child neglet

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Psychiatria Danubina, 2020; Vol. 32, Suppl. 3, pp 337-342 Conference paper

© Medicinska naklada - Zagreb, Croatia

CHILD NEGLECT - CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES

Esmina Avdibegovi 1,2

& Maja Brki 1

1Department of Psychiatry, University Clinical Centre Tuzla, Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina 2School of Medicine, University of Tuzla, Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina

SUMMARY Introduction: Child neglect is one of the most prevalent forms of child abuse. Neglect can be defined as a lack of sufficient

attention, responsibility and protection that matches the age and needs of the child. There is no theory that fully explains why neglect

of children happens. Three different causal models of neglect are given: parental deficit model, ecological deficit model and

ecological-transaction model. Exposure to neglect in childhood may have a negative impact on the development of the child and

cause short-term and long-term health, emotional, cognitive, academic and social difficulties. The aim of this paper was to provide a

comprehensive theoretical overview of neglect of children causes and consequences.

Methods: In this paper, we used review articles and meta-analyzes about child neglect causes and consequences published on

Medline.

Results: Child neglect has a relatively high prevalence rate compared to other types of child abuse. Several studies suggest that

the impact of neglect on the health and development of the child is just as negative as the impact of other types of abuse. Children

who experience neglect in early childhood are more likely to have health, cognitive, emotional and social consequences in later life.

A significant number of studies suggest the existence of a link between child neglect and risk factors related to parents, the child and

the environment.

Conclusions: Child neglect is determined by multiple risk areas and is considered as the result of a complex interaction of risk

factors present in children and in their care environment. Neglect may have long-term consequences for all aspects of the health and

functioning of the child.

Key words: child neglect - risk factors - consequences of neglect

* * * * *

INTRODUCTION

Neglect is one of the most common forms of child

abuse that is often associated with other forms of abuse.

Child neglect is different from other forms of abuse,

because it is refers to omissions or negligence in

meeting the basic needs of a child. These omissions

are repeated over time and can lead to serious health

problems including the death of a child. Estimations of

the incidence of child neglect are from 16.3% for

physical and 18.4% for emotional neglect (Stoltenborg

et al. 2013) up to 20.6% and 29.4% depending on age

(Clement et al. 2016). In the epidemiological study on

abuse and neglect of children in the Balkans (BECAN)

(Nikolaidis et al. 2018) carried out in nine Balkan

countries, the obtained neglect rate was from 22.6% up

to 42.6%. This study suggests that 39.6% of school

children from Bosnia and Herzegovina were neglected

during their lifetime, and 33.2% in the previous year.

There is no consensus in defining the term of child

neglect (Barron & Jenny 2011). Legal definitions are

mainly focused on mistakes in the care of parents or

caregivers that result in actual or potential harm. The

World Health Organization (WHO 1999) defines neglect

as a parent failure to ensure the development of a child

when a parent is able to do so, in one or more of the

following areas: health, education, emotional develop-

ment, nutrition, shelter and safe living conditions. There-

fore, neglect can occur only in cases where reasonable

resources are available to the family or the guardian.

Dubowitz et al. (1993) state that neglect occurs when-

ever the child's basic needs are not adequately met, with

a focus on meeting basic needs rather than on the intent

or behavior of the parents. Parental responsibility is

replaced by shared responsibility involving parents,

family, community, and society. Child neglect can be

manifested in various ways, such as failure to comply

with health recommendations, lack of seeking health

care, denial of food, child abandoning, poor hygiene,

denial of education, inadequate supervision, child expo-

sure to the drugs and dangerous environment. In this

sense, there are several types of neglect of children such

as physical, emotional, educational, health and environ-

mental neglect, as well as neglect of parental supervi-

sion (Allnock 2016, Blumenthal 2015, Dubowitz 2013,

Naughton et al. 2013).

CAUSES OF CHILD NEGLECT

Child neglect can happen for a number of reasons.

There is no unique theoretical model for explaining this

phenomenon. Various theoretical formulations and mo-

dels can be found in the literature that attempt to explain

the neglect and abuse of children. Blumenthal (2015)

summarizes all the theoretical models in three different

causal neglect models: a model of parental deficit, an

environmental deficit model and an ecological-trans-

actional model. In the parental deficit model, the star-

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ting point is that individuals (parents, guardians), and

not communities, are primarily responsible for ensuring

child welfare and that the cause of child neglect is

inadequate parenting (Cameron et al. 2007). Parental

characteristics (psychopathology, cognitive distortions

or experience inappropriate care) are the major causal

factors for child neglect. This model does not take in

consideration the social and economic circumstances

that can affect parenting, as well as recognition and

sustantion of neglect (Smith & Fong 2004). The stan-

ding point of environmental deficit model is that mate-

rial deprivation is the primary cause of child neglect.

The model emerged from sociological theories of ex-

plaining the causes and effects of intergenerational

poverty. In this model, poverty induces stress that

makes parents unable to materially and emotionally

satisfy the needs of the child. In an ecological-trans-

actional model, the cause of neglect is in the inter-

action of family characteristics and environmental

factors. In this model, the focus was on the level of

stress as well as stress coping mechanisms. When stress

in the family exceeds the coping mechanisms, neglect

may occur (Daniel et al. 2011).

Causes of neglect can be seen through the risk

factors and protective factors related to the develop-

ment of the child. When a child is exposed to risk

factors combined with limited protective factors, it

increases possibility to experience abuse or neglect

(Lamont & Price-Robertson 2013). The presence of

risk factors does not mean that these factors also cause

abuse or neglect of children. The results of the study

suggest that risk factors occur at a statistically signi-

ficantly higher rate in families where there is neglect

of children than in families where not.

Child related risk factors

Several review studies cited the results of a study

of risk factors that are directly related to the child

(Govindshenoy & Spencer 2006, Akehurst 2015, Stith

et al. 2009, Schumacher et al. 2001, Jones et al. 2012).

The investigated factors included age, sex, behavior

and disability (incapacity) of a child. Knowing the

characteristics of children who are associated with a

greater risk of neglect can help identify children vul-

nerable to neglect. The presence of child related risk

factors does not mean that the child is in any way

responsible for its abuse. Parental or guardian res-

ponses to children's behavior or disability determine

whether the child is going to be neglected or abused in

any other way. The theoretical age of a child can be a

risk factor. In fact, infants and young children are

dependent on their parents/guardians in meeting basic

needs. Also, early childhood is a developmental criti-

cal period for forming a secure attachment. Afore

mentioned can make babies and younger children more

risky for neglect. However, the results of the research

on the relation between child's age and neglect are not

consistent. Stith et al. (2009) do not find a link bet-

ween the child's age and neglect, but Akehurst (2015)

finds that younger children are more vulnerable.

According to Schumacher et al. (2001), the age of a

child in combination with other factors increases the

risk of neglect. Parkinson et al. (2017) state that the

gender and age of the child do not appear as factors

that affect the risk of neglect, but they emphasize that

the effects of neglect may differ from the develop-

mental stages and that the possibility of greater

damage is higher if the neglect is present at the

younger age. Furthermore, the behavior of a child can

be a risk factor for neglect. Children who show beha-

vioral disorders, with poor social competences, inter-

nalized or externalized behavior are in higher risk to

be neglected (Schumacher et al. 2001). Behavioral

disorders are both a risk factor and a consequence of

neglect. Certain forms of disability in children can

contribute to the risk of neglect. Disability that is

associated with complex medical needs may increase

the risk of child vulnerability to health neglect. Chil-

dren with disabilities (physical, intellectual, mental or

multiple impairments) are 4.6 times more exposed to

neglect compared to children without disabilities

(Jones et al. 2012). This risk depends on the type of

disability and the additional needs of the child. Also,

as disability may increase the risk for neglect, the

neglect can be a risk factor for the development of

disability (Parkinson et al. 2017).

Parents related factors

Different factors related to the parent or guardian

are associated with an increased risk of child neglect.

Social isolation, negative experiences of parents in

childhood, lack of parental knowledge and skills, the

use of psychoactive substances, criminal activities,

gambling problem are just some of parent's factors that

increase the risk for child neglect. These factors affect

parental abilities of understanding the needs of the

child, as well as establishing a stable and secure at-

tachment which can result in neglect. Children whose

parents are younger (for example, adolescents) are at

greater risk of being neglected due to limited life skills

and experience, lack of finance and a safe home envi-

ronment, but also due to developmental conditioned

poorer judgment and weaker affective regulation in

adolescents (Parkinson et al. 2017).

Parental stress, low self-esteem, difficulties in affec-

tive regulation, unemployment and lack of social sup-

port, negative experiences of parents in childhood and

their poor relationship with their parents are cited as

significant risk factors for child neglect (Schumacher

et al. 2001, Stith et al. 2009). Parental insensitivity to

the child's physical and emotional needs, unrealistic

expectations from the child, as well as occupation with

own personal needs can contribute to the neglect of

children (Akehurst 2015).

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Several studies have found that problems of parents'

mental health, the abuse of alcohol and psychoactive

substances, the antisocial and criminal behavior of pa-

rents, the somatic problems of parents and the expe-

rience of abuse in childhood are associated with neglect

of children (Schumacher et al. 2001, Stith et al. 2009,

Bromfield et al. 2010, Staton-Tindall et al. 2013, Ake-

hurst 2015, Parkinson et al. 2017, Austin 2016, Mulder

et al. 2018). Although the neglect of children is deter-

mined by several factors, most of them are parents

related and these risk factors are particularly significant.

Family related factors

Numerous factors are related to the family environ-

ment, and most studied ones are the structure and nu-

mber of family members, family relationships, domestic

violence and the socio-economic status of the family.

Parkinson et al. (2017) state that there are few studies

on association between domestic violence and neglect

of children. Domestic violence is a risk factor in situa-

tions when abused mothers have difficulty in coping

with the consequences of violence, when focused on a

violent partner and can not meet the basic needs of their

children (Bromfield et al. 2010, Akehurst 2015). Do-

mestic violence and child neglect occur together in al-

most 40% of cases and most often the victims of domes-

tic violence neglect their child. The quality of parent-

child relationship is an important factor, especially for

emotional neglect. This relationship depends on a

number of other factors related to the family situation.

The poor parent-child relationship and parental percep-

tion of the child as problematic is related to neglect

(Stith et al. 2009). There are few studies on the associa-

tion of single-parent families and the neglect of chil-

dren, and the results are inconsistent (Parkinson et al.

2017, Freisthler et al. 2006). Relation between socio-

economic status of the family (income, level of educa-

tion and employment) and neglect is complex. It is

consistently found in literature that poor socio-economic

status is associated with a high risk of neglect (Parkin-

son et al. 2017). Poverty is most often reported as a

significant risk factor for neglect (Austin 2015).

The family living environment

The context in which the family lives has an impact

on the behavior of family members. A poor environment

and poor socio-economic status in the neighborhood,

poor community support, underdeveloped or inacces-

sible social support services, alcohol availability and

widespread consumption, uncertain environment are

factors that can contribute to the occurrence of child

neglect (Akehurst 2015, Freisthler et al. 2006, Parkinson

et al. 2017). Cultural and social norms, as well as reli-

gious beliefs, can influence the behavior of parents,

their upbringing and perception of children in ways that

increase the risk of child neglect (Parkinson et al. 2017).

CONSEQUENCES OF NEGLECT

Although neglect is one of the biggest threats to

development and welfare of children, research on the

direct consequences of neglect are rare and in the sha-

dow of the studies of other forms of child abuse (Watson

2005). Regardless of this, based on the results of the

research so far, it is obvious that the consequences of

neglect are multiple and long-term. The period from

birth to adulthood is characterized by progressive

physical, emotional, cognitive and social development.

Growth and development of the child depends on

several factors, of which important factors affect the

satisfaction of basic needs such as adequate nutrition,

emotional support, child hygiene, health care, mental

health care, cognitive stimulation, family structure and

safe living conditions. The growth and development of

the child is fallowed by changes in brain maturation.

During the first years of life there is a significant brain

growth that occurs sequentially and hierarchically, orga-

nizing the development of brain functions from the least

to the most complex. The brain develops through the

organization and creation of pathways that connect

different parts of the brain and through the distinction

between functions. Creating these pathways is a charac-

teristic of brain development that is most experientially

sensitive. According to Perry (2002) it is the activity or

"use dependent" process or the process of "use it or lose

it". How will this area develop depends on the environ-

ment in which the child develops and interactions that

realizes with its environment. During the first two years

of life there is excessive production of axons, dendrites

and synapses in different brain regions (Stien & Kendall

2004). Through a process referred to as pruning unused

connections are eliminated (Cicchetti 2002), while the

synapses that are repeatedly activated are held. Up to a

certain point, all functions of the brain depend on the

presence of a suitably designed and timed repeated

characters that stimulate neural system (Perry 2006).

These, upon use dependent changes in the brain can

result in changes in the knowledge, emotional and the

motor function, as well as in changes in regulatory

capacity state (Perry 2006).

Normal development can be interrupted by depri-

vation related to neglect and result in dysregulation of

the neural system and lead neurocognitive deficits (Lee

& Hoaken 2007).

The children experienced neglect often have less

developed parts of the brain responsible for cognition

and emotions. When exposed to combination of neglect

and other forms of abuse, it results in the excessive

development of areas of the brain responsible for sur-

vival which leads to anxiety, impulsiveness, poor

affective regulation and hyperactivity, while limbic and

cortical functions remain less developed which affects

empathy and cognitive skills. Neglect during early

childhood, including the prenatal period affects the

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development of the capacity of the brain and its

volume. The children experienced neglect in early

childhood have difficulties in cognitive, linguistic and

behavioral functioning (Spratt et al. 2012). Neglect is

associated with a delay in expressive, receptive, and

overall language development, which plays a signifi-

cant role in the development of behavioral difficulties

in later life.

Neglected children suffer more from internalized

symptoms than their peers exposed to other forms of

abuse. Children are more passive, withdrawn, apathe-

tic, less involved in the social and physical environ-

ment, returning helplessness when under stress and

showing significant developmental delays. It is belie-

ved that the child internalizes the message of his

worthlessness and assumes that he will not succeed in

acquiring friends, achieving school success, or being

noticed (Egeland et al. 2002).

Neglect in the early years of life has long-term con-

sequences that can be maintained through childhood,

adolescence, and adulthood (Stein et al. 2009, Rees et

al. 2011). Children with early experience of neglect

can develop internalized (depression, withdrawal, lack

of confidence) and externalized (impulsive, aggressive,

acting out) behavioral problems in later periods (En-

glish et al. 2005). Neglecting children in the first two

years of life may be the precursor to aggressive

behavior in childhood (Kotch et al. 2008).

Infants who are neglected tend to develop anxiety

attachment, while pre-school children are more depen-

dent on others, have lower self-esteem and show more

behavioral disorders (tics, outbursts of rage, theft, ac-

cidents, physical complaints, self-harm). Physical neglect

of pre-school children is associated with poor interac-

tion with peers, social isolation, noncomplience and

aggression, apathy, passivity, lack of flexibility, persi-

stence and enthusiasm (Watson 2005). Also, there are

difficulties in emotional regulation, showing emotions

to others, distinguishing emotional states, and a negative

image of themselves and others (Peterson et al. 2014).

Neglecting school-age children is accompanied by

a continuous negative perception about themselves and

others, negative interpersonal expectations and diffi-

culties in resolving interpersonal problems and diffi-

culties in achieving academic success (Shields et al.

2001). Neglect in childhood is associated with a high

risk of developing personality disorders, symptoms of

anxiety and depression in adolescence, as well as

manifestation of suicidal and self-harm behavior.

The most tragic consequence of neglect is the death

of a child. Berkowitz (2001) states that 30% to 40% of

fatal outcomes of abuse are a result of neglect. Most

victims of neglect die until age of two years, and 41%

are younger than one year (Scannapieco & Connell-

Carrick 2002). The mortality rate of children who are

severely neglected is higher than the rate of severely

physically abused children (Smith & Fong 2004).

In the long term, neglected children face a greater

risk of emotional, behavioral and interpersonal diffi-

culties, mental health disorders, and learning difficul-

ties and the achievement of academic achievement,

juvenile delinquency, criminal activities and violence

in adulthood (Daniel et al. 2011, DePanfilis 2006).

Neglect in childhood is associated with mental health

problems in adulthood such as depression, posttrau-

matic stress disorder, anxiety disorders, suicide at-

tempts, psychoactive substance abuse, and other forms

of risk behavior (Widom et al. 2007, Gil et al. 2009,

Norman et al. 2012). Neglect can also have somatic

long-term consequences such as hypertension and

chronic pain syndrome (Anda et al. 2006). Parents of

neglected children were most often neglected them-

selves, suggesting intergenerational transmission of

parenting style. Adults who have been neglected in

childhood have difficulty in maintaining long-term

intimate relationships (Colman & Widom 2004).

CONCLUSION

Although child neglect is a common phenomenon,

the causes and consequences of neglect are insuffi-

ciently explored. Based on previous research, it can be

concluded that the neglect of children is determined by

numerous and mutually connected factors, from the

individual and family level up to the level of commu-

nity and society. The consequences of neglect depen-

ding on the type of neglect, duration and age of

occurrence, may vary from fatal outcomes to long-

term consequences related to all aspects of health and

functioning of a child, adolescent and later adults .

Acknowledgements: None.

Conflict of interest: None to declare.

Contribution of individual authors:

Esmina Avdibegovi : conception and design of the

manuscript, collecting data and literature searches,

analyses and interpretation of data, manuscript pre-

paration and writing the paper; final approval of the

version to be submitted.

Maja Brki : participated in revising the manuscript and

gave final approval of the version to be submitted.

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Correspondence:

Esmina Avdibegovi , MD, PhD Department of Psychiatry, University Clinical Centre Tuzla Rate Dugonji a bb, 75 000 Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina E-mail: [email protected]