Discussion Board

70 The Early Marx philosophy's spot of infection, the further role of portraying in itself the negative dissolution of philosophy-i.e., the process of its decay-this historical nemesis I shall demonstrate on another occa- sion.

[How far, on the other hand, Feuerbach's discoveries about the nature of philosophy required still, for their Proof at least, a critical settling of accounts with philosophical dialectic will be seen from my exposition itself.]

Estranged La bour3

\Ve have proceeded from the premises of political economy. \Ve have accepted its language and its laws. \Ve presupposed private property, the separation of labour, capital and land, and of wages, profit of capital and rent of land-likewise division of labour, competition, the concept of exchange-value, etc. On the basis of political economy itself, in its own words, we have shown that the

1\ worker sinks to the level of a commodity and becomes indeed the \' most wretched of commodities; that the wretchedness of the

worker is in inverse proportion to the power and magnitude of his production; that the necessary result of competition is the accumu- lation of capital in a few hands, and thus the restoration of monop- oly in a more terrible form; that finally the distinction between cap- italist and land-rentier, like that between the tiller of the soil and the factory-worker, disappears and that the whole of society must fall apart into the two classes-the property-owners and the proper- tyless workers.

\ . Political economy proceeds from the fact of private property, but

it does not explain it to us. It expresses in general, abstract formu- _. lae the materi.2:L:P,rocess through which private property actually

"passes, an441iese formulae it then takes for laws. It does not com- prehend these laws-i.e., it does not demonstrate how they arise from the very nature of private property. Political economy does not disclose the source of the division between labour and capital, and between capital and land. \Vhen, for example, it defines the relationship of wages to profit, it takes the interest of the capitalists to be the ultimate cause; i.e., it takes for granted what it is sup- posed to evolve. Similarly, competition comes in everywhere. It is explained from external circumstances. As to how far these external and apparently fortuitous circumstances are but the expression of a necessary course of development, political economy teaches us nothing. \Ve have seen how, to it, exchange itself appears to be a

3. Die Entjremdete Arbeit. See the xli, above, for a discussion of this Note on Texts and Terminology, p. term. [R. T.]

Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 71 fact/.Tl:!e-,only wheels which political economy sets in

motIon are and the war amongst the avaricious-.. competttlon. . 0' - Precisely because political economy does not grasp the connec-

tions within the movement, it was possible to counterpose, for instance, the doctrine of competition to the doctrine of monopoly, the doctrine of craft-liberty to the doctrine of the corporation, the doctrine of the division of landed property to the doctrine of the big estate-for competition, craft-liberty and the division of landed property were explained and comprehended only as fortuitous, pre- meditated and violent consequences of monopoly, the corporation, and feudal property, not as their necessary, inevitable and natural consequences. ,

Now, therefore, we have to grasp the essential connection \ : between private property, avarice, and the separation of labour, cap- 'J, ital and landed property; between exchange and competition, value / ' and the devaluation of men, monopoly and competition, etc.; the connection between this whole estrangement and the system. r

Do not let us go back to a fictitious primordial condition as the political economist does, when he tries to explain. Such a primor- dial condition explains nothing. He merely pushes the question away into a grey nebulous distance. He assumes in the form of fact, of an event, what he is supposed to deduce-namely, the necessary relationship between two things-between, for example, division of labour and exchange. Theology in the same way explains the origin of evil by the fall of man: that is, it assumes as a fact, in historical form, what has to be explained.

\Ve proceed from an actual economic fact. The worker becomes all the poorer the more wealth he produces,

the more his production increases in power and range. The worker becomes an ever cheaper commodity the more commodities he cre- ates. \Vith the increasing value of the world of things proceeds in direct proportion the devaluation of the world of men. Labour pro- duces not only commodities; it produces itself and the worker as a commodity-and does so in the proportion in which it produces commodities generally.

This fact expresses merely that the object which labour produces-Iabour's product-confronts it as something alien, as a power independent of the producer. The product of labour is labour which has been congealed in an object, which has become material: it is the ob;ecti-{ication of labour. Labour's realization is its objectification. In the conditions dealt with by political econ- omy this realization of labour appears as loss of reality for the work-

70 The Early Marx philosophy's spot of infection, the further role of portraying in itself the negative dissolution of philosophy-i.e., the process of its decay-this historical nemesis I shall demonstrate on another occa- sion.

[How far, on the other hand, Feuerbach's discoveries about the nature of philosophy required still, for their Proof at least, a critical settling of accounts with philosophical dialectic will be seen from my exposition itself.]

Estranged La bour3

\Ve have proceeded from the premises of political economy. \Ve have accepted its language and its laws. \Ve presupposed private property, the separation of labour, capital and land, and of wages, profit of capital and rent of land-likewise division of labour, competition, the concept of exchange-value, etc. On the basis of political economy itself, in its own words, we have shown that the

1\ worker sinks to the level of a commodity and becomes indeed the \' most wretched of commodities; that the wretchedness of the

worker is in inverse proportion to the power and magnitude of his production; that the necessary result of competition is the accumu- lation of capital in a few hands, and thus the restoration of monop- oly in a more terrible form; that finally the distinction between cap- italist and land-rentier, like that between the tiller of the soil and the factory-worker, disappears and that the whole of society must fall apart into the two classes-the property-owners and the proper- tyless workers.

\ . Political economy proceeds from the fact of private property, but

it does not explain it to us. It expresses in general, abstract formu- _. lae the materi.2:L:P,rocess through which private property actually

"passes, an441iese formulae it then takes for laws. It does not com- prehend these laws-i.e., it does not demonstrate how they arise from the very nature of private property. Political economy does not disclose the source of the division between labour and capital, and between capital and land. \Vhen, for example, it defines the relationship of wages to profit, it takes the interest of the capitalists to be the ultimate cause; i.e., it takes for granted what it is sup- posed to evolve. Similarly, competition comes in everywhere. It is explained from external circumstances. As to how far these external and apparently fortuitous circumstances are but the expression of a necessary course of development, political economy teaches us nothing. \Ve have seen how, to it, exchange itself appears to be a

3. Die Entjremdete Arbeit. See the xli, above, for a discussion of this Note on Texts and Terminology, p. term. [R. T.]

Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 71 fact/.Tl:!e-,only wheels which political economy sets in

motIon are and the war amongst the avaricious-.. competttlon. . 0' - Precisely because political economy does not grasp the connec-

tions within the movement, it was possible to counterpose, for instance, the doctrine of competition to the doctrine of monopoly, the doctrine of craft-liberty to the doctrine of the corporation, the doctrine of the division of landed property to the doctrine of the big estate-for competition, craft-liberty and the division of landed property were explained and comprehended only as fortuitous, pre- meditated and violent consequences of monopoly, the corporation, and feudal property, not as their necessary, inevitable and natural consequences. ,

Now, therefore, we have to grasp the essential connection \ : between private property, avarice, and the separation of labour, cap- 'J, ital and landed property; between exchange and competition, value / ' and the devaluation of men, monopoly and competition, etc.; the connection between this whole estrangement and the system. r

Do not let us go back to a fictitious primordial condition as the political economist does, when he tries to explain. Such a primor- dial condition explains nothing. He merely pushes the question away into a grey nebulous distance. He assumes in the form of fact, of an event, what he is supposed to deduce-namely, the necessary relationship between two things-between, for example, division of labour and exchange. Theology in the same way explains the origin of evil by the fall of man: that is, it assumes as a fact, in historical form, what has to be explained.

\Ve proceed from an actual economic fact. The worker becomes all the poorer the more wealth he produces,

the more his production increases in power and range. The worker becomes an ever cheaper commodity the more commodities he cre- ates. \Vith the increasing value of the world of things proceeds in direct proportion the devaluation of the world of men. Labour pro- duces not only commodities; it produces itself and the worker as a commodity-and does so in the proportion in which it produces commodities generally.

This fact expresses merely that the object which labour produces-Iabour's product-confronts it as something alien, as a power independent of the producer. The product of labour is labour which has been congealed in an object, which has become material: it is the ob;ecti-{ication of labour. Labour's realization is its objectification. In the conditions dealt with by political econ- omy this realization of labour appears as loss of reality for the work-

72 The Early Marx ers; objectification as loss of the object and object-bondage; appro- priation as estrangement, as alienation.4

So much does labour's realization appear as loss of reality that the worker loses reality to the point of starving to death. So much does objectification appear as loss of the object that the worker is

of the objects most necessary not only for his life but for hIs work. labour itself becomes an object which he can get

of only WIth the greatest effort and with the most irregular mterruptlOns. So much does the appropriation of the object appear as estrangement that the more objects the worker produces the fewer can he possess and the more he falls under the dominion of his product, capital.

All these consequences are contained in the definition that the worker is related to the product of his labour as to an alien object. F?r on this premise it is clear that the more the worker spends

the more powerful the alien objective world becomes ,:",hlch he creates over-against himself, the poorer he himself-his mner world-becomes, the less belongs to him as his own. It is the same in religion. The more man puts into God, the less he retains

himself. The worker puts his life into the object; but now his no belongs to him but to the object. Hence, the greater

thIS actIVIty, the greater is the worker's lack of objects. \Vhatever the product of his labour is, he is not. Therefore the greater this product, the less is he himself. The alienation of the worker in his product not only that his labour becomes an object, an

eXlst.ence, that it exists outside him, independently, as somethmg alIen to hIm, and that it becomes a power of its own confronting him; it means that the life which he has conferred on the object confronts him as something hostile and alien.

us now look more closely at the objectification, at the pro- ductIon of the worker; and therein at the estrangement the loss of the object, his product. '

The worker can create nothing without nature, without the sen- suous external world. It is the material on which his labor is mani- fested, in which it is active, from which imd by means of which it produces.

But just as nature provides labor with the means of life in the sense that labour cannot live without objects on which to operate, on the other hand, it also provides the means of life in the more restricted sense-i.e., the means for the physical subsistence of the worker himself.

Thus the more the worker by his labour appropriates the external sensuous nature, the more he deprives himself of means of

lIfe m the double respect: first, that the sensuous external world 4. "Alienation"-Entiiusserung.

m F

I l II

! I l

Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 73 more and more ceases to be an object belonging to his labour-to be his labour's means of life; and secondly, that it more and more ceases to be means of life in the immediate sense, means for the physical subsistence of the worker. .

Thus in this double respect the worker becomes a slave of hIs object, first, in that he receives an object of labour, i.e., in that he receives work; and secondly, in that he receives means of subsist- ence. Therefore, it enables him to exist, first, as a worker; and, second, as a physical subject. The extremity of this bondage is that it is only as a worker that he continues to maintain himself as a physical subject, and that it is only as a physical subject that he is a worker.

(The laws of political economy express the estrangement of the worker in his object thus: the more the worker produces, the less he has to consume; the more values he creates, the more valueless, the more unworthy he becomes; the better formed his product, the more deformed becomes the worker; the more civilized his object, the more barbarous becomes the worker; the mightier labour becomes, the more powerless becomes the worker; the more ingen- ious labour becomes, the duller becomes the worker and the more he becomes nature's bondsman.)

Political economy conceals the estrangement inherent in the nature of labour by not considering the direct relationship between the worker (labour) and production. It is true that labour produces for the rich wonderful things-but for the worker it produces priva- tion. It produces palaces-but for the worker, hovels. It produces beauty-but for the worker, deformity. It replaces labour by machines-but some of the workers it throws back to a barbarous type of labour, and the other workers it turns into machines. It pro- duces intelligence-but for the worker idiocy, cretinism.

The direct relationship of labour to its produce is the relation- ship of the worker to the objects of his production. The relation- ship of the man of means to the objects of production and to pro- duction itself is only a consequence of this first relationship-and confirms it. \Ve shall consider this other aspect later.

\Vhen we ask, then, what is the essential relationship of labour we are asking about the relationship of the worker to production.

Till now we have been considering the estrangement, the aliena- tion of the worker only in one of its aspects, i.e., the worker's rela- tionship to the products of his labour. But the estrangement is manifested not only in the result but in the act of production- within the producing activity itself. How would the worker come to face the product of his activity as a stranger, were it not that in the very act of production he was estranging himself from himself? The product is after all but the summary of the activity of production.

72 The Early Marx ers; objectification as loss of the object and object-bondage; appro- priation as estrangement, as alienation.4

So much does labour's realization appear as loss of reality that the worker loses reality to the point of starving to death. So much does objectification appear as loss of the object that the worker is

of the objects most necessary not only for his life but for hIs work. labour itself becomes an object which he can get

of only WIth the greatest effort and with the most irregular mterruptlOns. So much does the appropriation of the object appear as estrangement that the more objects the worker produces the fewer can he possess and the more he falls under the dominion of his product, capital.

All these consequences are contained in the definition that the worker is related to the product of his labour as to an alien object. F?r on this premise it is clear that the more the worker spends

the more powerful the alien objective world becomes ,:",hlch he creates over-against himself, the poorer he himself-his mner world-becomes, the less belongs to him as his own. It is the same in religion. The more man puts into God, the less he retains

himself. The worker puts his life into the object; but now his no belongs to him but to the object. Hence, the greater

thIS actIVIty, the greater is the worker's lack of objects. \Vhatever the product of his labour is, he is not. Therefore the greater this product, the less is he himself. The alienation of the worker in his product not only that his labour becomes an object, an

eXlst.ence, that it exists outside him, independently, as somethmg alIen to hIm, and that it becomes a power of its own confronting him; it means that the life which he has conferred on the object confronts him as something hostile and alien.

us now look more closely at the objectification, at the pro- ductIon of the worker; and therein at the estrangement the loss of the object, his product. '

The worker can create nothing without nature, without the sen- suous external world. It is the material on which his labor is mani- fested, in which it is active, from which imd by means of which it produces.

But just as nature provides labor with the means of life in the sense that labour cannot live without objects on which to operate, on the other hand, it also provides the means of life in the more restricted sense-i.e., the means for the physical subsistence of the worker himself.

Thus the more the worker by his labour appropriates the external sensuous nature, the more he deprives himself of means of

lIfe m the double respect: first, that the sensuous external world 4. "Alienation"-Entiiusserung.

m F

I l II

! I l

Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 73 more and more ceases to be an object belonging to his labour-to be his labour's means of life; and secondly, that it more and more ceases to be means of life in the immediate sense, means for the physical subsistence of the worker. .

Thus in this double respect the worker becomes a slave of hIs object, first, in that he receives an object of labour, i.e., in that he receives work; and secondly, in that he receives means of subsist- ence. Therefore, it enables him to exist, first, as a worker; and, second, as a physical subject. The extremity of this bondage is that it is only as a worker that he continues to maintain himself as a physical subject, and that it is only as a physical subject that he is a worker.

(The laws of political economy express the estrangement of the worker in his object thus: the more the worker produces, the less he has to consume; the more values he creates, the more valueless, the more unworthy he becomes; the better formed his product, the more deformed becomes the worker; the more civilized his object, the more barbarous becomes the worker; the mightier labour becomes, the more powerless becomes the worker; the more ingen- ious labour becomes, the duller becomes the worker and the more he becomes nature's bondsman.)

Political economy conceals the estrangement inherent in the nature of labour by not considering the direct relationship between the worker (labour) and production. It is true that labour produces for the rich wonderful things-but for the worker it produces priva- tion. It produces palaces-but for the worker, hovels. It produces beauty-but for the worker, deformity. It replaces labour by machines-but some of the workers it throws back to a barbarous type of labour, and the other workers it turns into machines. It pro- duces intelligence-but for the worker idiocy, cretinism.

The direct relationship of labour to its produce is the relation- ship of the worker to the objects of his production. The relation- ship of the man of means to the objects of production and to pro- duction itself is only a consequence of this first relationship-and confirms it. \Ve shall consider this other aspect later.

\Vhen we ask, then, what is the essential relationship of labour we are asking about the relationship of the worker to production.

Till now we have been considering the estrangement, the aliena- tion of the worker only in one of its aspects, i.e., the worker's rela- tionship to the products of his labour. But the estrangement is manifested not only in the result but in the act of production- within the producing activity itself. How would the worker come to face the product of his activity as a stranger, were it not that in the very act of production he was estranging himself from himself? The product is after all but the summary of the activity of production.

74 The Early Marx If then the product of labour is alienation, production itself must be active alienation, the alienation of activity, the activity of aliena- tion. In the estrangement of the object of labour is merely summa- rized the estrangement, the alienation, in the activity of labour itself.

\Vhat, then, constitutes the alienation of labour? First, the fact that is e"5:.tlil.wal to the worker, i.e., it does

not belong to his essential being; that in his work, therefore, he does not affirm himself but denies himself, does not feel content but unhappy, does not develop freely his physical and mental energy but mortifies his body and ruins his mind. The worker therefore only feels himself outside his work, and in his work feels outside himself. He is at home when he is not working, and when he is working he is not at home. His labour is therefore not volun- tary, but coerced; it is forced labour. It is therefore not the satisfac- tion of a need; it is merely a means to satisfy needs external to it. Its alien character emerges clearly in the fact that as soon as no physical or other compulsion exists, labour is shunned like the plague. External labour, labour in which man alienates himself, is a labour of self-sacrifice, of mortification. Lastly, the external charac- ter of labour for the worker appears in the fact that it is not his own, but someone else's, that it does not belong to him, that in it he belongs, not to himself, but to another. Just as in religion the spontaneous activity of the human imagination, of the human brain and the human heart, operates independently of the individ- ual-that is, operates on him as an alien, divine or diabolical activ- ity-in the same way the worker's activity is not his spontaneous activity. It belongs to another; it is the loss of his self.

As a result, therefore, man (the worker) no longer feels himself to be freely active in any but his animal functions-eating, drink- ing, procreating, or at most in his dwelling and in dressing-up, etc.; and in his human functions he no longer feels himself to be any- thing but an animal. \Vhat is animal becomes human and what is human becomes animal.

Certainly eating, drinking, procreating, etc., are also genuinely human functions. But in the abstraction which separates them from the sphere of all other human activity and turns them into sole and ultimate ends, they are animal.

\Ve have considered the act of estranging practical human activ- ity, labour, in two of its aspects. (1) of the worker to

an alien object over hrill. This relation is at the same time the relation to the sensuous exter- nal world, to the objects of nature as an alien world antagonistically opposed to him. (2) The relation of 1:illQ!!L.tQ.J .. tiatLwi!;hi!l...the.jabo.ur_ . This relation is the relation of the

Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 75 worker to his own activity as an alien activity not belonging to him; it is activity as suffering, strength as weakness, begetting as emascu· lating, the worker's own physical and mental energy, his personal life or what is life other than activity-as an activity which is turned against him, neither depends on nor belongs to him. Here we have.E:lf-estrangement, as we had previously the estrangement of the thing.

\Ve have yet a third aspect of estranged labour to deduce from the two already considered.

Man is a species being, not only beCa\lSe in practice and in theory he adopts the species as his object (his own as well as those of other things), but-and this is only another way of expressing it-but also because he treats himself as the actual, living species; because he treats himself as a universal and therefore a free being.

The life of the species, both in man and in animals, consists physically in the fact that man (like the animal) lives on inorganic nature; and the more universal man is compared with an animal, the more universal is the sphere of inorganic nature on which he lives. Just as plants, animals, stones, the air, light, etc., constitute a part of human consciousness in the realm of theory, partly as objects of natural science, partly as objects of art-his spiritual inorganic nature, spiritual nourishment which he must first prepare to make it palatable and digestible-so too in the realm of practice they constitute a part of human life and human activity. Physically man lives only on these products of nature, whether they appear in the form of food, heating, clothes, a dwelling, or whatever it may be. The universality of man is in practice manifested precisely in the universality which makes all nature his inorganic body-both

. inasmuch as nature is (1) his direct means of life, and (2) the material, the object, and the instrument of his life-activity. Nature is man's inorganic body-nature, that is, in so far as it is not itself the human body. Man lives on nature-means that nature is his body, with which he must remain in continuous intercourse if he is not to die. That man's physical and spiritual life is linked to nature means simply that nature is linked to itself, for man is a part of nature.

In estranging from man (1) nature, and (2) himself, his own active functions, his life-activity, estranged labour estranges the spe- cies from man. It turns for him the life of the species into a means of individual life. First it estranges the life of the species and indi- vidual life, and secondly it makes individual life in its abstract form the purpose of the life of the species, likewise in its abstract and estranged form.

For in the first place labour, life-activity, productive life itself, appears to man merely as a means of satisfying a need-the need

74 The Early Marx If then the product of labour is alienation, production itself must be active alienation, the alienation of activity, the activity of aliena- tion. In the estrangement of the object of labour is merely summa- rized the estrangement, the alienation, in the activity of labour itself.

\Vhat, then, constitutes the alienation of labour? First, the fact that is e"5:.tlil.wal to the worker, i.e., it does

not belong to his essential being; that in his work, therefore, he does not affirm himself but denies himself, does not feel content but unhappy, does not develop freely his physical and mental energy but mortifies his body and ruins his mind. The worker therefore only feels himself outside his work, and in his work feels outside himself. He is at home when he is not working, and when he is working he is not at home. His labour is therefore not volun- tary, but coerced; it is forced labour. It is therefore not the satisfac- tion of a need; it is merely a means to satisfy needs external to it. Its alien character emerges clearly in the fact that as soon as no physical or other compulsion exists, labour is shunned like the plague. External labour, labour in which man alienates himself, is a labour of self-sacrifice, of mortification. Lastly, the external charac- ter of labour for the worker appears in the fact that it is not his own, but someone else's, that it does not belong to him, that in it he belongs, not to himself, but to another. Just as in religion the spontaneous activity of the human imagination, of the human brain and the human heart, operates independently of the individ- ual-that is, operates on him as an alien, divine or diabolical activ- ity-in the same way the worker's activity is not his spontaneous activity. It belongs to another; it is the loss of his self.

As a result, therefore, man (the worker) no longer feels himself to be freely active in any but his animal functions-eating, drink- ing, procreating, or at most in his dwelling and in dressing-up, etc.; and in his human functions he no longer feels himself to be any- thing but an animal. \Vhat is animal becomes human and what is human becomes animal.

Certainly eating, drinking, procreating, etc., are also genuinely human functions. But in the abstraction which separates them from the sphere of all other human activity and turns them into sole and ultimate ends, they are animal.

\Ve have considered the act of estranging practical human activ- ity, labour, in two of its aspects. (1) of the worker to

an alien object over hrill. This relation is at the same time the relation to the sensuous exter- nal world, to the objects of nature as an alien world antagonistically opposed to him. (2) The relation of 1:illQ!!L.tQ.J .. tiatLwi!;hi!l...the.jabo.ur_ . This relation is the relation of the

Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 75 worker to his own activity as an alien activity not belonging to him; it is activity as suffering, strength as weakness, begetting as emascu· lating, the worker's own physical and mental energy, his personal life or what is life other than activity-as an activity which is turned against him, neither depends on nor belongs to him. Here we have.E:lf-estrangement, as we had previously the estrangement of the thing.

\Ve have yet a third aspect of estranged labour to deduce from the two already considered.

Man is a species being, not only beCa\lSe in practice and in theory he adopts the species as his object (his own as well as those of other things), but-and this is only another way of expressing it-but also because he treats himself as the actual, living species; because he treats himself as a universal and therefore a free being.

The life of the species, both in man and in animals, consists physically in the fact that man (like the animal) lives on inorganic nature; and the more universal man is compared with an animal, the more universal is the sphere of inorganic nature on which he lives. Just as plants, animals, stones, the air, light, etc., constitute a part of human consciousness in the realm of theory, partly as objects of natural science, partly as objects of art-his spiritual inorganic nature, spiritual nourishment which he must first prepare to make it palatable and digestible-so too in the realm of practice they constitute a part of human life and human activity. Physically man lives only on these products of nature, whether they appear in the form of food, heating, clothes, a dwelling, or whatever it may be. The universality of man is in practice manifested precisely in the universality which makes all nature his inorganic body-both

. inasmuch as nature is (1) his direct means of life, and (2) the material, the object, and the instrument of his life-activity. Nature is man's inorganic body-nature, that is, in so far as it is not itself the human body. Man lives on nature-means that nature is his body, with which he must remain in continuous intercourse if he is not to die. That man's physical and spiritual life is linked to nature means simply that nature is linked to itself, for man is a part of nature.

In estranging from man (1) nature, and (2) himself, his own active functions, his life-activity, estranged labour estranges the spe- cies from man. It turns for him the life of the species into a means of individual life. First it estranges the life of the species and indi- vidual life, and secondly it makes individual life in its abstract form the purpose of the life of the species, likewise in its abstract and estranged form.

For in the first place labour, life-activity, productive life itself, appears to man merely as a means of satisfying a need-the need

76 The Early Marx to maintain the physical existence. Yet the productive life is the life of the species. It is life-engendering life. The whole character of a species-its species character-is contained in the character of its life-activity; and free, conscious activity is man's species character. Life itself appears only as a means to life.

The animal is immediately identical with its life-activity. It does not distinguish itself from it. It is its life-activity. Man makes his life-activity itself the object of his will and of his consciousness. He has conscious life-activity. It is not a determination with which he directly merges. Conscious life-activity directly distinguishes man from animal life-activity. It is just because of this that he is a spe- cies being. Or it is only because he is a species being that he is a Conscious Being, i.e., that his own life is an object for him. Only because of that is his activity free activity. Estranged labour reverses this relationship, so that it is just because man is a con- scious being that he makes his life-activity, his' essential being, a mere means to his existence.

In creating an objective world by his practical activity, in work- ing-up inorganic nature, man proves himself a conscious species being, i.e., as a being that treats the species as its own essential being, or that treats itself as a species being. Admittedly animals also produce. They build themselves nests, dwellings, like the bees, beavers, ants, etc. But an animal only produces what it immediately needs for itself or its young. It produces one-sidedly, whilst man produces universally. It produces. only under the dominion of immediate physical need, whilst man produces even when he is free from physical need and only truly produces in freedom therefrom. An animal produces only itself, whilst man reproduces the whole of nature. An animal's product belongs immediately to its physical body, whilst man freely confronts his product. An animal forms things in accordance with the standard and the need of the species to which it belongs, whilst man knows how to produce in accord- ance with the standard of every species, and knows how to apply everywhere the inherent standard to the object. Man therefore also forms things in accordance with the laws of beauty.

It is just in the working-up of the objective world, therefore, that man first really proves himself to be a species being. This produc- tion is his active species life. Through and because of this produc- tion, nature appears as his work and his reality. The object of la bour is, therefore, the objectification of man's species life: for he duplicates himself not only, as in consciousness, intellectually, but also actively, in reality, and therefore he contemplates himself in a world that he has created. In tearing away from man the object of his production, therefore, estranged labour tears from him his spe- cies life, his real species objectivity, and transforms his advantage

Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 77 over animals into the disadvantage that his inorganic body, nature, is taken from him.

Similarly, in degrading spontaneous activity, free activity, to a means, estranged labour makes man's species life a means to his physical existence.

The consciousness which man has of his species is thus trans- formed by estrangement in such a way that the species life becomes for him a means.

Estranged labour turns thus: (3) Man's species being, both nature and his spiritual species

property, into a being alien to him, into a means to his individual existence. It estranges man's own body from him, as it does exter- nal nature and his spiritual essence, his human being.

(4) An immediate consequence of the fact that man is estranged from the product of his labour, from his life-activity, from his spe- cies being is the estrangement of man from man. If a man is con- fronted by himself, he is confronted by the other man. vVhat applies to a man's relation to his work, to the product of his labour and to himself, also holds of a man's relation to the other man, and to the other man's labour and object of labour.

In fact, the proposition that man's species nature is estranged from him means that one man is estranged from the other, as each of them is from man's essential nature. 5

The estrangement of man, and in fact every relationship in which man stands to himself, is first realized and expressed in the relationship in which a man stands to other men.

Hence within the relationship of estranged labour each man views the other in accordance with the standard and the position in which he finds himself as a worker.

We took our departure from a fact of political economy-the estrangement of the worker and his production. vVe have formu- lated the concept of this fact-estranged, alienated labour. We have analysed this concept-hence analysing merely a fact of politi- cal economy.

Let us now see, further, how in real life the concept of estranged, alienated labour must express and present itself.

If the product of labour is alien to me, if it confronts me as an alien power, to whom, then, does it belong?

If my own activity does not belong to me, if it is an alien, a coerced activity, to whom, then, does it belong?

To a being other than me. Who is this being? The gods? To be sure, in the earliest times the principal produc-

S. "Species nature" (and, earlier, "spe- essential nature"-menschlichen Wesen. des being")-Gattungswesen; "man's

76 The Early Marx to maintain the physical existence. Yet the productive life is the life of the species. It is life-engendering life. The whole character of a species-its species character-is contained in the character of its life-activity; and free, conscious activity is man's species character. Life itself appears only as a means to life.

The animal is immediately identical with its life-activity. It does not distinguish itself from it. It is its life-activity. Man makes his life-activity itself the object of his will and of his consciousness. He has conscious life-activity. It is not a determination with which he directly merges. Conscious life-activity directly distinguishes man from animal life-activity. It is just because of this that he is a spe- cies being. Or it is only because he is a species being that he is a Conscious Being, i.e., that his own life is an object for him. Only because of that is his activity free activity. Estranged labour reverses this relationship, so that it is just because man is a con- scious being that he makes his life-activity, his' essential being, a mere means to his existence.

In creating an objective world by his practical activity, in work- ing-up inorganic nature, man proves himself a conscious species being, i.e., as a being that treats the species as its own essential being, or that treats itself as a species being. Admittedly animals also produce. They build themselves nests, dwellings, like the bees, beavers, ants, etc. But an animal only produces what it immediately needs for itself or its young. It produces one-sidedly, whilst man produces universally. It produces. only under the dominion of immediate physical need, whilst man produces even when he is free from physical need and only truly produces in freedom therefrom. An animal produces only itself, whilst man reproduces the whole of nature. An animal's product belongs immediately to its physical body, whilst man freely confronts his product. An animal forms things in accordance with the standard and the need of the species to which it belongs, whilst man knows how to produce in accord- ance with the standard of every species, and knows how to apply everywhere the inherent standard to the object. Man therefore also forms things in accordance with the laws of beauty.

It is just in the working-up of the objective world, therefore, that man first really proves himself to be a species being. This produc- tion is his active species life. Through and because of this produc- tion, nature appears as his work and his reality. The object of la bour is, therefore, the objectification of man's species life: for he duplicates himself not only, as in consciousness, intellectually, but also actively, in reality, and therefore he contemplates himself in a world that he has created. In tearing away from man the object of his production, therefore, estranged labour tears from him his spe- cies life, his real species objectivity, and transforms his advantage

Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 77 over animals into the disadvantage that his inorganic body, nature, is taken from him.

Similarly, in degrading spontaneous activity, free activity, to a means, estranged labour makes man's species life a means to his physical existence.

The consciousness which man has of his species is thus trans- formed by estrangement in such a way that the species life becomes for him a means.

Estranged labour turns thus: (3) Man's species being, both nature and his spiritual species

property, into a being alien to him, into a means to his individual existence. It estranges man's own body from him, as it does exter- nal nature and his spiritual essence, his human being.

(4) An immediate consequence of the fact that man is estranged from the product of his labour, from his life-activity, from his spe- cies being is the estrangement of man from man. If a man is con- fronted by himself, he is confronted by the other man. vVhat applies to a man's relation to his work, to the product of his labour and to himself, also holds of a man's relation to the other man, and to the other man's labour and object of labour.

In fact, the proposition that man's species nature is estranged from him means that one man is estranged from the other, as each of them is from man's essential nature. 5

The estrangement of man, and in fact every relationship in which man stands to himself, is first realized and expressed in the relationship in which a man stands to other men.

Hence within the relationship of estranged labour each man views the other in accordance with the standard and the position in which he finds himself as a worker.

We took our departure from a fact of political economy-the estrangement of the worker and his production. vVe have formu- lated the concept of this fact-estranged, alienated labour. We have analysed this concept-hence analysing merely a fact of politi- cal economy.

Let us now see, further, how in real life the concept of estranged, alienated labour must express and present itself.

If the product of labour is alien to me, if it confronts me as an alien power, to whom, then, does it belong?

If my own activity does not belong to me, if it is an alien, a coerced activity, to whom, then, does it belong?

To a being other than me. Who is this being? The gods? To be sure, in the earliest times the principal produc-

S. "Species nature" (and, earlier, "spe- essential nature"-menschlichen Wesen. des being")-Gattungswesen; "man's

78 The Early Marx han (for example, the building of temples, etc., in Egypt, India and Mexico) appears to be in the service of the gods, and the prod- uct belongs to the gods. However, the gods on their own were never the lords of labour. No more was nature. And what a contra- diction it would be if, the more man subjugated nature by his labour and the more the miracles of the gods were rendered super- fluous by the miracles of industry, the more man were to renounce the joy of production and the enjoyment of the produce in favour of these powers.

The alien being, to whom labour and the produce of labour belongs, in whose service labour is done and for whose benefit the produce of labour is provided, can only be man himself.

If the product of labour does not belong to the worker, if it con- fronts him as an alien power, this can only be because it belongs to some other man than the worker. If the worker's activity is a tor- ment to him, to another it must be delight and his life's joy. Not the gods, not nature, but only man himself can be this alien power over man.

\Ve must bear in mind the above-stated proposition that man's relation himself only becomes objective and real for him through his relatIon to the other man. Thus, if the product of his labour ?is labour objectified, is for him an alien, hostile, powerful object llldependent of him, then his position towards it is such that some- one else is of this object, someone who is alien, hostile, pow- erful, and llldependent of him. If his own activity is to him an unfree activity, then he is treating it as activity performed in the serVice, under the dominion, the coercion and the yoke of another man.

Every self-estrangement of man from himself and from nature appears in the relation in which he places himself and nature to men other than and differentiated from himself. For this reason religious self-estrangement necessarily appears in the relationship of the layman to the priest, or again to a mediator, etc., since we are here dealing with the intellectual world. In the real practical world

can only become manifest through'the real practi- cal relatIonshIp to other men. The medium through which estrangement takes place is itself practical. Thus through estranged labour man not only engenders his relationship to the object and to the act of production as to powers that are alien and hostile to him; he also engenders the relationship in which other men stand to his production and to his product, and the relationship in which he stands to these other men. Just as he begets his own production' as the loss of his reality, as his punishment; just as he begets his own product as a loss, as a product not belonging to him; so he begets the dominion of the one who does not produce over produc-

Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 79 tion and over the product. Just as he estranges from himself his own activity, so he confers to the stranger activity which is not his own.

Till now we have only considered this relationship from the standpoint of. the worker and later we shall be considering it also from the standpoint of the non·worker.

Throu?h alienated labour, then, the worker produces the relatIOnship to thiS labour of a man alien to labour and stand- ing outside it. The relationship of the worker to labour engenders the relation to it of the capitalist, or whatever one chooses to call the master of labour. Private property is thus the product, the' result, the necessary consequence, of alienated labour, of the exter- nal relation of the worker to nature and to himself.

Private property thus results by analysis from the concept of alienated labour-i.e., of alienated man of estranged labour of estranged life, of estranged man.' ,

True, it is as a result of the movement of private propertv that we have obtained the concept of alienated labour (of life ) from political economy. But on analysis of this concept it becomes clear that though private property appears to be the

the cause of alienated labour, it is really its consequence, Just as the gods in the beginning are not the cause but the effect of man's intellectual confusion. Later this relationship becomes recip- rocal. .

Only at the very culmination of the development of private prop- does thiS, ItS secret, re-emerge, namely, that on the one hand it

IS the product of alienated labour, and that secondly it is the _rr:eans by which labour alienates itself, the realization of this aliena- tIOn.

This exposition immediately sheds light on vanous hitherto unsolved conflicts.

(1) Political economy starts from labour as the real soul of pro- du.ctlOn; yet to labour it gives nothing, and to private property every- thlllg. From this contradiction Proudhon has concluded in favour of labour and against private property. \Ve understand, however, that this. app.arent contradiction is the contradiction of estranged labour with Itself, and that political economy has merely formu- lated the laws of estranged labour.

als,o understand, therefore, that wages and private property are IdentIcal: where the product, the object of labour pays for labour itself, the wage is but a necessary consequence of labour's estrangement, for after all in the wage of labour, labour does not appear as an end in itself but as the servant of the wage. \Ve shall develop this point later, and meanwhile will only deduce some con- clusions.

78 The Early Marx han (for example, the building of temples, etc., in Egypt, India and Mexico) appears to be in the service of the gods, and the prod- uct belongs to the gods. However, the gods on their own were never the lords of labour. No more was nature. And what a contra- diction it would be if, the more man subjugated nature by his labour and the more the miracles of the gods were rendered super- fluous by the miracles of industry, the more man were to renounce the joy of production and the enjoyment of the produce in favour of these powers.

The alien being, to whom labour and the produce of labour belongs, in whose service labour is done and for whose benefit the produce of labour is provided, can only be man himself.

If the product of labour does not belong to the worker, if it con- fronts him as an alien power, this can only be because it belongs to some other man than the worker. If the worker's activity is a tor- ment to him, to another it must be delight and his life's joy. Not the gods, not nature, but only man himself can be this alien power over man.

\Ve must bear in mind the above-stated proposition that man's relation himself only becomes objective and real for him through his relatIon to the other man. Thus, if the product of his labour ?is labour objectified, is for him an alien, hostile, powerful object llldependent of him, then his position towards it is such that some- one else is of this object, someone who is alien, hostile, pow- erful, and llldependent of him. If his own activity is to him an unfree activity, then he is treating it as activity performed in the serVice, under the dominion, the coercion and the yoke of another man.

Every self-estrangement of man from himself and from nature appears in the relation in which he places himself and nature to men other than and differentiated from himself. For this reason religious self-estrangement necessarily appears in the relationship of the layman to the priest, or again to a mediator, etc., since we are here dealing with the intellectual world. In the real practical world

can only become manifest through'the real practi- cal relatIonshIp to other men. The medium through which estrangement takes place is itself practical. Thus through estranged labour man not only engenders his relationship to the object and to the act of production as to powers that are alien and hostile to him; he also engenders the relationship in which other men stand to his production and to his product, and the relationship in which he stands to these other men. Just as he begets his own production' as the loss of his reality, as his punishment; just as he begets his own product as a loss, as a product not belonging to him; so he begets the dominion of the one who does not produce over produc-

Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 79 tion and over the product. Just as he estranges from himself his own activity, so he confers to the stranger activity which is not his own.

Till now we have only considered this relationship from the standpoint of. the worker and later we shall be considering it also from the standpoint of the non·worker.

Throu?h alienated labour, then, the worker produces the relatIOnship to thiS labour of a man alien to labour and stand- ing outside it. The relationship of the worker to labour engenders the relation to it of the capitalist, or whatever one chooses to call the master of labour. Private property is thus the product, the' result, the necessary consequence, of alienated labour, of the exter- nal relation of the worker to nature and to himself.

Private property thus results by analysis from the concept of alienated labour-i.e., of alienated man of estranged labour of estranged life, of estranged man.' ,

True, it is as a result of the movement of private propertv that we have obtained the concept of alienated labour (of life ) from political economy. But on analysis of this concept it becomes clear that though private property appears to be the

the cause of alienated labour, it is really its consequence, Just as the gods in the beginning are not the cause but the effect of man's intellectual confusion. Later this relationship becomes recip- rocal. .

Only at the very culmination of the development of private prop- does thiS, ItS secret, re-emerge, namely, that on the one hand it

IS the product of alienated labour, and that secondly it is the _rr:eans by which labour alienates itself, the realization of this aliena- tIOn.

This exposition immediately sheds light on vanous hitherto unsolved conflicts.

(1) Political economy starts from labour as the real soul of pro- du.ctlOn; yet to labour it gives nothing, and to private property every- thlllg. From this contradiction Proudhon has concluded in favour of labour and against private property. \Ve understand, however, that this. app.arent contradiction is the contradiction of estranged labour with Itself, and that political economy has merely formu- lated the laws of estranged labour.

als,o understand, therefore, that wages and private property are IdentIcal: where the product, the object of labour pays for labour itself, the wage is but a necessary consequence of labour's estrangement, for after all in the wage of labour, labour does not appear as an end in itself but as the servant of the wage. \Ve shall develop this point later, and meanwhile will only deduce some con- clusions.

80 The Early Marx A forcing-up of wages (disregarding all other difficulties, includ-

ing the fact that it would only be by force, too, that the higher wages, being an anomaly, could be maintained) would therefore be nothing but better payment for the slave, and would not conquer either for the worker or for labour their human status and dignity_

Indeed, even the equality of wages demanded by PIoudhon only transforms the relationship of the present-day worker to his labour into the relationship of all men to labour. Society is then conceived as an abstract capitalist.

\Vages are a direct consequence of estranged labour, and estranged labour is the direct cause of private property_ The down- fall of the one aspect must therefore mean the downfall of the other.

(2) From the relationship of estranged labour to private prop- erty it further follows that the emancipation of society from private property, etc., from servitude, is expressed in the political form of the emancipation of the workers; not that their emancipation alone was at stake but because the emancipation of the workers contains universal human emancipation-and it contains this, because the whole of human servitude is involved in the relation of the worker to production, and every relation of servitude is but a modification and consequence of this relation_

Just as we have found the concept of private property from the concept of estranged, alienated labour by analysis, in the same way every category of political economy can be evolved with the help of these two factors; and we shall find again in each category, e_g_, trade, competition, capital, money, only a definite and developed expression of the first foundations_

Before considering this configuration, however, let us try to solve two problems_

(1) To define the general nature of private property, as it has arisen as a result of estranged labour, in its relation to truly human, social property.

(2) \Ve have accepted the estrangement of labour, its alienation, as a fact, and we have analysed this fact How, we now ask, does man come to alienate, to estrange, his labour? How is this estrange- ment rooted in the nature of human development? \Ve have already gone a long way to the solution of this problem by trans- forming the question as to the origin of private property into the question as to the relation of alienated labour to the course of humanity's development For when one speaks of private property, one thinks of being concerned with something external to man. \Vhen one speaks of labour, one is directly concerned with man himself. This new formulation of the question already contains its solution.

Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 81 As to (1): The general nature of private property and its rela-

tion to truly human property. Alienated labour has resolved itself for us into two elements

which mutually condition one another, or which are but different expressions of one and the same relationship. Appropriation appears as estrangement, as alienation; and alienation appears as appropria- tion, estrangement as true enfranchisement.

\Ve have considered the one side-alienated labour in relation to the worker himself, i.e., the relation of alienated labour to itself- The property-relation of the non-worker to the worker and to labour we have found as the product, the necessary outcome of this relation of alienated labour. Private property, as the material, sum- mary expression of alienated labour, embraces both relations-the relation of the worker to work, to the product of his labour and to the non-worker, and the relation of the non-worker to the worker and to the product of his labour.

Having seen that in relation to the worker who nature by means of his labour, this appropriation appears as estrangement, his own spontaneous activity as activity for another and as activity of another, vitality as a sacrifice of life, production of the object as loss of the object to an alien power, to an alien per- son-we shall now consider the relation to the worker, to labour and its object of this person who is alien to labour and the worker.

First it has to be noticed, that everything which appears in the worker as an activity of alienation, of estrangement, appears in the non-worker as a state of alienation, of estrangement.

Secondly, that the worker's real, practical attitude in production and to the product (as a state of mind) appears in the non-worker confronting him as a theoretical attitude_

Thirdly, the non-worker does everything against the worker which the worker does against himself; but he does not do against himself what he does against the worker.

Let us look more closely at these three relations_6

Pi-ivate Property and Communism

Re_ p_ XXXIX. The antithesis of propertyless ness and property so long as it is not comprehended as the antithesis of labour and capital, still remains an antithesis of indifference, not grasped in its active connection, its internal relation-an antithesis not yet grasped as a contradiction. It can find expression in this first form even without the advanced development of private property (as in ancient Rome, Turkey, etc.) _ It does not yet appear as having been established by private property itself_ But labour, the subjective 6. At this point the first manuscript breaks off unfinished.

80 The Early Marx A forcing-up of wages (disregarding all other difficulties, includ-

ing the fact that it would only be by force, too, that the higher wages, being an anomaly, could be maintained) would therefore be nothing but better payment for the slave, and would not conquer either for the worker or for labour their human status and dignity_

Indeed, even the equality of wages demanded by PIoudhon only transforms the relationship of the present-day worker to his labour into the relationship of all men to labour. Society is then conceived as an abstract capitalist.

\Vages are a direct consequence of estranged labour, and estranged labour is the direct cause of private property_ The down- fall of the one aspect must therefore mean the downfall of the other.

(2) From the relationship of estranged labour to private prop- erty it further follows that the emancipation of society from private property, etc., from servitude, is expressed in the political form of the emancipation of the workers; not that their emancipation alone was at stake but because the emancipation of the workers contains universal human emancipation-and it contains this, because the whole of human servitude is involved in the relation of the worker to production, and every relation of servitude is but a modification and consequence of this relation_

Just as we have found the concept of private property from the concept of estranged, alienated labour by analysis, in the same way every category of political economy can be evolved with the help of these two factors; and we shall find again in each category, e_g_, trade, competition, capital, money, only a definite and developed expression of the first foundations_

Before considering this configuration, however, let us try to solve two problems_

(1) To define the general nature of private property, as it has arisen as a result of estranged labour, in its relation to truly human, social property.

(2) \Ve have accepted the estrangement of labour, its alienation, as a fact, and we have analysed this fact How, we now ask, does man come to alienate, to estrange, his labour? How is this estrange- ment rooted in the nature of human development? \Ve have already gone a long way to the solution of this problem by trans- forming the question as to the origin of private property into the question as to the relation of alienated labour to the course of humanity's development For when one speaks of private property, one thinks of being concerned with something external to man. \Vhen one speaks of labour, one is directly concerned with man himself. This new formulation of the question already contains its solution.

Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 81 As to (1): The general nature of private property and its rela-

tion to truly human property. Alienated labour has resolved itself for us into two elements

which mutually condition one another, or which are but different expressions of one and the same relationship. Appropriation appears as estrangement, as alienation; and alienation appears as appropria- tion, estrangement as true enfranchisement.

\Ve have considered the one side-alienated labour in relation to the worker himself, i.e., the relation of alienated labour to itself- The property-relation of the non-worker to the worker and to labour we have found as the product, the necessary outcome of this relation of alienated labour. Private property, as the material, sum- mary expression of alienated labour, embraces both relations-the relation of the worker to work, to the product of his labour and to the non-worker, and the relation of the non-worker to the worker and to the product of his labour.

Having seen that in relation to the worker who nature by means of his labour, this appropriation appears as estrangement, his own spontaneous activity as activity for another and as activity of another, vitality as a sacrifice of life, production of the object as loss of the object to an alien power, to an alien per- son-we shall now consider the relation to the worker, to labour and its object of this person who is alien to labour and the worker.

First it has to be noticed, that everything which appears in the worker as an activity of alienation, of estrangement, appears in the non-worker as a state of alienation, of estrangement.

Secondly, that the worker's real, practical attitude in production and to the product (as a state of mind) appears in the non-worker confronting him as a theoretical attitude_

Thirdly, the non-worker does everything against the worker which the worker does against himself; but he does not do against himself what he does against the worker.

Let us look more closely at these three relations_6

Pi-ivate Property and Communism

Re_ p_ XXXIX. The antithesis of propertyless ness and property so long as it is not comprehended as the antithesis of labour and capital, still remains an antithesis of indifference, not grasped in its active connection, its internal relation-an antithesis not yet grasped as a contradiction. It can find expression in this first form even without the advanced development of private property (as in ancient Rome, Turkey, etc.) _ It does not yet appear as having been established by private property itself_ But labour, the subjective 6. At this point the first manuscript breaks off unfinished.