Reading Reflection 2

C H A P T E R

15

The Evolution of Flooding Resilience: The Case of Barcelona Andrea Favaro

1 , Lorenzo Chelleri

2,3

1Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain; 2Gran Sasso Science Institute (GSSI), L’Aquila, Italy; 3Universitat Internacional de Catalunya (UCI), Barcelona, Spain

15.1 INTRODUCTION: FLOODING RESILIENCE AND BARCELONA

Flooding is one of the most threatening hazards affecting coastal cities nowadays (Fuchs et al., 2011), related to climate change but also to past and current patterns of urban development, which have been increasing soils sealing, reducing the drainage potential (Muller, 2007). Because of the relevance of the issue, and the limitation of mitigation measures, adaptation (and therefore the concept of resilience) to flooding is playing a key role among climate plans and resilience theory (Liao, 2012). Challenges related to flooding can be addressed both with top-down hard infra- structure solutions or more soft, bottom-up approaches, in which people behave and practices can leverage a reduc- tion in the vulnerability to flood impacts (Chatterjee, 2010; Odemerho, 2015). In both cases, opportunities for the implementation of a variety of solutions are not threatened anymore by physical and technical limits, but relaying of the political commitment in shaping sustainable approaches, setting integrated design strategies and policies for the long-term transformation (Schuetze and Chelleri, 2011, 2013; Chelleri et al., 2015), rather than aiming at specific and short term projects. Indeed, flooding issues are part of long-term dynamics, in which urbanization patterns and natural processes evolve together, as this chapter addresses.

Barcelona has always struggled with floods, since the medieval ages in which the city was protected by walls and surrounded by rivers. Indeed, in the second half of the 19th century, Barcelona suffered from 21 floods of which 15 were of extreme intensity and 6 catastrophic (Barrera et al., 2006).

At that time, the major issue with flooding was related to health. In the historical city there were diseases such as cholera (Buj, 2001), typhus (Buj, 2003), and gastroenteritis (Recaño and Esteve, 2006). The Ensanche (first city expan- sion of the 19th century), devoid of a sewage and drainage system (Capel and Tatjer, 1991), turned Barcelona into a swampy and unhealthy area due to the appearance of malaria (Buj, 2000), with a mortality rate about of 27.69% in early 1900, one of the highest in Europe (Ajuntament de Barcelona, 1991).

While health and hygiene related issues were resolved over time (Urteaga, 1980), the problem of flooding per- sisted. Flooding risk areas were identified in the Plan Especial de Alcantarillado de Barcelona (PECB) in 1988, covering an area of 1052.9 ha (Fig. 15.1).

According to Llebot (2010), flooding is the most common natural hazard affecting the region of Catalonia. The evolution of rainfall events affecting Barcelona shows an uncertain trend between 1854 and 2005 (Barrera et al., 2006) and an absent trend for the hundred years prior to the PECB (Clavegueram de Barcelona, 1997). Conversely, in a shorter period of time, between 1982 and 2006, there was a decrease in annual rainfall (Llasat et al., 2009). The lack of a trend in the evolution of rainfall therefore doesn’t explain the increase of flood events. The likely explana- tion is then the augmented vulnerability due to the increase of city exposure caused by changes in land use, rather than weather hazard (Llasat et al., 2012). Impermeable soil in the 1980s reaches indeed the order of 90% in the munic- ipal area (excluding the natural park of Collserola standing on the edge of the municipality). Flooding became more frequent because of the unplanned growth of the drainage network, of which the Bogatell catchment, the main part of the city, is an example. In fact, the outlet sewer, initially designed by Garcia Fària for a 1582 ha catchment surface, in

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1962 collected water from 3600 ha (Ajuntament de Barcelona, 1991). Only with the PECB of 1988 was the catchment brought back to its starting size and a century-long issue was finally solved.

The results of these underdesigned water management areas caused enchained (and growing) economic conse- quences. Indeed insurance companies paid 1,574,530,945 euros for flooding damages between 1971 and 2002 in the region, a sum equal to 78.86% of the total refunds paid in that period (Barredo et al., 2012).

The increasing risk of flooding for Barcelona also comes from some major infrastructure planning choices, post- poned for decades, like the deviation of the Llobregat riverbed. In 1962, a heavy rainfalld250 mm of water fell in just 6h (Servei Meteorològic de Catalunya)dprovoked the flooding of the Llobregat River, causing 441 deaths, 374 missing persons, 213 injured, and a damage amount of 2.65 billion pesetas (Parlament de Catalunya, 2000). A parallel issue to the flooding one is the consequent processing of the water body contamination management. Of the average 84 rainy events each year, 75% have less than 15 mm volume. Only 40% of these are brought to the wastewater treatment plants, while the remaining 60% goes directly into the receiving water body, with a contamination rate that can rise up to 30% of entire contamination present in the receiving water body (Malgrat Bregolat, 1995).

Despite the reduction of the flooding exposed areas to 345.4 ha in 2006 (Clavegueram de Barcelona, 2006), the problems of flooding and water body contamination still represent a current challenge.

15.2 FIRST PATTERNS OF FLOODING RESILIENCE: LINKS BETWEEN DRAINAGE SYSTEMS DESIGN AND URBAN PLANS

Idelfonso Cerdà was the chief civil engineer from 1841 to 1848 and conceptualized the first real expansion of Barcelona in 1859. In his plan (Cerdá, 1859), Cerdà made storm water management one of the key strategic elements of urban development (Magrinyà, 2009). The Ramblar Colector is better known as the pipe drain that intercepts the torrential waters coming from the mountains to protect the new urban expansion; it became an essential pillar underpinning the urban expansion plan (Fig. 15.2). From another side, the organization of the sewer system Cerdà’s plan uses an innovation consisting of separating the networks for storm water and wastewater. The former network was built according to the maximum slope, that is the vertical axis of the Ensanche. The latter waters instead are accu- mulated in septic tanks.

Unfortunately, not all these innovations were operationalized. Indeed, despite its strategic importance, the Ramblar Colector were not realized, and it has been replaced with the “deviation of Riera Malla” (Fig. 15.2), an inter- mediate cost-effective solution, that solved the most difficult problems of this torrent, but wouldn’t address future expansion pressures (Magrinyà, 1995). At the same time, the demolition of the city walls led to the necessity of

FIGURE 15.1 Evolution of flooding areas. Modified from Clavegueram de Barcelona S., 2006. In: Barcelona, A.D., Clavegueram de Barcelona, S. (Eds.), Plan Integral de Clavegueram de Barcelona 2006 (PICBA06). Master Drainage Plan of Barcelona, Planning and Project Department.

15. THE EVOLUTION OF FLOODING RESILIENCE: THE CASE OF BARCELONA116

III. CITIES DEALING WITH CLIMATE CHANGE: INSTITUTIONAL PRACTICES

framing some kind of water protection strategy for the historical city center. Hence, after the flooding of 1862, the Colector de las Rondas was built in 1863 in the old location of walls; it was a drain pipe that acted like an “underground wall” (Da Costa, 1999) to protect the historical city center (Fig. 15.2).

We could therefore conclude that if the Cerdà plan anticipated by many years the idea of the “drained city” (Brown et al., 2008), in contrast it failed to grasp the hygiene-related problems. The use of septic tanks did aggravate the underground water presence of infections with a related increase in typhoid and cholera diseases (Garcia Fária, 1894). Also the Ensanche urban consolidation actualized Cerdà’s urban plan but without upgrading its related sewer system, which was only 31 km long (Ajuntament de Barcelona, 1991; Suriol, 2002).

Because of this, the next urban development of the city, designed in 1891 by Pere Garcia Fária, was a turning point for urban drainage of the city, since it was centered around health principles (Vilalta, 1997). The plan was conceived around a combined system for both storm water and wastewater, focusing on the concept of water utilization and treatment, in order to close the water cycle and defuse water infection (Gómez Ordóñez, 1987). Wastewater was sub- sequently sent to the Llobregat river mouth for crop watering and fertilizing purposes through a single sewer crossing the whole city under the main avenue. Unfortunately, also in this case, the forward-looking plan didn’t find the necessary support from the political patronage (Ajuntament de Barcelona, 1991), which built only the sewer part of the plan, changing all the other features, and leading to the design of different socially homogeneous areas, thus restructuring the social order (Da Costa, 1999). Fortunately, the next plan known as Plan de Saneamiento y alcan- tarillado (Vilalta, 1969), was focused on enhancing seawater quality, in a time of increasing importance of the seafront. In order to reach this objective, Vilalta obtained a detailed assessment of the underground networks and though this information emerged an infrastructure deficit of 49 km of collector drains, in addition to other critical issues (like inverted siphons and low-slope sewer stretches). This was the first time an accurate methodology was introduced for sizing underground networks (besides, at that time the planned return period for flooding was only 10 years of rains).

The upgrading of the drainage network during and since the Vilalta plan has been impressive, with the under- ground networks increasing to 860 km in 1975, thanks to an annual investment of 400 million pesetas.

Although its actualization is incomplete, this plan’s guidelines, methodology, and solutions will be used for future plans, which will characterize Barcelona’s modern flooding resilience.

One of the biggest failures related to flooding resilience from those three introduced plans, however, has been the decision to abandon the decision of Cerdà of introducing from the very first stage of urban expansion separate sys- tems for rain and wastewaters, instead merging them into a combined system (Jara Urbano, 1954; Ajuntament de Barcelona, 1991).

FIGURE 15.2 Localization of the three projects: Ramblar Colector, Colector de las Rondas, and Deviation of Riera Malla and as background the Cerdà Plan. Authors’ elaboration from Cerdá I., 1859. Teorı́a de la construcción de las ciudades aplicada al proyecto de Reforma y Ensanche de Barcelona. Cerda y Barcelona, 107e450.

III. CITIES DEALING WITH CLIMATE CHANGE: INSTITUTIONAL PRACTICES

15.2 FIRST PATTERNS OF FLOODING RESILIENCE 117

15.3 BARCELONA OLYMPIC MODEL FRAMING THE CONTEMPORARY CHALLENGES IN FLOODING RESILIENCE

The 1992 Olympic Games were the perfect opportunity for the next step in Barcelona city’s evolution toward a global city (Maragall, 1999). The definition of a new city drainage plan (Calavita and Ferrer, 2000) finally fully expressed the strict relationship between water management and urban development. In 1988 the PECB was approved, with the goal of finally resolving the city’s chronic flooding problems (Arandes i Renù et al., 1988).

Despite an usual actualization rate of only 33% of the proposed drainage works, this plan gave rise to a 580.4 ha reduction of flood areas. PECB ushered in historical changes in drainage management, such as network decentral- ization and major flexibility of the network functioning. In line with the emerging of the well-known Barcelona Model, consisting of a governance model based on the framing of public-private joint ventures to achieve city improvement goals (Marshall, 2000), in 1992 the Clavegueram de Barcelona, S.A. (CLABSA) was established as an authority with the goal to “carry out the technical management of urban drainage: planning, control and exploita- tion” (Martı́, 1995; Cabot and Bregolat, 2013).

CLABSA conceived and implemented in a single philosophy PECB innovations, proposing the Advanced Urban Drainage Management (GADU as the original acronym), which is based on four pillars: (1) perfect system knowl- edge, (2) effective planning, (3) dynamic usage, and (4) integrated management (Martı́, 1995). Therefore, thanks to IT systems and mathematical modeling, it has been possible to manage and develop much more effective drainage stra- tegies, reducing mistakes to 10% from 50% (Ajuntament de Barcelona, 1991). Furthermore, IT systems and remote control procedures gave birth to an “active” drainage network, no longer gravity dependent, but able to be managed in order to modify intensity and direction of water flows according to real-time requirements. This feature improved network efficiency, reduced flood chance risks up to 75%, while saving 30% of operational costs.

PECB network efficiency hallmark was linked to a second key innovation: the introduction of underground storm water tanks. These huge underground spaces, retaining the rainwater that exceeds the current capacity of the drainage system, definitely increased the city flooding resilience (Liao, 2012). Fig. 15.3 and Table 15.1 show where they have been planned, and how many have been already built by 2017. Finally, these tanks could also avoid waste- water treatment plant overloads during peak rains thanks to the rainwater underground retention, concurrently

FIGURE 15.3 Localization of all storm water tanks and antidischarge unitary system tanks planned and realized. Authors’ elaboration from Clavegueram de Barcelona S., 2006. In: Barcelona, A.D., Clavegueram de Barcelona, S. (Eds.), Plan Integral de Clavegueram de Barcelona 2006 (PICBA06).

Master Drainage Plan of Barcelona, Planning and Project Department; background from Apple Maps.

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15. THE EVOLUTION OF FLOODING RESILIENCE: THE CASE OF BARCELONA118

reducing the amount of contamination that the sewages would receive up to 30% with only one-tenth of the instal- lation expense with respect to a treatment installation. This is possible since most of the pollution usually comes from the first flow of rainwater (first flush), which drags oils and pollution from the ground, which fall into the reten- tion tanks; here there is time for the heavy metal pollution particles to precipitate from the stored water, remaining in the bottom of the tank when the water is pumped again to the sewage system, after the flash flood is finished.

Between 1990 and 2000, during the so-called Barcelona Olympic (or Barcelona Model) period, thanks to the recent solutions implemented, Barcelona’s annual discharge unitary system in the receiving water body was decreased from 15% to 4% (Clavegueram de Barcelona, 2006).

Lastly, the Llobregat River Delta plan actualization entailed the deviation of the final tract of the riverbed and the building of El Prat wastewater treatment plant, at a cost of 13.3 million euros (Empresa Metropolitana de Sanejament SA).

TABLE 15.1 Storm Water Tanks and Antidischarge Unitary System Tanks Planned and Realized

Storm Water Tanks Antidischarge Unitary System Tanks

N� Name Volume (m3) Phase N� Name Volume (m3) Phase

1 Zona Universitària 105,500 Realized 35 Bogatell 80,000 Not realized

2 Bori i Fontestà 71,000 Realized 24 Ciutadella-Barceloneta 50,000 Not realized

3 Parc Joan Mirò 55,000 Realized 25 Port Vell e Colon 15,000 Not realized

4 Doctors Dolsa 50,500 Realized 26 Port Vell- Passeig Montjuic 7,500 Not realized

5 Taulat 57,000 Realized 27 Cementiri Montjuic 5,000 Not realized

6 Escola Industrial 27,000 Realized 28 Motors 72,000 Planning

7 Parc Central Nou Barris 14,000 Realized 29 Amadeu Torner 22,000 Not realized

8 Diagonal Mar 17,500 Realized 30 Seat 16,000 Not realized

9 Fira M2 1,600 Realized 31 ZAL 32,000 Not realized

10 Parc del Poblenou 1,400 Realized 32 Bac de Roda 80,000 Planning

11 Placa Fòrum 800 Realized 34 Bassa IZF 188,000 Not realized

12 Mallorca e Urgell 16,000 Realized 33 Bassa IZF anti-DSU 28,000 Not realized

13 Carmel eClota 75,000 Realized 35 Vallbona 2,000 Not realized

14 Av. Hospital Militar 27,000 Not realized 36 Torrent Tapioles-Torre Baró 30,000 Not realized

15 Navas de Tolosa 17,000 Not realized 37 Interceptor Estadella 23,000 Not realized

16 Artesania 12,100 Not realized 38 Torrent Estadella-Bon Pastor 41,000 Not realized

17 La Sagrera 90,000 Planning 39 Guipúscoa-Alarcón 10,000 Not realized

18 Les Planes 35,000 Not realized

19 Can Boixeres 65,000 Not realized TOTAL Planning 152,000

20 Ciutat Judicial 60,000 Not realized TOTAL Not Realized 549,500

21 Can Batlló 35,000 Planning

22 Ikea L’Hospitalet 4,370 Not realized TOTAL 701,500

23 Camp de l’Empedrat 17,000 Not realized

TOTAL Realized 492,300

TOTAL Planned 125,000

TOTAL Not Realized 237,470

TOTAL 854,770

Authors’ elaboration from Clavegueram de Barcelona S., 2006. In: Barcelona, A.D., Clavegueram de Barcelona, S. (Eds.), Plan Integral de Clavegueram de Barcelona 2006 (PICBA06).

Master Drainage Plan of Barcelona, Planning and Project Department.

III. CITIES DEALING WITH CLIMATE CHANGE: INSTITUTIONAL PRACTICES

15.3 BARCELONA OLYMPIC MODEL FRAMING THE CONTEMPORARY CHALLENGES IN FLOODING RESILIENCE 119

15.4 SUSTAINABLE DRAINAGE: ENHANCING DECENTRALIZATION FOR THE FUTURE OF URBAN FLOODING RESILIENCE

Despite acting in a complex regulatory system (Valls and Perales, 2008) and by taking advantage of the political willingness to facilitate public-private relationships (Maragall, 1999), CLABSA was able to exploit the urban development in order to improve the drainage infrastructure (Clavegueram de Barcelona, 2006). The last step in the evolution of flooding resilience is represented by the Plan Integrado of Alcantarillado de Barcelona (PICBA).

European funds were used to further support the development of new storm water tanks (as in Fig. 15.3): Urgell-Mallorca and Carmel-Clot (total costs were, respectively, 6.383.253V and 23.358.401V). One of the innova- tions and guiding principles of this plan was the Sustainable Urban Drainage System (henceforth TEDUS, as intro- duced within the plan), which “can bring back the catchment to a more natural state” (Jha et al., 2012) and that “works according to the ideas of sustainable development” (Woods-Ballard et al., 2007). There are different types of TEDUS: green roofs, porous/permeable paving, filter strips, soakaways, and infiltration trenches, filter drains, swales, infiltration basins, detention basins, retention ponds, and wetlands. All of these types, depending on the climatic, geological and urban conditions, have the goals of reducing peak flow rates, reducing the volumes of sur- face water flows and retained contamination. The volume of collected water is retained as much as possible through the use of microretention tanks, and then the waters by means of porous pavings with filter systems that allow the infiltration of water retaining the contaminants. The TEDUS provide a savings cost of 20% over the conventional techniques of drainage and purification, i.e., with the same efficacy, TEDUS are the cheapest solution.

Two pilot projects of TEDUS were carried out in Barcelona: Torre Barò (completed in 2005) and La Marina de la Zona Franca (still in the design stage).

The first project is localized in Torre Barò, a northern district of Barcelona, where the streets turn into torrents during the rains due to their considerable slope. The water, thanks to the favorable section of the road, is conveyed in the porous paving that collects, filters, and leads the water in a series of microretention deposits located intermit- tently along the entire route. At the end of the path the water is stored in a retention deposit for its reuse for local irrigation and street cleaning. The study of Llopart-Mascaró et al. (2010) has shown effectiveness in the use of TEDUS for the reduction of the surface flows (Fig. 15.4) and for the reduction of pollutants within the water.

The second project is located in La Marina de la Zona Franca and is the urban regeneration project of the area and the respective ground. The objective of TEDUS is to provide a separative management of rainwater: on the one hand to reduce the sliding surface, and on the other hand for water retention and groundwater recharge. The TEDUS consists in dividing the project area into four subbasins with independent catchment, transport, and infil- tration structures, in order to recharge the aquifer, which in turn will be used for the irrigation of the local area (Fig. 15.5).

Linking and supporting the rise of such sustainability drainage projects demonstrates the recent trend in the city to promote a more integrated urban development, in which the coordination of different sectors and municipality departments work in synergy. This has also been fostered through the recent framing of an interdepartmental board called the city resilience office (Chelleri et al., 2013). Such institutional reframing is also allowing an integrated vision

FIGURE 15.4 Simulation of the set of minideposits and hydrographs of entrance and exit and effect of lamination in a reservoir of urbanization. Modified from Febles Domènech, M.D., Perales Momparler, S., Soto Fernàndez, R., Octubre 27e28, 2009. Innovación y Sostenibilidad en la Gestión del Drenaje Urbano: Primeras Experiencias de SuDS en la Ciudad de Barcelona. Jornadas de Ingenierı́a del Agua. CEDEX. Madrid.

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15. THE EVOLUTION OF FLOODING RESILIENCE: THE CASE OF BARCELONA120

for water management, since CLABSA has become a public enterprise called Barcelona Ciclo de l’Aigua SA, inte- grating and managing the entire water cycle, from drinking water supply to sewer drainage networks and water treatment management, and thus re-proposing the drainage management vision proposed by Garcia Fária.

15.5 CONCLUSIONS

After presenting the three main periods of plans and related approaches to enhance flooding resilience through upgrading urban drainage, it is worth critically addressing which are the key insights from this evolution. A cautionary note, before discussing the details, is about the terminology used through this evolution. Indeed, the concept of resilience began emerging in Barcelona only in 2013, when through the “city resilience officer” the city implemented the Rockefeller 100 Resilient cities program. When presenting its resilience skills and experience, the “flooding resilience strategy” was represented as one of the key features of city resilience, thanks to the urban drainage plan’s effectiveness. Indeed, as explored through the chapter, flooding resilience has always been one of the pillars of urban development in Barcelona, but the concept of resilience with respect to flooding has been the most recent “labeling” of those drainage plans.

Looking to the evolution of drainage plans, technologies proffered some key improvements toward the mitigation of flooding, while other past solutions only aimed at adapting to it. Looking at the different plans and strategies it is clear that there is a tension between short- and longer-term adaptations. Cerdà, when designing the first-ever urban expansion of Barcelona, was looking to a long-term sustainability, for urban drainage, and therefore proposed the never-realized “separate systems” for waste and rainwaters. This would have been the long-term best solution coping with future city expansion, which unfortunately, was not chosen at that time. The options chosen were from following plans, to mix waste- and rainwaters, which led to increasing flooding problems, and the need to create solutions, like the underground water-retention tanks, in order to cope with unmanageable water flows dur- ing peak rains. It is clear that a short-term adaptive response to flooding dominated the policy agendas of the past, and that only recently a more sustainable and long-term perspective has been introduced through the TEDUS approach. This should teach us that sometimes very inspiring and innovative solutions, promoting sustainability or resilience, are not put into practice because they cannot deal with the support of the politic parties, which are gov- erning in that moment. Perceptions and cultural behaviors sometimes are simply not ready for accepting innova- tions (Davoudi et al., 2013), leading to not-so-convenient choices for the longer term.

FIGURE 15.5 Proposal of sectorization of rainwater management by Suds in the La Marina de la Zona Franca urbanization. Modified from Febles Domènech, M.D., Perales Momparler, S., Soto Fernàndez, R., Octubre 27e28, 2009. Innovación y Sostenibilidad en la Gestión del Drenaje Urbano:

Primeras Experiencias de SuDS en la Ciudad de Barcelona. Jornadas de Ingenierı́a del Agua. CEDEX. Madrid.

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15.5 CONCLUSIONS 121

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