envierment

The Centrality of Europe Mediterranean Sea: the center from

Antiquity to the Renaissance.

Atlantic Ocean: From the

Renaissance to the mid 20th century.

Europe

■ Special significance of Europe • Western extremity of Eurasia

• 3% of the world’s land surface; 12% of the world’s population and

33% of its GNP. • Every part of Europe is close to the sea; moderate distances.

■ Significant global influence • Economic transformations (industrial revolution).

• Social transformations (working class).

• Political transformations (modern nation-state / colonialism). • Technological transformations (modern warfare).

■ High standards of living • The outcome of more than 200 years of modernization.

• Social sophistication linked with a long cultural history.

Europe covers about 10,180,000 km2 (3,930,000 sq mi), or 2% of the Earth's surface

(6.8% of land area). Politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states, of

which Russia is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent

and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a total population of about 746

million (about 10% of the world population) in 2018. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe

Europe, in particular ancient Greece and ancient Rome, was the birthplace

of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD and the

subsequent Migration Period marked the end of ancient history and the beginning of

the Middle Ages. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art and science led to the

modern era. Since the Age of Discovery started by Portugal and Spain, Europe played

a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European

powers controlled at various times the Americas, almost all of Africa and Oceania

and the majority of Asia.

The Age of Enlightenment, the subsequent French Revolution and the Napoleonic

Wars shaped the continent culturally, politically and economically from the end of the

17th century until the first half of the 19th century. The Industrial Revolution, which

began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to radical economic,

cultural and social change in Western Europe and eventually the wider world.

Both world wars took place for the most part in Europe, contributing to a decline in

Western European dominance in world affairs by the mid-20th century as the Soviet

Union and the United States took prominence. During the Cold War, Europe was divided

along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the West and the Warsaw Pact in the East, until

the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa#/media/File:Spreading_homo_sapiens_la.svg

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_AfricaEarly expansions of hominins out of Africa

Several expansions of populations of archaic humans (genus Homo) out of Africa and throughout Eurasia took place in the course of the Lower Paleolithic, and into the beginning Middle Paleolithic, between about 2.1

million and 0.2 million years ago (Ma). The earliest presence of Homo (or indeed any hominin) outside of Africa dates to close to 2 million years ago. A 2018 study claims human presence at Shangchen, central China, as

early as 2.12 Ma based on magnetostratigraphic dating of the lowest layer containing stone artefacts. The oldest known human skeletal remains outside of Africa are from Dmanisi, Georgia (Dmanisi skull 4), and are dated

to 1.8 Ma. These remains are classified as Homo erectus georgicus. Later waves of expansion are proposed around 1.4 Ma (early Acheulean industries), associated with Homo antecessor and 0.8 Ma (cleaver-

producing Acheulean groups, associated with Homo heidelbergensis). Until the early 1980s, early humans were thought to have been restricted to the African continent in the Early Pleistocene, or until about 0.8 Ma.

In 2007, divers found the nearly

intact skeleton of a 15- to 16-year- old girl they called Naia. Multiple methods used to date her teeth and bones suggests that she lived between 12,000 and 13,000 years ago.

https://www.archaeology.org/issues/161-1501/features/2793-mexico-cave-clovis-dna-naia

The earliest generally accepted

archaeological evidence for human

habitation in South America datesto

14,000 years ago, the Monte Verde site in Southern Chile.

Homo erectus were the first of the hominins to emigrate from Africa, and, from 1.8 to 1.3 million years ago.

descendants of African H. erectus spread through Eurasia from ca. 500,000 years ago evolving into H. antecessor, H. heidelbergensis and H. neanderthalensis.

Modern humans begun to migrate out of Africa about 70,000 years.

Göbekli Tepe, the first known man made place of

worship, was erected by hunter-gatherers, in the

Southeastern Anatolia Region of Turkey, dating back to the 10th–8th millennium BCE (c. 11,500 years ago).

The first permanent settlements in West Jordan were found at Wadi an-Natuf dating

back to 12,500-9,500 BC. The Natuf Culture became dependent on wild cereals

because of climate change forcing them to develop true farming with plants such as

einkorn wheat, millet and spelt and breeding dogs, goats, sheep, pigs and cows. This

culture extended into Palestine, Jordan and Syria. Very similar cultures were also

found at the time in southeast Anatolia and northeast Iraq.

http://paleolithic-neolithic.com/overview/first-human-settlement/

Jericho, located in the

West Bank region of

the Middle East, is the

oldest continuously

inhabited city on the

planet (established

about 14,000 years

ago).

The 8000 BCE Tower of Jericho at the site of Tell es-Sultan.

History of Agriculture https://www.crestcapital.com/tax/history_of_agriculture

Agriculture is the production of food, fiber, animal feed, and other goods by

means of growing and harvesting plants and animals.

Humans invented agriculture during the Neolithic era, or the New Stone

Age, which occurred between 7,000 and 10,000 years ago. There were

eight Neolithic crops: emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, peas, lentils, bitter

vetch, hulled barley, chick peas, and flax.

By about 14,000 years ago, the first settlements built with stone began to appear, in modern-day Israel and Jordan. The inhabitants, sedentary hunter-gatherers called Natufians, buried their dead in or under their houses, just as Neolithic peoples did after them. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-seeds-of-civilization-78015429/

Current scholarship

generally identifies

six sites where

civilization emerged

independently.

•Fertile Crescent

• Tigris–Euphrates Valley

• Nile Valley

•Indo-Gangetic Plain

•North China Plain

•Andes

•Mesoamerica

By about 5500 BC, small tribes living in the Nile valley had developed into a series of inter-related cultures as far south as Sudan, demonstrating firm control of agriculture and animal husbandry, and identifiable by their pottery and personal items, such as combs, bracelets, and beads.

One of the earliest Neolithic sites in the Indian subcontinent is Bhirrana along the ancient Ghaggar-Hakra (Saraswati) riverine system in the present day state of Haryana in India, dating to around 7600 BC. Other early sites include Lahuradewa in the Middle Ganges region and Jhusi near the confluence of Ganges and Yamuna rivers, both dating to around 7000 BC.

Early evidence for Chinese millet agriculture is dated to around 7000 BC, with the earliest evidence of cultivated rice found at Chengtoushan near the Yangtze River (China), dated to 6500 BC.

The earliest evidence of agriculture in the Andean region dates to around 4700 BC at Huaca Prieta and Paredones.

The Coxcatlan caves in the Valley of Tehuacán (eastern Central Mexico) provide evidence for agriculture in components dated between 5000 and 3400 BC.

Archaeological evidence from central Mali shows that West African peoples had independently invented pottery in the region by that period (by at least 9400 BCE). It is believed that local peoples at that time had begun to become more settled, and to use pottery to store and cook indigenous grains (including pearl millet).

Around 10,200 BC the first fully developed Neolithic cultures belonging to the phases Pre- Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) and Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (7600 to 6000 BC) appeared in the Fertile Crescent and from there spread eastwards and westwards. One of the most notable PPNA settlements is Jericho in the Levant region, thought to be the world's first town (settled around 8500 BC and fortified around 6800 BC). In Mesopotamia, the convergence of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers produced rich fertile soil and a supply of water for irrigation. The civilizations that emerged around these rivers are among the earliest known non-nomadic agrarian societies.

Europe

■ Continental and maritime limits • Continental limits:

• The Urals and the Caucasus.

• Maritime limits: • The Black Sea and Bosporus.

• The Mediterranean and Mediterranean islands (Malta, Cyprus).

• The Strait of Gibraltar.

• Iceland, Greenland (belongs to Denmark), and the Faeroes.

■ Numerous nation-states • East / West division:

• Communist countries of the East and capitalist/socialist countries of the West.

• Country size: • Small city-states such as Liechtenstein, Monaco, the Vatican and Andorra, to the

continent-sized country of Russia.

Europe is a continent located entirely in the Northern

Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. It is

bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean

to the west, Asia to the east, and the Mediterranean Sea to the

south. It comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia.

The Bosporus Strait or Bosphorus Strait is a natural strait and an internationally significant waterway located in Istanbul in northwestern Turkey. It forms part of the continental boundary between Asia and Europe, and divides Turkey by separating Anatolia from Thrace. Wikipedia

The Bosporus (red),

the Dardanelles (yellow), and the Sea

of Marmara in between, are known

collectively as the Turkish Straits

Europe is most commonly considered to

be separated from Asia by the watershed

divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains,

the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas

and the waterways of the Turkish Straits.

Although the term "continent" implies physical geography, the land border is somewhat arbitrary and has

been redefined several times since its first conception in classical antiquity. The division of Eurasia into

two continents reflects East-West cultural, linguistic and ethnic differences which vary on a spectrum

rather than with a sharp dividing line. The geographic border between Europe and Asia does not follow

any state boundaries: Turkey, Russia, Azerbaijan, Georgia and Kazakhstan are transcontinental

countries. France, Portugal, Netherlands, Spain and United Kingdom are also transcontinental in that the

main portion is in Europe while pockets of their territory are located in other continents.

How was the border between Europe and Asia defined?

The border between Europe and Asia is exceptional among continental boundaries because there is no significant

physical distinction between the two continents except rivers and mountains east and north of the Black Sea. This

boundary has been altered many times throughout history.

The boundary between Europe and Asia is simply a historical and cultural construct. Nowadays, the border between Europe and Asia is usually drawn to follow the Aegean Sea, the Sea of Marmara–Bosporus, the Black Sea, the Caspian Sea, the Greater Caucasus, and the Ural River and Mountains.

The boundary between Europe and Asia in previous historical eras

The cause of the split of the European and Asian continents is historical and goes back to the early Greek geographers. A pre-Socratic Greek philosopher, Anaximander, set the boundary between Europe and Asia along the Rioni River in the Caucasus Mountains, through the Surami Pass, and along the Kura River to the Caspian Sea. When the geographical observation of the Greeks expanded, the boundary between continents was changed and was now considered along the modern Don River. Throughout the Middle Ages until the 18th century, the border between Europe and Asia drawn by the ancient Greeks did not change. Philip Johan von Strahlenberg, in 1725, redrew the border line along the drainage divide between the Volga and Ural rivers and then north along the Ural Mountains. But the geographers persisted in differing on the border between the lower Don and Volga well into the 19th century. In the Russian Empire and later in the Soviet Union, the boundary along with the Kuma–Manych Depression was the most typically used as early as 1906. In 1958, the Soviet Geographical Society formally proposed that the boundary between Europa and Asia be delineated from Baydaratskaya Bay of the Kara Sea, along the eastern foothill of the Ural Mountains, then following the Ural River until the Mugodzhar Hills, and then the Emba River, and Kuma–Manych Depression, putting the Caucasus mountains ultimately in Asia and the Urals entirely in Europe. However, most mapmakers in the USSR preferred the boundary along the Caucasus ridge. It becomes a traditional rule of splitting the landmass of Eurasia into Europe and Asia in the latter 20th century. The contemporary border between Asia and Europe is a historical, cultural, and political construct, so its definition varies. One typically assumed border follows the Aegean Sea, the Dardanelles–Sea of Marmara–Bosporus, the Black Sea, along the watershed of the Greater Caucasus, the northwestern part of the Caspian Sea, the Ural River, and the Ural Mountains to the Kara Sea, as mapped in most atlases beginning from the atlases of the late Soviet Union to the modern atlases of the National Geographic Society. According to this explanation, Georgia is a transcontinental nation situated mainly in Western Asia. Because of historical, cultural, religious, and political reasons, we regard the country as a European nation. Azerbaijan is another transcontinental nation situated primarily in the Asian part of the Caucasus. However, the international geographic community has never reached a 100% consensus on continental boundaries, particularly concerning the Caucasian isthmus between the Black and Caspian seas. On the map below the red line is the “Strahlenberg” border (named after Swedish geographer Philip Johan Von Strahlenberg), a definition commonly taught in USSR and used by the International Geographical Union. A: Ural Mountains – Emba River and Kuma Manych Depression (at Rivers Kuma, Manych, and lower Don) Orange lines – other variants of the border: B: Ural Mountains and Ural River C: Yugorsky Strait Cape – Pay Khoy Mountains – Ural Mountains -Ural River D: Ural Mountains – Kazakhstan Border E: Northern foothills of the Great Caucasus F: Lines on the Great Caucasus watershed G: Southern foothills of the Great Caucasus H: Meso-Caucasus at Rioni and Kura rivers I: Lines on the Lesser Caucasus and Rivers Araks and Kura J: Former border between USSR and Turkey The red line “A” was mainly acknowledged in Russia and Kazakhstan during the USSR. The widely recognized modern definition predominantly fits with the lines “B” and “F” on the map above.

How do political and cultural reasons influence the definition of the border between Europe and Asia? Politically, borders between Europe and Asia have, in some places, been arbitrarily determined without corresponding to geographical boundaries. This may seem an anachronistic undertaking in the 21st century when it’s widely understood that Europe and Asia have no natural, geographical meaning, and the idea of a strict divide between Europe and Asia is arbitrary. Whether or not the newly independent post-Soviet Caucasian nations (Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan) are in Europe or Asia is subject to dispute based on opinion. These three nations are located south of the Caucasus, so they’d be “mostly Asian.” However, Georgia and Armenia are traditionally Christian nations, so they tend to be culturally more European. On the other side, Azerbaijan is likely more Asia because of its shared roots with Turkey and the Central Asian Turkic nations. But all this is, however, debatable.

https://vividmaps.com/border-between-europe-and-asia/

Regional Complexity:

The Case of the British Isles

The British Isles are a group of islands in

the North Atlantic off the north-western

coast of continental Europe that consist of

the islands of Great Britain, Ireland, the Isle

of Man, the Hebrides and over six thousand

smaller isles. They have a total area of

about 315,159 km2 and a combined

population of almost 72 million, and include

two sovereign states, the Republic of

Ireland and the United Kingdom of Great

Britain and Northern Ireland. The islands

of Alderney, Jersey, Guernsey, and Sark,

and their neighbouring smaller islands, are

sometimes also taken to be part of the

British Isles, even though, as islands off the

coast of France, they do not form part of the

archipelago.

Satellite image, excluding Shetland and the Channel Islands (Out of frame)

the United Nations geoscheme by

the United Nations Statistics Division

subdivides the continent into Eastern

Europe, Northern Europe, Southern

Europe, and Western Europe.

The UNSD notes that "the assignment of

for statistical convenience and does not

imply any assumption regarding political

or other affiliation of countries or

territories."

• Moldova

• Poland

• Romania

• Russia

• Slovakia

• Ukraine

• Denmark

• Estonia

• Faroe Islands

• Finland

• Iceland

• Ireland

• Isle of Man

• Jersey

• Latvia

• Lithuania

• Norway

• Sark

• Svalbard and Jan Mayen

• Sweden

• United Kingdom

• Albania

• Andorra

• Bosnia and

Herzegovina

• Croatia

• Gibraltar

• Greece

• Italy

• Malta

•Montenegro

•North

Macedonia

• Portugal

• San Marino

• Serbia

• Slovenia

• Spain

• Vatican City

• Austria

• Belgium

• France

• Germany

• Liechtenstein

• Luxembourg

• Monaco

• Netherlands

• Switzerland

Eastern Europe (10) • Belarus

• Bulgaria

• Czechia (Czech Republic)

• Hungary

Northern Europe (17) • Åland Islands • Guernsey

Southern Europe (16)

Western Europe (9)

Albania, Andorra, Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Gibraltar, Greece, Holy See, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Kosovo, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia,

countries or areas to specific groupings is Malta, Moldova, Monaco, Montenegro, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, San Marino, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Serbia, Serbia and Montenegro, Sweden, Switzerland, Ukraine, and the United Kingdom.

https://www.dhs.gov/geographic-regions

Large and varied stores

of raw materials.

Consequence of wide

range of natural

environments.

Helped fuel various

stages of development.

Agricultural land,

fishing waters & lumber.

Coal and mineral ores

(industrial revolution).

Oil and natural gas.

Climates influenced by position windward of moist Atlantic air.

Warmer climate than same latitudes in North America.

Ancient Europe: Ancient Greece and Imperial Rome

■ Greece’s cultural and political foundations

• The foundation of European civilization (science,

politics, philosophy, arts).

• City-states: small territories of cities and their

hinterlands ruled by elected governments. • Lack of cohesion.

■ Rome’s political and urban system

• Borrowed from Greeks, but expanded their empire

and built a vast infrastructure network.

• First metropolitan-scale urban center in Europe

(likely exceeded 1 million inhabitants).

Ancient Greece was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th–

9th centuries BC to the end of antiquity (c. AD 600). Immediately following this period was the beginning of the

Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era. Roughly three centuries after the Late Bronze Age collapse of

Mycenaean Greece, Greek urban poleis began to form in the 8th century BC, ushering in the Archaic period and

colonization of the Mediterranean Basin. This was followed by the period of Classical Greece, a period of

around 200 years (5th and 4th centuries BC) that began with the Greco-Persian Wars, that started in 499

BC and lasted until 449 BC. Due to the conquests by Alexander the Great (a king of the ancient Greek kingdom

of Macedon, July 356 - June 323 BC) of Macedon, Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the

western end of the Mediterranean Sea. The Hellenistic period (the period of Mediterranean history between

the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the emergence of the Roman Empire as signified by the

Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the conquest of Ptolemaic Egypt the following year) came to an end with the

conquests and annexations of the eastern Mediterranean world by the Roman Republic, which established the

Roman province of Macedonia in Roman Greece, and later the province of Achaea during the Roman Empire (27

BC–476 AD). The Ptolemaic dynasty, sometimes also known as the Lagids or Lagidae, was a Macedonian Greek

royal family, which ruled the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt during the Hellenistic period. Their rule lasted for 275

years, from 305 to 30 BC. They were the last dynasty of ancient Egypt. Classical Greek culture, especially

philosophy, had a powerful influence on ancient Rome, which carried a version of it to many parts of the

Mediterranean Basin and Europe. For this reason, Classical Greece is generally considered to be the

seminal culture which provided the foundation of modern Western culture and is considered the cradle of

Western civilization.

Classical Greek culture gave great importance to knowledge. Science and religion were not separate and

getting closer to the truth meant getting closer to the gods. In this context, they understood the

importance of mathematics as an instrument for obtaining more reliable ("divine") knowledge. Greek

culture, in a few centuries and with a limited population, managed to explore and make progress in

many fields of science, mathematics, philosophy and knowledge in general.

In the context of the art, architecture, and culture of Ancient Greece, the Classical period corresponds to most of the 5th and 4th centuries BC (the most common dates being the fall of the last Athenian tyrant in 510 BC to the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Greece

The Parthenon in Athens (432 BC)

Ancient Greece was the founding culture of Western civilisation. Western democratic and rationalist culture are often attributed to Ancient Greece. The Greeks city-state, the polis, was the fundamental political unit of classical Greece. In 508 BC, Cleisthenes instituted the world's first democratic system of government in Athens. The Greek political ideals were rediscovered in the late 18th century by European philosophers and idealists. Greece also generated many cultural contributions: in philosophy, humanism and rationalism under Aristotle, Socrates and Plato; in history with Herodotus and Thucydides; in dramatic and narrative verse, starting with the epic poems of Homer; in drama with Sophocles and Euripides, in medicine with Hippocrates and Galen; and in science with Pythagoras, Euclid and Archimedes. In the course of the 5th century BC, several of the Greek city states would ultimately check the Achaemenid Persian advance in Europe through the Greco-Persian Wars, considered a pivotal moment in world history, as the 50 years of peace that followed are known as Golden Age of Athens, the seminal period of ancient Greece that laid many of the foundations of Western civilization.

Classical antiquity https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe

Herodotus (c. 484 – c. 425 BC) was an ancient Greek historian who was born

in Halicarnassus in the Persian Empire (modern-day Bodrum, Turkey). He is known for

having written the book The Histories. He is widely considered to have been the first

writer to have treated historical subjects using a method of systematic investigation—

specifically, by collecting his materials and then critically arranging them into

an historiographic narrative. On account of this, he is often referred to as "The Father of

History", a title first conferred on him by the first-century BC Roman orator Cicero.

A Roman copy (2nd century

AD) of a Greek bust of

Herodotus from the first

half of the 4th century BC

Originally written by Claudius Ptolemy

in Greek atAlexandria around AD 150

Ptolemy's world map, reconstituted from Ptolemy's Geography (circa 150) in the 15th century, indicating "Sinae" (China)

at the extreme right, beyond the island of "Taprobane" (Ceylon or Sri Lanka, oversized) and the "Aurea Chersonesus"

(Southeast Asian peninsula). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy%27s_world_map

The Ptolemaic dynasty, sometimes also known as the Lagids or Lagidae, was a Macedonian Greek royal family, which ruled the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt during the Hellenistic period (323 BC – 30 BC). Their rule lasted for 275 years, from 305 to 30 BC. They were the last dynasty of ancient Egypt.

Ancient Europe: Triumph and Collapse

■ Roman political and economic spheres

• System of rule over a vast area and peoples would continue as a European hallmark.

• Local functional specialization: people in particular places concentrate on specific

goods and services.

• Spread of Roman culture: Romance languages, Christianity, and political practices.

■ Collapse in fifth century allowed influx of diverse groups from elsewhere on Eurasia

• Germanic and Slavic peoples.

• Moors in the Iberian peninsula.

• Ottoman Empire from the 16th century.

The origin and migration of Slavs in Europe between the 5th and 10th centuries AD

One proposed

theory for the

divisions of the

Germanic

peoples and

their

approximate

distribution in

northern

Europe around 1 CE

The term Moor is an exonym first used by Christian Europeans to designate the Muslim inhabitants of the Maghreb, the Iberian Peninsula, Sicily and Malta during the Middle Ages. The Moors initially were the indigenous Maghrebine Berbers. The name was later also applied to Arabs and Arabized Iberians.

The Umayyad conquest of Hispania, also known as the Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula or the Umayyad conquest of the Visigothic Kingdom, was the initial expansion of the Umayyad Caliphate over Hispania (in the Iberian Peninsula) from 711 to 718.

Greece was followed by Rome, which left its mark on law, politics, language,

engineering, architecture, government and many more key aspects in western

civilization. Expanding from their base in central Italy beginning in the 3rd century BC,

the Romans gradually expanded to eventually rule the entire Mediterranean Basin and

northwestern Europe by the turn of the millennium. The Roman Republic ended in 27

BC, when Augustus proclaimed the Roman Empire. The two centuries that followed are

known as the pax romana, a period of unprecedented peace, prosperity, and

political stability in most of Europe.The empire continued to expand under

emperors such as Antoninus Pius and MarcusAurelius, who spent time on the Empire's

northern border fighting Germanic, Pictish and Scottish tribes. The Empire began to

decline in the 3rd century, particularly in the west. Christianity was legalised by

Constantine I in 313 AD after three centuries of imperial persecution. Constantine

also permanently moved the capital of the empire from Rome to the city of Byzantium,

which was

renamed Constantinople in his honour (modern-day Istanbul) in 330 AD. Christianity

became the sole official religion of the empire in 380 AD, and in 391–392 AD, the

emperor Theodosius outlawed pagan religions. This is sometimes considered to mark

the end of antiquity; alternatively antiquity is considered to end with the fall of the

Western Roman Empire in 476 AD; the closure of the pagan Platonic Academy of

Athens in 529 AD; or the rise of Islam in the early 7th centuryAD.

Roman Empire (27 BC – 476 AD)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe

The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman

Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its

eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when

its capital city was Constantinople. It survived the fall of the

Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD and continued to exist until the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453.

Roman Empire (27 BC – 476 AD), c125AD In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages lasted from the 5th to the 15th century

(476 AD – 1492).

公元97年，东汉使者甘英，由京师洛阳出发首次踏上了罗马帝国(27 BC – 476 AD) 的领土，但在将要渡海前往罗马帝国 的首都时，被安息人(The Parthian Empire or the Arsacid Empire of ancient Iran 247 BC – 224 AD)劝阻，未能成行! (“遣掾甘英 穷临西海而还”《后汉书·西域传》)。无论实际上是在哪里，甘英在遥远的海滨访问了“大秦”，之所以如此称呼，是因为 中国人感觉这个国家是本国一个宏伟而遥远的翻版。西海是不是地中海，大秦是否为罗马帝国，尚无定论。 然而 3年后，罗马帝国的商人却来到东汉首都洛阳，开始了之后的一个半世纪中5次中国之行的第一次旅行!中国的官方记 录是：公元100年，罗马帝国属下的蒙奇兜讷(今译为马其顿Macedonia)地区遣使到东汉首都洛阳，向汉和帝进献礼物。 汉和帝厚待两国使者，赐给两国国王代表最高荣誉的紫绶金印，表示了邦交上的极大诚意，这也是罗马帝国与中国通使 交往的最早记载。(《后汉书·和殇帝纪》：“永元十二年，冬十一月，西域蒙奇、兜勒二国遣使内附，赐其王金印紫绶。”)

《后汉书》是记载东汉历史的纪传体史书，由南朝刘宋时的范晔（398年－445年）所著。

The Han dynasty of China (202 BC–220 AD): Zhang Qian’s journey from 139 BC to 126 BC to

the West reached Caspian Sea, Iran, and Iraq, and established the “Silk Road”.

East-West

Connection North Macedonia, officially the Republic of North Macedonia, is a country in Southeast Europe. It gained independence in 1991 as one of the successor states of Yugoslavia.

罗马帝国5次遣史来 中国，东汉2次，三 国时期1次，西晋2 次。其中4次到了洛 阳，1次到了吴都！

100 AD, 166 AD (2), 281 AD, 284 AD

Eurasia before the

Expansion of

Genghis Khan (c.

1162 – August 18,

1227), the founder

and first Great Khan

and Emperor of the

Mongol Empire

Marco Polo (September 15, 1254 – January 8, 1324) was an Italian

merchant, explorer, and writer who travelled through Asia along the Silk

Road between 1271 and 1295 and stayed in China for 17 of those years.

His travels are recorded in The Travels of Marco Polo (also known as Book of the Marvels of the World

and Il Milione, c. 1300), a book that described to Europeans the then mysterious culture and inner

workings of the Eastern world, including the wealth and great size of China and its capital Peking, giving

their first comprehensive look into China, India, Japan and other Asian cities and countries.

The Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) was China's first foreign-led dynasty, in between the Chinese Song and Ming dynasties. It was established by Kublai Khan, leader of the vast Mongol Empire, and fell into internal rebellion after it lost touch with its Mongol roots.

Rabban Bar Ṣawma (c. 1220–1294; Chinese:拉賓掃務瑪), was a Turkic Chinese monk turned diplomat of the

"Nestorian" Church of the East in China. He is known for embarking on a pilgrimage from Mongol-controlled China to

Jerusalem with one of his students, Rabban Markos. Due to military unrest along the way, they never reached their

destination, but instead spent many years in Ilkhanate-controlled Baghdad.

The younger Markos was eventually elected Yahballaha III, Patriarch of the Church of the East and later suggested his teacher

Rabban Bar Ṣawma be sent on another mission, as Mongol ambassador to Europe. The elderly monk met with many of the

European monarchs, as well as the Pope, in attempts to arrange a Franco-Mongol alliance. The mission bore no fruit, but in his

later years in Baghdad, Rabban Bar Ṣawma documented his lifetime of travel. His written account of his journeys is of unique interest

to modern historians, as it gives a picture of medieval Europe at the close of the Crusades, painted by a keenly-intelligent,

broadminded, and statesmanlike observer.

Bar Ṣawma's travels occurred prior to the return of Marco Polo to Europe, and his writings give a reverse viewpoint, of the East

looking to the West.

Around 1280-1294, Rabban Bar Ṣawma traveled from Beijing in Asia to Rome and Paris and Bordeaux in Europe, meeting with the major rulers of the period.

The Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368)

1335年的亚洲。四大汗国之一窝阔台汗国此时已灭亡，元朝与各汗国的统治范围固定为约2270万平方公里。

大蒙古国 1206–1271

元 1271–1368

北元 1368–1388

Byzantine

Empire

Empire of

Trebizond

Mamluk Sultan from

the 9th to the 16th

century.

Bohai dynasty

in the Burji dynasty,

ruled Egypt over

three hundred years

( 1250-1517).

Armenian

Kingdomof

Cilicia

Bedouins

Delhi Sultanate

Asia in 1335

The Mongol Empire was fractured into autonomous khanates: the Golden Horde in Eastern Europe, the Chagatai Khanate in Central

Asia, the Ilkhanate in Southwest Asia, and the Yuan dynasty in East Asia based in modern-day Beijing – although the Yuan

emperors held the nominal title of khagan of the empire. The four divisions each pursued their own interests and objectives and fell at different times.

Ilkhanate

Golden Horde

Chagatai Khanate

Yuan dynasty

(China)

Marco Polo (September 15, 1254 – January 8, 1324)

travelled through Asia along the Silk Road between

1271 and 1295 and stayed in China for 17 of those years.

1342 tomb of Katarina Vilioni, member

of an Italian trading family, in Yangzhou.

Given textual and archaeological evidence, it is

thought that thousands of Europeans lived

in Imperial China during the period

of Mongol rule. These were people from

countries traditionally belonging to the lands

of Christendom during the High to Late Middle

Ages who visited, traded, performed Christian

missionary work, or lived in China. This

occurred primarily during the second half of

the 13th century and the first half of the 14th

century, coinciding with the rule of the Mongol

Empire, which ruled over a large part

of Eurasia and connected Europe with their

Chinese dominion of the Yuan dynasty (1271–

1368). Whereas the Byzantine Empire centered

in Greece and Anatolia maintained rare

incidences of correspondence with

the Tang, Song and Ming dynasties of

China, the Roman papacy sent several

missionaries and embassies to the early

Mongol Empire as well as

to Khanbaliq (modern Beijing), the capital of

the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. These contacts

with the West were only preceded by rare

interactions between the Han-period Chinese

and Hellenistic Greeks and Romans.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europeans_in_Medieval_China

Map of the approximate political boundaries in Europe around 450 AD Basic view of second- to fifth-century migrations

The Migration Period, also known as

the Barbarian Invasions (from the

Roman and Greek perspective), is a term

sometimes used for the period in the history of

Europe that saw the decline and fall of the Western

Roman Empire. The term refers to the important

role played by invasions of non-Roman peoples,

notably the Franks, Goths, Allemanni, Alans, Huns,

early Slavs and the Pannonian Avars within or into

the Roman Empire. The period is traditionally taken

to have begun in AD 375 (possibly as early as 300)

and ended in 568. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migration_Period

Roman Empire (27 BC – 476 AD)

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Europe_1000.jpg

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_around_650.jpg

https://wardmapsgifts.com/products/classical-map-1894-europe-a-d-500

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_1200_AD.jpg

The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and

sometimes directed by the Latin Church in the medieval period. The best known of these

Crusades are those to the Holy Land in the period between 1095 and 1291 that were intended to

recover Jerusalem and its surrounding area from Islamic rule. Concurrent military activities in

the Iberian Peninsula against the Moors (the Reconquista) and in northern Europe against pagan

Slavic tribes (the Northern Crusades) also became known as crusades. Through the 15th

century, other church-sanctioned crusades were fought against heretical Christian sects, against

the Byzantine and Ottoman empires, to combat paganism and heresy, and for political reasons.

Unsanctioned by the church, Popular Crusades of ordinary citizens were also frequent.

Beginning with the First Crusade which resulted in the recovery of Jerusalem in 1099, dozens of

Crusades were fought, providing a focal point of European history for centuries.

In 1095, Pope Urban II proclaimed the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont. He encouraged

military support for Byzantine emperor Alexios I against the Seljuk Turks and called for an armed

pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Across all social strata in western Europe, there was an enthusiastic

popular response. The first Crusaders had a variety of motivations, including religious salvation,

satisfying feudal obligations, opportunities for renown, and economic or political advantage. Later

crusades were generally conducted by more organized armies, sometimes led by a king. All

were granted papal indulgences. Initial successes established four Crusader states: the County

of Edessa; the Principality of Antioch; the Kingdom of Jerusalem; and the County of Tripoli. The

Crusader presence remained in the region in some form until the fall of Acre in 1291. After this,

there were no further crusades to recover the Holy Land.

Proclaimed a crusade in 1123, the struggle between the Christians and Muslims in the Iberian

Peninsula was called the Reconquista by Christians, and only ended in 1492 with the fall of the

Muslim Emirate of Granada. From 1147 campaigns in Northern Europe against pagan tribes

were considered crusades. In 1199 Pope Innocent III began the practice of proclaiming political

crusades against Christian heretics. In the 13th century, crusading was used against

the Cathars in Languedoc and against Bosnia; this practice continued against

the Waldensians in Savoy and the Hussites in Bohemia in the 15th century and

against Protestants in the 16th. From the mid-14th century, crusading rhetoric was used in

response to the rise of the Ottoman Empire, only ending in 1699 with the War of the Holy

League.

In the Holy Land (1095–1291)

First 1101 Norwegian Venetian 1129 Second Third 1197 Fourth Fifth Sixth Barons' Seventh 1267 Eighth Lord Edward's

Later Crusades (1291–1578)

Smyrniote 1343–1351 Alexandrian 1365 Savoyard 1366 Barbary 1390 Nicopolis 1396 Varna 1443 Otranto 1481

Northern Crusades (1147–1410)

Kalmar 1123 Wendish 1147 Swedish (1150 1249 1293) Livonian 1198–1290 Prussian 1217–1274 Novgorod 1241–1242 Lithuanian 1283–1410

Popular crusades

People's 1096 Children's 1212 Shepherds' 1251 Poor 1309 Shepherds' 1320

Crusades in Europe

Mallorca 1113–1115 Albigensian 1209–1229 Drenthe 1228–1232 Stedinger 1233–1234 Bosnian 1235–1241 Anti-Mongol 1241 Aragonese 1284–85 Bohemian 1340 Despenser's 1382–83 Hussite 1419–1434

Reconquista (718–1492)

Barbastro 1063 Mallorca 1113–1115 Las Navas de Tolosa 1212 Granada 1482–1492https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusades

The Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries (476 AD –

1492). It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and transitioned into the Renaissance and the Age of

Discovery. The Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history: classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period.

https://ourworldindata.org/war-and-peace

The Eighty Years' War or Dutch War of

Independence (1568–1648) was a revolt of

the Seventeen Provinces of what are today

the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg against

Philip II of Spain, the sovereign of the Habsburg

Netherlands. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War

The Thirty Years' War was a conflict fought largely within the Holy Roman Empire from 1618 to 1648. Considered one

of the most destructive wars in European history, estimates of total deaths caused by the conflict range from 4.5 to 8 million, while

some areas of Germany experienced population declines of over 50%. Related conflicts include the Eighty Years' War, the War of the

Mantuan Succession, the Franco-Spanish War, and the Portuguese Restoration War.

Until the 20th century, historians considered it a continuation of the German religious struggle initiated by the Reformation and ended

by the 1555 Peace of Augsburg. … it is generally agreed its scope and extent was driven by the contest for European dominance

between Habsburgs in Austria and Spain, and the French House of Bourbon.

… The first phase from 1618 until 1635 was primarily a civil war between German members of the Holy Roman Empire, with external

powers playing supportive roles. After 1635, the Empire became one theatre in a wider struggle between France, supported

by Sweden, and Spain in alliance with Emperor Ferdinand III. This concluded with the 1648 Peace of Westphalia, whose provisions

included greater autonomy within the Empire for states like Bavaria and Saxony, as well as acceptance of Dutch independence by

Spain. By weakening the Habsburgs relative to France, the conflict altered the European balance of power and set the stage for the

wars of Louis XIV. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War

Louis XIV’s Wars •The War of Devolution (1667–1668) saw the French forces overrun the Habsburg-controlled Spanish Netherlands and the

Franche-Comté. However, a Triple Alliance of England, Sweden, and the Dutch Republic forced France to give most of it back in the

Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.

•The Franco-Dutch War (1672–1678) pitted France, Sweden, Münster, Cologne, and England against the Dutch Republic,

which was later joined by the Austrian Habsburg lands, Brandenburg-Prussia, and Spain to form a Quadruple Alliance. After years of

fighting and a series of exhausting battles, the 1678-1679 Treaties of Nijmegen declared the Franche-Comté and the Spanish

Netherlands French territories, making France Europe’s strongest power.

•The Nine Years’ War (1688–1697) once again pitted Louis XIV against a European-wide coalition, the Grand Alliance. By the

terms of the Treaty of Ryswick (1697) Louis XIV retained the whole of Alsace but was forced to return Lorraine to its ruler and give up

any gains on the right bank of the Rhine. Louis also accepted William III as the rightful King of England.

•All these wars exhausted France financially but turned it into the most powerful state in Europe.

•Louis’s expansionist ambitions culminated in the final decisive war of his reign: the War of the Spanish Succession (July

1701–11 September 1714). https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-herkimer-westerncivilization/chapter/louis-xivs-wars/

The Holy Roman Empire was a multi- ethnic complex of territories in Western, Central and Southern Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars.

The French Revolutionary Wars were a series of sweeping military conflicts lasting from 1792 until 1802

and resulting from the French Revolution. They pitted France against Great Britain, Austria, the Holy Roman

Empire, Prussia, Russia, and several other monarchies. They are divided in two periods: the War of the First

Coalition (1792–97) and the War of the Second Coalition (1798–1802). Initially confined to Europe, the fighting

gradually assumed a global dimension. After a decade of constant warfare and aggressive diplomacy, France had

conquered territories in the Italian Peninsula, the Low Countries (a coastal lowland region in

northwestern Europe forming the lower basin of the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta and consisting of Belgium,

the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and parts of France and Germany) and abandoned Louisiana in North America. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars

The Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) were a series of major conflicts pitting the French Empire and its allies against a

fluctuating array of European powers formed into various coalitions. It produced a period of French domination over most of

continental Europe. The wars stemmed from the unresolved disputes associated with the French Revolution and its resultant conflict.

The wars are often categorised into five conflicts, each termed after the coalition that fought Napoleon: the Third Coalition (1805),

the Fourth (1806–07), the Fifth (1809), the Sixth (1813–14), and the Seventh (1815).

After forming the Seventh Coalition, the Allies defeated Napoleon permanently at Waterloo in June 1815 and exiled him to Saint

Helena, where he died six years later.

The Congress of Vienna redrew the borders of Europe and brought a period of relative peace. The wars had profound consequences

on global history, including the spread of nationalism and liberalism, the rise of Britain as the world's foremost naval and economic

power, the appearance of independence movements in Latin America and subsequent decline of the Spanish Empire and Portuguese

Empire, the fundamental reorganization of German and Italian territories into larger states, and the introduction of radically new

methods of conducting warfare, as well as civil law. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars

The Seven Years’ War (1756-1763) was a global conflict that spanned five continents, though it was known

in America as the “French and Indian War.” After years of skirmishes between England and France in North

America, England officially declared war on France in 1756, setting off what Winston Churchill later called

“the first world war.” While the French, British, and Spanish battled over colonies in the New World,

Frederick the Great of Prussia faced off against Austria, France, Russia and Sweden. The Seven Year’s War

ended with two treaties. The Treaty of Hubertusburg granted Silesia to Prussia and enhanced Frederick the

Great’s Power. The Treaty of Paris between France, Spain and Great Britain drew colonial lines largely in favor

of the British, an outcome that would later influence the French to intervene in the war for American

Independence. https://www.history.com/topics/france/seven-years-war

The national boundaries within Europe set by the Congress of Vienna

Europe as the cradle of western civilization and the home base of the dominating global powers for over 500 years Europe, in particular ancient Greece and ancient Rome, was the birthplace of Western

civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD and the subsequent Migration

Period marked the end of ancient history and the beginning of the Middle Ages. Renaissance

humanism, exploration, art and science led to the modern era. Since the Age of Discovery

started by Portugal and Spain, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the

16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at various times the Americas, almost all

of Africa and Oceania and the majority ofAsia.

The Age of Enlightenment, the subsequent French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars shaped

the continent culturally, politically and economically from the end of the 17th century until the first

half of the 19th century. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the

18th century, gave rise to radical economic, cultural and social change in Western Europe and

eventually the wider world. Both world wars took place for the most part in Europe, contributing to

a decline in Western European dominance in world affairs by the mid-20th century as the Soviet

Union and the United States took prominence. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the

Iron Curtain between NATO in the West and the Warsaw Pact in the East, until the revolutions of

1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall.

In 1949 the Council of Europe was founded, following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill, with the

idea of unifying Europe to achieve common goals. It includes all European states except

for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the

formation of the European Union (EU), a separate political entity that lies between

a confederation and a federation. The EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding

eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The currency of most countries of the European

Union, the euro, is the most commonly used among Europeans; and the EU's Schengen

Area abolishes border and immigration controls among most of its member states.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe

Early Modern Europe

■ European revival or Renaissance

• Began in fifteenth century after feudal turmoil of the Middle Ages.

• Monarchies laid foundations of modern states; frequent warfare.

• Science, discovery, and cultural innovations.

• Mercantilism driven by exploration led the way for competition-driven capitalism and colonialism.

• Social revolutions between aristocratic and newly wealthy merchants challenges status quo.

• Rapid growth of cities, industry & population.

■ The City-States of Early Modern Europe

• Grew by agricultural output and expanding trade.

• Dominated by merchant classes.

• Found on the Mediterranean and Baltic coasts.

The Renaissance was a period in European history, covering the span between the 14th

and 17th centuries (1300–1600) and marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity.

Francesco Petrarch (1304–c. 1374) was a poet and scholar whose humanist philosophy set the stage for the Renaissance. Giovanni Boccaccio (16 June 1313 – 21 December 1375) was an Italian writer, poet, correspondent of Petrarch, and an important Renaissance humanist.

Francesco Petrarch and Giovanni Boccaccio promoted the renewal of traditional Greek and Roman culture and values.

In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages lasted from the 5th to the 15th century (476 AD– 1492). It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery (approximately from the beginning of the 15th century until the middle of the 17th century).

The Renaissance was a fervent period of European cultural, artistic, political and economic “rebirth” following the Middle Ages. Generally described as

taking place from the 14th century to the 17th century, the Renaissance promoted the rediscovery of classical philosophy, literature and art. During the Middle Ages, a period that took place between the fall of ancient Rome in 476 A.D. and the beginning of the 14th century, Europeans made few

advances in science and art. Also known as the “Dark Ages,” the era is often branded as a time of war, ignorance, famine and pandemics such as the Black

Death. … there was relatively little regard for ancient Greek and Roman philosophies and learning at the time. During the 14th century, a cultural movement called humanism began to gain momentum in Italy. Among its many principles, humanism promoted the idea

that man was the center of his own universe, and people should embrace human achievements in education, classical arts, literature and science. In 1450, the invention of the Gutenberg printing press allowed for improved communication throughout Europe and for ideas to spread more quickly. As a result of this advance in

communication, little-known texts from early humanist authors such as those by Francesco Petrarch and Giovanni Boccaccio, which promoted the renewal

of traditional Greek and Roman culture and values, were printed and distributed to the masses. Additionally, many scholars believe advances in international

finance and trade impacted culture in Europe and set the stage for the Renaissance.

Art, architecture and science were closely linked during the Renaissance. In fact, it was a unique time when these fields of study fused together seamlessly. For instance, artists like Leonardo da Vinci (15 April 1452 – 2 May 1519) incorporated scientific principles, such as anatomy into their work, so they could recreate the human body with extraordinary precision. Architects such as Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-April 15, 1446) studied mathematics to accurately engineer and design immense buildings with expansive domes. Scientific discoveries led to major shifts in thinking: Galileo Galilei and René Descartes presented a new view of astrology and mathematics, while Nicolaus Copernicus proposed that the Sun, not the Earth, was the center of the solar system.

Renaissance art was characterized by realism and naturalism. Artists strived to depict people and objects in a true-to-life way. They used techniques,

such as perspective, shadows and light to add depth to their work. Emotion was another quality that artists tried to infuse into their pieces.

Some Europeans took to the seas to learn more about the world around them. In a period known as the Age of Discovery, several important explorations

were made. Voyagers launched expeditions to travel the entire globe. They discovered new shipping routes to the Americas, India and the Far East, and

explorers trekked across areas that weren’t fully mapped. Famous journeys were taken by Ferdinand Magellan, Christopher Columbus, Amerigo

Vespucci (after whom America is named), Marco Polo, Ponce de Leon, Vasco Núñez de Balboa, Hernando De Soto and other explorers. Humanism encouraged Europeans to question the role of the Roman Catholic church. In the 16th century, Martin Luther, a German monk, led the Protestant Reformation – a revolutionary movement that caused a split in the Catholic church. Luther questioned many of the practices of the church and whether they aligned with the teachings of the Bible. As a result, a new form of Christianity, known as Protestantism, was created. Scholars believe the demise of the Renaissance was the result of several compounding factors. By the end of the 15th century, numerous wars had plagued the Italian peninsula. Spanish, French and German invaders battling for Italian territories caused disruption and instability in the region. Also, changing trade routes led to a period of economic decline and limited the amount of money that wealthy contributors could spend on the arts. Later, in a movement known as the Counter-Reformation, the Catholic church censored artists and writers in response to the Protestant Reformation. Many Renaissance thinkers feared being too bold, which stifled creativity. Furthermore, in 1545, the Council of Trent established the Roman Inquisition, which made humanism and any views that challenged the Catholic church an act of heresy punishable by death. By the early 17th century, the Renaissance movement had died out, giving way to the Age of Enlightenment.

https://www.history.com/topics/renaissance/renaissance

The Age of Discovery, or the Age of Exploration (approximately from the

beginning of the 15th century until the middle of the 17th century), is …

the period in European history in which extensive overseas exploration emerged as a powerful factor in European culture and which was the beginning of globalization.

It also marks the rise of the period of widespread adoption in Europe of colonialism and mercantilism as national policies. Many lands previously unknown to Europeans were

discovered by them during this period, though most were already inhabited. From the

perspective of many non-Europeans, the Age of Discovery marked the arrival of invaders from previously unknown continents.

Global exploration started with the Portuguese discoveries of the Atlantic archipelagos of

Madeira and the Azores in 1419 and 1427, the coast of Africa after 1434 and the sea route to India in 1498; and from the Crown of Castile (Spain), the trans-Atlantic voyages of

Christopher Columbus to the Americas between 1492 and 1502 and the

first circumnavigation of the globe in 1519–1522. These discoveries led to numerous naval expeditions across the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans, and land expeditions in the

Americas, Asia, Africa and Australia that continued into the late 19th century, and ended with

the exploration of the polar regions in the 20th century. European overseas exploration led to the rise of global trade and the European colonial empires, with the contact between the Old World (Europe, Asia and Africa) and

the New World (the Americas and Australia) producing the Columbian exchange, a wide transfer of plants, animals, food, human populations (including slaves), communicable diseases and culture between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. … It also allowed for the expansion of Christianity throughout the world:

with the spread of missionary activity, it eventually became the world's largest religion.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Discovery

European Revolutions

■ Colonialism • Territorial development strategy where a territory is occupied by a

foreign government.

• Using military power to acquire foreign territories and resources.

• Organization according to objectives related to resource

acquisition and market expansion.

• Political / religious / racist drive.

• Between 1400 and 1945, colonial movements were undertook by

Europe all over the world.

• 1400-1800: • Spain, Portugal, Holland, France and England were the main colonial

powers.

• After 1800: • England had a dominance over others.

Spanish territories in the New World around 1515

Territories appointed to the Council of Castile.

Territories appointed to the Council of Aragon.

Territories appointed to the Council of Portugal.

Territories appointed to the Council of Italy. Territories appointed to the Council of the Indies. Territories appointed to the Council of Flanders comprising the disputed territories of the United Provinces.

Map of the territories of Philip II, King of Spain in 1598

Map of North America (1656-1750)

European Control of the World, 1500-1950

1800 (37%)

1878 (67%)

1913 (84%)

The British Empire comprised the dominions,

colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It originated with the overseas possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the world population at the time, and by 1920, it covered 35,500,000 km2 (13,700,000 sq mi), 24% of the Earth's total land area. As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread.

During the Age of Discovery in the 15th

and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain

pioneered European exploration of the

globe, and in the process established large

overseas empires. Envious of the great

wealth these empires generated, England,

France, and the Netherlands began to

establish colonies and trade networks of

their own in the Americas and Asia. A

series of wars in the 17th and 18th

centuries with the Netherlands and France

left England and then,

following union between England and

Scotland in 1707, Great Britain, the

dominant colonial power in North America.

It then became the dominant power in the

Indian subcontinent after the East India

Company's conquest of Mughal Bengal at

the Battle of Plassey in 1757.

At the peak of its power, it was described as "the empire on which the sun never sets", as the sun was always shining on at least one of its territories.

All areas of the world that were ever part of the British Empire. Current British Overseas Territories have their names underlined in red.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire

Historian Philip Hoffman calculated that by 1800, before the Industrial Revolution, Europeans already controlled at least 35% of the globe, and by 1914, they had gained control of 84% of the globe.

When French forces of Napoleon

Bonaparte invaded the Iberian peninsula in

1808, Napoleon ousted the Spanish

Bourbon monarchy, placing his brother

Joseph Bonaparte on the Spanish throne.

There was a crisis of legitimacy of crown

rule in Spanish America, leading to the

Spanish American wars of independence

(1808-1826) saw virtually all of Spain's

overseas empire gaining its independence.

Country Independence

Argentina 9 July 1816 (from Spain)

Belize 21 September 1981 (from UK)

Bolivia 6 August 1825 (from Spain)

Brazil 7 September 1822 (from Portugal)

Chile 18 September 1810 (from Spain)

Colombia 20 July 1810 (from Spain)

Costa Rica 15 September 1821 (from Spain)

Cuba 20 May 1902 (from Spain: 10 December 1898; administered by the US from 1898 to 1902)

Dominican Republic 27 February 1844 (from Haiti)

Ecuador 24 May 1822 (from Spain)

El Salvador 15 September 1821 (from Spain)

French Guiana An overseas department of France; the only territory in mainland Americas to still be fully integrated into a European country

Guatemala 15 September 1821 (from Spain)

Guyana 26 May 1966 (from the UK)

Haiti 1 January 1804 (from France)

Honduras 15 September 1821 (from Spain)

Mexico 16 September 1810 (from Spain)

Nicaragua 15 September 1821 (from Spain)

Panama 3 November 1903 (from Colombia; became independent from Spain: 28 November 1821)

Paraguay 14 May 1811 (from Spain)

Peru 28 July 1821 (from Spain)

Puerto Rico none (territory of the US with commonwealth status)

Suriname 25 November 1975 (from the Netherlands)

Uruguay 25 August 1825 (from Brazil)

Venezuela 5 July 1811 (from Spain)

Independence of Latin

American Countries

Some islands gained independence in 1960s, others later. Some not yet independent: Guadeloupe/Martinique (French Administrative Regions)

In the aftermath of World War II, European colonies, controlling more than one billion people throughout the world, still ruled most of the Middle East, South East Asia, and the Indian Subcontinent.

Independence of the Caribbean Countries

Country Independence Date Colonist Ghana, Republic of March 6, 1957 Britain Guinea, Republic of Oct. 2, 1958 France Cameroon, Republic of Jan. 1 1960 France Senegal, Republic of April 4, 1960 France Togo, Republic of April 27, 1960 France Mali, Republic of Sept. 22, 1960 France Madagascar, Democratic Republic of June 26, 1960 France Congo (Kinshasa), Democratic Republic of the June 30, 1960 Belgium Somalia, Democratic Republic of July 1, 1960 Britain Benin, Republic of Aug. 1, 1960 France Niger, Republic of Aug. 3, 1960 France Burkina Faso, Popular Democratic Republic of Aug. 5, 1960 France Côte d’Ivoire, Republic of (Ivory Coast) Aug. 7, 1960 France Chad, Republic of Aug. 11, 1960 France Central African Republic Aug. 13, 1960 France Congo (Brazzaville), Republic of the Aug. 15, 1960 France Gabon, Republic of Aug. 16, 1960 France Nigeria, Federal Republic of Oct. 1, 1960 Britain Mauritania, Islamic Republic of Nov. 28, 1960 France Sierra Leone, Republic of Apr. 27, 1961 Britain Nigeria (British Cameroon North) June 1, 1961 Britain Cameroon(British Cameroon South) Oct. 1, 1961 Britain Tanzania, United Republic of Dec. 9, 1961 Britain Burundi, Republic of July 1, 1962 Belgium Rwanda, Republic of July 1, 1962 Belgium Algeria, Democratic and Popular Republic of July 3, 1962 France Uganda, Republic of Oct. 9, 1962 Britain Kenya, Republic of Dec. 12, 1963 Britain Malawi, Republic of July 6, 1964 Britain Zambia, Republic of Oct. 24, 1964 Britain Gambia, Republic of The Feb. 18, 1965 Britain Botswana, Republic of Sept. 30, 1966 Britain Lesotho, Kingdom of Oct. 4, 1966 Britain Mauritius, State of March 12, 1968 Britain Swaziland, Kingdom of Sept. 6, 1968 Britain Equatorial Guinea, Republic of Oct. 12, 1968 Spain Guinea-Bissau, Republic of Sept. 24, 1973(alt. Sept. 10, 1974) Portugal Mozambique, Republic of June 25. 1975 Portugal Cape Verde, Republic of July 5, 1975 Portugal Comoros, Federal Islamic Republic of the July 6, 1975 France São Tomé and Principe, Democratic Republic of July 12, 1975 Portugal Angola, People’s Republic of Nov. 11, 1975 Portugal Western Sahara Feb. 28, 1976 Spain Seychelles, Republic of June 29, 1976 Britain Djibouti, Republic of June 27, 1977 France Zimbabwe, Republic of April 18, 1980 Britain Namibia, Republic of March 21, 1990 South Africa

47 countries gained

independence

between 1957 and 1990

Timeline of Independence for African Countries

European

control in 1939

British

French

Portuguese

Spanish

Belgian

Italian

Independent (Light Grey)

https://www.theschooloflife.com/thebookoflife/africa-after-independence/

The following list shows the European colonial powers following the end of World War II in 1945, their colonial or administrative possessions and date of decolonization.

France: North Vietnam (1945) Lebanon (1946) Syria (1946) Cambodia (1953) Laos (1953) French India (1954) South Vietnam (1955) Japan: Manchuria (Manchukuo), Northern China (1945/1946) Philippines (1945/1946) Burma (1945/1948) North Korea (1945/1948) South Korea (1945/1948) Taiwan (1945/1949) Netherlands: Indonesia (1945) Netherlands New Guinea (1962) Portugal: Portuguese India (1961) East Timor (1975/2002) Macau (1999) United Kingdom: Bangladesh (1947) (1971) Jordan (1946) India (1947) Pakistan (1947) Burma (1948) Ceylon (1948) Israel (1948) Malaya (1957) Cyprus (1960) Kuwait (1961) Sabah (North Borneo) (1963) Sarawak (1963) Maldives (1965) Singapore (1965) South Yemen (1967) Oman (1970) Bahrain (1971) Qatar (1971) United Arab Emirates (1971) Brunei (1984) Hong Kong (1997)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decolonization_of_Asia

https://www.reddit.com/r/MapPorn/comments/e7weku/colonial_asia_before_ww2/

https://www.pinterest.com/pin/749497562960842618/

The establishment of the Ming dynasty in 1368 and reestablishment of native Han

Chinese rule led to the cessation of European merchants and Roman

Catholic missionaries living in China. Direct contact with Europeans was not renewed

until Portuguese explorers and Jesuit missionaries arrived on Ming China's southern

shores in the 1510s, during the Age of Discovery.

Jorge Álvares statue in Macau First European explorer to reach China

by sea during the Age of Discovery

In May 1513, Álvares sailed under the Portuguese

Malacca captain Rui de Brito Patalim in a junk from Pegu. The

expedition was accompanied by five other junks. Álvares

himself was accompanied by two other Portuguese mariners.

Álvares made first contact on Chinese soil on an island near

the historic city of Guangzhou in southern China in May

1513. The location of the island, which the Portuguese

called Tamão, is not exactly known except that it is in the Pearl

River Delta, and scholarship has suggested islands such

as Lantau Island and Lintin Island as potential candidates.

Upon landing on Tamão, Álvares raised a padrão from the king

of Portugal. Based on information from their captain, they

hoped to find trade. Soon after this, Afonso de Albuquerque,

the Viceroy of the Estado da Índia dispatched Rafael

Perestrello—a cousin of Christopher Columbus—to seek

trade relations with the Chinese. In a ship from Malacca,

Rafael Perestrello landed on the southern shores of

Guangdong later that year in 1513.

Álvares later joined the venture of establishing the settlements

in Tamão around 1513 to 1514. He died on July 8, 1521 in

Tamão in the arms of his friend Duarte Coelho. Malacca City (also spelled Melaka) is the capital of the coastal state of Malacca, in southwestern Malaysia.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europeans_in_Medieval_China

The Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking was a trade treaty between the Kingdom of Portugal and the Qing

dynasty of China, signed on 1 December 1887.

On 13 August 1862, China and Portugal signed the Treaty of Friendship and Trade in Tientsin (Tianjin). The treaty

was largely a trade agreement but it also defined Macau's political and juridical statue, although it did not directly

mention the issue of Portuguese sovereignty. It contained two clauses regarding Macau's status: Article II annulled

earlier agreements and referred to Macau as "formerly in the Province of Canton", while Article III recognised the

status of a "Governor General of Macao". However, China did not ratify the treaty and it became void in 1864.

In June 1886, a joint Sino-British commission advised that the administrative responsibility for controlling the import

of opium into China should be transferred from the Hoppo in Canton (Guangzhou) to the Chinese Imperial Maritime

Customs Service. Although Britain and China agreed to this, it could not be fully successful without Portuguese

involvement. In 1887, China sent a diplomatic mission to Lisbon, which included James Campbell, a senior British

member of the service, representing the superintendent of the customs service Sir Robert Hart. On 26 March 1887,

Campbell and Portuguese Foreign Minister Henrique de Barros Gomes signed the four-point Lisbon Protocol:

Art. 1st.—A Treaty of friendship and commerce with the most favoured nation clause will be concluded and signed

at Peking.

Art. 2nd.—China confirms perpetual occupation and government of Macao and its dependencies by Portugal, as

any other Portuguese possession.

Art. 3rd.—Portugal engages never to alienate Macao and its dependencies without agreement with China.

Art. 4th.—Portugal engages to co-operate in opium revenue work at Macao in the same way as England at Hong

Kong.

Terms

Portugal followed up on this agreement by sending an envoy to Peking (Beijing), where a treaty of amity and

commerce based on the protocol was drawn up. On 1 December 1887, the Treaty of Peking was signed by

Chinese representatives Prince Ch'ing and Sun Iu-uen, and Tomas de Sousa Rosa for Portugal on 1 December

1887. It contained 54 articles and was ratified on 28 April 1888. Articles II and IIIstated:

II. China confirms, in its entirety, the second Article of the Protocol of Lisbon, relating to the perpetualoccupation

and government of Macao by Portugal.

III.Portugal confirms, in its entirety, the third Article of the Protocol of Lisbon, relating to the engagement never to

alienate Macao without previous agreement with China.

According to the Portuguese interpretation, sovereignty over Macau was surrendered to Portugal. In the

Chinese interpretation, only administrative rights were transferred.

Date

Location

Result

Territorial

changes

4 September 1839 – 29 August 1842

(2 years, 11 months, 3 weeks and 4 days)

China

British victory

•Treaty of Nanking

•Poll tax placed on every Chinese arrival

to Colony of New South Wales (in present-

day Australia)

Hong Kong Island ceded to Britain,

establishment of five treaty

ports in Shanghai, Canton (Guangzhou),

Ningpo (Ningbo), Fuchow (Fuzhou), and

Amoy (Xiamen)

The First Opium War (Chinese: 第一次鴉片戰爭), also known as the Opium War or the Anglo-Chinese War,

was a series of military engagements fought between the United Kingdom and the Qing dynasty of China over

diplomatic relations, trade, and the administration of justice in China.

In the 17th and 18th centuries, the demand for Chinese goods (particularly silk, porcelain, and tea) in Europe

created a trade imbalance between Qing Imperial China and Great Britain. To counter this imbalance, the British

East India Company began to grow opium in India, and smuggled it into China illegally. The influx of narcotics

reversed the Chinese trade surplus, drained the economy of silver, and increased the numbers of opium addicts

inside the country, outcomes that worried Chinese officials.

In 1839, the Daoguang Emperor, rejecting proposals to legalize and tax opium, appointed viceroy Lin Zexu to go to

Canton to halt the opium trade completely. Lin wrote to Queen Victoria an open letter in an appeal to her moral

responsibility to stop the opium trade. When he failed to get a response, he initially attempted to get foreign

companies to forfeit their opium stores in exchange for tea, but this ultimately failed too. Then Lin resorted to using

force in the western merchants' enclave. He confiscated all supplies and ordered a blockade of foreign ships to get

them to surrender their opium supply. Lin confiscated 20,283 chests of opium (approximately 1210 tons or

2.66 million pounds).

The British government responded by dispatching a

military force to China and in the ensuing conflict,

the Royal Navy used its naval and gunnery power to

inflict a series of decisive defeats on the Chinese

Empire, a tactic later referred to as gunboat diplomacy.

In 1842, the Qing dynasty was forced to sign the Treaty

of Nanking—the first of what the Chinese later called

the unequal treaties—which granted

an indemnity and extraterritoriality to Britain, opened

five treaty ports to foreign merchants, and ceded Hong

Kong Island to the British Empire. The failure of the

treaty to satisfy British goals of improved trade and

diplomatic relations led to the Second Opium

War (1856–60).

Unequal treaties (不平等条约) Year Imposer

English name Chinese name

Treaty of Nanking 南京條約 1842 British Empire

Treaty of the Bogue 虎門條約 1843 British Empire

Treaty of Wanghia 中美望廈條約 1844 United States

Treaty of Whampoa 黃埔條約 1844 French colonial empire

Treaty of Canton 中瑞廣州條約 1847 United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway

Treaty of Kulja 中俄伊犁塔爾巴哈臺通商章程 1851 Russian Empire

Treaty of Aigun 璦琿條約 1858 Russian Empire

Treaty of Tientsin 天津條約 1858 French colonial empire, British Empire, Russian Empire, United States

Convention of Peking 北京條約 1860 British Empire, French colonial empire, Russian Empire

Chefoo Convention 煙臺條約 1876 British Empire

Treaty of Saint Petersburg 伊犁條約 1881 Russian Empire

Treaty of Tientsin (1885) 中法新約 1885 French colonial empire

Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking 中葡北京條約 1887 Kingdom of Portugal

Treaty of Shimonoseki (Treaty of Maguan) 馬關條約 1895 Empire of Japan

Li–Lobanov Treaty 中俄密約 1896 Russian Empire

Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong

Territory 展拓香港界址專條 1898 British Empire

Treaty of Kwangchow Wan 廣州灣租界條約 1899 French colonial empire

Boxer Protocol 辛丑條約 1901

British Empire, United States, Empire of Japan, Russian Empire, French colonial empire, German Empire, Kingdom of Italy, Austro- Hungarian Empire, Kingdom of Belgium, Kingdom of Spain, Kingdom of the Netherlands

Simla Accord 西姆拉條約 1914 British Empire

Twenty-One Demands 二十一條 1915 Empire of Japan

Tanggu Truce 塘沽協定 1933 Empire of Japan

In April 1987 Portugal and China reached an agreement to return Macau to Chinese rule in 1999, using the Hong Kong Joint Declaration between Britain and China as a model. They agreed to provisions under the Basic Law that would ensure the autonomy of Macau for 50 years after the start of Chinese rule.

The Hong Kong handover, domestically known as the transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong, was the formal passing of authority over the territory of the then colony of Hong Kong from the United Kingdom to the People's Republic of China at midnight on 1 July 1997.

China’s “Century of Humiliation" The Chinese experience in losses of sovereignty between roughly 1839 to 1949

The Age of Enlightenment (also known as the Age of Reason or simply

the Enlightenment) was an intellectual and philosophical movement that dominated the

world of ideas in Europe during the 18th century, the "Century of Philosophy".

The Enlightenment emerged out of a European intellectual and scholarly movement

known as Renaissance humanism. Some consider the publication of Isaac

Newton's Principia Mathematica (1687) as the first major enlightenment work. French

historians traditionally date the Enlightenment from 1715 to 1789, from the beginning

of the reign of Louis XV until the French Revolution. Most end it with the turn of the

19th century. Philosophers and scientists of the period widely circulated their ideas

through meetings at scientific academies, Masonic lodges, literary

salons, coffeehouses and in printed books, journals, and pamphlets. The ideas of

the Enlightenment undermined the authority of the monarchy and the Church and

paved the way for the political revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries. A variety of

19th-century movements, including liberalism and neoclassicism, trace their intellectual

heritage to the Enlightenment.

The Enlightenment included a range of ideas centered on reason as the primary

source of knowledge and advanced ideals such as liberty, progress, toleration,

fraternity, constitutional government and separation of church and state. In France,

the central doctrines of the Enlightenment philosophers were individual liberty and

religious tolerance, in opposition to an absolute monarchy and the fixed dogmas

of the Roman Catholic Church. The Enlightenment was marked by an emphasis on

the scientific method and reductionism, along with increased questioning of religious

orthodoxy—an attitude captured by the phrase Sapere aude (Dare to know).

European Revolutions

■ Agrarian revolution • Began in Europe in the 1750s.

• Growth in markets and population created economic opportunities

for European farmers: • From subsistence farming to forms of commercial farming.

• Changed land ownership and farming practices.

• Based on new agricultural innovations: • Mechanization and fertilizers.

• Scientific and commercial agriculture.

• Crop rotation and complementarity.

• Declining food prices.

• New crops (e.g. Potato, Tomato).

• Enabled increased food production.

• Enabled sustained population increase.

The Agricultural Revolution

was a period of

technological improvement

and increased crop

productivity that occurred

during the 18th and early

19th centuries in Europe.

European Revolutions

■ Industrial revolution (from about 1760 to sometime between

1820 and 1840) • Developed in the UK between 1750-1850.

• Technical innovations that occurred in British industry: • Use of new materials (steel, iron, chemicals).

• Usage of thermal energy to produce mechanical energy.

• Substitution of machines to human and animal labor.

• Production (factory).

• Transportation (rail).

• Health (medicine).

• Proved to be a major catalyst towards increased urbanization.

• Freeing ever-larger numbers of people from the land to work in

the cities.

• Improved considerably European power, particularly the British

supremacy.

A Roberts loom in a weaving shed in 1835. Textiles were the leading industry of the Industrial Revolution, and

mechanized factories, powered by a central water wheel or steam engine, were the new workplace.

Along the coal and iron ore fields

Modern Historical Geography: The Industrial Revolution

■ Industrialized society • Urban and population

explosion.

• Industrial cities became

backbone of Europe’s

population cluster.

■ East-west industrial axis

remains major feature of

Europe’s population

geography

Is there a relationship between physiography and population clusters and what else

explains the pattern of population clusters?

Urbanization

■ City

• A political designation.

• Refers to a municipal entity that is governed

by some kind of administrative organization.

• The largest cities (especially capitals) are:

• The foci of the state.

• Complete microcosms of their national

cultures.

■ Primate city

• A country’s largest city.

• Always disproportionately larger than the

second largest urban center -- more than twice

the size.

• Expressive of the national culture (major cultural

institutions).

• Usually (but not always) the capital.

• Examples: Paris, London, Athens.

■ The European metropolis, or central city plus

suburban ring, has a long history:

• Focused on the central business district (CBD), as

the oldest commercial part.

• Wide and dense residential sectors radiate outward.

• Public transportation is well-developed.

Contemporary Europe: A Highly Urbanized Realm

Modern Historical Geography: Political Revolutions ■ A Fractured Map

• Legacy of feudal and absolutist periods.

• Territories were controlled by force, taxes, and tribute (which might be

gold, luxury goods, animals, soldiers or slaves).

• Marriages, alliances, and wars further complicated the situation. ■ State and Nation

• Created form of political-territorial organization.

• Nation-state: • State was embodied by its cultural distinct population, or nation.

• Linked with ethnicity, religion and language.

• Very few states today embody such an ideal. Absolutism, the political doctrine and practice of

Feudalism was the dominant social systemunlimited centralized authority and absolute sovereignty, in medieval Europe, in which the nobility

held lands from the Crown in exchange for

military service, and vassals were in turn

tenants of the nobles, while the peasants

(villeins or serfs) were obliged to live on

their lord's land and give him homage, labor,

and a share of the produce, notionally in

exchange for military protection.

as vested especially in a monarch or dictator.

A vassal is a person regarded as having a mutual

obligation to a lord or monarch, in the context of

the feudal system in medieval Europe. The obligations

often included military support by knights in exchange

for certain privileges, usually including land held as a

tenant or fief (heritable property or rights).

European Revolutions ■ Political revolutions

• Creation of the modern Nation – state: • Created form of political-territorial organization.

• The concept of nationalism (19th century). • Common identity for groups of humans; the state.

• Democracy / Parliamentary systems: • Rebellion against absolute political power (monarchy); the French Revolution (1789-95).

• Separation between the State and the Church.

• Communism: • Assets belong to the collective (state).

• State decides the allocation of resources (labor, housing, raw materials, etc.).

Adam Smith (16 June [O.S. 5 June] 1723 – 17 July

1790) was a Scottish economist, philosopher

and author as well as a moral philosopher, a pioneer

of political economy and a key figure during

the Scottish Enlightenment, also known as ''The

Father of Economics'' or ''The Father of Capitalism''.

Karl Marx (Born: May 5, 1818, Trier, Germany Died: March 14, 1883, London, United Kingdom) was a German philosopher, economist, historian, sociologist, political theorist, journalist and socialist revolutionary.

• Fascism: • Extreme nationalism.

Friedrich Engels (28 November 1820 – 5 August 1895) was a German philosopher, communist, social

scientist, journalist and businessman. His father was an owner of large textile factories in Salford, England and

in Barmen, Prussia (what is now in Wuppertal, Germany).

Engels developed what is now known as Marxist theory together with Karl Marx and in 1845 he published The

Condition of the Working Class in England, based on personal observations and research in English cities. In

1848, Engels co-authored The Communist Manifesto with Marx and also authored and co-authored (primarily with

Marx) many other works. Later, Engels supported Marx financially, allowing him to do research and write Das

Kapital. After Marx's death, Engels edited the second and third volumes of Das Kapital. Additionally, Engels

organised Marx's notes on the Theories of Surplus Value, which he later published as the "fourth volume"

of Capital. In 1884, he published The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State on the basis of Marx's

ethnographic research.

The Paris Commune was the main insurrectionary

commune of France in 1870-1871, based on direct

democracy and established in Paris from 18 March to 28 May

1871.

During the events of the Franco-Prussian War, Paris had

been defended by the National Guard, where working

class radicalism grew among soldiers. In March 1871, during

the establishment of the Third Republic under French chief

executive Adolphe Thiers, soldiers of the National Guard

seized control of the city and then refused to accept the

authority of the French government, instead attempting to

establish an independent government.

The Commune governed Paris for two months, establishing

policies that tended toward a progressive, anti-religious

system of social democracy, including the separation of

church and state, self-policing, the remission of rent during

the siege, the abolition of child labor, and the right of

employees to take over an enterprise deserted by its

owner. Feminist, socialist, and anarchist currents played

important roles in the Commune. However, they had very little

time to achieve their respective goals.

The Commune was eventually suppressed by the national

French Army during La semaine sanglante ("The Bloody

Week") beginning on 21 May 1871. Between 6,000 and

7,000 Communards are confirmed to have been killed in battle

or executed, though some unconfirmed estimates are as high

as 20,000. The Archbishop of Paris, Georges Darboy, and

other hostages were shot by the Commune in retaliation.

Debates over the policies and outcome of the Commune had

significant influence on the ideas of Karl Marx and Frederich

Engels, who described it as the first example of

the dictatorship of the proletariat.

Barricade thrown up by Communard National Guards on 18 March 1871.

Date 18 March – 28 May 1871

Location Paris, France

Result Revolt suppressed •Disbanding the Second National Guard by the French government

European Revolutions

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Commune

The French Revolution was a period of far-reaching social and political upheaval in France and its colonies beginning in 1789. The Revolution

overthrew the monarchy, established a republic, catalyzed violent periods of political

turmoil, and finally culminated in a dictatorship under Napoleon who brought many of its

principles to areas he conquered in Western Europe and beyond. Inspired by liberal and

radical ideas, the Revolution profoundly altered the course of modern history,

triggering the global decline of absolute monarchies while replacing them with

republics and liberal democracies. Through the Revolutionary Wars, it unleashed a

wave of global conflicts that extended from the Caribbean to the Middle East. Historians

widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in human history.

The causes of the French Revolution are complex and are still debated among

historians. Following the Seven Years' War and the American Revolutionary War, the

French government was deeply in debt. It attempted to restore its financial status

through unpopular taxation schemes, which were heavily regressive. Leading up to

the Revolution, years of bad harvests worsened by deregulation of the grain industry

and environmental problems also inflamed popular resentment of the privileges

enjoyed by the aristocracy and the Catholic clergy of the established church. Some

historians hold something similar to what Thomas Jefferson proclaimed: that France had

"been awakened by our [American] Revolution."

A republic is a form of government in which "power is held by the people and their elected representatives". In republics, the country is considered a "public matter", not the private concern or property of the rulers. https://en.wikipedia.org › wiki › Republic

The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in Britain, continental

Europe and the United States, in the period from between 1760 to 1820 and 1840.

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_1871_map_en.png

Map of military alliances of

Europe in 1914. historicair

On 28 June 1914, Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb Yugoslav nationalist, assassinated the Austro-

Hungarian heir Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo, leading to the July Crisis. In response, on 23 July

Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia. Serbia's reply failed to satisfy the Austrians, and the two moved

to a war footing.

A network of interlocking alliances enlarged the crisis from a bilateral issue in the Balkans to one involving most of

Europe. By July 1914, the great powers of Europe were divided into two coalitions: the Triple Entente—consisting

of France, Russia, and Britain—and the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy (the Triple

Alliance was only defensive in nature, allowing Italy to stay out of the war until April 1915, when it joined theAllied

Powers after its relations with Austria-Hungary deteriorated). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I

Most of the battles of World War I took place in Europe, and willingly or not, the people of most of the countries were somehow active in

the conflict. For the Allies, 5.2 million British men served in the conflict, just under half of the available pool of men aged 18-51; 7.9

million French citizens were called to serve.

A total of 13 million German citizens fought in the war between 1914 and 1918. In the occupied territories, Germany and its allies also

coerced civilians into labor: citizens from Italy, Albania, Montenegro, Serbia, Romania, and Russian Poland all had conscripts fighting or

assisting with the Entente efforts.

Between 1914 and 1918, more than 100 countries from Africa, the Americas, Asia, Australasia, and Europe were part of the conflict. https://www.thoughtco.com/countries-involved-in-world-war-1-1222074

The Countries Involved in World War I

Although most of the battles of World War I occurred in western Europe, many other countries were involved in theevents. Some, like Canada and the U.S., declared war, sent troops, and manufactured armaments. Other countries kept prisoner of war camps or sent infrastructure workers. Many countries in Africa and Asia were colonies of the large empires and were coerced to help with the wareffort.

The Russian Revolution was a period of

political and social revolution across the territory of the

Russian Empire which started with the abolishment of

monarchy and concluded with the establishment of the Soviet

Union by the Bolsheviks and the end of the civil war.

Armed soldiers carry a banner reading 'Communism',

Nikolskaya Street, Moscow, October 1917. Date 8 March 1917 – 16 June1923

Duration February Revolution: 8–16 March 1917

(O.S. 23 February – 3 March)

October Revolution: 7–8 November1917

(O.S. 25 – 26 October)

Civil War: 7 November 1917 – 25 October 1922/16 June1923

Outcome February Revolution:

• Abdication of Nicholas II

• Collapse of the Empire

October Revolution:

• Collapse of the Republican government

• Creation of the Soviet Russia by thebolsheviks

• Beginning of the civilwar

Civil War:

• Defeat of the WhiteArmy

• Independence of Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania and

Poland

• Soviet republics established in Transcaucasia, Belarus

andUkraine

• Unification of Soviet republics in the SovietUnion

■ Causes of the Soviet Revolution • Outcome of the abuses of czarist Russia; Detached ruling class (e.g.

palaces such as the Hermitage in St. Petersburg). • Serfdom of peasants. • Exploitation of workers in the industrial revolution. • No democratic revolution; no channel for grievances.

■ Revolution (1905-1917) • Capital: Petrograd to Moscow (1918). • Several republics declared independence (e.g. Ukraine) but were

reintegrated in the Federation. • Federation/federal structure:

• USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) -1924. • Colonized people were given autonomy and identity,yet

strengthened political and economic subjugation.

In 1914, Russia entered World War I in response to Austria-Hungary's declaration of war on

Russia's ally Serbia, and fought across multiple fronts. The already-existing public distrust of

the regime was deepened by the rising costs of war, high casualties, and rumors of

corruption and treason. All this formed the climate for the Russian Revolution of 1917,

carried out in two major acts.

The Russian Revolution of 1905 was said to be a major factor contributing to the cause of

the Revolutions of 1917. The events of Bloody Sunday triggered nationwide protests and

soldier mutinies. A council of workerscalled the St. Petersburg Soviet was created in this

chaos. While the 1905 Revolution was ultimately crushed, and the leaders of the St.

Petersburg Soviet were arrested, this laid the groundwork for the later Petrograd Soviet and

other revolutionary movements during the lead up to 1917. The 1905 Revolution also led to

the creation of a Duma (parliament), that would later form the Provisional Government

following February 1917.

In the Russian Empire, serfdom is the status of many peasants under feudalism. It was a condition of debt bondage and indentured servitude,

which developed during the Late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages in Europe. As with slaves, serfs could be bought, sold, or traded (with some

limitations as they generally could be sold only together with land).

Green

Blue

Grey Allies before the J

apanese attack on Pearl Harbor

Axis Powers

Neutral Powers

Nearly every country and territory in the world participated in World War II (Sep 1, 1939 – Sep 2, 1945). Most were

neutral at the beginning, but only a few nations remained

neutral to the end. The Second World War pitted two

alliances against each other, the U.S having served 16

million men, Germany serving 13 million, Soviet Union

serving 35 million and Japan serving 6 million. With

millions serving in other countries an estimated 300 million

soldiers saw combat. A total of 72 million people died with

the lowest estimate being 40 million dead and the highest

estimate being 120 million dead.

The Axis powers and the Allied powers. The leadingAxis

powers were Nazi Germany, the Kingdom of Italy and

the Empire of Japan; while the United Kingdom, the

United States, the Soviet Union and China to an extent

were the "Big Four" Allied powers. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_by_country

Only 13 nations ( Portugal, Spain, Ireland, Switzerland, Sweden, Yemen, Afghanistan, Tibet, the Vatican state, Liechtenstein, Andorra, San Marino and Monaco) were neutral in this conflict. The other 89 participated in the war at some point.

Estimates for the total number of casualties in the war vary, because many deaths went unrecorded. Most suggest that some 60 million people died in the war, including about 20 million military personnel and 40 million civilians.

World War II is generally said to have begun on 1 September 1939, with the invasion of Poland

by Germany and subsequent declarations of war on Germany by France and the

United Kingdom. From late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany

conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan.

COLD WAR • The global balance of

economic and political power shifted after the end of World War II and rapidly evolved into the Cold War. • The United States and the

Soviet Union emerged as superpowers • Led to struggle between

Capitalism and Communism

• Military consequences • new military alliances,

including NATO and the Warsaw Pact

• proxy wars in Latin America, Africa, and Asia

• The dissolution of the Soviet Union effectively ended the Cold War.

Russian Empire 1858 The Alaska Purchase was the United States'

acquisition of Alaska from the Russian Empire. Alaska

was formally transferred to the United States on October

18, 1867. ($7.2 million used to pay for Alaska = roughly

$109 million in 2018)

Post-Soviet states 1. Armenia 3. Belarus 5. Georgia 7. Kyrgyzstan 9. Lithuania 11. Russia

2. Azerbaijan 4. Estonia 6. Kazakhstan 8. Latvia 10. Moldov 12. Tajikistan

13. Turkmenistan 14.Ukraine 15. Uzbekistan

The dissolution of the Soviet Union was the process of internal disintegration within the Union of

Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) which began in second half of 1980s with a series of national

unrests and ended on 26 December 1991, when the USSR itself was voted out of existence by

the Supreme Soviet, following the Belavezha Accords. Declaration number 142-Н by the Supreme

Soviet resulted in self-governing independence to the Republics of the USSR, formally dissolving the

USSR. The declaration acknowledged the independence of the former Soviet republics and created

the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), although five of the signatories ratified it much later

or did not do so at all. On the previous day, 25 December, Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev,

the eighth and final leader of the USSR, resigned, declared his office extinct and handed over its

powers—including control of the Soviet nuclear missile launching codes—to Russian President Boris

Yeltsin. That evening at 7:32 p.m., the Soviet flag was lowered from the Kremlin for the last time and

replaced with the pre-revolutionary Russian flag.

Previously, from August to December, all the individual republics, including Russia itself, had either

seceded from the union or at the very least denounced the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR. The

week before formal dissolution, eleven republics signed the Alma-Ata Protocol formally establishing

the CIS and declaring that the USSR had ceased to exist. Both the Revolutions of 1989 and the

dissolution of the USSR also marked the end of the Cold War.

11 March 1990

August 1991

August 1991

1 December 1991

The end of the Cold War

North Atlantic Treaty Organization

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance between 28 European countries and 2 North American countries. The organization implements the North Atlantic Treaty that was signed on 4 April 1949. Since its founding, the admission of new member states has increased the alliance from the original 12 countries to 31. The most recent member state to be added to NATO was North Macedonia on 27 March 2020. NATO currently recognizes Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, and Ukraine as aspiring members. An additional 20 countries participate in NATO's Partnership for Peace programme, with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programmes. The combined military spending of all NATO members in 2020 constituted over 57% of the global nominal total. Members agreed that their aim is to reach or maintain the target defence spending of at least 2% of their GDP by 2024.

•ALBANIA (2009) •BELGIUM (1949) •BULGARIA (2004) •CANADA (1949) •CROATIA (2009) •CZECH REPUBLIC (1999) •DENMARK (1949) •ESTONIA (2004)

•FRANCE (1949) •GERMANY (1955) •GREECE (1952) •HUNGARY (1999) •ICELAND (1949) •ITALY (1949) •LATVIA (2004) •LITHUANIA (2004) •LUXEMBOURG (1949) •MONTENEGRO (2017) •NETHERLANDS (1949) •NORTH MACEDONIA (2020) •NORWAY (1949) •POLAND (1999) •PORTUGAL (1949) •ROMANIA (2004) •SLOVAKIA (2004) •SLOVENIA (2004) •SPAIN (1982) •TURKEY (1952) •THE UNITED KINGDOM (1949) •THE UNITED STATES (1949)

•FINLAND (2023)

• Czechoslovakia

• East Germany

• Hungary

• Poland

• Romania

• Soviet Union Mongolia: In July 1963 the Mongolian People's Republic asked to join the Warsaw Pact under Article

9 of the treaty. Due to the emerging Sino-Soviet split, Mongolia remained in an observer status. The

Soviet government agreed to station troops in Mongolia in 1966.

The Warsaw Pact, formally known as the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual

Assistance, was a collective defence treaty signed in Warsaw, Poland between the Soviet Union and seven

other Eastern Bloc socialist republics of Central and Eastern Europe in May 1955, during the Cold War. The Warsaw Pact

was the military complement to the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CoMEcon), the regional economic

organization for the socialist states of Central and Eastern Europe. The Warsaw Pact was created in reaction to the

integration of West Germany into NATO in 1955 per the London and Paris Conferences of 1954, but it is also considered

to have been motivated by Soviet desires to maintain control over military forces in Central and Eastern Europe.

The Warsaw Pact was established as a balance of power or counterweight to NATO; there was no direct military

confrontation between them. Instead, the conflict was fought on an ideological basis and in proxy wars. Both NATO and

the Warsaw Pact led to the expansion of military forces and their integration into the respective blocs. Its largest military

engagement was the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968 (with the participation of all Pact nations

except Albania, Romania, and East Germany), which, in part, resulted in Albania withdrawing from the pact less than a

month later. The Pact began to unravel in its entirety with the spread of the Revolutions of 1989 through the Eastern Bloc,

beginning with the Solidarity movement in Poland and its electoral success in June 1989.

East Germany withdrew from the Pact following the reunification of Germany in 1990. On 25 February 1991, at a meeting

in Hungary, the Pact was declared at an end by the defense and foreign ministers of the six remaining member states. The

USSR itself was dissolved in December 1991, although most of the former Soviet republics formed the Collective

Security Treaty Organization shortly thereafter. Throughout the following 20 years, the seven Warsaw Pact countries

outside the USSR each joined NATO (East Germany through its reunification with West Germany; and the Czech

Republic and Slovakia as separate countries), as did the three Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania) that had

been part of the Soviet Union.

The founding signatories consisted of the following communist governments:

• Albania (withheld support in 1961 because of the Soviet-Albanian split, formally withdrew in 1968) • Bulgaria In September 1990, East Germany left the Pact in preparation for reunification with West

Germany. By October, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Poland had withdrawn from all Warsaw Pact military exercises. The Warsaw Pact officially disbanded in March and July of 1991 following the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

The Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) is an intergovernmental military alliance that was signed on 15 May 1992.

Rank Country 2021

Population 2020

Population Growth

Rate Area Density (km²)

9Russia 145,912,025 145,934,462 -0.02% 17,098,2429/km² 17Germany 83,900,473 83,783,942 0.14% 357,114234/km² 21United Kingdom 68,207,116 67,886,011 0.47% 242,900278/km² 22France 65,426,179 65,273,511 0.23% 551,695118/km² 23Italy 60,367,477 60,461,826 -0.16% 301,336201/km² 30Spain 46,745,216 46,754,778 -0.02% 505,99292/km² 33Ukraine 43,466,819 43,733,762 -0.61% 603,50073/km² 38Poland 37,797,005 37,846,611 -0.13% 312,679121/km² 61Romania 19,127,774 19,237,691 -0.57% 238,39181/km² 68Netherlands 17,173,099 17,134,872 0.22% 41,850409/km² 79Belgium 11,632,326 11,589,623 0.37% 30,528378/km² 86Czech Republic 10,724,555 10,708,981 0.15% 78,865136/km² 87Greece 10,370,744 10,423,054 -0.50% 131,99079/km² 88Portugal 10,167,925 10,196,709 -0.28% 92,090111/km² 91Sweden 10,160,169 10,099,265 0.60% 450,29522/km² 94Hungary 9,634,164 9,660,351 -0.27% 93,028104/km² 95Belarus 9,442,862 9,449,323 -0.07% 207,60046/km² 97Austria 9,043,070 9,006,398 0.41% 83,871107/km² 99Serbia 8,697,550 8,737,371 -0.46% 88,36199/km²

100Switzerland 8,715,494 8,654,622 0.70% 41,284208/km² 107Bulgaria 6,896,663 6,948,445 -0.75% 110,87963/km² 115Denmark 5,813,298 5,792,202 0.36% 43,094134/km² 116Finland 5,548,360 5,540,720 0.14% 338,42416/km² 117Slovakia 5,460,721 5,459,642 0.02% 49,037111/km² 119Norway 5,465,630 5,421,241 0.82% 323,80217/km² 124Ireland 4,982,907 4,937,786 0.91% 70,27369/km² 130Croatia 4,081,651 4,105,267 -0.58% 56,59473/km² 131Moldova 4,024,019 4,033,963 -0.25% 33,846119/km² 132Georgia 3,979,765 3,989,167 -0.24% 69,70057/km² 135Bosnia And Herzegovina 3,263,466 3,280,819 -0.53% 51,20964/km² 137Armenia 2,968,127 2,963,243 0.16% 29,74399/km² 140Albania 2,872,933 2,877,797 -0.17% 28,748100/km² 142Lithuania 2,689,862 2,722,289 -1.19% 65,30042/km² 148North Macedonia 2,082,658 2,083,374 -0.03% 25,71381/km² 149Slovenia 2,078,724 2,078,938 -0.01% 20,273103/km² 151Latvia 1,866,942 1,886,198 -1.02% 64,55930/km² 155Estonia 1,325,185 1,326,535 -0.10% 45,22729/km² 168Montenegro 628,053 628,066 0.00% 13,81245/km² 169Luxembourg 634,814 625,978 1.41% 2,586238/km² 174Malta 442,784 441,543 0.28% 3161,394/km² 180Iceland 343,353 341,243 0.62% 103,0003/km² 201Isle Of Man 85,410 85,033 0.44% 572148/km² 202Andorra 77,355 77,265 0.12% 468165/km² 211Faroe Islands 49,049 48,863 0.38% 1,39335/km² 213Monaco 39,511 39,242 0.69% 219,482/km² 215Liechtenstein 38,250 38,128 0.32% 160238/km² 217San Marino 34,017 33,931 0.25% 61555/km² 218Gibraltar 33,698 33,691 0.02% 65,617/km² 232Vatican City 800 801 -0.12% 1799/km²

European Countries by Population https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries

pop2023 region country Growth Rate 144,444,359Europe Russia -0.00186

83,294,633Europe Germany -0.0009 67,736,802Europe United Kingdom 0.00338 64,756,584Europe France 0.00201 58,870,762Europe Italy -0.00282 47,519,628Europe Spain -0.00082 41,026,067Europe Poland 0.02933 36,744,634Europe Ukraine -0.07448 19,892,812Europe Romania 0.01188 17,618,299Europe Netherlands 0.00309 11,686,140Europe Belgium 0.00259 10,612,086Europe Sweden 0.00595 10,495,295Europe Czech Republic 0.00013 10,341,277Europe Greece -0.00421 10,247,605Europe Portugal -0.00227 10,156,239Europe Hungary 0.01896

9,498,238Europe Belarus -0.00385 8,958,960Europe Austria 0.00216 8,796,669Europe Switzerland 0.00643 7,149,077Europe Serbia -0.01001 6,687,717Europe Bulgaria -0.0139 5,910,913Europe Denmark 0.00487 5,795,199Europe Slovakia 0.02689 5,545,475Europe Finland 0.00085 5,474,360Europe Norway 0.00737 5,056,935Europe Ireland 0.00673 4,008,617Europe Croatia -0.00539 3,435,931Europe Moldova 0.04978

3,210,847Europe Bosnia and Herzegovina -0.00701

2,832,439Europe Albania -0.00348

Ethnic groups in Europe Europeans may be defined by

common genetic ancestry,

common language, or both.

Pan and Pfeil (2004) count 87 distinct

"peoples of Europe", of which 33

form the majority population in at

least one sovereign state, while the

remaining 54 constitute ethnic

minorities.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe

The total number of national or linguistic

minority populations in Europe is

estimated at 105 million people, or about

14% of Europeans. The Russians are the

most populous among Europeans, with a

population over 145 million.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Europe

The current population of Europe is 748,236,762 as of Wednesday, October 27, 2021, based on the latest United Nations estimates. Europe population is equivalent to 9.78% of the total world population. https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/europe-population/

Continent Population World's Population

Density (/km²)

Asia 4,751,819,588 59.36% 148

Africa 1,460,476,458 18.24% 48

Europe 741,869,197 9.27% 32

North America 604,155,369 7.55% 25

South America 439,719,009 5.49% 25

Oceania 45,575,769 0.57% 5

Population by Continent 2023 https://worldpopulationreview.com/continents

Contemporary Europe: A Dynamic Realm: Cultural Diversity

■ Diversity of ancestries and languages • Most belong to the Indo-European language family.

• English as lingua franca.

• The EU has 24 official languages.

The EU is home to over 60 indigenous regional or minority languages, spoken by

some 40 million people. They include Basque, Catalan, Frisian, Saami, Welsh and

Yiddish.

The European Commission maintains an open dialogue, encouraging linguistic

diversity and putting effort into preserving this heritage. But the legal status of these

languages and the extent to which they receive support is determined by national

governments.

■ Religious strife • Historically between Catholics and Protestants.

• Today with the rise of Islam.

The EU has 24 official languages.

These are:

Bulgarian Croatian Czech Danish

Dutch English Estonian Finnish

French German Greek Hungarian

Irish Italian Latvian Lithuanian

Maltese Polish Portuguese Romanian

Slovak

History

Slovenian Spanish Swedish

Every time new members have joined the EU, they have added to the number of

official languages.

Official EU language since...

1958

1973

1981

1986

1995

2004

Dutch, French, German, Italian

Danish, English

Greek

Portuguese, Spanish

Finnish, Swedish

Czech, Estonian, Hungarian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese,

Polish, Slovak, Slovenian

Bulgarian, Irish, Romanian

Croatian

2007

2013

https://europa.eu/european-union/about-eu/eu-languages_en

Christianity in Europe by percentage of country

population Christianity in Europe (2010) 95–

100% Malta Moldova Armenia Romania Vatican City

90–95% San Marino Portugal Liechtenstein Ireland

Serbia Croatia Poland Iceland 80–90% Finland Austria

Hungary Bulgaria Italy Denmark Ukraine Norway Slovak

ia Monaco Greece Georgia Andorra Lithuania 70–80%

Luxembourg Belarus Switzerland Cyprus Russia

Montenegro Slovenia Spain 60–70% France Belgium

United Kingdom Sweden Germany 50-60% Netherlands

Latvia North Macedonia 30–40% Bosnia and

Herzegovina Estonia 20–30% Czech Republic 10–

20% Albania Kazakhstan 5–10% Kosovo 2–4% Azerbaijan < 1% Turkey

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_Europe

European

countries by their

largest Christian

denomination Light Red - Catholicism

with less than 50%

Dark Red - Catholicism

with more than 50%

Light Blue - Protestantism

with less than 50%

Dark Blue - Protestantism

with more than 50%

Yellow – Orthodoxy with

less than 50%

Warm Brown - Orthodoxy

with more than 50%

Religion in the European Union (December 2018) Catholic (44.5%) Orthodox (10.2%) Protestant (9.9%) Other Christian (5.0%) No religion/Agnostic (17.0%) Atheist (9.3%) Muslim (2.1%) Buddhist (0.6%) Jewish (0.2%) Other religion (1.2%) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_the_European_Union

69.6%

26.3%

Islam in Europe by percentage of country population

90–100% •Azerbaijan •Kosovo •Turkey

70–80% Kazakhstan 50–70%

30–50% 10–20%

5–10%

•Bosnia–Herzegovina •Albania North Macedonia •Bulgaria •Cyprus •Georgia •Montenegro •Russia •Austria •Sweden •Belgium •France •Germany •Greece •Liechtenstein •Netherlands •Switzerland •United Kingdom •Norway •Denmark

4–5% •Italy •Serbia

2–4% •Luxembourg •Slovenia •Spain

1–2% •Croatia •Ireland •Ukraine

< 1% •Andorra •Armenia •Belarus •Czech Republic •Estonia •Finland •Hungary •Iceland •Latvia

< 1% •Lithuania •Malta •Moldova •Monaco •Poland •Portugal •Romania •San Marino •Slovakia

According to estimates by the Pew Forum, the total number

of Muslims in Europe (excluding Turkey) in 2010 was about

44 million (6% of the total population), including 19 million

(3.8% of the population) in the European Union.

As of 2011, Approximately 9 million Turks were living in

Europe outside of Turkey. This made Turks the largest

immigrant Muslim population in Europe. Estimates of the

percentage of Muslims in Russia (the biggest group of

Muslims in Europe) vary from 5 to 11.7%, depending on

sources. It also depends on if only observant Muslims or

all people of Muslim descent are counted.

The Union currently counts 27 EU countries. The United Kingdom withdrew from the European Union on 31 January 2020.

A Changing Population

• Partially offsetting population decline.

• Changing once-homogenous nation-states.

• Growth of Muslims clustered in cities and unassimilated.

• Restriction of immigration and cultural differences.

• Massive influx of political and economic migrants from

Africa, the Middle East and South Asia.

In 2017, the population of Europe was estimated to be 742 million, slightly more than one-ninth of the world's population. A

century ago, Europe had nearly a quarter of the world's population. According to UN population projection, Europe's

population may fall to about 7% of world population by 2050, or 653 million people. The average number of children per

female of child-bearing age is 1.52. The UN predicts a steady population decline in Central and Eastern Europe as a result of

emigration and low birth rates.

■ Negative Natural Population Growth

• Shrinking population and below-replacement fertility.

• Impacts workers whose taxes pay for social services.

■ Immigration

The current population of Europe is 748,236,762 as of October 27, 2021, based on the latest United Nations estimates. Europe population is equivalent to 9.78% of the total world population.

https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/europe-population/

In 2005, the EU had an overall net gain from immigration of 1.8

million people. This accounted for almost 85% of Europe's

total population growth.

In 2008, 696,000 persons were given citizenship of an EU27

member state, a decrease from 707,000 the previous year. In

2017, approximately 825,000 persons acquired citizenship of

an EU28 member state.

2.7 million immigrants entered the EU from non-EU

countries in 2019.

In 2019, EU Member States granted citizenship to 706,400

persons having their usual residence in the territory of

the EU, an increase of 5% compared with 2018.

https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Migration_and_migrant_population_statistics

EU-27 data source Eurostat

Country Refused

entry illegally present

Order to leave

Returned outside the EU

EU 27 (2018) 454600 456700 145900

EU 27 (2019) 717600 627900 491200 142300

2018-2019 change (%)

+58% +10% +8% -2.5%

Statistics for European Union 27 (post-Brexit)

2.4 million immigrants entered the EU from non-EU

countries in 2017.

22.3 million people (4.4 %) of the 512.4 million people living

in the EU on 1 January 2018 were non-EU citizens.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immigration_to_Europe

In 2010, 47.3 million people lived in the EU, who were born

outside their resident country. This corresponds to 9.4% of

the total EU population. Of these, 31.4 million (6.3%) were

born outside the EU and 16.0 million (3.2%) were born in

another EU member state. The largest groups of people

born outside the EU were found in Germany (6.4 million),

France (5.1 million), the United Kingdom (4.7 million),

Spain (4.1 million), Italy (3.2 million), and the Netherlands

(1.4 million). https://www.immigration-residency.eu/

The number of international migrants globally reached an estimated 272 million in 2019, … Europe hosts the largest number of international migrants (82 million).

https://www.un.org/development/desa/en/news/population/international-migrant-stock-2019.html

The European migrant crisis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_migrant_crisis

The term is often used to refer specifically to the year 2015, when 1.3 million people

came to Europe to request asylum, the highest number since World War II. Those

requesting asylum in Europe in 2015 were mostly Syrians, but also included significant

numbers of Afghans, Nigerians, Pakistanis, Iraqis and Eritreans.

Drought, poverty, and violence linked

to global warming have accelerated

large-scale migration to Europe from

the Middle East and Africa. In rare

cases, immigration has been a cover

for ISIL militants disguised as refugees

or migrants. By religious affiliation, the

majority of entrants were Muslim

(usually Sunni Muslim), with a small

component of non-Muslim minorities

(including Yazidis, Assyrians and

Mandeans). According to the United

Nations High Commissioner for

Refugees, the top three nationalities of

entrants of the over one million

Mediterranean Sea arrivals between

January 2015 and March 2016 were

Syrian (46.7 percent), Afghan (20.9

percent) and Iraqi (9.4 percent).

A Changing Population

■ Syrian refugee crisis of 2015-16

• 6 million internally displaced within Syria; over 4.8

million are refugees outside of Syria (more than 6.1

million according to UN).

• 2.7 million moved to Turkey, 1.5 million to Lebanon and

2.5 million to Saudi Arabia.

• 10% moved to Europe, including half a million in

Germany. ■ Part of a wider refugee perspective

• From Africa, Middle East and South Asia.

• Instability in North Africa (e.g. Libya) and the Middle

East (Syria, Iraq) has opened new smuggling routes.

Countries of origin of asylum applicants in the EU and EFTA (European Free Trade Association) states between 1 January and 30 June 2015

Nationalities of the Mediterranean sea arrivals to Greece and Italy in 2015, according to UNHCR data

Mediterranean sea arrivals to Greece and Italy from January

2015 to September 2016, according to UNHCR data

Agreed in March 2016, the EU-Turkey deal

is a statement of cooperation between

European states and the Turkish

government. It seeks to control the

crossing of refugees and migrants from

Turkey to the Greek islands, and was

initially intended to curb the large numbers

of refugees arriving in Europe – or losing

their lives on the way – in 2015.

The crux of the deal was that every person

arriving irregularly (i.e. by boat, without

official permission or passage) to the Greek

islands – including asylum-seekers – would

be returned to Turkey. In exchange, EU

Member States would take one Syrian

refugee from Turkey for every Syrian

returned from the islands. https://chooselove.org/news/eu-turkey-deal-explained/

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_migrant_crisis

Number of first time asylum applications received by the top ten recipients in the EU-28, January–December 2015. The top ten recipients account for more than 90 percent of the asylum applications received in the EU-28.

ASYLUM APPLICATIONS 2010 259,400 2011 309,040 2012 335,290 2013 431,090 2014 626,960 2015 1,321,600 2016 1,259,955 2017 705,705 2018 646,060

Asylum applicants by year

Number of first time asylum applicants Year 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Total EU28 225,150 263,835 259,400 309,040 335,290 431,090 626,960 1,322,825 1,259,955 705,705 5,033,545 Germany 26,845 32,910 48,475 53,235 77,485 126,705 202,645 476,510 745,155 222,560 1,789,965 Hungary 3,175 4,665 2,095 1,690 2,155 18,895 42,775 177,135 29,430 3,390 282,015 Sweden 24,785 24,175 31,850 29,650 43,855 54,270 81,180 162,450 28,790 26,325 481,005 Austria 12,715 15,780 11,045 14,420 17,415 17,500 28,035 88,160 42,255 24,715 247,325 Italy 30,140 17,640 10,000 40,315 17,335 26,620 64,625 83,540 122,960 128,850 542,025 France 41,840 47,620 52,725 57,330 61,440 66,265 64,310 76,165 84,270 99,330 551,965 Netherlands 15,250 16,135 15,100 14,590 13,095 13,060 24,495 44,970 20,945 18,210 177,640 Belgium 15,165 21,615 26,080 31,910 28,075 21,030 22,710 44,660 18,280 18,340 229,525 United Kingdom - 31,665 24,335 26,915 28,800 30,585 32,785 40,160 38,785 33,780 254,030 Switzerland 16,520 15,900 15,425 23,615 28,400 21,305 23,555 39,445 27,140 18,015 211,305 Finland 3,670 4,910 3,085 2,915 3,095 3,210 3,620 32,345 5,605 4,990 62,455 Norway 14,395 17,125 10,015 8,990 9,675 11,930 11,415 31,110 3,485 3,520 118,140 Denmark 2,350 3,720 5,065 3,945 6,045 7,170 14,680 20,935 6,180 3,220 70,090 Bulgaria 745 855 1,025 890 1,385 7,145 11,080 20,365 19,420 3,695 62,910 Spain 4,515 3,005 2,740 3,420 2,565 4,485 5,615 14,780 15,755 31,120 56,880 Greece 19,885 15,925 10,275 9,310 9,575 8,225 9,430 13,205 51,110 58,650 146,940 Poland 8,515 10,590 6,540 6,885 10,750 15,240 8,020 12,190 12,305 5,045 91,035 Ireland 3,855 2,680 1,935 1,290 955 945 1,450 3,275 2,245 2,930 18,630 Luxembourg 455 480 780 2,150 2,050 1,070 1,150 2,505 2,160 2,430 12,800 Cyprus 3,920 3,200 2,875 1,770 1,635 1,255 1,745 2,265 2,940 4,600 21,605 Malta 2,605 2,385 175 1,890 2,080 2,245 1,350 1,845 1,930 1,840 16,505 Czech Republic 1,645 1,235 775 750 740 695 1,145 1,515 1,475 1,445 9,975 Romania 1,175 960 885 1,720 2,510 1,495 1,545 1,260 1,880 4,815 13,430 Portugal 160 140 155 275 295 500 440 895 1,460 1,750 4,320 Iceland 70 35 40 75 115 125 170 345 1,125 1,085 2,100 Latvia 55 60 65 340 205 195 375 330 350 355 1,975 Slovakia 895 805 540 490 730 440 330 330 145 160 4,705 Lithuania 520 450 495 525 645 400 440 315 430 495 4,220 Slovenia 255 190 240 355 295 270 385 275 1,310 1,475 3,575 Estonia 15 40 35 65 75 95 155 230 175 190 885 Croatia - - - - - 1,075 450 210 2,225 975 3,960 Liechtenstein 20 280 105 75 70 55 65 150 80 150 900 Total 256,155 297,175 284,985 341,795 373,550 464,505 662,165 1,393,875 1,291,785 728,470 5,365,990

National governments' position in the European Union Justice and Home Affairs Council majority vote to relocate 120,000 refugees:

Green - Yes Orange - Opt-out Blue - Abstention Red - No Grey - Non-EU state

On 22 September 2015, European Union interior ministers meeting in the Justice and Home Affairs Council approved a plan to relocate 120,000 asylum seekers over two years from the frontline states Italy, Greece and Hungary to all other EU countries (except Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom which have opt-outs). The relocation plan applies to asylum seekers "in clear need of international protection" (those with a recognition rate higher than 75 percent, i.e. Syrians, Eritreans and Iraqis) – 15,600 from Italy, 50,400 from Greece and 54,000 from Hungary – who will be distributed among EU states on the basis of quotas taking into account the size of economy and population of each state, as well as the average number of asylum applications. The decision was taken by majority vote, with the Czech Republic, Hungary, Romania and Slovakia voting against and Finland abstaining.

A February 2017 poll of 10,000 people in 10 European countries by Chatham House

found on average a majority (55%) were opposed to further Muslim immigration,

with opposition especially pronounced in a number of countries: Austria (65%),

Poland (71%), Hungary (64%), France (61%) and Belgium (64%).

According to a Yougov poll in 2018, majorities in all seven polled countries were

opposed to accepting more migrants: Germany (72%), Denmark (65%), Finland

(64%), Sweden (60%), United Kingdom (58%), France (58%) and Norway (52%). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immigration_to_Europe

Dec 7, 2016https://www.statista.com/chart/7127/the-most-anti-immigrant-countries-in-europe/

% of people agreeing with the statement: "there are so many foreigners living here, it doesn't feel like home any more."

The economy of Europe comprises about 748 million people in 50 countries. The formation of

the European Union (EU) and in 1999, the introduction of a unified currency, the Euro, brings participating European countries closer through the convenience of a shared currency and has led to a stronger European cash flow. The European Union is a unique global organization, with the biggest economy in the world. The European Union also “regulates” the global market by the Single Market. Europe has total banking assets of more than $50 trillion and its global management has assets of more than $20 trillion. Europe's largest national economies with GDP (nominal) of more than $1 trillion are: •Germany (about $4.3 trillion), •United Kingdom (about $3.1 trillion), •France (about $2.9 trillion), •Italy (about $2.1 trillion), •Russia (about $1.7 trillion), •Spain (about $1.5 trillion), •Netherlands (about $1.0 trillion), Other large European economies are that of Switzerland, Poland, Sweden, Belgium, Austria, Norway, Ireland and Denmark. The European Union, with a GDP of about $16 trillion, generates roughly 2/3 of Europe's GDP. The EU as a whole is the second wealthiest and second largest economy in the world, below the US by about $5 trillion. Of the top 500 largest corporations measured by revenue (Fortune Global 500 in 2010), 184 have their headquarters in Europe. 161 are located in the EU, 15 in Switzerland, 6 in Russia, 1 in Turkey, 1 in Norway. As noted in 2010 by the Spanish sociologist Manuel Castells, the average standard of living in Western Europe is very high: "The bulk of the population in Western Europe still enjoys the highest living standards in the world, and in the world's history."

The difference in wealth across Europe can be seen roughly in former Cold War divide, with some countries breaching the divide (Greece, Estonia, Portugal, Slovenia and the Czech Republic). Whilst most European states have a GDP per capita higher than the world's average and are very highly developed, some European economies, despite their position over the world's average in the Human Development Index, are poorer. Throughout this article "Europe" and derivatives of the word are taken to include selected states whose territory is only partly in Europe, such as Turkey, Azerbaijan and Georgia, and states that are geographically in Asia, bordering Europe and culturally adherent to the continent, such as Armenia and Cyprus.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Europe

The G20 was born in 1999 as a consultation forum

between finance ministers and central bank governors of the

world’s major economies. Following the 2008 economic crisis, it

became a forum between Heads of State and Government,

aimed at improving coordination on the main global issues.

The G20 is the international forum that brings together the

world’s major economies. Its members account for more than

80% of world GDP, 75% of global trade and 60% of the

population of the planet.

The forum has met every year since 1999 and includes, since

2008, a yearly Summit, with the participation of the respective

Heads of State and Government.

In addition to the Summit, ministerial meetings, Sherpa meetings

(in charge of carrying out negotiations and building consensus

among Leaders), working groups and special events are

organized throughout the year.

The G20 members are: Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada,

China, France, Germany, Japan, India, Indonesia, Italy,

Mexico, Russia, South Africa, Saudi Arabia, South Korea,

Turkey, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the

European Union. Spain is also invited as a permanent guest.

Each year, the Presidency invites guest countries, which take full

part in the G20 exercise. Several international and regional

organizations also participate, granting the forum an even

broader representation.

https://www.g20.org/about-the-g20.html

Country 2000 (rank) % of Top 30 Total 2000

Rank in 2021

United States $9,764 trillion (1) 34% 1 Japan $4,649 trillion (2) 16% 3

China $1,198 trillion (6) Hong Kong $168 billion (25)

4.8% 2

Germany $1,900 trillion (3) 6.6% 4 France $1,327 trillion (5) 4.6% 7

United Kingdom $1,442 trillion (4) 5% 5

Italy $1,097 trillion (7) 3.8% 8 Spain $580 billion (11) 2% 14 Brazil $644 billion (9) 2% 13 Canada $714 billion (8) 2.5% 9 India $460 billion (13) 1.6% 6 Russia $259 billion (17) 0.9% 11 Mexico $581 billion (10) 2% 15 Australia $399 billion (14) 1.3% 12 Netherlands $386 billion (15) 1.3% 17 South Korea $511 billion (12) 1.8% 10 Turkey $199 billion (21) 0.7% 20 Indonesia $165 billion (27) 0.5% 16 Switzerland $246 billion (18) 0.8% 18 Belgium $231 billion (20) 0.8% 25 Poland $171 billion (24) 0.6% 23 Saudi Arabia $188 billion (23) 0.6% 19 Austria $193 billion (22) 0.6% 28 Sweden $242 billion (19) 0.8% 24 Norway $166 billion (26) 0.6% 31 Argentina $284 billion (16) 0.9% 32 Denmark $160 billion (28) 0.5% 36 South Africa $132 billion (29) 0.5% 42 Thailand $122 billion (30) 0.4% 26 https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ipe/2000-09GDP.htm

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)

Rank Country Region IMF Year UN Year World Bank Year 4 Germany Europe 4,319,286 2021 3,861,123 2020 3,806,060 2020 5 United Kingdom Europe 3,124,650 2021 2,826,441 2020 2,707,744 2020 7 France Europe 2,938,271 2021 2,715,518 2020 2,603,004 2020 8 Italy Europe 2,106,287 2021 2,003,576 2020 1,886,445 2020

11 Russia Europe 1,710,734 2021 1,692,930 2020 1,483,498 2020 14 Spain Europe 1,461,552 2021 1,393,490 2020 1,281,199 2020 17 Netherlands Europe 1,012,598 2021 907,050 2020 912,242 2020 18 Switzerland Europe 824,734 2021 731,425 2020 747,969 2020 23 Poland Europe 642,121 2021 595,862 2020 594,165 2020 24 Sweden Europe 625,948 2021 530,883 2020 537,610 2020 25 Belgium Europe 578,996 2021 533,097 2020 515,333 2020 28 Austria Europe 481,796 2021 445,075 2020 428,965 2020 29 Ireland Europe 476,663 2021 398,590 2020 418,622 2020 31 Norway Europe 444,519 2021 403,336 2020 362,009 2020 36 Denmark Europe 392,570 2021 350,104 2020 355,184 2020 44 Finland Europe 300,484 2021 269,296 2020 271,234 2020 47 Romania Europe 289,130 2021 250,075 2020 248,716 2020 48 Czech Republic Europe 276,109 2021 250,680 2020 243,530 2020 49 Portugal Europe 257,391 2021 238,785 2020 231,256 2020 52 Greece Europe 209,857 2021 205,326 2020 189,410 2020 56 Hungary Europe 176,543 2021 163,469 2020 155,013 2020 57 Ukraine Europe 164,593 2021 153,781 2020 155,582 2020 61 Slovakia Europe 117,664 2021 105,079 2020 104,574 2020 72 Luxembourg Europe 84,077 2021 71,104 2020 73,264 2020 73 Bulgaria Europe 77,782 2021 67,925 2020 69,105 2020 80 Belarus Europe 60,725 2021 63,080 2020 60,258 2020 81 Croatia Europe 65,217 2021 60,415 2020 55,967 2020 83 Lithuania Europe 62,198 2021 54,627 2020 55,887 2020 84 Slovenia Europe 59,132 2021 54,174 2020 52,880 2020 86 Serbia Europe 60,435 2021 51,475 2020 52,960 2020

102 Latvia Europe 37,720 2021 34,102 2020 33,505 2020 104 Estonia Europe 35,187 2021 31,471 2020 31,030 2020 113 Iceland Europe 24,155 2021 24,188 2020 21,715 2020 117 Bosnia and HerzegovinaEurope 21,953 2021 20,164 2020 19,788 2020 127 Albania Europe 17,138 2021 15,278 2020 14,800 2020 129 Malta Europe 16,476 2021 14,863 2020 14,647 2020 140 North Macedonia Europe 13,821 2021 12,694 2020 12,267 2020 145 Moldova Europe 11,998 2021 11,955 2020 11,914 2020 151 Kosovo Europe 8,810 2021 7,952 2020 7,611 2020 156 Monaco Europe N/A N/A 7,423 2020 7,424 2019 158 Liechtenstein Europe N/A N/A 6,797 2020 6,839 2018 162 Montenegro Europe 5,651 2021 5,542 2020 4,779 2020 172 Andorra Europe N/A N/A 3,154 2020 3,155 2019 188 San Marino Europe 1,688 2021 1,602 2018 1,616 2019

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)GDP (Nominal) in US$ Million by Country

Nominal differs from real GDP in that it includes changes in prices due to inflation, which reflects the rate of price increases in an economy.

Country/Territory UN region IMF[1][13] World Bank[14] United Nations[15]

Forecast Year Estimate Year Estimate Year World — 104,476,432 2023 100,562,011 2022 96,698,005 2021 United States Americas 26,949,643 2023 25,462,700 2022 23,315,081 2021 China Asia 17,700,899 [n 1]2023 17,963,171 [n 3]2022 17,734,131 [n 1]2021 Germany Europe 4,429,838 2023 4,072,192 2022 4,259,935 2021 Japan Asia 4,230,862 2023 4,231,141 2022 4,940,878 2021 India Asia 3,732,224 2023 3,385,090 2022 3,201,471 2021 United Kingdom Europe 3,332,059 2023 3,070,668 2022 3,131,378 2021 France Europe 3,049,016 2023 2,782,905 2022 2,957,880 2021 Italy Europe 2,186,082 2023 2,010,432 2022 2,107,703 2021 Brazil Americas 2,126,809 2023 1,920,096 2022 1,608,981 2021 Canada Americas 2,117,805 2023 2,139,840 2022 1,988,336 2021 Russia Europe 1,862,470 2023 2,240,422 2022 1,778,782 2021 Mexico Americas 1,811,468 2023 1,414,187 2022 1,272,839 2021 South Korea Asia 1,709,232 2023 1,665,246 2022 1,810,966 2021 Australia Oceania 1,687,713 2023 1,675,419 2022 1,734,532 2021 Spain Europe 1,582,054 2023 1,397,509 2022 1,427,381 2021 Indonesia Asia 1,417,387 2023 1,319,100 2022 1,186,093 2021 Turkey Asia 1,154,600 2023 905,988 2022 819,034 2021 Netherlands Europe 1,092,748 2023 991,115 2022 1,012,847 2021 Saudi Arabia Asia 1,069,437 2023 1,108,149 2022 833,541 2021 Switzerland Europe 905,684 2023 807,706 2022 812,867 2021 Poland Europe 842,172 2023 688,177 2022 679,442 2021 Taiwan Asia 751,930 [n 4]2023 — — Belgium Europe 627,511 2023 578,604 2022 594,104 2021 Argentina Americas 621,833 2023 632,770 2022 487,227 2021 Sweden Europe 597,110 2023 585,939 2022 635,664 2021 Ireland Europe 589,569 2023 529,245 2022 504,183 2021 Norway Europe 546,768 2023 579,267 2022 482,175 2021 Austria Europe 526,182 2023 471,400 2022 480,368 2021 Israel Asia 521,688 2023 522,033 2022 481,591 2021 Thailand Asia 512,193 2023 495,341 2022 505,982 2021 United Arab Emirates Asia 509,179 2023 507,535 2022 405,468 2021 Singapore Asia 497,347 2023 466,789 2022 396,992 2021 Bangladesh Asia 446,349 2023 460,201 2022 414,907 2021 Philippines Asia 435,675 2023 404,284 2022 394,086 2021 Vietnam Asia 433,356 2023 408,802 2022 366,138 2021 Malaysia Asia 430,895 2023 406,306 2022 372,702 2021 Denmark Europe 420,800 2023 395,404 2022 398,303 2021 Egypt Africa 398,397 2023 476,748 2022 425,906 2021 Nigeria Africa 390,002 2023 477,386 2022 430,923 2021 Hong Kong Asia 385,546 [n 5]2023 359,839 2022 369,174 2021

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)

GDP (Purchasing Power Parity, US$ million) by Country https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(PPP)

Rank Country Sub Region Region IMF Estimate Year World Bank Estimate Year CIA Estimate Year 5 Germany Western Europe Europe 4,743,673 2021 4,469,546 2020 4,482,448 2019 6 Russia Eastern Europe Europe 4,328,122 2021 4,133,084 2020 3,968,180 2019 9 France Western Europe Europe 3,231,927 2021 3,115,307 2020 3,097,061 2019

10 United Kingdom Northern Europe Europe 3,174,921 2021 3,019,057 2020 3,118,396 2019 13 Italy Southern Europe Europe 2,610,563 2021 2,491,740 2020 2,562,135 2019 16 Spain Southern Europe Europe 1,959,037 2021 1,815,204 2020 1,925,576 2019 20 Poland Eastern Europe Europe 1,363,766 2021 1,300,375 2020 1,261,433 2019 27 Netherlands Western Europe Europe 1,055,502 2021 1,033,018 2020 986,847 2019 35 Switzerland Western Europe Europe 660,862 2021 616,263 2020 588,472 2019 36 Romania Eastern Europe Europe 636,481 2021 616,110 2020 579,549 2019 37 Belgium Western Europe Europe 623,720 2021 600,544 2020 596,414 2019 39 Sweden Northern Europe Europe 589,751 2021 564,916 2020 547,595 2019 40 Ukraine Eastern Europe Europe 576,106 2021 545,057 2020 538,388 2019 42 Austria Western Europe Europe 517,860 2021 491,315 2020 498,780 2019 44 Ireland Northern Europe Europe 500,270 2021 467,567 2020 428,825 2019 47 Czech Republic Eastern Europe Europe 460,933 2021 446,544 2020 435,987 2019 51 Norway Northern Europe Europe 374,994 2021 339,972 2020 340,303 2019 52 Portugal Southern Europe Europe 370,497 2021 355,500 2020 358,344 2019 53 Denmark Northern Europe Europe 359,048 2021 352,208 2020 336,335 2019 54 Hungary Eastern Europe Europe 342,708 2021 322,562 2020 321,869 2019 55 Greece Southern Europe Europe 325,304 2021 305,005 2020 319,334 2019 59 Finland Northern Europe Europe 286,858 2021 282,563 2020 268,662 2019 70 Belarus Eastern Europe Europe 192,626 2021 189,854 2020 181,286 2019 71 Slovakia Eastern Europe Europe 190,277 2021 173,768 2020 178,513 2019 74 Bulgaria Eastern Europe Europe 174,998 2021 168,799 2020 161,654 2019 83 Croatia Southern Europe Europe 142,285 2021 115,361 2020 126,625 2019 85 Serbia Southern Europe Europe 119,532 2021 132,850 2020 116,339 2019 87 Lithuania Northern Europe Europe 114,035 2021 108,252 2020 103,756 2019

100 Slovenia Southern Europe Europe 85,889 2021 83,151 2020 81,614 2019 104 Luxembourg Western Europe Europe 78,309 2021 74,836 2020 70,966 2019 109 Latvia Northern Europe Europe 63,539 2021 60,886 2020 59,102 2019 115 Bosnia and Herzegovina Southern Europe Europe 51,996 2021 51,219 2020 49,224 2019 116 Estonia Northern Europe Europe 52,813 2021 51,106 2020 48,987 2019 122 Albania Southern Europe Europe 43,553 2021 39,211 2020 39,859 2019 127 Malta Southern Europe Europe 23,501 2021 22,398 2020 22,133 2019 132 North Macedonia Southern Europe Europe 36,673 2021 35,265 2020 34,333 2019 133 Moldova Eastern Europe Europe 35,906 2021 34,036 2020 34,680 2019 150 Iceland Northern Europe Europe 21,520 2021 20,233 2020 20,187 2019 151 Kosovo Eastern Europe Europe 21,680 2021 20,182 2020 20,396 2019 159 Montenegro Southern Europe Europe 13,313 2021 12,787 2020 13,357 2019 169 Monaco Western Europe Europe N/A N/A N/A N/A 7,672 2015 171 Isle of Man Northern Europe Europe N/A N/A N/A N/A 6,792 2015 176 Jersey Northern Europe Europe N/A N/A N/A N/A 5,569 2016 179 Liechtenstein Western Europe Europe N/A N/A N/A N/A 4,978 2014 189 Guernsey Northern Europe Europe N/A N/A N/A N/A 3,465 2015 190 Andorra Southern Europe Europe N/A N/A N/A N/A 3,327 2015 197 San Marino Southern Europe Europe 2,086 2021 2,148 2019 2,008 2018 198 Gibraltar Southern Europe Europe N/A N/A N/A N/A 2,044 2014 199 Faroe Islands Northern Europe Europe N/A N/A N/A N/A 2,001 2014

Country (or territory) Region IMF[1][5] World Bank[6] CIA[7][8][9]

Forecast Year Estimate Year Estimate Year World — 174,789,867 2023 164,155,327 2022 127,800,000 2017 China Asia 32,897,929 [n 1]2023 30,327,320 [n 2]2022 23,009,780 [n 1]2020 United States Americas 26,949,643 2023 25,462,700 2022 19,846,720 2020 India Asia 13,119,622 2023 11,874,583 2022 8,443,360 2020 Japan Asia 6,495,214 2023 5,702,287 2022 5,224,850 2019 Germany Europe 5,537,992 2023 5,309,606 2022 4,238,800 2020 Russia Europe 5,056,479 2023 5,326,855 2022 3,875,690 2020 Indonesia Asia 4,393,370 2023 4,036,901 2022 3,130,470 2020 Brazil Americas 4,101,022 2023 3,837,261 2022 2,989,430 2020 United Kingdom Europe 3,871,790 2023 3,656,809 2022 2,797,980 2020 France Europe 3,868,619 2023 3,769,924 2022 2,832,170 2020 Turkey Asia 3,613,540 2023 3,180,984 2022 2,393,960 2020 Mexico Americas 3,277,601 2023 2,742,903 2022 2,306,320 2020 Italy Europe 3,193,180 2023 3,052,609 2022 2,322,140 2020 South Korea Asia 2,924,189 2023 2,585,011 2022 2,187,800 2020 Spain Europe 2,413,066 2023 2,181,968 2022 1,714,860 2020 Canada Americas 2,378,973 2023 2,273,489 2022 1,742,790 2020 Saudi Arabia Asia 2,246,535 2023 2,150,487 2022 1,543,240 2020 Egypt Africa 1,809,425 2023 1,674,951 2022 1,223,040 2020 Iran Asia 1,725,874 2023 1,600,556 2022 1,044,310 2020 Australia Oceania 1,719,262 2023 1,828,001 2022 1,201,210 2020 Poland Europe 1,712,629 2023 1,625,236 2022 1,223,460 2020 Taiwan Asia 1,685,358 2023 — 1,143,277 2019 Thailand Asia 1,578,452 2023 1,482,098 2022 1,206,620 2020 Pakistan Asia 1,568,427 2023 1,518,100 2022 1,020,000 2020 Bangladesh Asia 1,476,870 2023 1,265,940 2022 793,490 2020 Vietnam Asia 1,434,211 2023 1,321,256 2022 798,210 2020 Nigeria Africa 1,365,903 2023 1,280,716 2022 1,013,530 2020 Netherlands Europe 1,297,024 2023 1,231,735 2022 945,480 2020 Philippines Asia 1,278,624 2023 1,170,982 2022 871,560 2020 Argentina Americas 1,239,515 2023 1,225,435 2022 893,310 2020 Malaysia Asia 1,225,927 2023 1,134,677 2022 855,600 2020 Colombia Americas 1,016,124 2023 1,052,389 2022 683,940 2020 South Africa Africa 997,444 2023 952,603 2022 680,040 2020 United Arab Emirates Asia 895,166 2023 828,263 2022 655,790 2019 Switzerland Europe 788,335 2023 733,137 2022 590,710 2020 Romania Europe 780,797 2023 794,055 2022 556,070 2020 Belgium Europe 769,682 2023 758,833 2022 557,110 2020 Singapore Asia 753,273 2023 719,084 2022 531,040 2020 Ireland Europe 722,929 2023 645,565 2022 447,970 2020

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(PPP)

GDP (Nominal) in US$ Per Capita by Country https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)_per_capita

Rank Country Sub-Region IMF Year UN Year World Bank Year

1 Monaco Western Europe N/A N/A 190,532 2019 190,513 2019 2 Liechtenstein Western Europe N/A N/A 179,258 2019 180,367 2018 3 Luxembourg Western Europe 131,782 2021 115,481 2019 115,874 2020 6 Switzerland Western Europe 94,696 2021 85,135 2019 86,602 2020 7 Ireland Northern Europe 94,556 2021 81,637 2019 83,813 2020 9 Norway Northern Europe 81,995 2021 74,986 2019 67,295 2020

11 Iceland Northern Europe 65,273 2021 71,345 2019 59,261 2020 12 Denmark Northern Europe 67,218 2021 60,657 2019 60,909 2020 16 Sweden Northern Europe 58,977 2021 52,896 2019 51,926 2020 17 Netherlands Western Europe 58,003 2021 53,053 2019 52,304 2020 19 Finland Northern Europe 54,330 2021 48,678 2019 49,041 2020 20 Austria Western Europe 53,859 2021 49,701 2019 48,105 2020 21 San Marino Southern Europe 49,765 2021 47,313 2019 47,731 2019 24 Germany Western Europe 51,860 2021 46,232 2019 45,724 2020 25 Belgium Western Europe 50,103 2021 46,198 2019 44,594 2020 29 United Kingdom Northern Europe 46,344 2021 41,855 2019 40,285 2020 30 France Western Europe 44,995 2021 40,319 2019 38,625 2020 32 Andorra Southern Europe N/A N/A 40,887 2019 40,897 2019 36 Italy Southern Europe 34,997 2021 33,090 2019 31,676 2020 41 Malta Southern Europe 31,576 2021 33,752 2019 27,885 2020 43 Spain Southern Europe 30,996 2021 29,816 2019 27,057 2020 48 Slovenia Southern Europe 28,104 2021 26,062 2019 25,180 2020 50 Estonia Northern Europe 26,470 2021 23,740 2019 23,312 2020 51 Czech Republic Eastern Europe 25,732 2021 23,452 2019 22,762 2020 53 Portugal Southern Europe 25,065 2021 23,350 2019 22,440 2020 56 Lithuania Northern Europe 22,245 2021 19,795 2019 19,998 2020 58 Slovakia Eastern Europe 21,529 2021 19,256 2019 19,157 2020 59 Greece Southern Europe 19,673 2021 19,604 2019 17,677 2020 61 Latvia Northern Europe 19,824 2021 17,885 2019 17,620 2020 63 Hungary Eastern Europe 18,075 2021 16,879 2019 15,899 2020 65 Poland Eastern Europe 16,930 2021 15,727 2019 15,656 2020 67 Croatia Southern Europe 16,247 2021 14,627 2019 13,828 2020 73 Romania Eastern Europe 14,968 2021 12,914 2019 12,896 2020 79 Russia Eastern Europe 11,654 2021 11,606 2019 10,127 2020 82 Bulgaria Eastern Europe 11,321 2021 9,703 2019 9,976 2020 95 Montenegro Southern Europe 9,064 2021 8,825 2019 7,686 2020 97 Serbia Southern Europe 8,748 2021 7,359 2019 7,666 2020

106 Bosnia and Herzegovina Southern Europe 6,728 2021 6,109 2019 6,032 2020 108 North Macedonia Southern Europe 6,657 2021 6,093 2019 5,888 2020 109 Belarus Eastern Europe 6,487 2021 6,674 2019 6,411 2020 110 Albania Southern Europe 5,991 2021 5,303 2019 5,215 2020 120 Kosovo Eastern Europe 4,856 2021 4,473 2019 4,287 2020 121 Moldova Eastern Europe 4,638 2021 2,957 2019 4,551 2020 133 Ukraine Eastern Europe 3,984 2021 3,496 2019 3,727 2020

Monaco, a sovereign city-state,

country, and microstate on the French

Riviera in Western Europe (Area: 499

acres; Population: 38,695 in 2017)

There is huge disparity between many European countries in terms of their income. The richest in terms of GDP per capita is Monaco and the poorest are Moldova and Ukraine.

Country/Territory UN Region IMF[5][6] World Bank[7] CIA[8][9][10]

Estimate Year Estimate Year Estimate Year Luxembourg * Europe 143,304 2023 142,214 2022 115,700 2021 Ireland * Europe 137,638 2023 126,905 2022 102,500 2021 Singapore * Asia 133,108 2023 127,565 2022 106,000 2021 Liechtenstein * Europe — — 139,100 2009 Qatar * Asia 114,210 2023 114,648 2022 92,200 2021 Monaco * Europe — — 115,700 2015 Macau * Asia 98,157 2023 55,344 2022 64,800 2021 Switzerland * Europe 89,537 2023 83,598 2022 71,000 2021 United Arab Emirates * Asia 88,962 2023 87,729 2022 69,700 2021 Bermuda * Americas — 95,837 2022 80,300 2021 Isle of Man * Europe — — 84,600 2014 San Marino * Europe 84,135 2023 59,451 2020 56,400 2020 Norway * Europe 82,236 2023 114,899 2022 65,700 2021 United States * Americas 80,412 2023 76,399 2022 63,700 2021 Denmark * Europe 74,958 2023 74,005 2022 58,000 2021 Netherlands * Europe 73,317 2023 69,577 2022 56,600 2021 Hong Kong * Asia 72,861 2023 69,049 2022 60,000 2021 Brunei * Asia 72,610 2023 69,275 2022 60,100 2021 Cayman Islands * Americas — 74,155 2021 67,500 2021 Taiwan * Asia 72,485 2023 — 50,500 2017 Falkland Islands * Americas — — 70,800 2015 Iceland * Europe 69,833 2023 69,081 2022 53,600 2020 Austria * Europe 69,069 2023 67,936 2022 54,100 2021 Saudi Arabia * Asia 68,453 2023 59,065 2022 44,300 2021 Andorra * Europe 68,232 2023 — 49,900 2015 Sweden * Europe 66,209 2023 64,578 2022 53,600 2021 Germany * Europe 66,038 2023 63,150 2022 53,100 2021 Belgium * Europe 65,813 2023 65,027 2022 51,700 2021 Australia * Oceania 64,675 2023 62,625 2022 49,800 2021 Malta * Europe 63,481 2023 55,928 2022 44,700 2021 Gibraltar * Europe — — 61,700 2014 Guyana * Americas 61,099 2023 40,642 2022 21,900 2021 Bahrain * Asia 60,715 2023 61,228 2022 49,400 2021 Finland * Europe 59,869 2023 59,027 2022 48,800 2021 Canada * Americas 59,813 2023 58,400 2022 47,900 2021 France * Europe 58,765 2023 55,493 2022 45,000 2021 European Union *[n 1] Europe 56,970 2023 54,249 2022 44,436 2019 United Kingdom * Europe 56,836 2023 54,603 2022 45,000 2021 South Korea * Asia 56,709 2023 50,070 2022 44,200 2021 Jersey * Europe — — 56,600 2016 Israel * Asia 54,771 2023 49,509 2022 42,100 2021

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(PPP)_per_capita

Where Are The Best Social

Benefits In Europe? It

Certainly Isn’t Britain.

Posted by Glassdoor Team

Career Advice Experts

Last Updated 20 April 2021

18 February 2016 https://www.glassdoor.co.uk/blog/social-benefits-europe-isnt-britain/

6. Austria > Public spending as pct. of GDP: 27.8% > GDP per capita: $46,504 > Poverty rate: 9.0% > Avg. income tax rate: 16.8%

7. Sweden > Public spending as pct. of GDP: 27.1% > GDP per capita: $46,256 > Poverty rate: 8.8% > Avg. income tax rate: 17.7%

8. Greece > Public spending as pct. of GDP: 27.0% > GDP per capita: $26,006 > Poverty rate: 15.1% > Avg. income tax rate: 8.8%

9. Germany > Public spending as pct. of GDP: 25.3% > GDP per capita: $46,347 > Poverty rate: 9.1% > Avg. income tax rate: 19.2%

10. Norway > Public spending as pct. of GDP: 25.1% > GDP per capita: $67,429 > Poverty rate: 7.8% > Avg. income tax rate: 20.2%

1. France > Public spending as pct. of GDP: 31.5% > GDP per capita: $40,704 > Poverty rate: 8.0% > Avg. income tax rate: 14.7%

2. Finland > Public spending as pct. of GDP: 30.8% > GDP per capita: $40,739 > Poverty rate: 6.8% > Avg. income tax rate: 22.7%

3. Belgium > Public spending as pct. of GDP: 29.0% > GDP per capita: $43,105 > Poverty rate: 10.0% > Avg. income tax rate: 28.1%

4. Italy > Public spending as pct. of GDP: 28.9% > GDP per capita: $35,141 > Poverty rate: 13.3% > Avg. income tax rate: 21.6%

5. Denmark > Public spending as pct. of GDP: 28.7% > GDP per capita: $45,054 > Poverty rate: 5.4% > Avg. income tax rate: 36.1%

https://finance.yahoo.com/news/countries-most-generous-welfare-programs-110004319.html

Old-age and health expenditures make up the majority, about two-thirds, of public social spending in OECD countries. The largest expenditure, at 8.7% of GDP on average across the OECD, is spending on the elderly, which includes pensions.

Countries With the Most Generous Welfare Programs Thomas C. Frohlich, Michael B. Sauter

and Evan Comen, November 30, 2016

Rank Country Average Tax Rate (Average Salary)

1 Belgium 39.8

2 Germany 39.7

3 Denmark 35.8

4 Slovenia 34.1

5 Hungary 33.5

6 Austria 32.8

7 Italy 31.4

8 Netherlands 30.5

9 Finland 30

10 Luxembourg 29.5

11 France 28.7

12 Iceland 28.7

13 Latvia 28.4

14 Turkey 28.2

15 Portugal 26.6

Taxes Among OECD Countries OECD: Organisation For Economic Co-Operation and Development

https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/countries-with-the-highest-taxes-in-the-world.html

Ben Loudermilk June 6 2019 in World Facts

In 2018, the average tax rate of the top 10 percent of earners in the United States stood at 19.89 percent. For the top one percent of earners, the average tax rate stood at 25.44 percent, and for all taxpayers, the average tax rate was 13.28 percent.

https://www.statista.com/statistics/318079/average-tax-rate-in-the-us-by-income-percentile/

What is Compassionate Capitalism and What

Does it Entail for us?

In recent years, there has been much talk about Capitalism

evolving into a model of economy wherein corporations ensure

that communitarian and people oriented business models are

embraced so that profit is not the only criterion or reason why they

are in business. In other words, many prominent business leaders

and experts are calling for Capitalism to move beyond the “Profit

at all costs” paradigm and into a kinder and gentler variety that

can place communities and people above the mindless pursuit of

profit.

Indeed, this form of capitalism which is sometimes called

Compassionate Capitalism or Capitalism with a human face is

finding many takers both in the developed Western world and in

the developing and emerging world in Asia and Latin America.

The Nuts and Bolts of Compassionate Capitalism

Compassionate Capitalism means that corporations have to

account for the costs that they impose on the environment, the

communities that lie in the vicinity of their factories and plants as

well as offices, their employees whom they have to treat with more

kindness, and the consumers and other stakeholders to whom

they must be accountable.

In other words, corporations must practice a variety of

capitalism that is more humane, compassionate, and just and

fair. This not only entails a mindset change but also a movement

away from the dominant philosophy of polluting the environment

and refusing to pay for the cleanup, increasing pay for those at the

top of the organizational hierarchy and letting those down the

ladder high and dry, not compromising on quality and safety of

their products and goods and services, and to be transparent in

their dealings with regulators and the governmental agencies.

https://www.managementstudyguide.com/compassionate-capitalism.htm Democratic socialism is a

socialist political philosophy which

advocates political democracy

alongside a socially owned economy,

with an emphasis on workers' self-

management and democratic control of

economic institutions within a market or

some form of a decentralised planned

socialist economy. Democratic

socialists argue that capitalism is

inherently incompatible with

the values of freedom,

equality and solidarity and

that these ideals can be

achieved only through the

realisation of a socialist

society.

Although most democratic socialists

are seeking a very gradual transition

to socialism, democratic socialism

can support either revolutionary or

reformist politics as a means to

establish socialism. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_socialism

GDP (PPP) sector composition, 2017 (in percentage and in millions of dollars) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_sector_composition

Rank Country/Economy Total GDP(PPP)(US$MM) Agricultural Industrial Service Agricultural Industrial Service World 127,800,000 6.40% 30.00% 63.60% 8,179,20038,340,00080,514,000

European Union 20,850,000 1.60% 25.10% 70.90% 333,600 5,233,35014,782,650 5 Germany 4,199,000 0.70% 30.70% 68.60% 29,393 1,289,093 2,880,514 6 Russia 4,016,000 4.70% 32.40% 62.30% 188,752 1,301,184 2,501,968 9 United Kingdom 2,925,000 0.70% 20.20% 79.20% 20,475 590,850 2,316,600

10 France 2,856,000 1.70% 19.50% 78.80% 48,552 556,920 2,250,528 12 Italy 2,317,000 2.10% 23.90% 73.90% 48,657 553,763 1,712,263 15 Spain 1,778,000 2.60% 23.20% 74.20% 46,228 412,496 1,319,276 23 Poland 1,126,000 2.40% 40.20% 57.40% 27,024 452,652 646,324 27 Netherlands 924,400 1.60% 17.90% 70.20% 14,790 165,468 648,929 37 Belgium 529,200 0.70% 22.10% 77.20% 3,704 116,953 408,542 39 Switzerland 523,100 0.70% 25.60% 73.70% 3,662 133,914 385,525 40 Sweden 518,000 1.60% 33.00% 65.40% 8,288 170,940 338,772 41 Romania 483,400 4.20% 33.20% 62.60% 20,303 160,489 302,608 45 Austria 441,000 1.30% 28.40% 70.30% 5,733 125,244 310,023 48 Norway 381,200 2.30% 33.70% 64.00% 8,768 128,464 243,968 49 Czech Republic 375,900 2.30% 36.90% 60.80% 8,646 138,707 228,547 50 Ukraine 369,600 12.20% 28.60% 60.00% 45,091 105,706 221,760 51 Ireland 353,300 1.20% 38.60% 60.20% 4,240 136,374 212,687 56 Greece 299,300 4.10% 16.90% 79.10% 12,271 50,582 236,746 59 Hungary 289,600 3.90% 31.30% 64.80% 11,294 90,645 187,661 60 Denmark 287,800 1.30% 22.90% 75.80% 3,741 65,906 218,152 62 Finland 244,900 2.70% 28.20% 69.10% 6,612 69,062 169,226 69 Slovakia 179,700 3.80% 35.00% 61.20% 6,829 62,895 109,976 70 Belarus 179,400 8.10% 40.80% 51.10% 14,531 73,195 91,673 76 Bulgaria 153,500 4.30% 28.00% 67.40% 6,601 42,980 103,459 82 Serbia 105,700 9.80% 41.10% 49.10% 10,359 43,443 51,899 85 Croatia 102,100 3.70% 26.20% 70.10% 3,778 26,750 71,572 87 Lithuania 91,470 3.50% 29.40% 67.20% 3,201 26,892 61,468 99 Slovenia 71,230 1.80% 32.20% 65.90% 1,282 22,936 46,941

105 Luxembourg 62,110 0.30% 12.80% 86.90% 186 7,950 53,974 108 Latvia 54,020 3.90% 22.40% 73.70% 2,107 12,100 39,813 113 Bosnia and Herzegovina 44,830 6.80% 28.90% 64.30% 3,048 12,956 28,826 115 Estonia 41,650 2.80% 29.20% 68.10% 1,166 12,162 28,364 118 Georgia 39,850 8.20% 23.70% 67.90% 3,268 9,444 27,058 125 Albania 36,010 21.70% 24.20% 54.10% 7,814 8,714 19,481 131 North Macedonia 31,030 10.90% 26.60% 62.50% 3,382 8,254 19,394 136 Armenia 28,340 16.70% 28.20% 54.80% 4,733 7,992 15,530 143 Moldova 23,720 17.70% 20.30% 62.00% 4,198 4,815 14,706 149 Kosovo 19,600 11.90% 17.70% 70.40% 2,332 3,469 13,798 150 Malta 19,260 1.10% 10.20% 88.70% 212 1,965 17,084 151 Iceland 18,180 5.80% 19.70% 74.60% 1,054 3,581 13,562 158 Montenegro 11,080 7.50% 15.90% 76.60% 831 1,762 8,487 163 Monaco 7,672 0.00% 14.00% 86.00% 0 1,074 6,598 167 Isle of Man 6,792 1.00% 13.00% 86.00% 68 883 5,841 172 Jersey 5,569 2.00% 2.00% 96.00% 111 111 5,346 176 Liechtenstein 4,978 7.00% 41.00% 52.00% 348 2,041 2,589 182 Andorra 3,327 11.90% 33.60% 54.50% 396 1,118 1,813 191 San Marino 2,064 0.10% 39.20% 60.70% 2 809 1,253 192 Gibraltar 2,044 0.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0 0 2,044 193 Faroe Islands 2,001 18.00% 39.00% 43.00% 360 780 860

Country Total GDP(PPP)(US$MM) Agricultural Industrial Service Agricultural Industrial Service United States 19,490,000 (2017) 0.9% 19.1% 80.0% 175,410 3,722,590 15,592,000

Figures released by Eurostat in 2009 confirmed that the Eurozone had gone into

recession in 2008. Several eurozone member states (Greece, Portugal, Ireland, Spain

and Cyprus) were unable to repay or refinance their government debt or to bail out over-

indebted banks under their national supervision without the assistance of third parties like

other eurozone countries, the European Central Bank (ECB), or the International

Monetary Fund (IMF).

The crisis has had significant adverse economic effects and labour market effects, with

unemployment rates in Greece and Spain reaching 27%, and was blamed for

subdued economic growth, not only for the entire eurozone, but for the entire European

Union. As such, it can be argued to have had a major political impact on the ruling

governments in 10 out of 19 eurozone countries, contributing to power shifts in

Greece, Ireland, France, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Slovenia, Slovakia, Belgium and the

Netherlands, as well as outside of the eurozone, in the United Kingdom.

European debt crisis

Rank Name National Debt to GDP Ratio Population

1 Japan 237.54% 126,050,804

2 Venezuela 214.45% 28,704,954

3 Sudan 177.87%

4 Greece 174.15% 10,370,744

6 Italy 133.43% 60,367,477

10 Portugal 119.46% 10,167,925

17 Belgium 99.57% 11,632,326

18 France 99.20% 65,426,179

19 Spain 95.96% 46,745,216

29 United Kingdom 85.67% 68,207,116

54 Slovenia 65.44% 2,078,724

60 Ireland 62.42% 4,982,907

110 Slovakia 46.90% 5,460,721

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_debt_crisis

https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/countries-by-national-debt

Debt to GDP Ratio by Country 2021 The eurozone, officially called the euro area, is a monetary union of 19 member states of the European Union that have adopted the euro as their primary currency and sole legal tender.

Government Debt in European Union increased to 12,740,563.40 EUR Million in 2021 from 12,065,668.20 EUR Million in 2020. source: EUROSTAT

US-EU trade fight could drag on after ‘big victory’ at the WTO, says ex-Trump official Yen Nee Lee PUBLISHED THU, OCT 3 201912:46 AM EDT; UPDATED THU, OCT 3 2019 2:39 AM EDT

https://www.cnbc.com/2019/10/03/us-eu-trade-fight-could-drag-on-after-victory-at-wto-clete-willems.html

The World Trade Organization has just authorized the U.S. to go ahead with its tariffs worth billions of dollars on the European Union —

that’s “a big deal” that would hopefully bring both sides to the negotiating table, said a former high-ranking trade official under President

Donald Trump.

But Washington and Brussels have not achieved much in their past trade negotiations, so the U.S. tariffs on $7.5 billion of European

goods could stay in place for many months, said Clete Willems, who was deputy director of the National Economic Council, told CNBC’s

“Squawk BoxAsia” on Thursday.

“It’s a big deal: $7.5 billion is the largest retaliation number that the WTO has ever authorized. So, it’s a big victory for the United States,”

said Willems, who’s now a partner at law firm Akin Gump after leaving his White House position in April. …

The WTO outcome on Wednesday came after years of wrangling over subsidies that aircraft maker Airbus received from several European

governments. The U.S. first lodged the complaints in 2004.

In response to the WTO ruling, the EU suggested it would retaliate against U.S. tariffs.

U.S. and Europe Announce New Trade

Cooperation, but Disputes Linger A new trade and technology partnership aims to counter China,

but tensions over issues like metal tariffs remain. By Ana Swanson Published Oct. 1, 2021 Updated Oct. 3, 2021 https://www.nytimes.com/2021/10/01/business/economy/us-europe-trade.html

U.S, EU agree truce in 17-year Airbus-

Boeing conflict By Philip Blenkinsop June 15, 2021 https://www.reuters.com/business/aerospace-defense/eu-us-set-unveil-truce-17-year-aircraft-battle-2021-06-15/

What tariffs does the US have on Europe? The Donald Trump administration imposed a 25% tariff on European steel and 10% on aluminum in June 2018 on the grounds of national security. However, the EU vehemently condemned the decision and decided to impose retaliatory sanctions on 2.8 billion euros ($3.2 billion) worth of U.S. products. Oct 6, 2021

List of US Tariffs On $7.5B Of EU Goods – Effective October 18, 2019 By Melissa Morris, John Brew & Frances P. Hadfield on October 3, 2019 On Wednesday, October 2, 2019, the World Trade Organization (WTO) allowed the U.S. to set duties on $7.5 billion worth of

European Union goods as a consequence of the long-running legal battle over subsidies to Airbus. This ruling allows President

Trump’s administration to set increased import duties on such articles as EU wines, cheeses, motorcycles and apparel luxury items

such as men’s suits and handbags. … https://www.cmtradelaw.com/2019/10/list-of-us-tariffs-on-7-5b-of-eu-goods-effective-october-18-2019/

Below is a list showcasing 15 of America’s top trading

partners in terms of US export sales; that is, countries

that imported the most American shipments by dollar

value during 2020. Also shown is each import country’s

percentage of total American exports.

1.Canada: US$255.1 billion (17.8% of total US exports)

2.Mexico: $212.7 billion (14.9%)

3.China: $124.6 billion (8.7%)

4.Japan: $64.1 billion (4.5%)

5.United Kingdom: $59 billion (4.1%)

6.Germany: $57.8 billion (4%)

7.South Korea: $51.2 billion (3.6%)

8.Netherlands: $45.5 billion (3.2%)

9.Brazil: $35 billion (2.4%)

10.Taiwan: $30.5 billion (2.1%)

11.France: $28.3 billion (2%)

12.Belgium: $27.6 billion (1.9%)

13.India: $27.4 billion (1.9%)

14.Singapore: $27.1 billion (1.9%)

15.Hong Kong: $24 billion (1.7%)

About three-quarters (74.8%) of American exports in

2020 were delivered to the above 15 trade partners.

The sole increase in purchases of US exported goods

from 2019 to 2020 among these top trading partners

belongs to China via its 16.9% increase.

Leading the decliners were France (down -27%), Hong

Kong (down -22.1%), Belgium (down -20.6%) and India

(down -20.4%).

US Top Trading Partners https://www.worldstopexports.com/americas-top-import-partners/

United States Top 10 Exports

The following export product groups categorize the highest

dollar value in American global shipments during 2020. Also

shown is the percentage share each export category

represents in terms of overall exports from the United States.

1.Machinery including computers: US$182.6 billion (12.8% of

total exports)

2.Electrical machinery, equipment: $162.9 billion (11.4%)

3.Mineral fuels including oil: $155.1 billion (10.8%)

4.Vehicles: $105.2 billion (7.3%)

5.Optical, technical, medical apparatus: $83.4 billion (5.8%)

6.Aircraft, spacecraft: $80.9 billion (5.7%)

7.Plastics, plastic articles: $60.2 billion (4.2%)

8.Gems, precious metals: $60 billion (4.2%)

9.Pharmaceuticals: $53.9 billion (3.8%)

10.Organic chemicals: $34 billion (2.4%)

America’s top 10 exports surpass over two-thirds (68.3%) of

the overall value of its global shipments.

Only two top 10 export categories grew in value from 2019 to

2020, namely pharmaceuticals (up 0.7%) and gems or

precious metals (up 0.6%).

Half of the top export categories declined year over year:

aircraft and spacecraft (down -40.5%), mineral fuels including

oil (down -22.4%), vehicles (down -21%), organic chemicals

(down -13.6%) and machinery including computers (down -

11.3%).

https://www.worldstopexports.com/united-states-top-10-exports/

China’s Top Trading Partners Below is a list highlighting 15 of China’s top trading partners in

terms of export sales. That is, these countries imported the most

Chinese shipments by dollar value during 2020. Also shown is

each import country’s percentage of total Chinese exports.

1.United States: US$452.6 billion (17.5% of China’s total exports)

2.Hong Kong: $272.7 billion (10.5%)

3.Japan: $142.6 billion (5.5%)

4.Vietnam: $113.8 billion (4.4%)

5.South Korea: $112.5 billion (4.3%)

6.Germany: $86.8 billion (3.4%)

7.Netherlands: $79 billion (3%)

8.United Kingdom: $72.6 billion (2.8%)

9.India: $66.7 billion (2.6%)

10.Taiwan: $60.1 billion (2.3%)

11.Singapore: $57.5 billion (2.2%)

12.Malaysia: $56.4 billion (2.2%)

13.Australia: $53.5 billion (2.1%)

14.Russia: $50.6 billion (2%)

15.Thailand: $50.5 billion (2%)

Two-thirds (66.7%) of Chinese exports in 2020 were delivered to

the above 15 trade partners.

The United Kingdom increased its import purchases from China at

the fastest rate, up 16.6% from 2019 to 2020. In second place

were importers in Vietnam thanks to a 16.1% increase trailed by

Australia (up 11.2%), Thailand (up 10.8%) then Taiwan (up 9.2%).

There were 3 decliners year over year namely India (down -

10.9%), Hong Kong (down -2.5%) and Japan (down -0.4%).

https://www.worldstopexports.com/chinas-top-import-partners/

China’s Top 10 Exports

The following export product groups categorize the highest dollar value in Chinese global shipments during 2020. Also shown is the percentage share each export category represents in terms of overall exports from China.

Electrical machinery, equipment: US$710.1 billion (27.4% of total exports) Machinery including computers: $440.3 billion (17%) Furniture, bedding, lighting, signs, prefabricated buildings: $109.4 billion (4.2%) Plastics, plastic articles: $96.4 billion (3.7%) Optical, technical, medical apparatus: $80.2 billion (3.1%) Vehicles: $76.3 billion (2.9%) Miscellaneous textiles, worn clothing: $75.6 billion (2.9%) Toys, games: $71.5 billion (2.8%) Articles of iron or steel: $71.1 billion (2.7%) Clothing, accessories (not knit or crochet): $62.3 billion (2.4%)

China’s top 10 exports accounted for over two-thirds (69.2%) of the overall value of its global shipments.

Miscellaneous textiles and worn clothing was China’s fastest grower among the top 10 export categories, up by 170.9% from 2019 to 2020. In second place for improving export sales was plastics including articles made from plastic via a 14.2% gain. China’s shipments of toys and games posted the third-fastest gain in value up by 13.9%.

The lone decliner among China’s top 10 export categories was unknitted and non-crocheted clothing and accessories thanks to a -6.7% drop year over year.

https://www.worldstopexports.com/chinas-top-10-exports/

Germany’s Top Trading Partners Below is a list showcasing 15 of Germany’s top trading

partners. That is, countries that imported the most German

shipments by dollar value during 2020. Also shown is each

import country’s percentage of total German exports.

1.United States: US$118.8 billion (8.6% of Germany’s

total exports)

2.China: $109.8 billion (8%)

3.France: $103.8 billion (7.5%)

4.Netherlands: $89.1 billion (6.5%)

5.United Kingdom: $76.4 billion (5.5%)

6.Poland: $74 billion (5.4%)

7.Italy: $69.1 billion (5%)

8.Austria: $66.7 billion (4.8%)

9.Switzerland: $64.8 billion (4.7%)

10.Belgium: $49.4 billion (3.6%)

11.Czech Republic: $44.9 billion (3.3%)

12.Spain: $42.9 billion (3.1%)

13.Hungary: $28.1 billion (2%)

14.Sweden: $26.7 billion (1.9%)

15.Russia: $26.4 billion (1.9%)

Over seven-tenths (71.9%) of German exports in 2020 were

delivered to the above 15 trade partners.

China reduces its purchases of Germany’s exports by 2.2%

from 2019 to 2020, ahead of the 1.8% increase for

Switzerland and 0.6% uptick for Poland.

Reductions ranged from -4% for importers in the

Netherlands up to -13.6% for the United Kingdom.

https://www.worldstopexports.com/germanys-top-import-partners/

The following export product groups represent the highest

dollar value in German global shipments during 2020. Also

shown is the percentage share each export category

represents in terms of overall exports from Germany.

1.Machinery including computers: US$236.3 billion (17.1% of

total exports)

2.Vehicles: $211 billion (15.3%)

3.Electrical machinery, equipment: $151.7 billion (11%)

4.Pharmaceuticals: $97.7 billion (7.1%)

5.Optical, technical, medical apparatus: $74.5 billion (5.4%)

6.Plastics, plastic articles: $60.4 billion (4.4%)

7.Articles of iron or steel: $28.3 billion (2.1%)

8.Aircraft, spacecraft: $28.2 billion (2%)

9.Other chemical goods: $27 billion (2%)

10.Mineral fuels including oil: $26 billion (1.9%)

Germany’s top 10 exports accounted for over two-thirds

(68.3%) of the overall value of its global shipments.

Pharmaceuticals was the fastest grower among the top 10

export categories, up by 8.2% from 2019 to 2020. In second

place for improving export sales were miscellaneous

chemical goods via a 3.2% gain.

The leading decliner among Germany’s top 10 export

categories was aircraft and spacecraft thanks to its -34.7%

drop year over year.

Germany’s Top 10 Exports https://www.worldstopexports.com/germanys-top-10-exports/

France’s Top Trading Partners

Below is a list showcasing 15 of France’s top trading

partners, countries that imported the most French shipments

by dollar value during 2020. Also shown is each importing

country’s percentage of total French exports.

1.Germany: US$69.1 billion (14.5% of total French exports)

2.United States: $37 billion (7.8%)

3.Italy: $36.8 billion (7.7%)

4.Spain: $35.2 billion (7.4%)

5.Belgium: $35.2 billion (7.4%)

6.United Kingdom: $30.9 billion (6.5%)

7.China: $20.1 billion (4.2%)

8.Netherlands: $18.2 billion (3.8%)

9.Switzerland: $16.4 billion (3.4%)

10.Poland: $10.6 billion (2.2%)

11.Singapore: $8 billion (1.7%)

12.Turkey: $7.2 billion (1.5%)

13.Japan: $6.4 billion (1.4%)

14.Hong Kong: $5.93 billion (1.2%)

15.Russia: $5.88 billion (1.2%)

Approaching three-quarters (72%) of French exports in 2020

were delivered to the above 15 trade partners.

The sole increase from 2019 to 2020 belongs to Turkey via

an 8.6% increase.

Leading the year-over-year decliners were Japan (down -

25.5%), United States (down -21.4%) then United Kingdom

(down -18%).

https://www.worldstopexports.com/frances-top-import-partners/

The following export product groups represent the highest

dollar value in French global shipments during 2020. Also

shown is the percentage share each export category

represents in terms of overall exports from France.

1.Machinery including computers: US$54.5 billion (11.5%

of total exports)

2.Vehicles: $44.3 billion (9.3%)

3.Electrical machinery, equipment: $38.8 billion (8.1%)

4.Pharmaceuticals: $37.9 billion (8%)

5.Aircraft, spacecraft: $29.2 billion (6.1%)

6.Plastics, plastic articles: $19.3 billion (4.1%)

7.Perfumes, cosmetics: $17.9 billion (3.8%)

8.Beverages, spirits, vinegar: $17.5 billion (3.7%)

9.Optical, technical, medical apparatus: $16.1 billion

(3.4%)

10.Other chemical goods: $12.8 billion (2.7%)

France’s top 10 export categories accounted for 60.6% of

the overall value of its global shipments.

Pharmaceuticals (up 6.7%) were the sole major category

to increase in France’s export sales from 2019 to 2020.

The leading decliner among France’s top 10 export

categories was aircraft and spacecraft via its -45.3% drop.

https://www.worldstopexports.com/frances-top-10-exports/

France’s Top 10 Exports

United Kingdom’s Top Trading Partners Below is a list showcasing 15 of United Kingdom’s top trading

partners in terms of export sales. That is, these are countries

that imported the most UK shipments by dollar value during

2020. Also shown is each import country’s percentage of total

UK exports.

1.United States: US$57.5 billion (14.3% of total UK exports)

2.Germany: $41.1 billion (10.2%)

3.Ireland: $27.5 billion (6.8%)

4.Netherlands: $24.9 billion (6.2%)

5.France: $23.7 billion (5.9%)

6.Switzerland: $19.4 billion (4.8%)

7.China: $18.6 billion (4.6%)

8.Belgium: $13.5 billion (3.4%)

9.Spain: $11.1 billion (2.8%)

10.Italy: $11 billion (2.7%)

11.Hong Kong: $10.6 billion (2.6%)

12.Canada: $7.5 billion (1.9%)

13.Japan: $7.3 billion (1.8%)

14.Turkey: $6.4 billion (1.6%)

15.United Arab Emirates: $6.3 billion (1.6%)

Approaching three-quarters (71.2%) of UK exports in 2020

were delivered to the above 15 trade partners.

Two among the top 15 importers increased the value of their

deliveries from the UK from 2019 to 2020, namely the

Switzerland (up 24.2%) and Canada (up 12.2%).

Leading the decliners were the United Arab Emirates (down -

36.8%) and France (down -24.5%).

https://www.worldstopexports.com/united-kingdoms-top-import-partners/

United Kingdom’s Top 10 Exports https://www.worldstopexports.com/united-kingdoms-top-exports/

The following export product groups categorize the

highest dollar value in UK global shipments during 2020.

Also shown is the percentage share each export category

represents in terms of overall exports from Great Britain.

1.Machinery including computers: US$60.4 billion (15% of

total exports)

2.Gems, precious metals: $43.3 billion (10.8%)

3.Vehicles: $36.4 billion (9.1%)

4.Mineral fuels including oil: $26.4 billion (6.6%)

5.Electrical machinery, equipment: $25 billion (6.2%)

6.Pharmaceuticals: $24.8 billion (6.2%)

7.Optical, technical, medical apparatus: $17.6 billion

(4.4%)

8.Aircraft, spacecraft: $13.2 billion (3.3%)

9.Organic chemicals: $12.1 billion (3%)

10.Plastics, plastic articles: $10.6 billion (2.6%)

The United Kingdom’s top 10 exports accounted for

roughly two-thirds (67.1%) of the overall value of its global

shipments.

Gems and precious metals was the lone grower among

the top 10 export categories, up by 1.7% since 2019.

The leading decliner among United Kingdom’s top 10

export categories were mineral fuels including oil which

fell -35.5% year over year, weighed down by lower

international sales from both crude and processed

petroleum oils. Other major decreases belong to aircraft

and spacecraft (down -28.2%) and vehicles (down -

27.9%) exported from the UK.

Italy’s Top Trading Partners Below is a list showcasing 15 of Italy’s top trading partners, countries

that imported the most Italian shipments by dollar value during 2020.

Also shown is each import country’s percentage of total Italian exports.

1.Germany: US$63.6 billion (12.8% of Italy’s total exports)

2.France: $51.1 billion (10.3%)

3.United States: $48.6 billion (9.8%)

4.Switzerland: $28.9 billion (5.8%)

5.United Kingdom: $25.7 billion (5.2%)

6.Spain: $23.4 billion (4.7%)

7.Belgium: $17 billion (3.4%)

8.Poland: $14.9 billion (3%)

9.China: $14.8 billion (3%)

10.Netherlands: $12.9 billion (2.6%)

11.Austria: $10.5 billion (2.1%)

12.Turkey: $8.9 billion (1.8%)

13.Japan: $8.1 billion (1.6%)

14.Russia: $8.1 billion (1.6%)

15.Romania: $7.8 billion (1.6%)

Over two-thirds (69.4%) of Italian exports in 2020 were delivered to the

above 15 trade partners.

Among these top import purchasers, Belgium showed the greatest

growth in demand for Italian products posting a 7.8% increase from

2019 to 2020.

The other expansions in demand belong to China (up 1.8%) and

Poland (up 0.1%).

Leading decliners year over year were buyers in Spain (down -13.1%),

Austria (down -8.6%), France (down -8.4%) and Russia (down -8.3%).

https://www.worldstopexports.com/italys-top-import-partners/

United Kingdom’s Top 10 Exports https://www.worldstopexports.com/united-kingdoms-top-exports/

The following export product groups categorize the

highest dollar value in UK global shipments during

2020. Also shown is the percentage share each

export category represents in terms of overall

exports from Great Britain.

1.Machinery including computers: US$60.4 billion

(15% of total exports)

2.Gems, precious metals: $43.3 billion (10.8%)

3.Vehicles: $36.4 billion (9.1%)

4.Mineral fuels including oil: $26.4 billion (6.6%)

5.Electrical machinery, equipment: $25 billion (6.2%)

6.Pharmaceuticals: $24.8 billion (6.2%)

7.Optical, technical, medical apparatus: $17.6 billion

(4.4%)

8.Aircraft, spacecraft: $13.2 billion (3.3%)

9.Organic chemicals: $12.1 billion (3%)

10.Plastics, plastic articles: $10.6 billion (2.6%)

The United Kingdom’s top 10 exports accounted for

roughly two-thirds (67.1%) of the overall value of its

global shipments.

Gems and precious metals was the lone grower

among the top 10 export categories, up by 1.7%

since 2019.

The leading decliner among United Kingdom’s top

10 export categories were mineral fuels including oil

which fell -35.5% year over year, weighed down by

lower international sales from both crude and

processed petroleum oils. Other major decreases

belong to aircraft and spacecraft (down -28.2%) and

vehicles (down -27.9%) exported from the UK.

Russia’s Top Trading Partners Below is a list showcasing 15 of Russia’s top trading partners

in terms of export sales, revealing which countries imported

the most Russian shipments by dollar value during 2020. Also

shown is each import country’s percentage consumption of

total Russian exports.

1.China: US$48.9 billion (14.6% of Russia’s total exports)

2.Netherlands: $24.8 billion (7.4%)

3.United Kingdom: $23.2 billion (6.9%)

4.Germany: $18.5 billion (5.5%)

5.Belarus: $16 billion (4.8%)

6.Turkey: $15.5 billion (4.6%)

7.Kazakhstan: $14 billion (4.2%)

8.South Korea: $12.4 billion (3.7%)

9.United States: $11 billion (3.3%)

10.Italy: $10 billion (3%)

11.Poland: $9.5 billion (2.8%)

12.Japan: $9.1 billion (2.7%)

13.Finland: $7.1 billion (2.1%)

14.Ukraine: $5.9 billion (1.8%)

15.India: $5.8 billion (1.7%)

Over two-thirds (69.1%) of Russian exports in 2020 were

delivered to the above 15 trade partners.

The United Kingdom was the sole top import customer to

increase their purchases from Russia from 2019 to 2020 via a

74.8% uptick.

Leading the decliners were the Netherlands (down -44.7%),

Germany (down -33.9%), Italy (down -30.2%), Finland (down -

29.5%) and Turkey (down -26.4%).

https://www.worldstopexports.com/russias-top-import-partners/

Russia’s Top 10 Exports https://www.worldstopexports.com/russias-top-10-exports/

The following export product groups represent the highest

dollar value in Russian global shipments during 2020. Also

shown is the percentage share each export category

represents in terms of overall exports from Russia.

1.Mineral fuels including oil: US$141.3 billion (42.1% of

total exports)

2.Gems, precious metals: $30.4 billion (9%)

3.Iron, steel: $16 billion (4.8%)

4.Cereals: $9.5 billion (2.8%)

5.Machinery including computers: $8.3 billion (2.5%)

6.Wood: $8.2 billion (2.5%)

7.Fertilizers: $7 billion (2.1%)

8.Copper: $5.6 billion (1.7%)

9.Aluminum: $5.5 billion (1.6%)

10.Fish: $4.6 billion (1.4%)

Russia’s top 10 exports accounted for 70.5% of the overall

value of its global shipments.

Gems and precious metals was the fastest grower among

the top 10 export categories, up by 98.9% from 2019 to

2020 propelled by greater international sales of gold and

platinum. In second place for improving export sales was

cereals via a 20.4% gain led by wheat and barley. Russia’s

shipments of copper posted the third-fastest gain in value

up by 8.1%.

The leading decliner among Russia’s top 10 export

categories was mineral fuels including oil thanks to a -36%

drop year over year. That decrease traces back to lower

revenues for crude and processed petroleum oils as well as

gas and coal.

Spain’s Top Trading Partners Below is a list showcasing 15 of Spain’s top trading

partners, countries that imported the most Spanish

shipments by dollar value during 2020. Also shown is each

import country’s percentage of total Spanish exports.

1.France: US$50 billion (16.3% of total Spanish exports)

2.Germany: $35.1 billion (11.4%)

3.Italy: $23.5 billion (7.7%)

4.Portugal: $22.9 billion (7.5%)

5.United Kingdom: $20.3 billion (6.6%)

6.United States: $13.9 billion (4.5%)

7.Netherlands: $10.4 billion (3.4%)

8.China: $9.4 billion (3.1%)

9.Belgium: $8.7 billion (2.8%)

10.Morocco: $8.4 billion (2.7%)

11.Poland: $7.3 billion (2.4%)

12.Switzerland: $5.8 billion (1.9%)

13.Turkey: $4.9 billion (1.6%)

14.Mexico: $3.7 billion (1.2%)

15.Romania: $3 billion (1%)

Almost three-quarters (74%) of Spanish exports in 2020

were delivered to the above 15 trade partners.

The fastest-growing top importers for Spain from 2019 to

2020 were China (up 23%), Romania (up 16.6%) and

Poland (up 5.4%).

Leading the decliners year over year were Mexico (down -

23.5%), Morocco (down -11.6%), Italy (down -9.6%) and

the United States (also down -9.6%).

https://www.worldstopexports.com/spains-top-import-partners/

Spain’s Top 10 Exports https://www.worldstopexports.com/spains-top-10-exports/

The following export product groups represent the highest

dollar value in Spanish global shipments during 2020. Also

shown is the percentage share each export category

represents in terms of overall exports from Spain.

1.Vehicles: US$50.3 billion (16.4% of total exports)

2.Machinery including computers: $22.3 billion (7.2%)

3.Electrical machinery, equipment: $17.6 billion (5.7%)

4.Mineral fuels including oil: $14.4 billion (4.7%)

5.Pharmaceuticals: $14 billion (4.6%)

6.Plastics, plastic articles: $11.9 billion (3.9%)

7.Fruits, nuts: $11.2 billion (3.7%)

8.Meat: $9.8 billion (3.2%)

9.Vegetables: $8.1 billion (2.6%)

10.Articles of iron or steel: $7.4 billion (2.4%)

Spain’s top 10 exports accounted for 54.4% of the overall

value of its global shipments.

Meat was the fastest grower among the top 10 export

categories, up by 23% since 2019. In second place for

improving export sales was fruits and nuts which rose

13.3%. Spain’s shipments of pharmaceuticals posted the

third-fastest gain in value up by 9.6%.

The leading decliner among Spain’s top 10 export

categories was mineral fuels including oil which fell -29%

year over year.

Member States of the European Union

The European Union (EU)

is a political and economic union of 27 member states

that are located primarily in Europe. The union has a

total area of 4,233,255.3 km2 (1,634,469.0 sq mi) and

an estimated total population of about 447 million. An

internal single market has been established through a

standardised system of laws that apply in all member

states in those matters, and only those matters, where the states have

agreed to act as one. EU policies aim to ensure the free movement

of people, goods, services and capital within the internal market;

enact legislation in justice and home affairs; and maintain

common policies on trade, agriculture, fisheries and regional

development. Passport controls have been abolished for travel

within the Schengen Area. A monetary union was established in 1999,

coming into full force in 2002, and is composed of 20 member

states which use the euro currency. … The union and EU

citizenship were established when the Maastricht Treaty came into

force in 1993. The EU traces its origins to the European Coal and

Steel Community (ECSC) and the European Economic

Community (EEC), established, respectively, by the 1951 Treaty of

Paris and 1957 Treaty of Rome. The original member states of what

came to be known as the European Communities were the Inner Six:

Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West

Germany. …The United Kingdom became the first member state

to leave the EU on 31 January 2020. Before this, three territories of

member states had left the EU or its forerunners.

Containing some 5.8 per cent of the world population in 2020, the EU

had generated a nominal gross domestic product (GDP) of

around US$17.1 trillion in 2021, constituting approximately 18 per

cent of global nominal GDP. … Through the Common Foreign and

Security Policy, the union has developed a role in external

relations and defence. It maintains permanent diplomatic

missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United

Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7 and the G20. Due to its

global influence, the European Union has been described by some

scholars as an emerging superpower. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union

The European Union is a group

of 27 countries in Europe.

These countries came together

to make things better, easier

and safer for people.

They agreed to work together

and help each other. https://europa.eu/european-union/about-eu/easy-to-read_en

European Union Population https://tradingeconomics.com/european-union/population

The total population in European Union was estimated at 447.0

million people in 2021, according to the latest census figures and projections from Trading Economics. source: EUROSTAT

Rank Country 2022

Population

2021

Population

Growth

Rate Area

Density

(km²)

1 China 1,425,887,337 1,425,893,465 -0.00% 9,706,961 147/km²

2 India 1,417,173,173 1,407,563,842 0.68% 3,287,590 431/km²

3 United

States 338,289,857 336,997,624 0.38% 9,372,610 36/km²

https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries

GDP (US$ million) by country

Country

IMF World Bank United Nations

Estimate Year Estimate Year Estimate Year

World 103,496,115 2022 96,100,091 2021 87,461,674 2020

United

States 25,035,164 2022 22,996,100 2021 20,893,746 2020

China 18,321,197 2022 17,734,063 2021 14,722,801 2020

United

Kingdom 3,198,470 2022 3,186,860 2021 2,764,198 2020

GDP (PPP, US$ million) by country or territory

Country

IMF World Bank CIA

Estimate Year Estimate Year Estimate Year

China 30,074,380 2022 24,273,360 2020 23,009,780 2020

United States 25,035,164 2022 20,936,600 2020 19,846,720 2020

United

Kingdom 3,776,044 2022 3,019,057 2020 2,797,980 2020

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)

The economy of the European Union is the

joint economy of the member states of the European Union (EU). It is the third largest economy in the world in nominal terms, after the United States and China, and the third one in purchasing power parity (PPP) terms, after China and the United States. The European Union's GDP estimated to be around $16.6 trillion (nominal) in 2022 representing around one sixth of the global economy.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_European_Union

$24.05 trillion (PPP; 2022)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(PPP)

446.8 million people in 2022

Rank

Country Population

(2023)

Yearly

Change

1 India 1,428,627,663 0.81 %

2 China 1,425,671,352 -0.02 %

3 United States 339,996,563 0.50 %

Updated on July 16, 2023 with the latest

July 2023-July 2024 estimates from the 2022 U.N. Revision

Country Region IMF World Bank CIA

Forecast Year Estimate Year Estimate Year World — 174,789,867 2023 164,155,327 2022 127,800,000 2017 China Asia 32,897,929 2023 30,327,320 2022 23,009,780 2020 United States Americas 26,949,643 2023 25,462,700 2022 19,846,720 2020 India Asia 13,119,622 2023 11,874,583 2022 8,443,360 2020 Japan Asia 6,495,214 2023 5,702,287 2022 5,224,850 2019 Germany Europe 5,537,992 2023 5,309,606 2022 4,238,800 2020 Russia Europe 5,056,479 2023 5,326,855 2022 3,875,690 2020 Indonesia Asia 4,393,370 2023 4,036,901 2022 3,130,470 2020 Brazil Americas 4,101,022 2023 3,837,261 2022 2,989,430 2020 United Kingdom Europe 3,871,790 2023 3,656,809 2022 2,797,980 2020 France Europe 3,868,619 2023 3,769,924 2022 2,832,170 2020 Turkey Asia 3,613,540 2023 3,180,984 2022 2,393,960 2020 Mexico Americas 3,277,601 2023 2,742,903 2022 2,306,320 2020 Italy Europe 3,193,180 2023 3,052,609 2022 2,322,140 2020 South Korea Asia 2,924,189 2023 2,585,011 2022 2,187,800 2020 Spain Europe 2,413,066 2023 2,181,968 2022 1,714,860 2020 Canada Americas 2,378,973 2023 2,273,489 2022 1,742,790 2020

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(PPP)

Continent Population World's Population

Europe 741,869,197 9.27%

:

The Schengen Area is an area comprising 26 European countries

that have officially abolished all passport and all other types of border control

at their mutual borders. The area mostly functions as a single jurisdiction for

international travel purposes, with a common visa policy. The area is named after

the 1985 Schengen Agreement signed in Schengen, Luxembourg.

Of the 27 EU member states, 23 participate in the Schengen Area. Of the five EU

members that are not part of the Schengen Area, three—Bulgaria, Cyprus,

and Romania—are legally obliged to join the area in the future; Ireland maintains

an opt-out, and instead operates its own visa policy. The four European Free

Trade Association (EFTA) member states, Iceland, Liechtenstein,

Norway, and Switzerland, are not members of the EU, but have signed

agreements in association with the Schengen Agreement. Also, three European

microstates—Monaco, San Marino, and the Vatican City—maintain open borders

for passenger traffic with their neighbors, and are therefore considered de

facto members of the Schengen Area due to the practical impossibility of travelling

to or from them without transiting through at least one Schengen member country.

The Schengen Area has a population of almost 420 million people and an area of

4,312,099 square kilometres (1,664,911 sq mi). About 1.7 million people

commute to work across an internal European border each day, and in some

regions these people constitute up to a third of the workforce. Each year, there are

1.3 billion crossings of Schengen borders in total. 57 million crossings are due to

transport of goods by road, with a value of €2.8 trillion each year. The decrease in

the cost of trade due to Schengen varies from 0.42% to 1.59% depending on

geography, trade partners, and other factors.

Schengen area

Countries de facto participating

Members of the EU committed by treaty to join the Schengen area in the future

Schengen

Area:

Freedom of

movement,

right to work

in any EU

country for

member’s

citizens.

The Schengen Area is an area without borders.

In this area, people can travel from country to country freely and

easily. They do not have to go through checks and controls when they

pass from one country to another.

The Schengen Area was made in 1985. Today 23 out of the 27

countries of the European Union except Bulgaria, Cyprus,

Ireland, and Romania are part of the SchengenArea.

Also, 4 countries outside the European Union are part of the Schengen

Area: Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland.

Consequences of Unification: One Market

■ Free movement of workers and goods • Requires harmonization of member state laws. • Reduces legal barriers and remove internal borders.

■ Introduction of a single bank and currency: Euro • Agreed in 1999 (locked exchange rates) and banknotes

introduced on January 1st 2002.

• Signals strengthening unity in Europe.

• Helps to counter the global power of the U.S. dollar.

• 20 of the European Union's Member States. (10/31/2023)

• Some members states have chosen to opt-out (e.g. England,

Sweden, Denmark, Poland). The eurozone consists of Austria, Belgium, Croatia, Cyprus, Estonia, Finland, France,

Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands,

Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Spain. Andorra, Monaco, San Marino, and Vatican

City have formal agreements with the EU to use the euro as their official currency and issue

their own coins. Kosovo and Montenegro have adopted the euro unilaterally, but these

countries do not officially form part of the eurozone and do not have representation in

the European Central Bank (ECB) or in the Eurogroup.

European Unification

■ Forces at work:

• Centrifugal forces contribute to social and

political divergence that may break-up a state.

• Centripetal forces help to politically unify as a

cohesive and stable entity. ■ European integration and unification

• Triumph of centripetal forces.

• Proceeded after WWII.

• Effort to maintain stability, prosperity,

and security.

European Unification

■ Primary motive: rapid postwar economic recovery

• Led by the United States with interest in:

• Reopening European markets for U.S. goods.

• Securing Europe as a buffer against the USSR.

• European political considerations:

• Close political cooperation was necessary for

peace.

■ Changing motives

• Open market to compete globally with U.S. and Asia.

• Maintain stability in an increasingly diverse society.

The idea to make the European Union came after two big wars

happened in Europe. Countries in Europe saw that it is better to

work together than fighting against each other.

In the beginning, only 6 countries in Europe started working

together:

Belgium Germany France

Italy Luxembourg Netherlands

State Capital Code Accession Population (2019) Area Population density MEPs

Austria Vienna AT 1 January 1995 8,858,775 83,855 km2 (32,377 sq mi) 106/km2 (270/sq mi) 18

Belgium Brussels BE Founder 11,467,923 30,528 km2 (11,787 sq mi) 376/km2 (970/sq mi) 21

Bulgaria Sofia BG 1 January 2007 7,000,039 110,994 km2 (42,855 sq mi) 63/km2 (160/sq mi) 17

Croatia Zagreb HR 1 July 2013 4,076,246 56,594 km2 (21,851 sq mi) 72/km2 (190/sq mi) 11

Cyprus Nicosia CY 1 May 2004 875,898 9,251 km2 (3,572 sq mi) 95/km2 (250/sq mi) 6

Czech Republic Prague CZ 1 May 2004 10,649,800 78,866 km2 (30,450 sq mi) 135/km2 (350/sq mi) 21

Denmark Copenhagen DK 1 January 1973 5,806,081 43,075 km2 (16,631 sq mi) 135/km2 (350/sq mi) 13

Estonia Tallinn EE 1 May 2004 1,324,820 45,227 km2 (17,462 sq mi) 29/km2 (75/sq mi) 6

Finland Helsinki FI 1 January 1995 5,517,919 338,424 km2 (130,666 sq mi) 16/km2 (41/sq mi) 13

France Paris FR Founder 67,028,048 640,679 km2 (247,368 sq mi) 105/km2 (270/sq mi) 74

Germany Berlin DE Founder 83,019,214 357,021 km2 (137,847 sq mi) 233/km2 (600/sq mi) 96

Greece Athens GR 1 January 1981 10,722,287 131,990 km2 (50,960 sq mi) 81/km2 (210/sq mi) 21

Hungary Budapest HU 1 May 2004 9,797,561 93,030 km2 (35,920 sq mi) 105/km2 (270/sq mi) 21

Ireland Dublin IE 1 January 1973 4,904,226 70,273 km2 (27,133 sq mi) 70/km2 (180/sq mi) 11

Italy Rome IT Founder 60,359,546 301,338 km2 (116,347 sq mi) 200/km2 (520/sq mi) 73

Latvia Riga LV 1 May 2004 1,919,968 64,589 km2 (24,938 sq mi) 30/km2 (78/sq mi) 8

Lithuania Vilnius LT 1 May 2004 2,794,184 65,200 km2 (25,200 sq mi) 43/km2 (110/sq mi) 11

Luxembourg Luxembourg City LU Founder 613,894 2,586 km2 (998 sq mi) 237/km2 (610/sq mi) 6

Malta Valletta MT 1 May 2004 493,559 316 km2 (122 sq mi)1,562/km2 (4,050/sq mi) 6

Netherlands Amsterdam NL Founder 17,282,163 41,543 km2 (16,040 sq mi) 416/km2 (1,080/sq mi) 26

Poland Warsaw PL 1 May 2004 37,972,812 312,685 km2 (120,728 sq mi) 121/km2 (310/sq mi) 51

Portugal Lisbon PT 1 January 1986 10,276,617 92,390 km2 (35,670 sq mi) 111/km2 (290/sq mi) 21

Romania Bucharest RO 1 January 2007 19,401,658 238,391 km2 (92,043 sq mi) 81/km2 (210/sq mi) 32

Slovakia Bratislava SK 1 May 2004 5,450,421 49,035 km2 (18,933 sq mi) 111/km2 (290/sq mi) 13

Slovenia Ljubljana SI 1 May 2004 2,080,908 20,273 km2 (7,827 sq mi) 103/km2 (270/sq mi) 8

Spain Madrid ES 1 January 1986 46,934,632 504,030 km2 (194,610 sq mi) 93/km2 (240/sq mi) 54

Sweden Stockholm SE 1 January 1995 10,230,185 449,964 km2 (173,732 sq mi) 23/km2 (60/sq mi) 20

United Kingdom London GB 1 January 1973 66,647,112 243,610 km2 (94,060 sq mi) 274/km2(710/sq mi) 73

28 total 513,481,691 4,475,757 km2 (1,728,099 sq mi) 115/km2 (300/sq mi) 751

MEP: Member of the European Parliament The United Kingdom became the first member state to leave the EU on 31 January 2020.

State Joined Population

2006 Population

2017 Sep

1952 Mar 1957

Jan 1973

Jun 1979

Jan 1981

Jan 1986

Jun 1994

Jan 1995

May 2004

Jun 2004

Jan 2007

Jun 2009

Dec 2011

Jul 2013

Jun 2014

Feb 2020

Germany 1951 82,428,000 82,521,653 18 36 36 81 81 81 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 96 96 France 1951 62,886,000 66,989,083 18 36 36 81 81 81 87 87 87 78 78 72 74 74 74 79 United Kingdom 1973 60,422,000 65,808,573 36 81 81 81 87 87 87 78 78 72 73 73 73 Italy 1951 58,752,000 60,589,445 18 36 36 81 81 81 87 87 87 78 78 72 73 73 73 76 Spain 1986 43,758,000 46,528,024 60 64 64 64 54 54 50 54 54 54 59 Poland 2004 38,157,000 37,972,964 54 54 54 50 51 51 51 52 Romania 2007 21,610,000 19,644,350 35 33 33 33 32 33 Netherlands 1951 16,334,000 17,081,507 10 14 14 25 25 25 31 31 31 27 27 25 26 26 26 29 Belgium 1951 10,511,000 11,351,727 10 14 14 24 24 24 25 25 25 24 24 22 22 22 21 21 Greece 1981 11,125,000 10,768,193 24 24 25 25 25 24 24 22 22 22 21 21 Czech Republic 2004 10,251,000 10,578,820 24 24 24 22 22 22 21 21 Portugal 1986 10,570,000 10,309,573 24 25 25 25 24 24 22 22 22 21 21 Sweden 1995 9,048,000 9,995,153 22 22 19 19 18 20 20 20 21 Hungary 2004 10,077,000 9,797,561 24 24 24 22 22 22 21 21 Austria 1995 8,266,000 8,772,865 21 21 18 18 17 19 19 18 19 Bulgaria 2007 7,719,000 7,101,859 18 17 18 18 17 17 Denmark 1973 5,428,000 5,748,769 10 16 16 16 16 16 16 14 14 13 13 13 13 14 Finland 1995 5,256,000 5,503,297 16 16 14 14 13 13 13 13 14 Slovakia 2004 5,389,000 5,435,343 14 14 14 13 13 13 13 14 Ireland 1973 4,209,000 4,784,383 10 15 15 15 15 15 15 13 13 12 12 12 11 13 Croatia 2013 4,443,000 4,154,213 12 11 12 Lithuania 2004 3,403,000 2,847,904 13 13 13 12 12 12 11 11 Slovenia 2004 2,003,000 2,065,895 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 Latvia 2004 2,295,000 1,950,116 9 9 9 8 9 9 8 8 Estonia 2004 1,344,000 1,315,635 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 Cyprus 2004 766,000 854,802 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 Luxembourg 1951 460,000 590,667 4 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 Malta 2004 404,000 460,297 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6

Total 494,070,000 511,522,671 78 142 198 410 434 518 567 626 788 732 785 736 754 766 751 705

Changes in membership in the European Parliament https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apportionment_in_the_European_Parliament

The European Parliament is made up of 705 Members elected in the 27 Member States of the enlarged European Union.

The United Kingdom became the first member state to leave the EU on 31 January 2020.

All countries that are part of the European Union work

together to make sure that:

•there is peace in Europe

•people have good lives

•things are fair for all people and nobody is left out

•the languages and cultures of all people are respected

•there is a strong European economy and countries use

the same coin to do business together.

The countries of the European Union share some

important values.

For example, they work to make sure that all people are

equal and their rights are respected.

The goals and values of the European Union https://europa.eu/european-union/about-eu/easy-to-read_en

Peace in Europe

After the European Union was created,

there were no more wars in Europe.

Thanks to the European Union,

all countries in Europe work together in

peace.

In 2012, the European Union won a big

award which is called ‘the Nobel Peace

Prize’.

This award was given to the European

Union for its good work keeping peace in

Europe.

Contemporary Europe: A Dynamic Realm: Spatial Interaction

■ Europe is unified as an enormous functional region • Operates based on two principles:

• Complementarity: as one area produces a surplus of a commodity that

is required by another area.

• Transferability: ease with which a commodity can be transported

by producer to consumer.

■ Creates a highly interdependent economic realm: • Mitigate the economies of scale problem attributed to small

country size.

The European Union, a political entity composed of 27 European states,

comprises the largest single economic area in the world. 20

EU countries share the euro as a common currency. Five European

countries rank in the top twenty of the world's largest national

economies in GDP. This includes: Germany (4), France (7), Italy (8),

Russia (11), and Spain (14). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)

Consequences of Unification: A New Economic Geography

■ Reduced effect of national

boundaries.

■ Some subnational regions

have become powerful

engines of growth.

■ Four Motors of Europe: • Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes (a

region in southeast-central France)

• Lombardy (a region in Northern

Italy)

• Catalonia (in northeastern Spain)

• Baden-Württemberg (a state

in southwest Germany bordering

France and Switzerland)

The Four Motors for Europe, a

transnational, interregional network of

four highly industrialized and research-

oriented regions in Europe signed an

agreement of cooperation on September

9, 1988, in Stuttgart, Germany.

Consequences of Unification: A New Economic Geography

■ Policies of subsidies: • Development of less prosperous sub-regions.

• Common Agriculture Policy (CAP) and farmers: • System of tariffs, quotas and subsidies for agricultural production.

■ Uneven development: • Major differences still persist between regions and within member

states.

■ Supranationalism problems • Loss of autonomy, notably over currency and migration.

• Disparities in levels of economic development.

• Technical barriers; additional levels of bureaucracy.

• Cultural barriers.

• May lead to devolutionary pressures.

Consequences of Unification: Diminished State

Power and New Regionalism ■ Devolution: centrifugal

forces of regions or

people within a state

that demand and gain

political strength at the

expense of the state: • Devolution results when

absolute sovereignty of

the state over its territory

erodes.

• States respond in a

variety of ways, from

suppression to

accommodation.

Defining Europe: Difficult Choices Widening or Deepening?

■ Widening: expand membership of the EU • Difficulty including uneven economies, disparate political systems, and

greater cultural diversity.

• Yet, negotiations with potential members continue (Balkans,

Europe’s “Far East”, Turkey). • Cultural distinctions could impede membership.

■ Deepening: intensify policies and laws of the EU • Difficulty in maintaining and creating uniform laws.

• Rising “Euro-skepticism” and public resistance to deepening.

• The UK voted to exit the EU in 2016 (‘Brexit’).

Brexit (a portmanteau of "British" and "exit") is the withdrawal of the United Kingdom (UK) from the European Union (EU).

Following a UK-wide referendum in June 2016, in which 52% voted to leave and 48% voted to remain in the EU, the

British government formally announced the country's withdrawal in March 2017, beginning the Brexit process. The

withdrawal was delayed by deadlock in the British parliament. Following a general election, Parliament ratified the

withdrawal agreement, and the UK left the EU at 11 p.m. GMT on 31 January 2020. This began a transition period that

is set to end on 31 December 2020, during which the UK and EU will negotiate their future relationship. The UK remains

subject to EU law and remains part of the EU customs union and single market during the transition, but is no longer part

of the EU's political bodies or institutions. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit

As of October

2023, 56

percent of

people in Great

Britain thought

that it was

wrong to leave

the European

Union,

compared with

34 percent who

thought it was

the right decision.

Economics Opponents of the EU argued that it is a dysfunctional economic entity. The EU failed to address the economic problems that had been developing since 2008… for example, 20% unemployment in southern Europe. The difference between the lives of southern Europeans and Germans—who enjoy 4.2% unemployment—is profound. Europe as a whole has stagnated economically.

Sovereignty

The second reason for Brexit is the rise of nationalism across the world.

There’s a growing distrust of multinational financial, trade, and defense

organizations created after World War II. The EU, the IMF, and NATO are good

examples of this.

Many who oppose the EU believe these institutions no longer serve a purpose. Not only that, these organizations take control away from individual nations. Mistrust and fear of losing control made Brexit a reasonable solution to them. The immigration crisis in Europe was a trigger. Some EU leaders argued that aiding the refugees was a moral obligation. But EU opponents saw immigration as a national issue, as it affected the internal life of the country.

Political Elitism

Finally, the political leadership of Britain faced a profound loss. The “leave” voters

rejected both the Conservative and Labour parties.

Brexit was a vote against the British elite. Voters thought politicians, business

leaders, and intellectuals had lost their right to control the system.

3 Reasons Brits Voted For Brexit https://www.forbes.com/sites/johnmauldin/2016/07/05/3-reasons-brits-voted-for-brexit/#63b157b81f9d

Top stories

11/01/2022 8:30 p.m.

Financial Times

The rotten state of Brexit for the

food industry 20 hours ago

National Review

Northern Ireland Brexit Predictions

Vindicated Years Later 1 day ago

Eater London

Jason Atherton’s London

Restaurants Could Close Because

of Brexit 7 hours ago

Post-Brexit policy chaos may

mean farmers miss nature-friendly

payments 5 hours ago

Defining Europe: Difficult Choices: Impact of the Global Economic Crisis

■ Economic woes: • Growth rates are down

• High unemployment rates.

• Skyrocketing national debts

• Eurozone bailouts.

• Greek debt crisis.

■ Social-political consequences: • Polarization of national politics is difficult for EU

activities.

• Overall, benefit of Union is widely questioned.

• Unskilled, unemployed immigrants drive negative

economic indicators & become scapegoats.

GDP (Nominal) in US$ Per Capita by Country https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)_per_capita

Rank Country Sub-Region IMF Year UN Year World Bank Year

1 Monaco Western Europe N/A N/A 190,532 2019 190,513 2019 2 Liechtenstein Western Europe N/A N/A 179,258 2019 180,367 2018 3 Luxembourg Western Europe 131,782 2021 115,481 2019 115,874 2020 6 Switzerland Western Europe 94,696 2021 85,135 2019 86,602 2020 7 Ireland Northern Europe 94,556 2021 81,637 2019 83,813 2020 9 Norway Northern Europe 81,995 2021 74,986 2019 67,295 2020

11 Iceland Northern Europe 65,273 2021 71,345 2019 59,261 2020 12 Denmark Northern Europe 67,218 2021 60,657 2019 60,909 2020 16 Sweden Northern Europe 58,977 2021 52,896 2019 51,926 2020 17 Netherlands Western Europe 58,003 2021 53,053 2019 52,304 2020 19 Finland Northern Europe 54,330 2021 48,678 2019 49,041 2020 20 Austria Western Europe 53,859 2021 49,701 2019 48,105 2020 21 San Marino Southern Europe 49,765 2021 47,313 2019 47,731 2019 24 Germany Western Europe 51,860 2021 46,232 2019 45,724 2020 25 Belgium Western Europe 50,103 2021 46,198 2019 44,594 2020 29 United Kingdom Northern Europe 46,344 2021 41,855 2019 40,285 2020 30 France Western Europe 44,995 2021 40,319 2019 38,625 2020 32 Andorra Southern Europe N/A N/A 40,887 2019 40,897 2019 36 Italy Southern Europe 34,997 2021 33,090 2019 31,676 2020 41 Malta Southern Europe 31,576 2021 33,752 2019 27,885 2020 43 Spain Southern Europe 30,996 2021 29,816 2019 27,057 2020 48 Slovenia Southern Europe 28,104 2021 26,062 2019 25,180 2020 49 Cyprus Asia 29,535 2022 28,133 2020 30,799 2021 50 Estonia Northern Europe 26,470 2021 23,740 2019 23,312 2020 51 Czech Republic Eastern Europe 25,732 2021 23,452 2019 22,762 2020 53 Portugal Southern Europe 25,065 2021 23,350 2019 22,440 2020 56 Lithuania Northern Europe 22,245 2021 19,795 2019 19,998 2020 58 Slovakia Eastern Europe 21,529 2021 19,256 2019 19,157 2020 59 Greece Southern Europe 19,673 2021 19,604 2019 17,677 2020 61 Latvia Northern Europe 19,824 2021 17,885 2019 17,620 2020 63 Hungary Eastern Europe 18,075 2021 16,879 2019 15,899 2020 65 Poland Eastern Europe 16,930 2021 15,727 2019 15,656 2020 67 Croatia Southern Europe 16,247 2021 14,627 2019 13,828 2020 73 Romania Eastern Europe 14,968 2021 12,914 2019 12,896 2020 79 Russia Eastern Europe 11,654 2021 11,606 2019 10,127 2020 82 Bulgaria Eastern Europe 11,321 2021 9,703 2019 9,976 2020 95 Montenegro Southern Europe 9,064 2021 8,825 2019 7,686 2020 97 Serbia Southern Europe 8,748 2021 7,359 2019 7,666 2020

106 Bosnia and Herzegovina Southern Europe 6,728 2021 6,109 2019 6,032 2020 108 North Macedonia Southern Europe 6,657 2021 6,093 2019 5,888 2020 109 Belarus Eastern Europe 6,487 2021 6,674 2019 6,411 2020 110 Albania Southern Europe 5,991 2021 5,303 2019 5,215 2020 120 Kosovo Eastern Europe 4,856 2021 4,473 2019 4,287 2020 121 Moldova Eastern Europe 4,638 2021 2,957 2019 4,551 2020 133 Ukraine Eastern Europe 3,984 2021 3,496 2019 3,727 2020

Monaco, a sovereign city-state,

country, and microstate on the

French Riviera in Western

Europe (Area: 499 acres;

Population: 38,695 in 2017)

There is huge disparity between many European countries in terms of their income. The richest in terms of GDP per capita is Monaco and the poorest are Moldova and Ukraine.

Red =

EU

Country Last Previous Reference Belarus 0.2 0.2 Dec/20 Faroe Islands 1.2 1.2 Jul/21 Liechtenstein 1.9 1.5 Dec/20 Switzerland 2.6 2.7 Sep/21 Netherlands 3.1 3.2 Sep/21 Denmark 3.3 3.5 Sep/21 Germany 3.4 3.4 Sep/21 Czech Republic 3.5 3.6 Sep/21 Iceland 3.5 5 Sep/21 Malta 3.5 3.9 Jun/21 Moldova 3.6 4.3 Jun/21 Hungary 3.9 4.1 Sep/21 Norway 4.2 5.1 Sep/21 Russia 4.3 4.4 Sep/21 Cyprus 4.4 5.2 Aug/21 United Kingdom 4.5 4.6 Aug/21 Bulgaria 4.7 4.9 Sep/21 Romania 5.2 5.1 Aug/21 Luxembourg 5.5 5.6 Sep/21 Poland 5.6 5.8 Sep/21 Belgium 6.4 6.2 Aug/21 Ireland 6.4 6.5 Sep/21 Austria 6.5 6.5 Oct/21 Portugal 6.7 7.1 Jun/21 European Union 6.8 6.9 Aug/21 Estonia 6.9 7.1 Jun/21 Croatia 7 7.3 Sep/21 Finland 7 6.5 Sep/21 Slovakia 7.1 7.4 Sep/21 Slovenia 7.1 7.3 Aug/21 Euro Area 7.5 7.6 Aug/21 Latvia 7.9 8.1 Jun/21 France 8 8.1 Jun/21 Sweden 8.2 8.5 Sep/21 Italy 9.3 9.3 Aug/21 Ukraine 9.3 10.5 Jun/21 Serbia 11.1 12.8 Jun/21 Lithuania 11.3 12.2 Sep/21 Albania 12.1 12.6 Jun/21 Turkey 12.1 12.1 Aug/21 Greece 13.9 14 Aug/21 Spain 14.57 15.26 Sep/21 Macedonia 15.9 16 Jun/21 Montenegro 23.26 23.27 Sep/21 Kosovo 25.8 27 Mar/21 Bosnia and Herzegovina 32.42 32.54 Aug/21

Unemployment Rate | Europe https://tradingeconomics.com/country-list/unemployment-rate?continent=europe

Country Last Previous Reference Faroe Islands 0.6 0.7 Sep/23 Liechtenstein 1.3 1.6 Dec/22 Switzerland 2 2 Sep/23 Denmark 2.5 2.5 Sep/23 Malta 2.5 2.9 Jun/23 Russia 3 3 Aug/23 Norway 3.5 3.6 Sep/23 Belarus 3.6 3.9 Dec/22 Czech Republic 3.6 3.6 Sep/23 Netherlands 3.7 3.6 Sep/23 Moldova 3.8 5.5 Jun/23 Iceland 3.9 2.8 Sep/23 Hungary 4.1 4.1 Sep/23 Ireland 4.2 4.1 Sep/23 United Kingdom 4.3 4.2 Jul/23 Slovenia 4.8 4.8 Aug/23 Poland 5 5 Sep/23 Slovakia 5.21 5.23 Sep/23 Bulgaria 5.3 5.3 Sep/23 Romania 5.4 5.5 Aug/23 Belgium 5.5 5.5 Aug/23 Luxembourg 5.5 5.3 Sep/23 Germany 5.7 5.7 Sep/23 Croatia 5.8 6 Sep/23 Austria 5.9 6.1 Sep/23 European Union 5.9 6 Aug/23 Portugal 6.1 7.2 Jun/23 Euro Area 6.4 6.5 Aug/23 Latvia 6.4 6.4 Jun/23 Cyprus 6.6 6.6 Aug/23 Estonia 6.7 5.3 Jun/23 Finland 7 6.7 Sep/23 France 7.2 7.1 Jun/23 Italy 7.3 7.5 Aug/23 Sweden 7.7 7.7 Sep/23 Lithuania 8.3 8.4 Sep/23 Turkey 9.2 9.4 Aug/23 Serbia 9.6 10.1 Jun/23 Ukraine 10.5 9.1 Dec/21 Albania 10.7 10.9 Jun/23 Greece 10.9 10.9 Aug/23 Spain 11.84 11.6 Sep/23 Kosovo 12.6 20.7 Dec/22 Bosnia and Herzegovina 13.1 13.3 Jun/23 Macedonia 13.2 13.4 Jun/23 Montenegro 16.23 16.43 Sep/23

Living conditions in Europe - poverty and social exclusion

In 2020, 96.5 million people in the EU were at risk of poverty

or social exclusion; this was equivalent to 21.9% of the EU

population.

The risk of poverty or social exclusion in the EU was, in

2020, higher for women than for men (22.9% compared with

20.9%).

Over two fifths (42.1%) of the EU population living in single

adult households with dependent children was at risk of

poverty or social exclusion in 2020.

https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Living_conditions_in_Europe_-_poverty_and_social_exclusion

In 2022, 95.3 million people

in the EU were at risk of

poverty or social exclusion;

this was equivalent to 21.6 %

of the EU population.

The risk of poverty or social

exclusion in the EU was, in

2022, higher for women than

for men (22.7 % compared

with 20.4 %).

Over one-fifth (22.4 %) of the

EU population living in

households with dependent

children was at risk of

poverty or social exclusion

in 2022.

Regional Issue: How Desirable is Economic and Political Union?

■ IN SUPPORT OF UNION

• Opportunity to overcome

divisions.

• Development and

prosperity will be more

equitable.

• Union is more

economically powerful.

• Political unification will

aid global

competitiveness.

■ IN OPPOSITION TO THE

EUROPEAN UNION • Not a true democratic

choice, was decided by

the elite.

• Economic inequity: high

prices and cheap

immigrant labor.

• Development subsidies

are being squandered.

• No such thing as

Europe.

European countries that are not in the European Union are Albania, Andorra, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Gibraltar, Holy See, Iceland, Kosovo, Liechtenstein, North Macedonia, Moldova, Monaco, Montenegro, Norway, Russia, San Marino, Serbia, Switzerland, Ukraine, and • •

•

• •

•

• •

•

Åland Islands (an autonomous region of Finland) Faroe Islands (a self-governing archipelago, part of the Kingdom of Denmark) Guernsey (a self-governing British Crown dependency) Isle of Man (a self-governing British Crown dependency) Jersey (a self-governing dependency of the United Kingdom) Sark (a self-governing British Crown dependency)

Svalbard and Jan Mayen (two remote jurisdictions of Norway)

San Marino (an enclaved microstate completely surrounded by Italy)

Vatican City (a city-state surrounded by Rome, Italy)

There are five recognised candidates for future membership of the European

Union: Turkey (applied on 14 April 1987), North Macedonia (applied on 22 March 2004 as

"Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia"), Montenegro (applied in 2008), Albania (applied in

2009), and Serbia (applied in 2009). Bosnia and Herzegovina has formally submitted an

application for membership, while Kosovo has a Stabilisation and Association

Agreement (SAA) with the EU, which generally precedes the lodging of membership

application.

The result of the United Kingdom European Union Referendum of 2016 was a victory for the "Leave"

campaign, amassing a total of 51.9% of the vote. This meant that the outcome was in favor of the United

Kingdom leaving the European Union, a decision and process that is commonly referred to as "Brexit".

The United Kingdom became the first member state to leave the EU on 31 January 2020.

Four territories of EU member

states have withdrawn: French

Algeria (in 1962, upon

independence), Greenland (in

1985, following a

referendum), Saint Pierre and

Miquelon (also in 1985,

unilaterally) and Saint

Barthélemy (in 2012), the latter

three becoming Overseas

Countries and Territories of the European Union.

To become part of the European Union, these countries must work to

make all laws and values of the European Union happen in them.

Joining the EU Becoming a member of the EU is a complex procedure which does not happen overnight. Once an applicant country meets the conditions for membership, it must implement EU rules and regulations in all areas. Any country that satisfies the conditions for membership can apply. These conditions are known as the ‘Copenhagen criteria’ and include a stable democracy and the rule of law, a functioning market economy and the acceptance of all EU legislation, including of the euro. A country wishing to join the EU submits a membership application to the Council, which asks the Commission to assess the applicant’s ability to meet the Copenhagen criteria. Based on the Commission's opinion, the Council then decides on a negotiation mandate. Negotiations are then formally opened on a subject-by-subject basis. Due to the huge volume of EU rules and regulations each candidate country must adopt as national law, the negotiations take time to complete. The candidates are supported financially, administratively and technically during this pre-accession period.

Candidate countries These countries are in the process of 'transposing' (or integrating) EU legislation into national law:

•Albania •Bosnia and Herzegovina •Moldova •Montenegro

•North Macedonia

•Serbia 11/1/2023

•Türkiye •Ukraine Potential candidates Potential candidate countries do not yet fulfil the requirements for EU membership:

•Bosnia and Herzegovina

•Georgia •Kosovo* * This designation is without prejudice to positions on status, and is in line with UNSCR 1244/1999 and the ICJ Opinion on the Kosovo declaration of independence.

https://european-union.europa.eu/principles-countries-history/joining-eu_en

Defining Europe: Difficult Choices: EU versus NATO

• Eastward expansion of members.

• Today’s security needs: • Terrorism.

• Rogue states.

• Cyber war.

■ North Atlantic Treaty Organization • Mutual defense alliance created in postwar, Cold War context.

• Partially overlaps with the EU, but includes non-EU, United

States, Canada, and Turkey.

• The collapse of the Soviet Union changed the scope of the

alliance. NATO was formed in

1949 to provide

collective security

against the threat

posed by the Soviet

Union. The U.S. viewed

an economically strong,

rearmed and integrated

Europe as vital to the

prevention of

communist expansion

across the continent.

"Since President Trump took office, America’s NATO allies

have stepped up defense spending by a total of $41 billion."

"Allied defense spending increased by more than 9 percent

from 2016 to 2018 – the largest increase in 25 years. By

2020, our NATO allies are projected to increase defense

spending by approximately $100billion.“ Acting Defense Secretary

Patrick M. Shanahan

North Atlantic Treaty Organization

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance between 28 European countries and 2 North American countries. The organization implements the North Atlantic Treaty that was signed on 4 April 1949. Since its founding, the admission of new member states has increased the alliance from the original 12 countries to 31. The most recent member state to be added to NATO was North Macedonia on 27 March 2020. NATO currently recognizes Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, and Ukraine as aspiring members. An additional 20 countries participate in NATO's Partnership for Peace programme, with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programmes. The combined military spending of all NATO members in 2020 constituted over 57% of the global nominal total. Members agreed that their aim is to reach or maintain the target defence spending of at least 2% of their GDP by 2024.

•ALBANIA (2009) •BELGIUM (1949) •BULGARIA (2004) •CANADA (1949) •CROATIA (2009) •CZECH REPUBLIC (1999) •DENMARK (1949) •ESTONIA (2004) •FINLAND (2023) •FRANCE (1949) •GERMANY (1955) •GREECE (1952) •HUNGARY (1999) •ICELAND (1949) •ITALY (1949) •LATVIA (2004) •LITHUANIA (2004) •LUXEMBOURG (1949) •MONTENEGRO (2017) •NETHERLANDS (1949) •NORTH MACEDONIA (2020) •NORWAY (1949) •POLAND (1999) •PORTUGAL (1949) •ROMANIA (2004) •SLOVAKIA (2004) •SLOVENIA (2004) •SPAIN (1982) •TURKEY (1952) •THE UNITED KINGDOM (1949) •THE UNITED STATES (1949)

EU NOT NATO Austria Cyprus Ireland Malta Sweden

Currently, four partner countries have declared their aspirations to NATO membership: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, Sweden and Ukraine. Finland and Sweden completed accession talks, and Allies signed the Accession Protocols for both countries in July 2022. They are now official Invitees and attend NATO meetings as such.

https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_49212.htm

“Türkiye will transmit the Accession Protocol for Sweden to the Grand National Assembly, and work closely with the Assembly to ensure ratification.”10 Jul. 2023 21:33

https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/news_217147.htm

NATO’s Enemies Within How Democratic Decline Could Destroy the Alliance By Celeste A. Wallander July/August 2018

https://www.foreignaffairs.com/natos-enemies-within

At a NATO summit in Brussels, March 2017.

NATO today faces multiple challenges. Terrorists have attacked European capitals,

migration is putting pressure on border and homeland security systems, Russia is both

able and willing to use military force and other instruments of influence in Europe, and

U.S. President Donald Trump has threatened to scrap the alliance altogether. But the

most serious problem is not one of these obvious threats; rather, it is the breakdown of

liberal democracy within the alliance itself.

WHY IS HUNGARY 'BLOCKING' UKRAINE'S NATO ACCESSION?

https://washington.mfa.gov.hu/eng/news/why-is-hungary-blocking-ukraines-nato-accession

Bloomberg.com 16 hours ago Turkey Holds Off on Sweden's NATO Bid Ahead of Stoltenberg Visit

The Guardian 11 hours ago Finland and Sweden call on Hungary and Turkey to ratify Nato applications

Reuters 16 hours ago Finland urges Turkey, Hungary to swiftly approve Swedish, Finnish NATO bids

11/1/2022

The past year saw steady U.S. reengagement on European

defense. A proposed large-scale withdrawal of troops from

Germany was cancelled; an important agreement on enhanced

defense cooperation was signed with Poland; an increased

focus on Arctic security came more clearly into view; and

investments in exercises, infrastructure, and rotational

deployments continued. A poorly planned and executed

withdrawal from Afghanistan in August tarnished U.S. credibility.

European allies remain upset over a lack of U.S. consultation

and communication as well as ongoing downstream impact.

ASSESSING THE GLOBAL OPERATING ENVIRONMENT: Europe

The Heritage Foundation Oct 20, 2021 https://www.heritage.org/military-strength/assessing-the-global-operating-environment/europe

Europeans have been forced into a rethink by their fears about the consequences of China’s rise – and by their uncertainty about the United States’ commitment to European security and its willingness to protect European interests from the potentially negative consequences of the Sino-American rivalry. … The US strategy for the Indo-Pacific explicitly names China as a “strategic rival”. In contrast, the national strategies of France, Germany, and the Netherlands seek to avoid difficult positioning on the China question by insisting on “inclusivity” – suggesting that Beijing should be more of a partner than a rival. https://ecfr.eu/special/moving-closer-european-views-of-the-indo-pacific/

Secret locations of U.S. nuclear weapons in Europe accidentally included in report from NATO parliament Adam Taylor July 16, 2019 at 1:33 p.m. EDT https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2019/07/16/location-us-nuclear-weapons-europe-accidentally-revealed-report-nato-body/

A recently released — and subsequently deleted — document published by a NATO-affiliated body has sparked headlines in Europe with an apparent confirmation of a long-

held open secret: U.S. nuclear weapons are being stored in Belgium, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Turkey.

A version of the document, titled “A new era for nuclear deterrence? Modernisation, arms control and allied

nuclear forces,” was published in April. Written by a Canadian senator for the Defense and Security Committee of the NATO Parliamentary Assembly, the report assessed

the future of the organization’s nuclear deterrence policy.

But what would make news months later is a passing reference that appeared to reveal the location of

roughly 150 U.S. nuclear weapons being stored in Europe.

According to a copy of the document published Tuesday by Belgian newspaper De Morgen, a section on the nuclear arsenal read: “These bombs are stored at six US and European bases — Kleine Brogel in Belgium, Büchel in Germany, Aviano and Ghedi-Torre in Italy, Volkel in The Netherlands, and Incirlik in Turkey.” …

In 2016, after a coup attempt and the rapid spread of the Islamic State extremist group next door, analysts openly wondered whether Turkey was really such a great place to store nuclear weapons. “The military mission for which these weapons were originally intended — stopping a Soviet invasion of Western Europe because of inferior U.S. and NATO

conventional forces — no longer exists,” Reif (Kingston Reif, director for disarmament and threat-reduction policy at the Arms Control Association) said.

U.S. Nuclear Weapons in Europe. In his 2021 EUCOM posture statement, General Wolters reaffirmed that “as long as nuclear weapons exist, NATO must remain a nuclear Alliance. NATO’s nuclear capability preserves peace, prevents coercion, deters aggression, and instills confidence in the transatlantic bond. The Alliance’s strategic forces guarantee security and backstop U.S. operations in Europe.”

It is believed that until the end of the Cold War, the U.S. maintained approximately 2,500 nuclear warheads in Europe. Unofficial estimates range between 150 and 200 warheads spread out across bases in Belgium, Italy, Germany, the Netherlands, and Turkey.

In October 2019, reports surfaced that the U.S. was considering moving the approximately 50 tactical nuclear weapons stored at Incirlik Air Base in Turkey in light of ongoing tensions, but this does not appear to have happened.

All of these weapons are free-fall gravity bombs designed for use with U.S. and allied dual-capable aircraft. Although tactical nuclear weapons are forward deployed to Incirlik, “there are no aircraft capable of delivering the B-61 gravity bombs co-located at Incirlik Airbase.”

The U.S. has nuclear sharing agreements with Belgium, Italy, Germany, and the Netherlands that allow for U.S. tactical nuclear weapons to be delivered by allied aircraft, but no such agreement is in force with Turkey: “The weapons at Incirlik Air Base in Turkey are solely for use on U.S. aircraft.”

The B61 nuclear gravity bomb that is “deployed from U.S. Air Force and North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) bases” is undergoing a life extension program that is expected to add at least 20 years to its service life and “improve the bomb’s safety, security, and effectiveness.”

The B61-12 bomb, according to U.S. officials, is “intended to be three times more accurate than its predecessors.”

The first production unit is slated for FY 2022 with production completed in 2025.

In November 2020, the U.S. tested the B61-12 successfully with an F-35A following tests with the F-15E and B-2 bomber.

https://www.heritage.org/military-strength/assessing-the-global-operating-environment/europe

1 France PwrIndx Score: 0.1681 2 United Kingdom PwrIndx Score: 0.1997 3 Italy PwrIndx Score: 0.2127 4 Germany PwrIndx Score: 0.2519 5 Spain PwrIndx Score: 0.3257 6 Poland PwrIndx Score: 0.4187 7 Ukraine PwrIndx Score: 0.4396 8 Greece PwrIndx Score: 0.4954 9 Switzerland PwrIndx Score: 0.5011 10 Sweden PwrIndx Score: 0.5345 11 Czechia PwrIndx Score: 0.6204 12 Netherlands PwrIndx Score: 0.6391 13 Romania PwrIndx Score: 0.6953 14 Belarus PwrIndx Score: 0.8371 15 Portugal PwrIndx Score: 0.8661 16 Denmark PwrIndx Score: 0.8921 17 Hungary PwrIndx Score: 0.9187 18 Finland PwrIndx Score: 0.9335 19 Slovakia PwrIndx Score: 0.9451 20 Austria PwrIndx Score: 0.9705 21 Serbia PwrIndx Score: 1.0063 22 Croatia PwrIndx Score: 1.0331 23 Bulgaria PwrIndx Score: 1.1438 24 Belgium PwrIndx Score: 1.1809 25 Lithuania PwrIndx Score: 1.7549 26 Slovenia PwrIndx Score: 2.0782 27 Latvia PwrIndx Score: 2.3756 28 Ireland PwrIndx Score: 2.3861 29 Moldova PwrIndx Score: 2.6228 30 Estonia PwrIndx Score: 2.8387 31 Albania PwrIndx Score: 2.9166 32 Bosnia and Herzegovina PwrIndx Score: 4.0474 33 Montenegro PwrIndx Score: 4.3841 34 North Macedonia PwrIndx Score: 5.0801 35 Kosovo PwrIndx Score: 19.4791

European Military Strength (2021) The GFP list makes use of

over 50 factors in our in-

house formula to determine

a given nation's Power Index

('PwrIndx') score. This

provides the final ranking

while also allowing smaller,

more technologically-

advanced, nations to

compete with larger, lesser-

developed ones. Some

bonuses and penalties are

added for refinement that, in

the end, we hope presents

an unbiased look into the

potential conventional

military strength of a world

power.

There are a total

of 35 countries included in

the European Military

Strength (2021) annual

defense review.

https://www.globalfirepower.com/countries-listing-europe.php

25. Belgium (Overall ranking: 68) Power Index rating: 1.0885 Total population: 11,491,346 Total military personnel: 38,800 Total aircraft strength: 164 Fighter aircraft: 45 Combat tanks: 0 Total naval assets: 17 Defense budget: .085 billion 24. Portugal (Overall ranking: 63) Power Index rating: 1.0035 Total population: 10,839,514 Total military personnel: 268,500 Total aircraft strength: 93 Fighter aircraft: 24 Combat tanks: 133 Total naval assets: 41 Defense budget: .8 billion 23. Slovakia (Overall ranking: 62) Power Index rating: 0.9998 Total population: 5,445,829 Total military personnel: 14,675 Total aircraft strength: 49 Fighter aircraft: 18 Combat tanks: 22 Total naval assets: 0 Defense budget: id=”listicle- 2617982766″.025 billion 22. Austria (Overall ranking: 61) Power Index rating: 0.9953 Total population: 8,754,413 Total military personnel: 170,000 Total aircraft strength: 124 Fighter aircraft: 15 Combat tanks: 56 Total naval assets: 0 Defense budget: .22 billion 21. Bulgaria (Overall ranking: 60) Power Index rating: 0.9839 Total population: 7,101,510 Total military personnel: 52,650 Total aircraft strength: 73 Fighter aircraft: 20 Combat tanks: 531 Total naval assets: 29 Defense budget: 0 million

25 strongest militaries in Europe, according to BI Business Insider By Christopher Woody Posted On April 29, 2020 15:43:38

https://www.wearethemighty.com/mighty-trending/strongest-militaries-europe-according-bi/

20. Finland (Overall ranking: 59) Power Index rating: 0.9687 Total population: 5,518,371 Total military personnel: 262,050 Total aircraft strength: 153 Fighter aircraft: 55 Combat tanks: 160 Total naval assets: 270 Defense budget: .66 billion 19. Hungary (Overall ranking: 57) Power Index rating: 0.9153 Total population: 9,850,845 Total military personnel: 77,250 Total aircraft strength: 35 Fighter aircraft: 12 Combat tanks: 32 Total naval assets: 0 Defense budget: .04 billion 18. Denmark (Overall ranking: 54) Power Index rating: 0.9084 Total population: 5,605,948 Total military personnel: 75,150 Total aircraft strength: 113 Fighter aircraft: 33 Combat tanks: 57 Total naval assets: 90 Defense budget: .44 billion 17. Belarus (Overall ranking: 41) Power Index rating: 0.7315 Total population: 9,549,747 Total military personnel: 401,250 Total aircraft strength: 202 Fighter aircraft: 43 Combat tanks: 515 Total naval assets: 0 Defense budget: 5 million 16. Romania (Overall ranking: 40) Power Index rating: 0.7205 Total population: 21,529,967 Total military personnel: 177,750 Total aircraft strength: 135 Fighter aircraft: 34 Combat tanks: 827 Total naval assets: 48 Defense budget: .19 billion

15. Netherlands (Overall ranking: 38) Power Index rating: 0.7113 Total population: 17,084,719 Total military personnel: 53,205 Total aircraft strength: 165 Fighter aircraft: 61 Combat tanks: 0 Total naval assets: 56 Defense budget: .84 billion 14. Norway (Overall ranking: 36) Power Index rating: 0.6784 Total population: 5,320,045 Total military personnel: 72,500 Total aircraft strength: 128 Fighter aircraft: 49 Combat tanks: 52 Total naval assets: 62 Defense budget: billion 13. Switzerland (Overall ranking: 34) Power Index rating: 0.6634 Total population: 8,236,303 Total military personnel: 171,000 Total aircraft strength: 167 Fighter aircraft: 54 Combat tanks: 134 Total naval assets: 0 Defense budget: .83 billion 12. Sweden (Overall ranking: 31) Power Index rating: 0.6071 Total population: 9,960,487 Total military personnel: 43,875 Total aircraft strength: 206 Fighter aircraft: 72 Combat tanks: 120 Total naval assets: 63 Defense budget: .2 billion 11. Czech Republic (Overall ranking: 30) Power Index rating: 0.5969 Total population: 10,674,723 Total military personnel: 29,050 Total aircraft strength: 103 Fighter aircraft: 12 Combat tanks: 123 Total naval assets: 0 Defense budget: .6 billion

10. Ukraine (Overall ranking: 29) Power Index rating: 0.5383 Total population: 44,033,874 Total military personnel: 1,182,000 Total aircraft strength: 240 Fighter aircraft: 39 Combat tanks: 2,214 Total naval assets: 25 Defense budget: .88 billion 9. Greece (Overall ranking: 28) Power Index rating: 0.5255 Total population: 10,768,477 Total military personnel: 413,750 Total aircraft strength: 567 Fighter aircraft: 189 Combat tanks: 1,345 Total naval assets: 115 Defense budget: .54 billion 8. Poland (Overall ranking: 22) Power Index rating: 0.4276 Total population: 38,476,269 Total military personnel: 184,650 Total aircraft strength: 466 Fighter aircraft: 99 Combat tanks: 1,065 Total naval assets: 83 Defense budget: .36 billion 7. Spain (Overall ranking: 19) Power Index rating: 0.4079 Total population: 48,958,159 Total military personnel: 174,700 Total aircraft strength: 524 Fighter aircraft: 122 Combat tanks: 327 Total naval assets: 46 (one aircraft carrier) Defense budget: .6 billion 6. Italy (Overall ranking: 11) Power Index rating: 0.2565 Total population: 62,137,802 Total military personnel: 267,500 Total aircraft strength: 828 Fighter aircraft: 90 Combat tanks: 200 Total naval assets: 143 (two aircraft carriers) Defense budget: .7 billion

5. Germany (Overall ranking: 10) Power Index rating: 0.2461 Total population: 80,594,017 Total military personnel: 208,641 Total aircraft strength: 714 Fighter aircraft: 94 Combat tanks: 432 Total naval assets: 81 Defense budget: .2 billion 4. Turkey (Overall ranking: 9) Power Index rating: 0.2216 Total population: 80,845,215 Total military personnel: 710,565 Total aircraft strength: 1,056 Fighter aircraft: 207 Combat tanks: 2,446 Total naval assets: 194 Defense budget: .2 billion 3. United Kingdom (Overall ranking: 6) Power Index rating: 0.1917 Total population: 64,769,452 Total military personnel: 279,230 Total aircraft strength: 832 Fighter aircraft: 103 Combat tanks: 227 Total naval assets: 76 (two aircraft carriers) Defense budget: billion 2. France (Overall ranking: 5) Power Index rating: 0.1869 Total population: 67,106,161 Total military personnel: 388,635 Total aircraft strength: 1,262 Fighter aircraft: 299 Combat tanks: 406 Total naval assets: 118 (four aircraft carriers) Defense budget: billion 1. Russia (Overall ranking: 2) Power Index rating: 0.0841 Total population: 142,257,519 Total military personnel: 3,586,128 Total aircraft strength: 3,914 Fighter aircraft: 818 Combat tanks: 20,300 Total naval assets: 352 (one aircraft carrier) Defense budget: billion

Trump Administration to Begin OfficialWithdrawal From Paris Climate Accord By Lisa Friedman

• Oct. 23, 2019

https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/23/climate/trump-paris-climate-accord.html

WASHINGTON — The Trump administration is preparing the formal withdrawal of the United States from the Paris Agreement on climate

change, according to three people briefed on the matter, a longexpected move that nevertheless remains a powerful signal to the world.

The official action sets in motion a withdrawal that still would take a year to complete under the rules of the accord. Abandoning the landmark

2015 agreement in which nearly 200 nations vowed to reduce planet warming emissions would fulfill one of President Trump’s key campaign

promises while placing the world’s largest economy at odds with the rest of the globe on a top international policy priority.

… The United States Officially Rejoins the

Paris Agreement PRESS STATEMENT

ANTONY J. BLINKEN, SECRETARY OF STATE

FEBRUARY 19, 2021 HTTPS://WWW.STATE.GOV/THE-UNITED-STATES-OFFICIALLY-REJOINS-THE-PARIS-AGREEMENT/

1. Secure global net zero by mid-century and keep 1.5 degrees within reach Countries are being asked to come forward with ambitious 2030 emissions reductions targets that align with reaching net zero by the middle of the century. To deliver on these stretching targets, countries will need to: •accelerate the phase-out of coal •curtail deforestation •speed up the switch to electric vehicles •encourage investment in renewables. 2. Adapt to protect communities and natural habitats The climate is already changing and it will continue to change even as we reduce emissions, with devastating effects. At COP26 we need to work together to enable and encourage countries affected by climate change to: •protect and restore ecosystems •build defences, warning systems and resilient infrastructure and agriculture to avoid loss of homes, livelihoods and even lives 3. Mobilise finance To deliver on our first two goals, developed countries must make good on their promise to mobilise at least $100bn in climate finance per year by 2020. International financial institutions must play their part and we need work towards unleashing the trillions in private and public sector finance required to secure global net zero. 4. Work together to deliver We can only rise to the challenges of the climate crisis by working together. At COP26 we must: •finalise the Paris Rulebook (the detailed rules that make the Paris Agreement operational) •accelerate action to tackle the climate crisis through collaboration between governments, businesses and civil society.

COP26 GOALS

The UK will host the 26th UN Climate Change Conference of the Parties (COP26) in Glasgow on 31 October – 12 November 2021.

Notable Absentees at COP26: Russian President Vladimir Putin, Chinese President Xi Jinping and Brazilian President Jair Bolsonaro Mexican President Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador South African President Cyril Ramaphosa Iranian President Ebrahim Raisi

At COP (Climate Change Conference) 21 in Paris, on 12 December 2015, Parties to the

UNFCCC(United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) reached a landmark

agreement to combat climate change and to accelerate and intensify the actions and

investments needed for a sustainable low carbon future.

The Paris Agreement’s central aim is to strengthen the global response to the threat of

climate change by keeping a global temperature rise this century well below 2 degrees

Celsius above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase

even further to 1.5 degrees Celsius.

The Paris Agreement opened for signature on 22 April 2016 – Earth Day – at UN

Headquarters in New York. It entered into force on 4 November 2016, 30 days after the so-

called “double threshold” (ratification by 55 countries that account for at least 55% of

global emissions) had been met. Since then, more countries have ratified and continue to

ratify the Agreement, reaching a total of 125 Parties in early 2017.

To this date (10/25/2019), 187 Parties have ratified of 197 Parties to the Convention.

The Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA),known

commonly as the Iran nuclear deal or Iran deal, is an

agreement on the Iranian nuclear program reached in Vienna

on July 14, 2015, between Iran and the P5+1 (the five

permanent members of the United Nations Security Council—

China, France, Russia, United Kingdom, United States—plus

Germany) together with the European Union.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_Comprehensive_Plan_of_Action Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action

Officials announcing the agreement

Created 14 July 2015

Ratified N/A (ratification not required)

Date effective • 18 October 2015 (Adoption)

• 16 January

2016 (Implementation)

Location Vienna, Austria

Signatories Iran

European Union China (P5) France (EU) (P5) Russia (P5)

United Kingdom (EU) (P5)

Germany (EU)

United States (P5) (withdrawn)

Purpose Nuclear non-proliferation

President Donald J. Trump withdrew the United States from the agreement in May 2018, saying it failed to address Iran’s ballistic missile program and its role in regional wars. The United States reimposed sanctions and moved to wipe out Iran’s oil exports. Iran has responded by resuming some of its nuclear activities, leaving the deal in a tenuous state.

https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/what-status-iran-nuclear-agreement

What is the outlook for the agreement? 11/1/2022 The fate of the nuclear deal remains uncertain. JCPOA signatories began talks to bring Washington and Tehran back into the agreement in April 2021, but they’ve since been off and on, complicated by Iran’s election of conservative cleric Ebrahim Raisi as president and Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, among other developments. Moreover, Tehran and Washington still disagree on several issues, including the IRGC’s designation as a terrorist organization. U.S. officials have warned against more delays, saying further nuclear advances by Iran could make returning to the original deal impossible. Amid reports that Iran was days away from enriching enough uranium for a bomb, President Biden declared in July that the United States will use “all elements of its national power” to prevent the country from acquiring a nuclear weapon.

https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/what-iran-nuclear-deal

Biden Administration Decides To Build A New

Nuclear Bomb To Get Rid Of An Old Bomb 10.27.23|TEXT BY HANS KRISTENSEN & MATT KORDA

The bomb will be known as the B61-13.

https://fas.org/publication/biden-administration-to-build-a-new-nuclear-bomb/

U.S., Germany strike a deal to allow completion

of controversial Russian Nord Stream 2 pipeline PUBLISHED WED, JUL 21 20212:54 PM EDTUPDATED THU, JUL 22 20213:46 PM EDT

Amanda Macias@AMANDA_M_MACIAS

https://www.cnbc.com/2021/07/21/us-germany-strike-deal-to-allow-completion-of-russian-nord-stream-2-pipeline.html

KEY POINTS •The United States and Germany reached an agreement to allow completion of

the $11 billion Nord Stream 2 pipeline, a thorny, long-standing point of

contention between the otherwise stalwart allies.

•The agreement reached between Washington and Berlin, which was

announced Wednesday, aims to invest more than 200 million euros in energy

security in Ukraine as well as sustainable energy across Europe.

Russian gas pipeline to Germany

sows divisions in Europe and beyond BY SABRA AYRES JUNE 25, 2019 4 AM PT https://www.latimes.com/world/la-fg-russia-nordstream2-gas-pipeline-20190625-story.html

Russia says construction of controversial Nord Stream 2 pipeline to Germany is complete By The Associated Press Friday, Sep 10

https://www.defensenews.com/smr/energy-and-environment/2021/09/10/russia-says-construction-of-controversial-nord-stream-2-pipeline-to-germany-is-complete/

Russia’s state-controlled gas giant said Friday it has completed the construction of the Nord Stream 2 gas pipeline to Germany, a contentious project that Ukraine and the United

States have strongly opposed.

Gazprom said in a statement on the messaging app Telegram, citing its CEO Alexei Miller, that the construction of Nord Stream 2 was “fully completed” on Friday morning.

Owned by Gazprom, with investment from several European companies, Nord Stream 2 is built under the Baltic Sea and bypasses Poland and Ukraine, raising objections from

both those countries.

Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy has described the new pipeline as a powerful geopolitical weapon for Russia, which annexed Ukraine’s Crimean Peninsula in 2014 after

the ouster of the former Kremlin-friendly president and has thrown its weight behind a separatist insurgency in eastern Ukraine.

Washington has strongly opposed the construction of Nord Stream 2, but the administration of Joe Biden has opted not to punish the German company overseeing the project

while announcing sanctions against Russian companies and ships.

In July, the U.S and Germany reached a deal to allow Nord Stream 2′s completion without the imposition of U.S. sanctions on German entities.

Under the terms of the July 21 deal, the U.S. and Germany committed to countering any Russian attempt to use the Nord Stream 2 pipeline as a political weapon. And, they agreed

to support Ukraine and Poland by funding alternative energy and development projects.

Gas is pouring out of the Nord Stream pipelines. Here’s what you need to know By Rob Picheta, CNN Updated 3:34 PM EDT, Wed September 28, 2022 London Western nations have said leaks in two Russian gas pipelines, Nord Stream 1 and 2, are likely the result of sabotage. On Monday, leaks were discovered in the pipelines, prompting investigations by European authorities that determined powerful underwater explosions had occurred just before the pipelines burst in several places. The pipelines were created to funnel gas from Russia into the European Union, and were controversial long before Russia waged war on Ukraine, largely because of fears around European reliance on Russian energy.

https://www.cnn.com/2022/09/28/energy/nord-stream-pipelines-leaks-explainer-intl

AUKUS, also styled as Aukus, is a trilateral security pact between Australia, the United Kingdom and

the United States, announced on 15 September 2021 for the Indo-Pacific region. Under the pact, the US and the

UK will help Australia to acquire nuclear-powered submarines.

The pact also includes cooperation on "cyber capabilities, artificial intelligence, quantum technologies and

additional undersea capabilities". Under the pact, Australia will acquire new long-range strike capabilities for its air

force, navy and army. The pact will focus on military capability, separating it from the Five Eyes intelligence-

sharing alliance that also includes New Zealand and Canada.

On 17 September 2021, France, which is an ally of the three countries, recalled its ambassadors from Australia

and the US; French foreign minister Jean-Yves Le Drian called the pact a "stab in the back" following Australia's

cancellation of a French–Australian submarine deal worth €56 billion (A$90 billion) without notice, ending efforts to

develop a deeper strategic partnership between France and Australia.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AUKUS

Aukus: French president says Australian PM lied over submarine deal https://www.bbc.com/news/world-59113710

French President Emmanuel Macron has said Australia's PM Scott Morrison lied to him about a scrapped submarine deal. Asked whether he thinks Mr Morrison was untruthful, the president replied: "I don't think, I know." Mr Macron was furious after Australia cancelled a $37bn (£27bn) deal to build 12 submarines, and instead

negotiated a new defence pact with the US and the UK - the so-called Aukus. …

Within the EU, debate on relations with China intensifies While Brussels is calling for a harder line towards Beijing, the EU's 27 member countries

do not intend to revise their position on China for the moment.

By Philippe Jacqué (Brussels (Belgium) correpondent) Published on October 24, 2022 at 05h21

https://www.lemonde.fr/en/international/article/2022/10/24/within-the-eu-debate-on-relations-with-china-intensifies_6001510_4.html

Germany drawing up new China trade policy, vows ‘no more naivety’ PUBLISHED TUE, SEP 13 202210:41 PM EDT Reuters https://www.cnbc.com/2022/09/14/germany-drawing-up-new-china-trade-policy-vows-no-more-naivety.html

China has been Germany’s biggest trade partner for the past six years, with volumes reaching over 245 billion euros ($246 billion) in 2021.

Europe’s East-West Divide: Myth or Reality? STEFAN LEHNE APRIL 11, 2019 https://carnegieeurope.eu/2019/04/11/europe-s-east-west-divide-myth-or-reality-pub-78847

Fifteen years after the EU’s big bang enlargement, one would expect the dividing line between old

and new (or post-communist) member states to have faded away. But according to media reporting

and academic commentary, the opposite appears to be the case. Since the Polish parliamentary

election in 2015 and the refugee crisis of 2015–2016, the rift seems to have widened again and is

often perceived to be one of the biggest challenges for the cohesion of the EU.

This perception of growing estrangement is beginning to lead to a reevaluation of the enlargements

of 2004, when ten mainly Central and Eastern European (CEE) countries joined the EU, and 2007,

when a further two became members. What used to be considered a historic achievement is now

often viewed more critically. Many in Western Europe now think the EU was extended too far

and too quickly, and some are nostalgic for the earlier “Carolingian” union.

…

How to deal with refugees and migrants may be the most politically divisive item. But the crisis

of democracy in Hungary and Poland and rule-of-law deficits there and in other Eastern

countries are also major factors of alienation. And there are disputes about the financing of

structural funds and agriculture, the mobility of workers, environmental standards, and food

quality.

Frustrated about a perceived lack of commitment to integration from the newest member states,

some Western politicians have pushed for a two-speed Europe, in which the willing and able

(Western) countries could move ahead, leaving the rest in an outer circle. Some of their

counterparts in the East see their countries as victims of persistent discrimination. They

complain that the West wishes to turn the CEE countries into permanent rule-takers and denies

them a fair deal, which would enable economic convergence.

…

In Europe, there is a variety of debate regarding the greatest source of conflict. Oudernam argues

that ethnicity seems to be the greatest driving factor of conflict. In chapter five of Rand Corporation’s Sources of Conflict in Europe and the Former Soviet Union, John Van Oudenaren writes, “In many parts of Central, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe, the presence of ethnic or religious minorities in states dominated by other ethnic or religious groups creates a potential for subnational conflict.” He goes on to explain that minorities such as the Hungarians in Slovakia and Serbia, the Turks in Greece and the Greeks in Albania all look for protection from their mother country, but given that they reside in these other countries, there is not much their mother country can do.

For many, Oudenaren argues, this is where the seeds of conflict arise. However, from this, he says, neighboring countries engage in territorial dispute as can be seen in the “conflict between Greece and Turkey -- over territorial issues in the Aegean, over Cyprus, and over minority issues in Thrace”. Fox (2001, 464) disagrees, finding that other regions such as the Middle East are more prone to ethnic conflict compared to Europe.

Ethnicity and identity are not the only factors that cause conflict in Europe, though. Oudenaren and other scholars blame the breakup of the former Soviet Union (FSU) for much of Europe’s issues. Oudenaren writes,

“Finally, conditions in Russia and the other Newly Independent States (NIS) are much less stable than in the

rest of Europe. All countries in the FSU face severe economic, environmental, and social problems that create possibilities for internal and external conflict. Many international borders are disputed, and the presence of Russian and other minorities in most countries constitutes a flash point”.

The collapse of the Communism also had profound effects on these states and their problems have yet to be resolved. Thus, there appears to be more conflict in Europe than originally assumed, perhaps inhibiting it from being the “gold standard” many believe it to be. Fox additionally found that the Cold War, which gripped Europe from 1945-1991, prevented ethnic conflict and instead caused civilizational conflict.

http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1390/comparing-the-roots-of-conflict-in-europe-the-middle-east-and-africa

As of July 2021, Ukraine has an estimated population of 41.4 million,

and is the eighth-most populous country in Europe.

According to the 2001 census, ethnic Ukrainians make up roughly 78% of

the population, while Russians are the largest minority, at some 17.3% of

the population. Small minority populations include: Belarusians (0.6%),

Moldovans (0.5%), Crimean Tatars (0.5%), Bulgarians (0.4%), Hungarians

(0.3%), Romanians (0.3%), Poles (0.3%), Jews (0.3%), Armenians (0.2%),

Greeks (0.2%) and Tatars (0.2%). It is also estimated that there are about

10–40,000 Koreans in Ukraine, who live mostly in the south of the country,

belonging to the historical Koryo-saram group.

Ukraine currently considers Euro-Atlantic integration its primary foreign policy objective, but in practice it has always balanced its relationship with the European Union and the United States with strong ties to Russia. Following independence, Ukraine declared itself a neutral state. In the 2000s, the government was leaning towards NATO, and a deeper cooperation with the alliance was set by the NATO- Ukraine Action Plan signed in 2002. It was later agreed that the question of joining NATO should be answered by a national referendum at some point in the future. During the 2008 Bucharest summit, NATO declared that Ukraine would eventually become a member of NATO when it meets the criteria for the accession. President Viktor Yanukovych (served as the prime minister of Ukraine from 2006 to 2007 and the fourth President of Ukraine from 2010 until he was removed from office in the 2014 Ukrainian Revolution) considered the current level of co-operation between Ukraine and NATO sufficient, and was against Ukraine joining NATO. Russia–Ukraine relations rapidly deteriorated in 2014 by the annexation of Crimea. As of February 2019, Ukraine has minimized its participation in the Commonwealth of Independent States to a critical minimum and has effectively completed its withdrawal. On 28 July 2020, in Lublin, Lithuania, Poland and Ukraine created the Lublin Triangle initiative, which aims to create further cooperation between the three historical countries of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and further Ukraine's integration and accession to the EU and NATO. On 17 May 2021, the Association Trio was formed by signing a joint memorandum between the Foreign Ministers of Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine. Association Trio is tripartite format for the enhanced cooperation, coordination, and dialogue between the three countries (that have signed the Association Agreement with the EU) with the European Union on issues of common interest related to European integration, enhancing cooperation within the framework of the Eastern Partnership, and committing to the prospect of joining the European Union. As of 2021, Ukraine is preparing to formally apply for EU membership in 2024, in order to join the European Union in the 2030s.

Population 2,416,856 (2021) Crimea

Pop. density 84.6/km 2

(219.1/sq mi)

Ethnic groups 65.3% Russians (1.492 mln) 15.1% Ukrainians (344.5 thousand) 10.8% Crimean Tatars (246.1 thousand) 0.9% Belarusians (21.7 thousand) 0.5% Armenians (11 thousand) 7.4% Others (169.1 thousand), including: Pontic Greeks, Krymchaks, Crimean Karaites, Ashkenazi Jews, Crimea Germans, Italians of Crimea (2014)

In February 2014, following the 2014 Ukrainian revolution that ousted the Ukrainian President, Viktor Yanukovych, Russia annexed

Crimea after a military intervention by pro-Russian separatists and Russian Armed Forces. A Crimea-wide referendum was held on

the issue of reunification with Russia. Its official results showed over 90% support for reunification, but the vote was boycotted by

many loyal to Ukraine. Russia formally annexed Crimea on 18 March 2014, incorporating the Republic of Crimea and the federal city of Sevastopol as the 84th and 85th federal subjects of Russia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimea

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukraine

The Russo-Ukrainian War is an ongoing international conflict between Russia

and Ukraine, which began in February 2014. Following Ukraine's Revolution of Dignity,

Russia annexed Crimea from Ukraine and supported pro-Russian separatists fighting

the Ukrainian military in the Donbas war. The first eight years of conflict also

included naval incidents, cyberwarfare, and heightened political tensions. In February

2022 (February 24, 2022), Russia launched a full-scale invasion of Ukraine and

began occupying more of the country. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-Ukrainian_War

Russia will succeed in Ukraine unless American

support continues, warns US defence secretary –

as it happened.

Lloyd Austin ‘guarantees Putin will be successful’ if US support for Kyiv ends during Senate hearing on Joe Biden’s request for funding.

https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2023/oct/31/russia-ukraine-war-live-biden-officials-to-make-case-for-ukraine-funding-russia-bulks-up-forces-around-bakhmut-says-kyiv

Crimea was part of Russia from 1783, when the Tsarist Empire annexed it a decade after

defeating Ottoman forces in the Battle of Kozludzha, until 1954, when the Soviet government

transferred Crimea from the Russian Soviet Federation of Socialist Republics (RSFSR) to the

Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (UkrSSR). in celebration of the 300th anniversary of the

union between Russia and Ukraine formed by the 1654 Pereiaslav Agreement.

https://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/why-did-russia-give-away-crimea-sixty-years-ago