). Since the control and experimental groups both have

DISSERTATION REVIEWS 14

the same experiences in the areas of school climate, teachers, and special occasions it limits

outside school influential factors.

The variables that Smith (2012) aimed to compare were attendance, grades and behavior

among students, and these variables served as the dependent variables in the study. Smith (2012)

predicted that there would be no difference between the control and experimental groups in the

areas of students’ attendance, course fail rates, amount of behavior referrals. Additionally, Smith

(2012) did not forecast there to be a difference in attendance among the different grade levels,

courses failed based on grade levels, and behavior based on grade level. The independent

variables that Smith (2012) identified for the study were: participation in the summer school

transition program, and the grade level the student was transitioning to.

The study was conducted in a suburban, northwest Georgia and spanned two school years

and encompassed five schools. There were 123 students that the summer school transition

program was offered to, and 83 accepted the offer to attended the program. The control group,

those were chosen for the program but elected to not attend, totaled 33. The experiment group

numbered 59.

Smith (2012) found that all but two of the initial predictions to be true. The prediction

that there would be no difference in students’ attendance based on grade level was found to be

partially correct as the data did show a difference was the rising ninth graders. The rising ninth

graders decreased the rate in which they missed school while the rising eighth graders data

displayed a rise in the rate of absences. Also, the prediction that there would be no difference in

the attendance of student before and after attendance in the summer school program, regardless

of grade level, was rejected based on the data based on significant result in the attendance of

students who did attend versus did not attend.

DISSERTATION REVIEWS 15

Analysis

Smith’s (2012) study was well explained and easy to understand, thus allowing the reader

a clear picture of the research that had been performed and what limitations the research. The

design element that allowed for the students in the study to attend the same schools enabled the

results to be unvarying. As Smith (2012) points out, experiences across the control group and the

experimental group are uniform. The amount of tables that Smith (2012) elected to include to

fully examine all research questions were vital to the understanding of findings presented. They

did not detract from the information presented, rather they added benefit to the reader. The

inclusion of how students were selected demonstrated how the intervention was designed to

work and showed that there was no bias from the researcher in selecting participants. Also

important, to the transition program and the design of the research, is teachers were not

mandated to participate and students were partnered with teachers that they could potentially

have for the next school year.

One limitation to the study is that it is not longitudinal in design. It would be more certain

to state that the program had little to no influence on students’ grades, behavior, and attendance

if the results were consistent over a span years. Also, dynamics of each grade level, in respect to

students’ attendance, grades, and behavior, if the research were done longitudinally could be

tracked from rising sixth graders for a period of three years to see if they fluctuated. It was not

discussed if any of the students who attended the program and wanted, or did not want to have, a

specific teacher the following year were granted this request. This could influence students’

behavior, grades, and attendance either positively or negatively. A confusing component to the

study was that Smith (2012) reported that the study would be conducted over a two school year

DISSERTATION REVIEWS 16

period (p. 66); however, did not present findings for respective years in the data charts or

examine in the discussion chapter.

Smith’s (2012) research did present the limitations of a well-designed study thoroughly.

The study also had a control group and an experimental group that were not outside of a

reasonable range of participants since they were not equal, and there was an explanation as to

why the initial group numbers shifted due to some students being transient.

An improvement that could be made to Smith’s (2012) study is to make the study

longitudinal. If the results held consistent across multiple years, it would be a more absolute

conclusion that the summer school transition program did not have a profound effect of students’

behavior, grades, or attendance. An additional piece of information that would strengthen the

rejection of the prediction that students’ attendance would not change when comparing the

experimental and control groups is to analyze the attendance policy of the two schools. Could the

policies differ and hold an influence over the one group that transitioned away from the middle

school? Also, the research could have used a Likert scale for students to rate their satisfaction

with teachers, attendance policy, and school climate at the conclusion of the ninth grade to

determine if teacher-student relationships, school climate, shift in attitude about education, or a

different attendance policy altered some students’ attendance rates.

Smith’s (2012) study did not need to be changed drastically. The one change to the study

that would create more certainty and insight is to alter the study to track students through all

three years of the summer school transition program. With this change, one could compare a sub-

group of students, those attending multiple times to those invited and declining multiple times, to

see if the repetitiveness created any changed in attendance, behavior, and failure rates. The

inclusion of a discussion, in regards to students being paired with students and teachers they

DISSERTATION REVIEWS 17

interacted with at the summer transition program, regarding if the teachers moved away after

completing the program and building rapport with students would strengthen the design and

conclusions drawn. A statistic that could be examined is the rate the middle school versus high

school perused truancy charges against parents. If the high school more actively monitored

truancy, it could explain the increased attendance at the high school level.

Personal Analysis and Practical Application

The high school that the writer is employed at is currently exploring the idea of having a

transition summer program for rising ninth graders with the freshmen academy teachers. This

research is interesting as it negates the findings of Roybal, Thornton, and Usinger (2014).

Roybal, Thornton, and Usinger (2014) outline that there are seven attributes to a successful ninth

grade transition program: “the role of peers; school supportive strategies and activities; challenge

due to unfamiliar processes and procedures; changes in scope of learning activities; confidence

and success of students; homework issues; and roles of teachers” (Roybal, Thornton, & Usinger,

2014, p. 480; Ganeson and Ehrich). Roybal, Thornton, and Usinger (2014) explain that for a

transition to be successful and have a positive impact on students it must contain many strategies

to target these specific areas for students. As the design for the ninth grade transition program

begins, Madison High school needs to create a system that is supportive of the areas that students

need aided, and the program needs to encompass many strategies that are clearly defined and

articulated to freshmen teachers. To make a determination if the transition program and freshman

academy is achieving its goals, the strategies have to be implemented with diligence and

consistency across multiple school years.

When designing the transition programs strategies Roybal, Thornton, and Usinger (2014)

offer that

DISSERTATION REVIEWS 18

the research indicate that the following interventions have been effective: planning

session between middle, schools and high school teachers, involvement of parents in high

school activities, assistance for students with homework, incentive programs for

attendance, grades and citizenship, system to earn credit each semester or each quarter,

block schedules for core classes, closed campus, small learning communities,

celebrations of student successes. (p. 480-481)

This also supports the SMART lunch model as it provides an opportunity for many of

these interventions. SMART lunch’s purpose is to help student achieve at a higher level through

maximizing their resources and time. If freshman academy teachers can incorporate the

interventions into a transition program, the freshman academy, and SMART lunch, it will be

doubly supporting the freshmen. This added support can positively affect students’ behavior,

attendance, and pass/failure rates that Smith’s (2012) examined the effects a transition had on.

While Smith’s (2012) research did not show a positive impact on students’ behavior, attendance

(across the board), or pass/failure rate, only a transition program was used. Applying the study to

the design of a transition program and SMART lunch and analyzing the outcome it could

determine if the transition program was successful in conjunction with other support programs.

Additionally, the design of Smith’s (2012) study is one that would allow schools who use

a SMART lunch program to be compared to schools who do not use a SMART lunch program.

The ability to compare student characteristics to each grade or to the previous year’s students

would glean useful data for a school that wanted to evaluate its own SMART lunch program.

The data that the researcher would have to obtain would be attendance rates to tutoring sessions,

SMART lunch detention assignment numbers, pass/fail rates for courses, end of course testing

results, attendance. Each year, or even semester, as interventions are added or altered one could

DISSERTATION REVIEWS 19

use a causal-comparative design to determine if the effect garnered a positive or negative effect

on any of these areas.

Freshmen that do not attain credits are more likely to drop out and any intervention

program that endeavors to thwart a student from being a dropout is relevant to the educational

field, and deserves to be examined by those who can create programs, supports, and

interventions to prevent it.

DISSERTATION REVIEWS 20

References

Ganeson, K., & Enrich, L. C. (2009, February). Transition into high school: A phenomenological

study. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 41(1), 60-78.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-5812.2008.00476.x

Roybal, V., Thornton, B., & Usinger, J. (2014, June 1). Effective ninth-grade transition programs

can promote student success. Education, 134(4), 475-487. Retrieved from

http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,custuid&custid=s8455

861&db=a9h&AN=97060962&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Smith, K. E. (2012). Effects of summer school transition program and grade level on seventh,

eighth, and ninth grade students’ grades, attendance, and behavior (Doctoral

dissertation). Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/educ_doc_dis/