2 Discussion Board Replies

References

1. Anderson, C., & Petrie, T. A. (2012). Prevalence of disordered eating and pathogenic

weight control behaviors among NCAA division I female collegiate gymnasts and

swimmers. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 83(1), 120-4. Retrieved

from http://ezproxy.liberty.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-

com.ezproxy.liberty.edu/docview/934468688?accountid=12085

Anderson and Petrie (2012) studied female collegiate athletes whom were members of

two “at-risk” sports; swimming and diving and gymnastics. The study included 414 female

athletes from NCAA Division 1 schools around the United States; 280 participants were

gymnasts and 134 were swimmers/divers (Anderson & Petrie, 2012). These two sports were

selected due to their added pressure to be lean and represent a certain body image. Participation

was originally solicited from over 60 schools; out of those 60, 26 agreed to have their team

participate in the study. Once agreed, a team contact provided student-athletes with a

Questionnaire for Eating Disorder Diagnosis (QEDD) packet. The purpose of their study was to

research the prevalence of eating disorders among these elite athletes, and the extent to which

they engaged in them, and why.

This research illustrates participation in sports contribute to disordered eating patterns,

and that athletes in elite sports which require lean body compositions; such as gymnastics and

swimming, tend to suffer from disordered eating more so than athletes involved in sports which

have less of a focus on body image. This helps make a case for the need to research in further

depth the pressures that sports provide athletes, especially at the collegiate athlete. In doing so,

coaches may be educated in how to address; with their athletes, how to handle these pressures in

a healthy manner; and athletes may be educated of the risks of disordered eating patterns.

Dr. Carlin Anderson, Ph.D., LP, CMPC is a Licensed Psychologist that specialized in

sport psychology. She serves as a Certified Mental Performance Consultant for the Association

for Applied Sport Psychology (AASP) and maintains a position on the United States Olympic

Committee (USOC) Sport Psychology and Mental Training Registry. Trent Petrie has a

Doctorate in Counseling Psychology and works as a Professor and Director at the Center for

Sport Psychology in Denton, U.S.

Anderson and Petrie (2012) used the Questionnaire for Eating Disorder Diagnosis to

fulfill their research purposes. The questionnaire has 50 questions which are arranged in 3

groups: eating disordered, subclinical, and asymptomatic; and uses a scaling system. Past

extensive evidence on the scale’s reliability and validity has been proven through past studies,

and researchers have used it to diagnose female collegiate athletes with eating disorders

(Anderson and Petrie, 2012).

Anderson and Petrie (2012) indicate that 30 % of the participants in this study reported

some level of eating disturbance in relation to their sport. Therefore, upon affirming lean sports

contribution to disordered eater, further research should be done in determining the underlying

reasonings for this occurrence. Body image, coach’s expectations, maintaining competition

weights, and obligatory exercise are a few factors that make up athlete’s susceptibility to eating

disorders. A study revealing the comparison of these two at risk sports amongst other sports

would be interesting to see.

2. Goodwin, H., Haycraft, E., & Meyer, C. (2016). Disordered Eating, Compulsive

Exercise, and Sport Participation in a UK Adolescent Sample. European Eating

Disorders Review,24(4), 304-309. Retrieved from https://doi-

org.ezproxy.liberty.edu/10.1002/erv.2441

Goodwin, Haycraft, and Meyer (2016) used a theoretical sample of male and female

adolescents aged 14-16 to gain a deeper understanding of their ongoing research topic: whether

sport participation is a risk or protective factor for disordered eating. The secondary schools in

the UK that participated in the study received questionnaire packets which were completed

during a class period at school. The packets included self-reported height and weight; the Leisure

Time Exercise Questionnaire (LTEQ); the Compulsive Exercise Test (CET) and the Eating

Disorder Inventory-2 (EDI).

This research acknowledges that as the demand for exercise increases, an overall

awareness of body image increases, as well as the chances for developing an eating disorder.

This research considers the pressures that athletes face outside of the normal societal pressures;

considers which sports are more closely tied to the development of eating disorders; and

considers how compulsive exercise relates to eating disorders. This research helps prove whether

the participation in sports fosters the development of an eating disorder.

Dr. Huw Goodwin is a former professional league rugby player, whom also served as an

athlete on a UK Sport Olympic training program. He is currently a Clinical Psychologist

positioned in London, working with the NHS. He is known for working directly with young

athletes suffering mental health difficulties, and for offering training workshops for coaches and

athletes. Emma Haycraft is currently Senior Lecturer in Psychology at the Loughborough

University; where she also supervises students with their research projects. She obtained her BSc

and PhD from the University of Birmingham. Caroline Meyer is a Professor of Applied

Psychology at WMG, and she specialized in the fields of human behavior and cognition.

The Compulsive Exercise Test (CET) was one of the assessments used in the study. The

test has five different subscales: Avoidance and Rule Driven Behavior; Weight Control Exercise;

Mood Improvement Exercise; Lack of Exercise Enjoyment; and Exercise Rigidity. An

adolescent sample has already validated this test (Goodwin, et al., 2016); and the reliability for

the CET of the current sample provided were .89 (Avoidance and Rule Driven Behavior), .82

(Weight Control Exercise), .84 (Mood Improvement Exercise), .76 (Lack of Exercise

Enjoyment) and .71 (Exercise Rigidity).

Goodwin, et al., (2016) suggest that sport participation could improve body satisfaction,

thus be a protective factor in the development of eating disorders. Another implication in the

study revolved around the idea of what defines compulsive exercise. Although a definition is

provided to participants, the definition highlights exercise behaviors, rather than cognitions

around exercise. Therefore, further research should be done to determine whether actual

participation in sports is what led to the increased body satisfaction and increased compulsive

exercise in athletes; or whether there were preexisting satisfactions and cognitions. This would

determine whether sport aids in the development of eating disorders, of if cognitions play most

of the role.

3. Lepage, M. L., Price, M., O’Neil, P., & Crowther, J. H. (2012). The effect of exercise

absence on affect and body dissatisfaction as moderated by obligatory exercise

beliefs and eating disordered beliefs and behaviors. Psychology of Sport and

Exercise,13(4), 500-508. Retrieved from

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2012.02.008

LePage, Price, O’Neil, and Crowther (2012) used an opportunity sample, based on

convenience, of female university students whom have either adopted frequent exercise

behavior, or have some level of an eating disorder psychopathology. Recipients participated in

two surveys, including the Obligatory Exercise Questionnaire and the ecological momentary

assessment (EMA), over the course of a week. The purpose of this study was to 1-measure the

moderating effect of obligatory exercise on exercise absence and 2- examine the moderating

effect of eating psychopathology on exercise absence.

LePage, Price, O’Neil and Crowther (2012) found the absence of exercise has less of an

effect of a person’s mood and trait, than that of obligatory exercise and disordered eating

symptomatology. The absence of exercise alone has less of an impact of persons that did not feel

an obligation to exercise, or persons that have developed an eating disorder of some level. Traits

were more negatively affected by those with obligatory exercise demands and those with eating

disorders. This research illustrates that as obligatory exercise increases the chances of developing

an eating disorder, more so than simply the absence of exercise. Therefore, the obligatory

demands of exercise that a sports team requires may contribute to the development of an eating

disorder more so than a person that chooses not to exercise.

Marie LePage has her PhD in Psychology; she mainly uses cognitive behavior therapy

(CBT) to treat individuals suffering from eating disorders. Co-author Matthew Price also has his

PhD in Psychology and currently works as an assistant professor at the University of Vermont

(UVM). Patrick O’Neil received his B. A from the University of Victoria, and M.Sc and Ph.D

from Yale University. Janis Crowther received her PhD from the University of Vermont, and is

an expertise in eating disorder, body image, obesity, psychology and nutrition disorders. She is

currently a professor at Kent State University.

The ecological momentary assessment (EMA) was used to measure differing mood

changes as a result of exercising vs. not exercising, and the moderating impact of obligatory

exercise/eating disorder beliefs and behaviors. Participants completed the assessment each day

over the course of a week. Results may not be completely accurate due to dishonest feedback or

hurried completion.

LePage, Price, O’Neil, and Crowther (2012) suggest that obligatory exercise and eating

disorders impact affect and cognitions, while the absence of exercise is not significantly

associated with changes in affect and cognition. Thus, my research question is whether athlete’s

cognition is affected by their obligation to exercise daily, often at extreme measures; and

whether that affect could potentially lead a person to develop an eating disorder.

4. Sears, L. A., Tracy, K. R., & Mcbrier, N. M. (2012). Self-Esteem, Body Image,

Internalization, and Disordered Eating Among Female Athletes. Athletic Training

& Sports Health Care,4(1), 29-37. doi:10.3928/19425864-20110331-02

Sears, Tracy and McBrier (2012) used a convenience sample of female athletes, aging

18-23, whom participated on teams of individuals sports within three different Division 111

schools in the Midwest. They emailed internet questionnaires to 462 head coaches of individual

sport’s teams and requested that the email be forwarded to their athletes to complete. They

surveyed the athletes using the Questionnaire for Eating Disorder Diagnoses, the Rosenburg Self

Esteem Scale (SES), the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ), and

the Sociocultural Attitude Towards Appearance Scale -3 (SATAAQ-3). Of the 6,685 athletes that

were contacted; 423 were returned, and approximately 400 were analyzed. The purpose of their

study was to identify risky eating disorders in female athletes in relation to self-esteem, body

image, and internalization of cultural ideals.

This research illustrates that as the pressure to be thin for athletic purposes increases, the

chances of developing an eating disorder; or body image disorder, increases as well. When an

emphasis is placed on the physical appearance of an athlete (which is particularly evident in that

of lean sports); body image becomes somewhat micromanaged; thus, leading to self-esteem

issues and bodily image/risky eating disorders. The research revealed 27.7 % of the respondents

to have risky eating habits that could eventually lead to an eating disorder without treatment; and

declared 5.7 % of the respondents to have already developed a clinical eating disorder.

Dr. Sears has a Ph.D and M.S. in exercise science, as well as a B.A. in physical education

and health education K-12. She is currently the head soccer coach at Hope College, Holland,

Michigan; and an associate professor of Kinesiology. Ms. Tracy is also from Hope College.

Nicole McBrier is Director of the Athletic Training Research Laboratory and an assistant

professor of Kinesiology at Penn State. She has a Ph.D. in Exercise Physiology.

The Self Esteem Scale (SES) was used to measure the athlete’s self-esteem. The SES

uses a 5-point scale ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree to answer the 10 items

listed; which include 5 positive self-statements, and 5 negative statements about the self. Higher

scores correlate with higher self-esteem. Its reliability is assured through the test-retest method

and was R=0.85, which indicates that the scale is accurate over a length of time. The assessment

proved that body image had a significant affect on participants showing eating disorder

symptoms.

Sears, Tracy and McBrier (2012) indicate that well-designed preparticipation screenings

could detect risky eating behaviors in athletes and bring an awareness to coaches and staff

members so that they can intervene. They also indicate that teams should educate athletes on the

consequences of an eating disorder, as well as adopt healthy team practices.

5. Smiley, N., & Lim, J. (2008). Eating disorders among female college athletes. The Sport

Journal,11(2). Retrieved from

http://www.thesportjournal.org.ezproxy.liberty.edu/general.asp

Smiley and Lim (2008) conducted three different studies among a total of 125 females at

a mid-size Midwestern NCAA Division 11 university. Smiley and Lim (2008) used a convenient

sample of undergraduate students (60 participants being student-athletes and 65 non-athletes),

and surveyed the students using the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26), the Rosenburg Self-Esteem

Scale; as well as performed a body mass index (BMI) exam of each participant. The purpose of

the study was to examine attitudes about eating in relation to eating disorders, compare the rate

of eating disorders among differing sports teams, and to gain a better understanding of several

variables that initiate the development of eating disorders.

This research indicates that athletes are likely to develop eating disorders as a result of

societal variables; and as a result of variables affecting athletes alone. This information suggests

that athletes have added variables that contribute to the development of eating disorders that non-

athletes do not have. This helps to make a case for the need a preparticipation screenings of

students before they become student-athletes.

Author Nikkie Smiley is with Aberdeen Family YMCA, Aberdeen, S.D.; and author

Jon Lim is from Minnesota State University and is a United States Sports Academy Doctoral

Graduate.

The Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26) was used due to its past demonstration of high

degree of internal reliability. In this assessment, the sum of all the coded responses is equivalent

to the EAT score. If a participant scores above 20, they could possibly be diagnosed as having an

eating disorder; scores range on a scale from 0 to 78. In Smiley and Lim’s (2008) study, the

mean score of participants was 14.7, with only 9.3 % of student athletes scoring above a 20, and

8.3 % of non-athletes scoring above a 20.

Smiley and Lim (2008) indicate that presentations and workshops on eating

disorders should be encouraged, and even mandated, for student-athletes to attend so that they

can increase knowledge of eating disorders and decrease the number of athletes that develop an

eating disorder. Thus, my research question is whether being a collegiate athlete increases a

person’s risk for developing an eating disorder. This study proves that it does, however,

educating the athletes may aid in preventing future developments.