Paper

Ethics and Well-Being: The Paradoxical Implications of Individual Differences in Ethical Orientation

Robert A. Giacalone • Carole L. Jurkiewicz •

Mark Promislo

Received: 23 January 2015 / Accepted: 27 January 2015 / Published online: 15 February 2015

� Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2015

Abstract Following on theoretical work and studies that

assert a relationship between unethical activities and di-

minished well-being, and a common belief that those more

ethically inclined experience greater well-being, the pre-

sent study examined whether individual differences in

ethical orientation may be associated with the experience

of well-being. This paper reports the findings of two

separate studies showing that individual differences in

moral attentiveness, moral identity, idealism, relativism,

and integrity were associated with differences in a wide

range of well-being measures. Of particular significance is

not all ethical orientations were found to contribute to well-

being. In fact, some negatively impacted individual levels

of well-being. Implications for integrating these new

findings into existing ethical theory and considerations for

future research are explored.

Keywords Ethical individual differences � Psychological well-being � Physical well-being

The impact of ethics on job satisfaction has been well-

documented in a host of business ethics studies. Research

has shown that a higher ethical work climate (Mulki et al.

2008) and top leadership support for ethics (Viswesvaran

et al. 1998) are both positively related to job satisfaction.

Ethics codes (Valentine and Fleischman 2008), ethics

training, and perceived corporate social responsibility are

also linked to job satisfaction (see Valentine 2014).

But beyond its impact on job satisfaction, there is much

compelling research leading us to conclude that ethical

concerns and actions have other tangible effects. The ex-

istence of a higher ethical climate, ethics codes and ethics

institutionalization are related to organizational commit-

ment (Valentine and Barnett 2002), perceptions of an

ethical climate are related to employee retention (Stewart

et al. 2011), and values fit is related to both reduced ethical

conflict and lower turnover intent (Schwepker 1999).

Research has also shown that ethics is connected to

other aspects of person-organization fit (Valentine et al.

2002), individual misconduct (Jurkiewicz 2012; Andreoli

and Lefkowitz 2009), work-related conflict (Jaramillo et al.

2006), increased recruitment ability (Sims and Kroeck

1994), enhanced job performance (Jaramillo et al. 2006)

and group creativity (Valentine et al. 2011).

More recent work (Giacalone and Promislo 2010, 2012;

Promislo et al. 2012) has linked unethical behavior to more

personal outcomes—specifically, individual well-being.

Consistent with Promislo et al. (2012), we define well-

being as ‘‘the extent to which an individual is satisfied with

his or her life, experiences a preponderance of positive

affect (such as happiness), and possesses a healthy body

and mind’’ (p. 209).

This research has expanded the consequences of une-

thical behavior to include not only the well-being of those

victimized by unethical behavior, but also to individuals

engaging in unethical behavior (the perpetrators), observers

of the behavior, and family members as well (see Gi-

acalone and Promislo 2010).

R. A. Giacalone (&) Daniels Chair in Business Ethics, Daniels College of Business,

University of Denver, Denver, USA

e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

C. L. Jurkiewicz

Department of Management, Zarb College of Business, Hofstra

University, Hempstead, USA

M. Promislo

Department of Management, College of Business

Administration, Rider University, Lawrence Township, USA

123

J Bus Ethics (2016) 137:491–506

DOI 10.1007/s10551-015-2558-8

Giacalone and Promislo’s (2010) review proposes that

different forms of unethical behavior at work can result in

significant declines in both physical and psychological

well-being. While a full review is beyond the purview of

this paper, research clearly links well-being to unethical

behaviors such as discrimination (Landrine et al. 2006),

bullying and abusive supervision (Lyons et al. 1995), and

organizational injustice (Geronimus 1992). The most fre-

quently studied impact of unethical actions has been in

relation to psychological disorders, such as anxiety, de-

pression, burnout, and PTSD. Some studies, for example,

have demonstrated a link between sexism (Moradi and

Subich 2004), sexual harassment (Schneider et al. 1997),

injustice (Elovainio et al. 2002), and a higher risk of psy-

chiatric morbidity.

Understanding the Impact of Unethical Behavior

on Well-Being

Research has also examined individual difference variables

in relation to unethical behavior and well-being. We know,

for example, that individuals high in negative affectivity

tend to hold negative views of themselves, others, and the

world (Watson and Clark 1984), and can perceive an ac-

tion, event, or working environment as unethical and ex-

perience stress as a result. Individual differences in

variables such as trait neuroticism (Ormel and Wohlfarth

1991; Tepper 2001), locus of control (Fusilier et al. 1987),

and optimism (Segerstrom et al. 1998) all may moderate

the relationship between unethical actions and well-being

outcomes.

Yet the current studies test another possibility: that in-

dividual differences in ethical values and beliefs, not dif-

ferences in general personality, may directly predict well-

being. Previous research has shown that values and beliefs

may act not only as moderators, but as primary predictors

of well-being (Georgellis et al. 2009). Three compelling

examples of this can be found in the research on materi-

alism, belief in a just world, and political values.

Interdisciplinary research has shown a consistent nega-

tive relationship between materialistic values and well-

being (Diener and Seligman 2004; Kasser 2002). Re-

searchers have linked materialism to depression and anxi-

ety (Kasser and Ryan 1993), risky behavior such as use of

alcohol and drugs (Kasser and Ryan 2001; Williams et al.

2000), lower self-actualization and vitality (Kasser and

Ryan 1996; Sheldon and Kasser 1998), greater incidences

of physical symptoms (e.g., headaches and sore throats)

(Kasser and Ryan 1996), lower quality of daily experiences

(Kasser and Ryan 1996), and lower life satisfaction

(Sheldon and Kasser 2001). In research on work settings,

materialism has been linked to lower work-related personal

well-being (Deckop et al. 2010), and increases in work–

family conflict (Promislo et al. 2010).

Research on individual differences in belief in a just

world has shown a similar connection to well-being. Otto

et al. (2009) found that the more individuals believed in a

personal just world, the stronger both their self-esteem and

satisfaction with life. Lipkus et al. (1996) found that belief

in a just world for oneself was associated with decreases in

depression and stress, as well as an increase in life satis-

faction. Lucas et al. (2008) found a relationship between

belief in a procedurally just world and lower perceived

stress, as well as adaptive health behaviors and fewer

physical health complaints.

Research on individual differences in political values

provides a third compelling case that values and beliefs are

associated with well-being. Choma et al. (2009) showed

that both political conservatism and liberalism were related

to well-being in terms of life satisfaction, positive affect,

and negative affect. Subramanian et al. (2009) found that

those who were identified as conservative or as ‘neither left

nor right’ were less likely to report poor health compared

with those who identified as being politically liberal. To-

gether, these interdisciplinary studies demonstrate that in-

dividual differences in values, and values-related beliefs

and dispositions, have direct relationships to well-being.

More recently, individual differences related to ethics

and social responsibility have also been linked to well-

being. Promislo et al. (2012) found that perceived impor-

tance of ethics and social responsibility (measured with the

13-item PRESOR scale by Singhapakdi et al. 1996) was

associated with different components of well-being, such

as sleep problems and job stress.

While the results of Promislo et al. provide compelling

exploratory findings, their study had limitations. First, their

predictor was restricted to one measure, PRESOR, which

has had problems with factor structure (Etheredge 1999).

Additionally, their criterion variables were limited to

measures such as exuberance for life and job stress, and did

not assess a wider range of well-being measures.

Thus, in Study 1 the goal was to ascertain whether a

wider range of ethically relevant individual difference

variables were related to different forms of well-being. In

order to get a more robust test of the relationship between

ethical values and well-being outcomes, we assessed both

individual differences and well-being in several different

ways. For ethical individual difference variables, we used a

measure of moral character schema (moral identity), a

tendency to pay attention to moral concerns (moral atten-

tiveness), and an adherence to specific ethical ideology

(idealism and relativism). These measures are described in

more detail in the methods section below.

Concerning well-being, the focus was on two different

general categories: psychological measures that focus on

492 R. A. Giacalone et al.

123

eudaimonic well-being (human potential and meaning);

and subjective measures that focus on hedonic aspects of

well-being (happiness) (see Chen et al. 2013). Specifically,

we included five measures: personal growth initiative,

meaning in life, hope, happiness, and self-actualization.

These measures are described in more detail in the methods

section below.

Research question 1 How are moral identity, moral at-

tentiveness, idealism and relativism related to well-being,

specifically in the form of personal growth initiative,

meaning in life, hope, happiness, and self-actualization?

Method

Study 1

Sample and Procedures

As part of a class exercise, 206 students enrolled in an

MBA program at an eastern United States research

University were asked to respond to a questionnaire on

Qualtrics. The sample was slightly more male (53 %) than

female. Students from 18–25 constituted 25 % of the

sample, while students 26–35 constituted 31 %. Students

were mostly working in the private sector (52 %), and

45 % had been working for their companies 1–5 years.

Measures

Predictor Measures

Moral Identity Aquino and Reed (2002) conceptualize

moral identity as a network of interconnected moral traits,

goals, and behaviors that make up an individual’s moral

character schema. Moral identity comprised two dimen-

sions—a private dimension (internalization) and a public

dimension (symbolization). Individuals who are high in

internalization have ongoing accessibility to the network of

traits, goals, and behaviors as part of their self-concept

(Aquino et al. 2009). Individuals who are high in moral

identity symbolization are more likely to engage in known,

observable actions demonstrating a commitment to moral

goals, ideals, and outcomes.

Moral identity was assessed using a 10-item instrument,

the Self-Importance of Moral Identity Scale developed by

Aquino and Reed (2002). The instrument was designed to

assess the importance of moral identity to the self and is

based on a conceptualization of moral identity as a schema

structured around a set of moral traits (e.g., compassionate,

kind, honest). The scale loads consistently on two dimen-

sions, each assessed with five items, labeled internalization

and symbolization. Respondents answered each item on a

7-point scale (1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly

agree); a summed score was calculated for the items on

each of the subscales. A sample item for the internalization

subscale is ‘‘Being someone who has these characteristics

is an important part of who I am.’’ A sample item for the

symbolization subscale is, ‘‘I am actively involved in ac-

tivities that communicate to others that I have these

characteristics.’’

Moral Attentiveness Moral attentiveness refers to the

extent to which individuals persistently perceive and con-

sider morality and moral-related elements in their experi-

ences (Reynolds 2008). Moral attentiveness consists of two

dimensions. The first dimension, ‘‘reflective moral atten-

tiveness,’’ refers to the extent to which an individual con-

siders and ponders moral matters. The second dimension,

‘‘perceptual moral attentiveness,’’ refers to whether and the

extent to which an individual recognizes moral aspects in

daily experiences.

Moral attentiveness was measured using Reynolds’

(2008) 12-item instrument. Respondents rated the items on

a scale (1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree); a

summed score was calculated for the items on each of the

two subscales (reflective and perceptual moral attentive-

ness), as per previous studies. Representative items for the

reflective moral attentiveness subscale include ‘‘I regularly

think about the ethical implications of my decisions,’’ and

for the perceptual moral attentiveness subscale, ‘‘In a

typical day, I face several ethical dilemmas.’’

Ethical Ideology Forsyth’s (1980) Ethical Position

Questionnaire (EPQ) assesses two orthogonal ethical ide-

ologies: idealism and relativism. Idealism refers to both an

inherent interest in the welfare of others and the degree that

an intrinsic rightness of behavior determines which be-

haviors to engage in. Relativism refers to the extent that

individuals reject universal moral rules when making moral

decisions.

Ethical ideology was measured using a short version 1 of

the EPQ (Forsyth 1980). We asked individuals to indicate

their acceptance of items that vary in terms of relativism

and idealism on a 5-point scale (1 = strongly disagree to

5 = strongly agree), with higher scores indicating greater

relativism and idealism. As per previous studies (Forsyth

1980), we also dichotomized idealism and relativism into

‘‘high’’ and ‘‘low’’ levels, crossing these dimensions to

create a two by-two interaction, resulting in four distinct

ethical ideologies: situationists (high relativism and high

idealism); absolutists (high idealism and low relativism);

1 The idealism scale correlates .92 with the original subscale; the

relativism scale correlates .89 with the original subscale.

Paradoxical Implications of Ethical Orientation 493

123

subjectivists (low idealism and high relativism), and ex-

ceptionists (low in idealism and relativism).

The short version has a 5-item relativism subscale and

includes items like ‘‘Different types of moralities cannot be

compared as to ‘rightness.’’’ The 5-item idealism subscale,

in contrast, includes items such as ‘‘A person should make

certain that their actions never intentionally harm another

even to a small degree.’’ Summed scores were calculated

for each scale.

Criterion Measures

Personal Growth Initiative Personal growth initiative is a

person’s active and intentional involvement in changing

and developing as a person. The Personal Growth Initiative

Scale (PGI) (Robitschek 1998) is a 9-item scale with re-

sponses rated on a Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to

6 = strongly agree); higher scores are indicative of higher

levels of PGI. A representative item in the PGI includes ‘‘I

know how to change specific things that I want to change in

my life.’’

Meaning in Life Life meaning was assessed with the

Meaning in Life Questionnaire (Steger et al. 2006), a

10-item instrument that assesses personal meaning in life,

both in terms of the Presence of Meaning in life (MLQ-

Presence) and the Search for Meaning in life (MLQ-

Search). Respondents rate each of the items on a 7-point

Likert scale (1 = absolutely untrue to 7 = absolutely true).

The Presence of Meaning subscale assesses subjective

sense of personal life meaning; a representative item is ‘‘I

understand my life’s meaning.’’ The Search for Meaning

subscale assesses the desire and orientation to find life

meaning; a representative item is ‘‘I am looking for

something that makes my life feel meaningful.’’

State Hope Hope is a cognitive set referring to an overall

perception that ones goals can be met. It comprised two

dimensions: agency (belief in the personal capacity to

initiate and sustain actions) and pathways (belief in the

personal capacity to generate routes) to reach goals.

The State Hope Scale (Snyder et al. 1996) measures

current (rather than dispositional) levels of hope. The scale

consists of six items (1 = definitely false to 8 = definitely

true) of which three are agency items and three are pathway

items. A representative item assessing agency is ‘‘At the

present time, I am energetically pursuing my goals’’; a

representative item assessing pathways is ‘‘If I should find

myself in a jam, I could think of many ways to get out of

it.’’

Happiness Personal happiness was assessed with the

Subjective Happiness Scale (Lyubomirsky and Lepper

1999), a 4-item unidimensional global measure of happi-

ness. Representative items include ‘‘In general, I consider

myself’’ (1 = not a very happy person to 7 = a very happy

person) and ‘‘Compared to most of my peers, I consider

myself’’ (1 = less happy to 7 = more happy). Respondents

rated all items on a 7-point scale.

Self-actualization Self-actualization refers to the full re-

alization of one’s potential, and of one’s ‘true self’

(Maslow 1954). Self-actualization was measured with

Jones’ and Crandall’s (1986) short index of self-actual-

ization, a 15-item, unidimensional measure. A representa-

tive item is, ‘‘It is better to be yourself than to be popular.’’

Respondents rate each of the 15 items on a 4-point scale

(1 = disagree to 4 = agree).

Results

Summary Data

Means, standard deviations, and correlations among the

variables are presented in Table 1.

Regression Analyses

Moral Identity

Because recent research has shown relationships with age

(Eweje and Brunton 2010; Smith et al. 2013), the scores for

each of the dependent variables (PGI, MLQ-Search, MLQ-

Presence, state hope, agency and pathways subscales,

happiness, and self-actualization) were regressed on dum-

my variables for age as control variables in the first step. In

the second step, the moral identity subscale scores for

symbolization and internalization were added to the

regression.

For the PGI regression, Table 2 shows that nothing was

significant in the first step. In the second step, none of the

control variables were significant, but both internalization

and symbolization were significantly and positively related,

(DR2 = .18). Interestingly, a similar direction and pattern of results was shown for the analyses of hope (DR2 = .18), agency (DR2 = .16), pathways (DR2 = .16), and happiness (DR2 = .12) (see Tables 3 and 4), all of which were positively related.

Table 2 shows that the pattern of results for MLQ-

Search and MLQ-Presence was slightly different. The re-

gression for MLQ-Search showed no significant results for

the control variables in either step, and a significant posi-

tive effect of symbolization alone (DR2 = .05). The re- gression for the MLQ-Presence showed a negative

494 R. A. Giacalone et al.

123

relationship only for the dummy variable of the youngest

group in both steps. Both internalization and symbolization

were significantly and positively related (DR2 = .26). Table 4 shows that the pattern of results for happiness

and self-actualization was different. In both steps, the

control variables for age were not significant, but both

internalization and symbolization were significantly and

positively related to happiness, (DR2 = .12). The pattern for self-actualization was different; the dummy variables

for age were negatively related in both steps. More

critically, only internalization was significant, related

positively to self-actualization (DR2 = .11).

Table 1 Study 1: means, standard deviations, and correlations

Mean SD 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Dummy Age-1 .25 .43

Dummy Age-2 .31 .46 -.39**

Dummy Age-3 .16 .36 -.24** -.28**

Dummy Age-4 .16 .36 -.25** -.29** -.18*

Internalization 30.96 3.96 .00 -.01 -.05 -.00 (.77)

Symbolization 23.57 5.42 -.03 -.04 .10 -.02 .26** (.79)

Perceptual moral attentiveness 25.98 9.77 .11 -.04 .10 -.02 -.01 .10 (.90)

Reflective moral attentiveness 22.43 6.61 .05 .01 .03 -.05 .25** .23** .51** (.87)

Idealism 20.29 4.09 .05 -.11 -.05 .03 .46** .17* -.24** .06 (.89)

Relativism 15.78 3.91 .17* .10 -.04 -.07 -.13 .01 .06 -.10 -.02

PGI 40.72 7.14 -.02 .05 .03 .02 .33** .34** -.10 .12 .23**

MLQ-Search 23.18 7.43 .13 .03 -.03 -.14 .10 .22** .09 .14 .11

MLQ-Presence 26.70 5.60 -.26* .07 .06 .10 .45** .37** -.05 .17* .23**

State hope 37.34 6.85 -.17* .04 .12 .07 .36** .31** -.14 .11 .22**

Agency 18.50 3.92 -.14* .03 .10 .08 .32** .29** -.16* .07 .21**

Pathways 18.84 3.48 -.17* .04 .13 .05 .34** .29** -.07 .14* .19**

Happiness 21.67 4.82 -.13 .03 .03 .08 .29** .25** -.11 .06 .30**

Self-actualization 41.53 5.30 -.17* -.15* .01 .16* .34** .15* -.08 .05 .27**

Mean SD 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

Dummy Age-1 .25 .43

Dummy Age-2 .31 .46

Dummy Age-3 .16 .36

Dummy Age-4 .16 .36

Internalization 30.96 3.96

Symbolization 23.57 5.42

Perceptual moral attentiveness 25.98 9.77

Reflective moral attentiveness 22.43 6.61

Idealism 20.29 4.09

Relativism 15.78 3.91 (.78)

PGI 40.72 7.14 -.05 (.92)

MLQ-Search 23.18 7.43 .01 .02 (.90)

MLQ-Presence 26.70 5.60 -.18** .68** -.07 (.90)

State hope 37.34 6.85 -.10 .72** -.05 .64** (.88)

Agency 18.50 3.92 -.08 .75** -.03 .63** .94** (.85)

Pathways 18.84 3.48 -.11 .59** -.06 .55** .92** .72** (.78)

Happiness 21.67 4.82 .01 .51** -.12 .60** .60** .59** .52** (.87)

Self-actualization 41.53 5.30 -.07 .37** -.18* .49** .52** .48** .50** .46** (.67)

Coefficient alphas are listed on the diagonal

** p \ .01 level (2-tailed), * p \ .05 level (2-tailed)

Paradoxical Implications of Ethical Orientation 495

123

Moral Attentiveness

The scores for each of the dependent variables (PGI, MLQ-

Search, MLQ-Presence, state hope, agency and pathways

subscores, happiness, and self-actualization) were first

regressed on dummy variables for age as control variables

in the first step and in the second step, the subscale scores

for perceptual and reflective moral attentiveness were

added to the regression.

While overall models for PGI, MLQ-Search, happiness

and self-actualization were not significant, the pattern of re-

sults for other variables was largely similar. As Tables 5, 6,

and 7 show, there was a consistent negative relationship be-

tweenperceptualmoral attentivenessanda consistentpositive

relationship to reflective moral attentiveness for each of the

dependent variables. The addition of the two moral atten-

tiveness subscores resulted in significant additional variance

for MLQ-Presence (DR2 = .05), hope (DR2 = .06), agency (DR2 = .07), and pathways (DR2 = .05).

Ethics Position Questionnaire

The scores for each of the dependent variables (PGI, MLQ-

Search, MLQ-Presence, state hope, agency and pathways

subscores, happiness, and self-actualization) were first re-

gressed on dummy variables for age as control variables in

the first step. In the second step, idealism and relativism

were added and in the third step, the interaction effect was

added (Tables 8, 9, 10, 11, 12).

Table 2 Multiple regression for PGI, MLQ-Search, and

MLQ-Presence: moral identity

Tabled values are standardized

regression weights

* p \ .05, ** p \ .01, *** p \ .001

PGI MLQ-Search MLQ-Presence

Step 1 Step 2 Step 1 Step 2 Step 1 Step 2

Dummy Variable Age-1 .09 .11 .14 .15 -.27** -.24**

Dummy Variable Age-2 .14 .18 .06 .07 -.03 .01

Dummy Variable Age-3 .10 .11 -.01 -.02 -.02 -.01

Dummy Variable Age-4 .10 .12 -.08 -.08 .02 .04

Internalization .26*** .05 .38***

Symbolization .27*** .21** .62***

Df 4, 191 6, 189 4, 192 6, 190 5, 192 7, 190

F .49 7.34*** 1.56 2.90** 3.54** 15.78***

DR2 .01 .18*** .03 .05** .05** .26***

Table 3 Multiple regression for hope, agency, and pathways:

moral identity

Tabled values are standardized

regression weights

* p \ .05, ** p \ .01, *** p \ .001

Hope Agency Pathways

Step 1 Step 2 Step 1 Step 2 Step 1 Step 2

Dummy Variable Age-1 .06 -.04 -.04 -.02 -.08 -.06

Dummy Variable Age-2 .10 .13 .10 .13 .08 .11

Dummy Variable Age-3 .15 .17* .14 .15 .15 .16

Dummy Variable Age-4 .11 .13 .12 .14 .08 .10

Internalization .31*** .28*** .30***

Symbolization .23*** .22** .21**

Df 4, 196 6, 194 4, 196 6, 194 4, 196 6, 194

F 2.16 9.43*** 1.64 7.47*** 2.16 8.22***

DR2 .04 .18*** .03 .16*** .04 .16***

Table 4 Multiple regression for happiness and self-actualization: moral identity

Happiness Self-actualization

Step 1 Step 2 Step 1 Step 2

Dummy Variable Age-1 -.09 -.08 -.41*** -.39***

Dummy Variable Age-2 .03 .06 -.39*** -.37***

Dummy Variable Age-3 .02 .03 -.23*** -.21*

Dummy Variable Age-4 .07 .08 -.10* -.08

Internalization .25*** .32***

Symbolization .18* .06

Df 4, 196 6, 194 4, 194 6, 192

F .96 5.08 5.88*** 9.15***

DR2 .02 .12*** .11*** .11***

Tabled values are standardized regression weights

* p \ .05, ** p \ .01, *** p \ .001

496 R. A. Giacalone et al.

123

The MLQ-Search regression showed no significant re-

sults; the remaining variables showed no significant inter-

actions as well. While the analysis for MLQ-Presence

showed a significant effect of both idealism (positive) and

relativism (negative), accounting for significant variance in

the second step (DR2 = .08), the pattern of results was different, albeit consistent. A significant and positive re-

lationship between idealism in the second step and PGI

(DR2 = .07), hope (DR2 = .06), agency (DR2 = .06), pathways (DR2 = .05), happiness (DR2 = .10), and self- actualization (DR2 = .06).

Discussion

The results of the study provide strong evidence of rela-

tionships among different types of ethically related indi-

vidual differences and well-being outcomes.

Both symbolization and internalization were positively

associated to most well-being outcomes; the only excep-

tions were non-significant associations between internal-

ization and MLQ-Search and between symbolization and

self-actualization. MLQ-Search, in fact, was only sig-

nificantly related to symbolization while self-actualization

Table 5 Multiple regression for PGI, MLQ-Search, and

MLQ-Presence: moral

attentiveness

Tabled values are standardized

regression weights

* p \ .05, ** p \ .01, *** p \ .001

PGI MLQ-Search MLQ-Presence

Step 1 Step 2 Step 1 Step 2 Step 1 Step 2

Dummy Variable Age-1 .08 .13 .09 .06 -.25** -.23

Dummy Variable Age-2 .15 .18 .01 -.01 -.01 -.00

Dummy Variable Age-3 .12 .17 -.03 -.05 .02 .03

Dummy Variable Age-4 .11 .14 -.12 -.13 .04 .06

Perceptual moral attentiveness -.25** .01 -.16*

Reflective moral attentiveness .24** .15 .26***

Df 4, 192 6, 190 4, 193 6, 191 4, 196 6, 194

F .60 2.36 1.37 1.66 3.70** 4.37***

DR2 .01 .06* .03 .02 .07** .05**

Table 6 Multiple regression for hope, agency, and pathways:

moral attentiveness

Tabled values are standardized

regression weights

* p \ .05, ** p \ .01, *** p \ .001

Hope Agency Pathways

Step 1 Step 2 Step 1 Step 2 Step 1 Step 2

Dummy Variable Age-1 -.08 -.03 -.05 .01 -.10 -.07

Dummy Variable Age-2 .08 .10 .08 .11 .06 .07

Dummy Variable Age-3 .15 .19* .13 .19* .14 .17

Dummy Variable Age-4 .10 .14 .11 .15 .07 .10

Perceptual moral attentiveness -.27*** -.29 *** -.20*

Reflective moral attentiveness .25** .22** .24**

Df 4, 197 6, 195 4, 197 6, 195 4, 197 6, 195

F 2.12 3.79*** 1.56 3.44*** 2.19 3.26**

DR2 .04 .06*** .03 .07*** .04 .05**

Table 7 Multiple regression for happiness and self-

actualization: moral

attentiveness

Tabled values are standardized

regression weights

* p \ .05, ** p \ .01, *** p \ .001

Happiness Self-actualization

Step 1 Step 2 Step 1 Step 2

Dummy Variable Age-1 -.12 -.08 -.38*** -.37***

Dummy Variable Age-2 .00 .02 -.36*** -.36***

Dummy Variable Age-3 .02 .05 -.19* -.18

Dummy Variable Age-4 .06 .08 -.07 -.06

Perceptual moral attentiveness -.19* -.08

Reflective moral attentiveness .16* -.12

Df 4, 197 6, 195 4, 195 6, 193

F 1.06 1.75 5.47*** 4.03***

DR2 .02 .03* .10*** .01

Paradoxical Implications of Ethical Orientation 497

123

was only related (positively) to internalization and

idealism.

Of the two EPQ predictors, idealism was positively re-

lated to all but MLQ-Search. Relativism, conversely, was

not significantly related to any well-being measures except

for MLQ-Presence (negatively). Moral attentiveness was

significantly related to all but MLQ-Search and self-actu-

alization. But the pattern of results for the two dimensions

of moral attentiveness was inverse, with perceptual moral

attentiveness negatively related to the remaining well-be-

ing measures and reflective moral attentiveness related

positively.

On all but MLQ-Search and self-actualization, there was

a consistency of results, with all but perceptual moral at-

tentiveness positively related to well-being outcomes. In

order to determine the robustness of these results with other

well-being measures, we endeavored to do another study

using additional well-being measures.

Study 2

In the second study, we sought to extend our findings from

Study 1 using a different set of well-being measures, as

well as adding an ethics variable. Instead of well-being

measures that focused on positive psychological growth

and happiness, we instead targeted three other measures of

well-being: sense of vitality, life satisfaction, and indi-

vidual health symptoms. The first two variables were

assessed in Promislo et al. (2012) and also mirror the

subjective well-being criterion variables in Study 1; how-

ever, the individual symptoms measure is an entirely dif-

ferent form of well-being, namely physical health.

We wished also to extend our predictor measures to

include another individual ethics variable, integrity. Be-

cause idealism and relativism reflect adherence to ethical

principles, we chose integrity as a way to assess adherence

to ethical standards apart from specific principles.

Table 8 Multiple regression for PGI: ethical ideology

PGI

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Dummy Variable Age-1 .07 .13 .12

Dummy Variable Age-2 .13 .21* .21

Dummy Variable Age-3 .10 .15 .15

Dummy Variable Age-4 .09 .13 .13

Idealism .25*** .47

Relativism -.07 .20

Interaction -.35

Df 4, 196 6, 194 7, 193

F .47 2.60* 2.31*

DR2 .01 .07*** .00

Tabled values are standardized regression weights

* p \ .05, ** p \ .01, *** p \ .001

Table 9 Multiple regression for MLQ-Search and MLQ-

Presence: ethical ideology

Tabled values are standardized

regression weights

* p \ .05, ** p \ .01, *** p \ .001

MLQ-Search MLQ-Presence

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Dummy Variable Age-1 .12 .14 .14 -.28** -.20* -.20*

Dummy Variable Age-2 .05 .08 .08 -.04 .06 .06

Dummy Variable Age-3 -.00 .02 .02 -.01 .05 .05

Dummy Variable Age-4 -.09 -.08 -.08 .01 .05 .05

Idealism .12 .31 .24*** .32

Relativism -.03 .22 -.14* -.05

Interaction .31 -.13

Df 4, 197 6, 195 7, 194 4, 200 6, 198 7, 197

F 1.50 1.48 1.33 3.73** 5.62*** 4.81***

DR2 .03 .01 .00 .07 .08*** .00

Table 10 Multiple regression for hope ethical ideology

Hope

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Dummy Variable Age-1 -.09 -.04 -.04

Dummy Variable Age-2 .06 .14 .14

Dummy Variable Age-3 .13 .18* .18*

Dummy Variable Age-4 .09 .12 .12

Idealism .24*** .56*

Relativism .09 .31

Interaction -.51

Df 4, 201 6, 199 7, 198

F 2.03 3.70** 3.37**

DR2 .04 .06*** .01

Tabled values are standardized regression weights

* p \ .05, ** p \ .01, *** p \ .001

498 R. A. Giacalone et al.

123

Research question 2 How are moral identity, moral at-

tentiveness, integrity, idealism and relativism related to

well-being, specifically in the sense of vitality, life satis-

faction, and individual health symptoms?

Method

Sample and Procedures

254 students enrolled in the MBA program at three dif-

ferent universities completed a series of measures as part of

a class exercise. University A (N = 72) is a large-sized

research institution in the northeastern U.S., University B

(N = 80) is a medium-sized research institution in the

western U.S., and University C (N = 102) is a medium-

sized research institution in the northeastern U.S. The

sample was slightly more male (56 %) than female. Stu-

dents from 18–25 constituted 50 % of the sample, while

students 26–35 constituted 39 %. Students were mostly

working in the private sector (36 %), and 35 % had been

working for their companies 1–5 years.

Each student enrolled in classes in the exercise was sent

a link that led them to a Qualtrics survey containing the

measures described below, as well as questions on gender

and whether they had medical insurance over the previous

30 days (1 = no; 2 = yes). In order to maintain confi-

dentiality and anonymity, students were asked to not

identify themselves in the survey.

Measures

Control Measure

In order to control for well-being effects as a function of

access to medical insurance availability, respondents were

asked to whether they had access to medical insurance over

the past 30 days (1=yes, 2=no).

Predictor Measures

As in the first study, respondents were asked to complete

the moral identity, moral attentiveness, and ethics position

measures. Additionally, in this study we asked them to

Table 11 Multiple regression for agency and pathways:

ethical ideology

Tabled values are standardized

regression weights

* p \ .05, ** p \ .01, *** p \ .001

Agency Pathways

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Dummy Variable Age-1 -.07 -.02 -.02 -.22 -.05 -.05

Dummy Variable Age-2 .06 .13 .13 .05 .13 .12

Dummy Variable Age-3 .11 .16 .16 .13 .17* .18

Dummy Variable Age-4 .10 .13 .13 .06 .09 .09

Idealism .23*** .53 .21** .50

Relativism -.07 .31 -.10 .26

Interaction -.48 -.46

Df 4, 201 6, 199 7, 198 4, 201 6, 199 7, 198

F 1.50 3.06** 2.79** 2.08 3.30** 2.98**

DR2 .03 .06** .01 .04 .05** .01

Table 12 Multiple regression for happiness and self-

actualization: ethical ideology

Tabled values are standardized

regression weights

* p \ .05, ** p \ .01, *** p \ .001

Happiness Self-actualization

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Dummy Variable Age-1 -.12 -.11 -.11 -.40*** -.38*** -.38***

Dummy Variable Age-2 -.01 .05 .05 -.39*** -.34*** -.34***

Dummy Variable Age-3 .01 .05 .04 -.21** -.18* -.18*

Dummy Variable Age-4 .05 .07 .06 -.09 -.07 -.07

Idealism .31*** .06 .25*** .17

Relativism .04 -.27 .02 -.08

Interaction .39 .12

Df 4, 201 6, 199 7, 198 4, 199 6, 197 7, 196

F .95 4.24*** 3.75*** 6.11*** 6.65*** 5.69***

DR2 .02 .10*** .00 .11*** .06*** .00

Paradoxical Implications of Ethical Orientation 499

123

complete an 18-item measure of integrity, which was rated

on a (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) scale. Sch-

lenker (2008, p. 1081) defines integrity as the unwavering

commitment to one’s principles and involves ‘‘honesty,

trustworthiness, fidelity in keeping one’s word and obli-

gations, and incorruptibility, or an unwillingness to violate

principles regardless of the temptations, costs, and prefer-

ences of others.’’ Higher integrity scores are associated

with behavioral self-descriptions consistent with personal

principles as well as beliefs that people can be more ethical

in their lives (Miller and Schlenker 2011). Previous re-

search has shown individual levels of integrity can predict

antisocial activities (e.g., lying, stealing), prosocial ac-

tivities (e.g., volunteering), as well as socially desirable

personality/attitudinal traits (e.g., empathy) (see Schlenker

2008).

Criterion Measures

Physical Symptoms Inventory A modified form of the

Physical Symptoms Inventory (PSI) (Spector and Jex 1998)

was used. The PSI was used to assess somatic symptoms an

individual would recognize in himself. These are physical

conditions that an individual would experience (e.g., the

discomfort or pain of a headache or stomach upset), as

opposed to physiological indicators that would require

some form of medical testing (e.g., blood pressure or

cholesterol level). Respondents were asked to evaluate the

extent to which they experienced 18 different symptoms

over the past 30 days (1 = not at all to 7 = all of the time).

Similar to other symptoms inventories (e.g., Day et al.

2005), the PSI score was the sum of the symptoms re-

ported, with higher scores indicating more symptoms.

Subjective Vitality Subjective vitality, which reflects a

phenomenological sense of aliveness and energy, was

measured with a 7-item scale (Ryan and Frederick 1997).

Respondents rated the extent to which they felt inherently

energetic over the past 30 days using a 7-point scale

(1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree). A repre-

sentative item is ‘‘I feel alive and vital.’’ Responses to the

seven items were summed to create a scale in which higher

scores indicated a higher level of subjective vitality.

Life Satisfaction Life satisfaction was measured with the

Satisfaction With Life Scale (Diener et al. 1985). The

SWLS consists of five items, including ‘‘The conditions of

my life are excellent.’’ Participants indicated their agree-

ment with the five statements on a 7-point scale

(1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree). Responses

to the five items were summed to create a scale in which

higher scores indicated a higher level of life satisfaction.

Results

Summary Data

Means, standard deviations, and correlations among the

variables are presented in Table 13.

Factor Analysis

The three scales (PSI, Vitality, and Life Satisfaction scales)

were subjected to a principal components factor analysis.

Using a .45 loading as a criterion value for inclusion

(Nunnally 1978), the factor analysis revealed one distinct

factor having an eigenvalue of greater than 1.0, accounting

for 58 % of the variance. The single factor (comprised of

the three scales listed above), on which physical symptoms

loaded negatively, while life satisfaction and vitality

loaded positively, was labeled a positive well-being.

Regression Analyses

Moral Identity

Positive well-being was first regressed on dummy variables

for university affiliation, age, and insurance coverage as

control variables (Step 1). We controlled for health insur-

ance coverage because a lack of health insurance or in-

terrupted coverage has been shown to lead to poorer health

status (Probst et al. 2008). In Step 2, the subscale scores for

symbolization and internalization were added to the

regression.

Table 14 shows that nothing was significant in the first

step. In the second step, none of the control variables were

significant, but symbolization was significantly and

positively related, accounting for an additional 12 % of the

variance.

Moral Attentiveness

Positive well-being was first regressed on dummy variables

for university affiliation, age, and insurance coverage as

control variables (Step 1). In Step 2, the subscale scores for

perceptual moral attentiveness and reflective moral atten-

tiveness were added to the regression.

Table 15 shows that nothing was significant in the first

step. The two subscales in the second step accounted for an

additional 5 % of the variance. None of the control vari-

ables were significant, but perceptual moral attentiveness

was significant and negatively related, while reflective

moral attentiveness was significant and positively related.

500 R. A. Giacalone et al.

123

Integrity

Positive well-being was first regressed on dummy variables

for university affiliation, age, and insurance coverage as

control variables (Step 1). In Step 2, the integrity score was

added to the regression. Table 16 shows that only insurance

was significant (and positively related) in the first step. In the

secondstep,insurance wassimilarlysignificant andpositively

related. Integrity also was significant and positively related,

accounting for an additional 4 % of the variance.

Table 13 Study 2: means, standard deviations, and correlations

Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

University Dummy Variable-1 .28 .45

University Dummy Variable-2 .32 .47 -.43**

Age Dummy Variable-1 .50 .50 -.47** .14*

Age Dummy Variable-2 .39 .49 .30** -.06 -.80**

Age Dummy Variable-3 .05 .21 .31** -.15* -.22** -.18**

Age Dummy Variable-4 .02 .12 .06 -.09 -.13* -.10 -.03

Insurance 1.14 .35 -.15* .01 .30** -.25** -.04 -.05

Internalization 30.00 4.79 .05 .02 -.16* .17** .09 .02 -.07

Symbolization 23.28 4.58 -.13* .03 .06 -.01 -.08 .06 -.03

Perceptual moral attentiveness 25.80 8.77 -.08 .11 .07 -.05 -.06 -.02 .02

Reflective moral attentiveness 21.94 6.34 -.04 .17** -.04 .03 .04 .07 -.04

Integrity 61.65 9.42 .30** .01 -.29** .15* .21** .13* -.14*

Idealism 17.61 4.54 .04 -.03 -.05 .07 .08 -.01 .05

Relativism 16.30 3.74 -.16** .12 .15* -.03 -.15* -.14* .11

Symptoms 38.02 15.47 -.15* .00 .14* -.09 -.05 -.05 .21**

Vitality 33.44 6.93 -.06 .01 -.01 .02 -.02 .09 -.08

Life satisfaction 23.54 6.65 .06 .02 -.10 .12 -.03 -.00 -.08

Factor score 0 1.00 .04 .02 -.10 .10 -.01 .06 -.14*

Mean SD 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

University Dummy Variable-1 .28 .45

University Dummy Variable-2 .32 .47

Age Dummy Variable-1 .50 .50

Age Dummy Variable-2 .39 .49

Age Dummy Variable-3 .05 .21

Age Dummy Variable-4 .02 .12

Insurance 1.14 .35

Internalization 30.00 4.79 (.83)

Symbolization 23.28 4.58 .33** (.73)

Perceptual moral attentiveness 25.80 8.77 -.03 .17** (.88)

Reflective moral attentiveness 21.94 6.34 .19** .39** .50** (.86)

Integrity 61.65 9.42 .31** .18** .05 .34** (.81)

Idealism 17.61 4.54 .36** .33** -.07 .10 .33** (.87)

Relativism 16.30 3.74 .08 .20** .04 -.12 -.19** .19** (.75)

Symptoms 38.02 15.47 -.09 -.01 .25** .07 -.17** -.02 .05 (.91)

Vitality 33.44 6.93 .21* .41** -.01 .22** .20** .17** .14* -.31** (.84)

Life satisfaction 23.54 6.65 .17** .27** -.08 .06 .16* .14* .17** -.21** .57** (.89)

Factor score 0 1.00 .21** .33** -.12 .12 .23** .17* .14* -.59** .86** .81**

Coefficient alphas are listed on the diagonal

** p \ .01 level (2-tailed), * p \ .05 level (2-tailed)

Paradoxical Implications of Ethical Orientation 501

123

Ethics Position Questionnaire

Positive well-being was first regressed on dummy variables

for university affiliation, age, and insurance coverage as

control variables (Step 1). In Step 2, the subscale scores for

idealism and relativism were added to the regression.

Consistent with previous analyses of the EPQ (Forsyth

1980), in Step 3 the interaction effect for idealism and

relativism was entered. Table 17 shows that no variables

were significant in the first step. In the second step, in-

surance was significant and positively related. Both

idealism and relativism also were significant and positively

related, accounting for an additional 4 % of the variance. In

the third step, insurance was no longer significant. While

both idealism and relativism remained significant, the in-

teraction was not significant.

Discussion

The two studies found that ethics-related individual dif-

ferences were associated with variations in well-being,

though this was both with increased and decreased well-

being. The negative relationship with well-being mirrors

results found in Promislo et al. (2012), which showed re-

duced well-being (as measured by exuberance for life, job

stress, and sleep problems) as ethics increased, when using

the PRESOR measure. In the current studies, this was the

case for perceptual moral attentiveness, which was

negatively related to PGI, MLQ-Presence, hope, and hap-

piness (Study 1), and the factor score for well-being from

Study 2.

On the other hand, some ethics variables demonstrated a

positive relationship with well-being. For example, both

dimensions of moral identity were positively related to

PGI, MLQ-Presence, hope, and happiness. Symbolization

alone was related positively to MLQ-Search, self-actual-

ization, and the factor score for well-being. Similarly, re-

flective moral attentiveness was positively related to PGI,

MLQ-Presence, hope, happiness, and the factor score for

well-being.

In the case of ethical ideology, none of the interactions

were significant, while almost all of the significant main

effects results pertained to idealism, which was positively

Table 14 Multiple regression for positive well-being: moral identity

Positive well-being

Step 1 Step 2

Dummy Variable University-1 .02 .06

Dummy Variable University-2 .04 .04

Dummy Variable Age-1 .04 .00

Dummy Variable Age-2 .11 .05

Dummy Variable Age-3 .02 .00

Dummy Variable Age-4 .07 .04

Insurance .11 .09

Symbolization .30***

Internalization .09

Df 7, 225 9, 223

F .83 4.04***

DR2 .03 .12***

Tabled values are standardized regression weights

* p \ .05, ** p \ .01, *** p \ .001

Table 15 Multiple regression for positive well-being: moral attentiveness

Positive well-being

Step 1 Step 2

Dummy Variable University-1 .02 .02

Dummy Variable University-2 .02 .01

Dummy Variable Age-1 .05 .00

Dummy Variable Age-2 .11 .04

Dummy Variable Age-3 .02 -.03

Dummy Variable Age-4 .07 .04

Insurance .12 .12

Perceptual moral attentiveness -.23**

Reflective moral attentiveness .22**

Df 7, 226 9, 224

F .92 2.05**

DR2 .03 .05**

Tabled values are standardized regression weights

* p \ .05, ** p \ .01, *** p \ .001

Table 16 Multiple regression for positive well-being: integrity

Positive well-being

Step 1 Step 2

Dummy Variable University-1 -.01 -.06

Dummy Variable University-2 .01 -.02

Dummy Variable Age-1 .01 .10

Dummy Variable Age-2 .09 .15

Dummy Variable Age-3 .03 .02

Dummy Variable Age-4 .07 .06

Insurance .14* .13*

Integrity .23*

Df 7, 221 8, 220

F 1.17 2.33*

DR2 .04 .04*

* p \ .05; ** p \ .01; *** p \ .001 Tabled values are standardized regression weights

502 R. A. Giacalone et al.

123

related to PGI, MLQ-Presence, hope, happiness, self-ac-

tualization, and the factor score for well-being. Meanwhile,

relativism was only related to a single outcome variable, a

negative relationship with MLQ-Presence.

Finally, integrity was positively related to the factor

score for well-being.

So what do the results tell us about the relationship

between individual ethical orientations and well-being?

Given the significant associations found with both different

predictors and criterion measures, there appears to be a

substantive and robust association between individual dif-

ferences in ethical orientation and well-being. Of consid-

erable note, however, is that the relationship is not always

positive. Having an ethical orientation is commonly asso-

ciated with universally positive outcomes, but the findings

reported here provide evidence to the contrary. As

demonstrated, being ethically oriented does not always

enhance ones well-being; in fact, it can have a negative

impact. The extent to which individuals perceive and

consider morality and morally related elements in their

experiences was associated with benefits and detriments in

well-being. Specifically, perceptual moral attentiveness

(recognizing moral aspects in daily experiences), was as-

sociated with decreased well-being, while reflective moral

attentiveness (considering and pondering moral matters)

was associated with increased well-being. Thus, thinking

about ethical matters may enhance well-being, but the

opposite may be true for noticing ethical dimensions in

one’s everyday life.

The explanation for why is not straightforward. Absent a

theoretical explanation, the results are best understood by

the potential negative effects that a focus on ethics may

bring. Reynolds’ (2008) research provides a profile of those

high in perceptual moral attentiveness that can offer some

insight. Higher scores on perceptual moral attentiveness are

associated with higher criticism of a target’s moral be-

havior, with more self-reported immoral behaviors, and

higher reporting of others’ immoral behaviors. Employee

beliefs concerning ethics therefore may be associated with

certain stressors and bring about decreases in well-being.

For example, higher criticism and reporting will have in-

terpersonal implications that are stressful and socially

troublesome. A focus on one’s own ethical missteps may

lead to undue self-criticism and self-disdain. Particularly in

firms where economic drivers are paramount, tensions be-

tween a firm’s economic goals and an employee’s ethical

orientations may exacerbate that stress (Giacalone and

Jurkiewicz 2003; Jurkiewicz 2000).

But this explanation does not provide insight into why

some ethical orientations, such as reflective moral atten-

tiveness, are associated with positive well-being. The an-

swer here may rest in what we did not test in these studies:

actual behavior. Because we assessed ethical individual

differences, and not ethical/unethical behavior itself, we do

not know the extent to which particular ethical individual

differences differentially might moderate the impact of

unethical behavior (Giacalone and Promislo 2010). What

the data may suggest is that there are subtle, underlying

cognitive differences resulting from the different orienta-

tions that impact actual ethical decision-making and pro-

vide feedback to the decision-maker; feedback that may

influence ones personal sense of well-being.

Alternatively, the beneficial relationship to well-being

may be a function of the cognitive response that some

ethical orientations bring. Some (see Promislo et al. 2012;

Jurkiewicz 2012) have suggested that an employee’s re-

solve to maintain ethical standards, even at the expense of

other goals, can serve some aspects of well-being (perhaps,

for example, due to lower levels of guilt and shame). How

different ethical orientations shape this resolve cognitively

may provide an effect on well-being outcomes as well.

Limitations

Though the results show a significant association between

ethics-related individual differences and well-being, there

are several limitations to this study that suggest more fine-

tuned methods are needed in future research.

Both studies used MBA students. While there are un-

doubtedly limitations on the use of such samples (see

Gordon et al. 1986), we side with Greenberg (1987) who

has argued that student samples can provide valuable in-

sights into some decision-making processes. Because no

Table 17 Multiple regression for positive well-being: ethics position questionnaire

Positive well-being

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Dummy Variable University-1 .01 .02 .04

Dummy Variable University-2 .04 .03 .04

Dummy Variable Age-1 .04 -.03 -.03

Dummy Variable Age-2 .11 .03 .02

Dummy Variable Age-3 .02 -.01 -.01

Dummy Variable Age-4 .07 .07 .07

Insurance .12 .13* .13

Idealism .14* .46*

Relativism .14* .42*

Idealism 9 relativism -.48

Df 7, 226 9, 224 10, 223

F .95 1.94* 1.99*

DR2 .03 .04** .01

Tabled values are standardized regression weights

* p \ .05, ** p \ .01, *** p \ .001

Paradoxical Implications of Ethical Orientation 503

123

study can demonstrate generalizability (Campbell and

Stanley 1967; Tunnell 1977), we see the provocative re-

sults herein as a call for future research to determine the

generalizability of the findings.

The current study used a self-report method that opens

up potential common method variance problems. Future

research may wish to use multiple time periods to collect

data, thereby alleviating concerns relating to cognitive

carryover among scales used in the studies (Harrison and

McLaughlin 1993). More critically, future work should

employ alternate research methods (e.g., field-based ex-

periments, diary studies) to assess the robustness of the

wide-ranging results reported here. The issue of causality

itself remains a significant question—do individual differ-

ences in ethics orientation actually cause differences in

well-being, or are there other variables (particularly be-

havioral ones) that may be involved in these relationships?

Experimental or diary-based studies could help address this

issue of causality and begin to establish more refined un-

derstanding of the relationships found herein.

Equally important will be to assess well-being with

more objective measures. A host of unethical behaviors

such as bullying (Leymann and Gustafsson 1996), injustice

(Elovainio et al. 2003), criminal victimization (Britt 2000),

workplace harassment (Bowling and Beehr 2006), and

discrimination (Pavalko et al. 2003) have all been associ-

ated with psychosomatic complaints (Thomas et al. 2006).

But other studies have taken a step toward more rigorous,

objective measures such as indicators of cardiovascular

health. These studies have shown a relationship between

unethical behavior and greater carotid intima-media

thickness (Troxel et al. 2003), increases in blood pressure

(Din-Dzietham et al. 2004) body mass indices (Kivimaki

et al. 2005), and pre-term or low birth weight infants

(Mustillo et al. 2004). In order to fully understand the re-

lationship of individual differences in ethical orientations

to well-being, a broader array of assessments, embracing

psychological, emotional, and physical dimensions of

health will be necessary in future work.

References

Andreoli, N., & Lefkowitz, J. (2009). Individual and organizational

antecedents of misconduct in organizations. Journal of Business

Ethics, 85, 309–332.

Aquino, K., & Reed, A. (2002). The self-importance of moral

identity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83,

1423–1440.

Bowling, N. A., & Beehr, T. A. (2006). Workplace harassment from

the victim’s perspective: A theoretical model and meta-analysis.

Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 998–1012.

Britt, C. L. (2000). Health consequences of criminal victimization.

International Review of Victimology, 8, 63–73.

Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. C. (1967). Experimental and quasi-

experimental designs for research. Chicago: Rand McNally.

Chen, F. F., Jing, Y., Hayes, A., & Lee, J. M. (2013). Two concepts or

two approaches? A bifactor analysis of psychological and

subjective well-being. Journal of Happiness Studies, 14,

1033–1068.

Choma, B. L., Busseri, M. A., & Sadava, S. W. (2009). Liberal and

conservative political ideologies: Different routes to happiness?

Journal of Research in Personality, 43, 502–505.

Day, A. L., Therrien, D. L., & Carroll, S. A. (2005). Predicting

psychological health: Assessing the incremental validity of

emotional intelligence beyond personality, type a behaviour, and

daily hassles. European Journal of Personality, 19, 519–536.

Deckop, J. R., Jurkiewicz, C. L., & Giacalone, R. A. (2010). Effects

of materialism on work-related personal well-being. Human

Relations, 63, 1007–1030.

Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The

satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment,

49, 71–75.

Diener, E., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Beyond money: Toward an

economy of well-being. Psychological Science in the Public

Interest, 5, 1–31.

Din-Dzietham, R., Nembhard, W. N., Collins, R., & Davis, S. K.

(2004). Perceived stress following race-based discrimination at

work is associated with hypertension in African-Americans: The

metro Atlanta heart disease study, 1999-2001. Social Science

and Medicine, 58, 449–461.

Elovainio, M., Kivimaki, M., & Vahtera, J. (2002). Organizational

justice: Evidence of a new psychosocial predictor of health.

American Journal of Public Health, 92, 105–108.

Elovainio, M., Kivimaki, M., Vahtera, J., Keltikangas-Jarvinen, L., &

Virtanen, M. (2003). Sleeping problems and health behaviors as

mediators between organizational justice and health. Health

Psychology, 22, 287–293.

Etheredge, J. M. (1999). The perceived role of ethics and social

responsibility: An alternative scale structure. Journal of Business

Ethics, 18, 51–64.

Eweje, G., & Brunton, M. (2010). Ethical perceptions of business

students in a New Zealand university: Do gender, age and work

experience matter? Business Ethics: A European Review, 19,

95–111.

Forsyth, D. R. (1980). A taxonomy of ethical ideologies. Journal of

Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 175–184.

Fusilier, M. R., Ganster, D. C., & Mayes, B. T. (1987). Effects of

social support, role stress, and locus of control on health. Journal

of Management, 13, 517–528.

Georgellis, Y., Tsitsianis, N., & Yin, Y. P. (2009). Personal values as

mitigating factors in the link between income and life satisfac-

tion: Evidence from the European social survey. Social Indica-

tors Research, 91, 329–344.

Geronimus, A. T. (1992). The weathering hypothesis and the health of

African-American women and infants: Evidence and specula-

tions. Ethnicity and Disease, 2, 207–221.

Giacalone, R. A., & Jurkiewicz, C. L. (2003). Right from wrong: The

influence of spirituality on perceptions of unethical business

activities. Journal of Business Ethics, 46(1), 85–97.

Giacalone, R. A., & Promislo, M. D. (2010). Unethical and unwell:

Decrements in well-being and unethical activity at work. Journal

of Business Ethics, 91, 275–297.

Giacalone, R. A., & Promislo, M. D. (Eds.). (2012). Handbook of

unethical work behavior: Implications for individual well-being.

Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe.

Gordon, M. E., Slade, L. A., & Schmitt, N. (1986). The ‘science of the

sophomore’ revisited: From conjecture to empiricism. Academy

of Management Review, 11, 191–207.

504 R. A. Giacalone et al.

123

Greenberg, J. (1987). The college sophomore as guinea pig: Setting

the record straight. Academy of Management Review, 12,

157–159.

Harrison, D. A., & McLaughlin, M. E. (1993). Cognitive processes in

self-report responses: Tests of item context effects in work

attitude measures. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 129–140.

Jaramillo, F., Mulki, J. P., & Solomon, P. (2006). The role of ethical

climate on salesperson’s role stress, job attitudes, turnover

intention, and job performance. Journal of Personal Selling &

Sales Management, 26, 271–282.

Jones, A., & Crandall, R. (1986). Validation of a short index of self-

actualization. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 12,

63–73.

Jurkiewicz, C. L. (2000). The Trouble with ethics: Results from a

National Survey of Healthcare Executives. HEC Forum, 12(2),

101–123.

Jurkiewicz, C. L. (2012). Advancing ethical competency through

pedagogy. In T. L. Cooper & D. C. Menzel (Eds.), Achieving

ethical competence for public service leadership (pp. 131–154).

Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe.

Kasser, T. (2002). The high price of materialism. Cambridge, MA:

MIT Press.

Kasser, T., & Ryan, R. M. (1993). A dark side of the American

dream: Correlates of financial success as a central life aspiration.

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 410–422.

Kasser, T., & Ryan, R. M. (1996). Further examining the American

dream: Differential correlates of intrinsic and extrinsic goals.

Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 280–287.

Kasser, T., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Be careful what you wish for:

Optimal functioning and the relative attainment of intrinsic and

extrinsic goals. In P. Schmuck & K. Sheldon (Eds.), Life goals

and well-being: Towards a positive psychology of human

striving (pp. 116–131). Gottingen: Hogrefe.

Kivimaki, M., Ferrie, J. E., Brunner, E., Head, J., Shipley, M. J.,

Vahtera, J., et al. (2005). Justice at work and reduced risk of

coronary heart disease among employees: The Whitehall II

study. Archives of Internal Medicine, 165, 2245–2251.

Landrine, H., Klonoff, E. A., Corral, I., Fernandez, S., & Roesch, S.

(2006). Conceptualizing and measuring ethnic discrimination in

health research. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 29, 79–94.

Leymann, H., & Gustafsson, A. (1996). Mobbing at work and the

development of post-traumatic stress disorders. European Jour-

nal of Work & Organizational Psychology, 5, 251–275.

Lipkus, I. M., Dalbert, C., & Siegler, I. C. (1996). The importance of

distinguishing the belief in a just world for self versus for others:

Implications for psychological well-being. Personality and

Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 666–677.

Lucas, T., Alexander, S., Firestone, I., & Lebreton, J. M. (2008). Just

world beliefs, perceived stress, and health behavior: The impact

of a procedurally just world. Psychology and Health, 23,

849–865.

Lyons, R., Tivey, H., & Ball, C. (1995). Bullying at work: How to

tackle it. A guide for MSF representatives and members.

London: Manufacturing Science Finance.

Lyubomirsky, S., & Lepper, H. (1999). A measure of subjective

happiness: Preliminary reliability and construct validation.

Social Indicators Research, 46, 137–155.

Maslow, A. (1954). Motivation and personality. New York: Harper.

Miller, M. L., & Schlenker, B. R. (2011). Integrity and identity: Moral

identity differences and preferred interpersonal reactions. Euro-

pean Journal of Personality, 25, 2–15.

Moradi, B., & Subich, L. M. (2004). Examining the moderating role

of self-esteem in the link between experiences of perceived

sexist events and psychological distress. Journal of Counseling

Psychology, 51, 50–56.

Mulki, J., Jaramillo, J., & Locander, W. (2008). Effect of ethical

climate on turnover intention: Linking attitudinal- and stress

theory. Journal of Business Ethics, 78, 559–574.

Mustillo, S., Krieger, N., Gunderson, E. P., Sidney, S., McCreath, H.,

& Kiefe, C. I. (2004). Self-reported experiences of racial

discrimination and black–White differences in preterm and low-

birthweight deliveries: The CARDIA study. American Journal of

Public Health, 94, 2125–2131.

Nunnally, J. C. (1978). Psychometric theory (2nd ed.). New York:

McGraw-Hill.

Ormel, J., & Wohlfarth, T. (1991). How neuroticism, long-term

difficulties, and life situation change influence psychological

distress: A longitudinal model. Journal of Personality and Social

Psychology, 60, 744–755.

Otto, K., Glaser, D., & Dalbert, C. (2009). Mental health, occupa-

tional trust, and quality of working life: Does belief in a just

world matter? Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 39,

1288–1315.

Pavalko, E. K., Mossakowski, K. N., & Hamilton, V. J. (2003). Does

perceived discrimination affect health? Longitudinal relation-

ships between work discrimination and women’s physical and

emotional health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44,

18–33.

Probst, J. C., Wang, J. Y., Moore, C. G., Powell, M. P., & Martin, A.

B. (2008). Continuity of health insurance coverage and per-

ceived health at age 40. Medical Care Research and Review, 65,

450–477.

Promislo, M., Deckop, J., Giacalone, R. A., & Jurkiewicz, C. L.

(2010). Valuing money more than people: The effects of

materialism on work–family conflict. Journal of Occupational

and Organizational Psychology, 83, 935–953.

Promislo, M., Giacalone, R. A., & Welch, J. (2012). Consequences of

concern: Ethics, social responsibility, and well-being (p. 21).

Business Ethics: A European Review.

Reynolds, S. J. (2008). Moral attentiveness: Who pays attention to the

moral aspects of life? Journal of Applied Psychology, 93,

1027–1041.

Robitschek, C. (1998). Personal growth initiative: The construct and

its measure. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and

Development, 30, 183–198.

Ryan, R. M., & Frederick, C. (1997). On energy, personality, and

health: Subjective vitality as a dynamic reflection of well-being.

Journal of Personality, 65, 529–565.

Schlenker, B. R. (2008). Integrity and character: Implications of

principled and expedient ethical ideologies. Journal of Social

and Clinical Psychology, 27, 1078–1125.

Schneider, K. T., Swan, S., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1997). Job-related and

psychological effects of sexual harassment in the workplace:

Empirical evidence from two organizations. Journal of Applied

Psychology, 82, 401–415.

Schwepker, C. H. J. (1999). Research note: The relationship between

ethical conflict, organizational commitment and turnover inten-

tions in the salesforce. The Journal of Personal Selling & Sales

Management, 19, 43–49.

Segerstrom, S. C., Taylor, S. E., Kemeny, M. E., & Fahey, J. L.

(1998). Optimism is associated with mood, coping and immune

change in response to stress. Journal of Personality and Social

Psychology, 74, 1646–1655.

Sheldon, K. M., & Kasser, T. (1998). Pursuing personal goals: Skills

enable progress, but not all progress is beneficial. Personality

and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24, 1319–1331.

Sheldon, K. M., & Kasser, T. (2001). Getting older, getting better?

Personal strivings and psychological maturity across the life

span. Developmental Psychology, 37, 491–501.

Paradoxical Implications of Ethical Orientation 505

123

Sims, R. L., & Kroeck, K. G. (1994). The influence of ethical fit on

employee satisfaction, commitment and turnover. Journal of

Business Ethics, 13, 939–947.

Singhapakdi, A., Vitell, S. J., Rallapalli, K. C., & Kraft, K. L. (1996).

The perceived role of ethics and social responsibility: A scale

development. Journal of Business Ethics, 15, 1131–1140.

Smith, R. D., DeBode, J. D., & Walker, A. G. (2013). The influence

of age, sex, and theism on ethical judgments. Journal of

Management, Spirituality & Religion, 10, 67–89.

Snyder, C. R., Sympson, S. C., Ybasco, F. C., Borders, T. F., Babyak,

M. A., & Higgins, R. L. (1996). Development and validation of

the state hope scale. Journal of Personality and Social

Psychology, 2, 321–335.

Spector, P. E., & Jex, S. M. (1998). Development of four self-report

measures of job stressors and strain: Interpersonal conflict at

work scale, organizational constraints scale, quantitative work-

load inventory, and physical symptoms inventory. Journal of

Occupational Health Psychology, 3, 356–367.

Steger, M., Oishi, S., & Kaler, M. (2006). The meaning in life

questionnaire: Assessing the presence of and search for meaning

in life. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 53, 80–93.

Stewart, R., Volpone, S., Avery, D., & McKay, P. (2011). You

support diversity, but are you ethical? Examining the interactive

effects of diversity and ethical climate perceptions on turnover

intentions. Journal of Business Ethics, 100, 581–593.

Subramanian, S. V., Huijts, T., & Perkins, J. M. (2009). Association

between political ideology and health in Europe. European

Journal of Public Health, 19, 455–457.

Tepper, B. J. (2001). Health consequences of organizational injustice:

Tests of main and interactive effects. Organizational Behavior

and Human Decision Processes, 86, 197–215.

Thomas, K. S., Bardwell, W. A., Ancoli-Israel, S., & Dimsdale, J. E.

(2006). The toll of ethnic discrimination on sleep architecture

and fatigue. Health Psychology, 25, 635–642.

Troxel, W. M., Matthews, K. A., Bromberger, J. T., & Sutton-Tyrrell,

K. (2003). Chronic stress burden, discrimination, and subclinical

carotid artery disease in African American and Caucasian

women. Health Psychology, 22, 300–309.

Tunnell, G. B. (1977). Three dimensions of naturalness: An expanded

definition of field research. Psychological Bulletin, 84, 426–437.

Valentine, S. (2014). Organizational ethics and stakeholder well-

being in the business environment. Charlotte, NC: Information

Age Press.

Valentine, S., & Barnett, T. (2002). Ethics codes and sales profes-

sionals’ perceptions of their organizations’ ethical values.

Journal of Business Ethics, 40, 191–200.

Valentine, S., & Fleischman, G. (2008). Ethics programs, perceived

corporate social responsibility and job satisfaction. Journal of

Business Ethics, 77, 159–172.

Valentine, S., Godkin, L., Fleischman, G., & Kidwell, R. (2011).

Corporate ethical values, group creativity, job satisfaction and

turnover intention: The impact of work context on work

response. Journal of Business Ethics, 98, 353–372.

Valentine, S., Godkin, L., & Lucero, M. (2002). Ethical context,

organizational commitment, and person-organization fit. Journal

of Business Ethics, 41, 349–360.

Viswesvaran, C., Deshpande, S. P., & Joseph, J. (1998). Job

satisfaction as a function of top management support for ethical

behavior: A study of Indian managers. Journal of Business

Ethics, 17, 365–371.

Watson, D., & Clark, L. A. (1984). Negative affectivity: The

disposition to experience aversive emotional states. Psycho-

logical Bulletin, 96, 465–490.

Williams, G. C., Cox, E. M., Hedberg, V. A., & Deci, E. L. (2000).

Extrinsic life goals and health-risk behaviors in adolescents.

Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30, 1756–1771.

506 R. A. Giacalone et al.

123

Journal of Business Ethics is a copyright of Springer, 2016. All Rights Reserved.