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EssSoc5_CH09.pptxLecture Slides Essentials of Sociology Fifth Edition
Anthony Giddens
Mitchell Duneier
Richard P. Appelbaum
Deborah Carr
Essentials of Sociology Chapter 9 Gender Inequality
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© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
The Social Construction of Gender
Sex and Gender
Sex: Biological, physiological
Male, female, intersex
Genitalia, reproductive organs
Chromosomes
Hormones
Gender Social and cultural significance we attach to those presumed biological differences
Refers to what we become as men and women, which occurs through socialization
Man, woman, boy, girl, femininity, masculinity, transgender, androgyny, gender queer, etc.
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The Social Construction of Gender
Sex and Gender
Many people exhibit physical characteristics that we presume to belong to the “opposite” sex.
Fausto-Sterling (1993) suggests we have at least five sexes.
Doctors studying Disorders of Sex Development agree with Fausto-Sterling.
Societies around the world are increasingly acknowledging that the traditional dimorphic model of sex is inadequate.
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The Social Construction of Gender
Two Views
Essentialist: (binary)
Perspective that there are only two sexes, and that they naturally (biologically, genetically, or divinely) correspond with gender.
Male = masculine, man
Female = feminine, woman
Constructionist: (fluid)
Perspective that both sex and gender are partially or totally socially constructed (human creations). In other words, society attaches cultural meaning and significance to relatively minor biological human genetic differences.
Also gender (and in some respects, sex, is a spectrum and not a binary and does change over time and culture.
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The Social Construction of Gender
Essentialist argument:
Women are naturally more nurturing and emotional, and therefore more suited to childrearing, nurturing professions, and household work.
Men are naturally stronger, more technically savvy, and more decisive and therefore more suited to physical labor, tech and business jobs, and stressful leadership roles.
Constructionist argument:
Nurturing, caring, and domestic work can be done just as effectively by anyone who enjoys and is capable of such work.
Hard physical labor, tech jobs, business, and leadership roles can be done by anyone who enjoys and is capable of such work.
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The Social Construction of Gender
Constructionist argument
Therefore,
Traditional gender roles are not natural, but man-made.
There are more differences within the sexes than there are between the sexes.
Excessive Sex Distinction
Charlotte Perkins Gilman (1898)
Humans have made much too big a deal over sex differences.
Other animal species do not do that.
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The Social Construction of Gender
Gender-Role Socialization
Begins at birth via differential treatment by caregivers
Boys must be masculine: active, aggressive, tough, daring, and dominant
Girls must be feminine: soft, emotional, sweet, and submissive
Gendered toys, clothes, activities
Preparation for future occupational and social role expectations
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The Social Construction of Gender
Gender-Role Socialization
Gender Displays
We receive positive and negative feedback based on our gender performance.
Working out what it means to be feminine and masculine through interactions with others is an ongoing project.
When we interact with others, we usually display our gender clearly.
We depend on established cues to recognize someone’s sex.
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The Social Construction of Gender
Ideas about gender are constructed and reinforced through repetitious social interaction
“Doing gender” (West & Zimmerman)
Parents “do gender” for babies and children until they learn through socialization to “do gender” for themselves.
Gender performance (Judith Butler)
If gender can be “performed” or “done,” then how can it be strictly “natural”?
What about people who change their sex or gender, or people who don’t fit into the binary?
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The Social Construction of Gender
Gender Across Cultures
Gender expectations and performance vary across time and place.
Gender roles vary greatly from one environment, economy, and political system to the next.
Some cultures accept the existence of three or four genders.
The findings of Mead and Sanday confirm the influential role of culture and socialization in gender-role differentiation.
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The Social Construction of Gender
Hijras of India (gender role of male women – Lorber 1994)
Also Berdache (Native American), Xanith of Oman (Middle East), female men (some African, Native American societies)
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The Social Construction of Gender
Don’t judge a person by their gendered cover.
Transgender
Definition of transgender:
In short, “transgender” is a wide term that describes many types of people who are not satisfied with society’s strict definitions of gender and who do not accept a simple two-gender categorization. One particular type of transgender are individuals who feel that their assigned sex (physical gender) does not match their gender identity. Others feel that neither gender accurately describes their identity, and do not wish to be placed into either gender category
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The Social Construction of Gender
Facts about transgender persons
Not all transgender persons have surgery or do hormone therapy.
You cannot tell what sexual preference a transgender person has by their outwardly expressed sex or gender.
If a person identifies as male-to-female (MtF), refer to her as “she.” If a person identifies as female-to-male (FtM), refer to him as “he.” In general, refer to the person by the gender they live publicly. If you aren’t sure, ASK!
Issues transgendered persons face:
Bathrooms and other single-sexed public facilities
Employment, housing, and other types of discrimination
Hate crimes, violence, harassment, rape
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The Social Construction of Gender
Intersexed persons
Anne Fausto-Sterling concluded that biologically, we see a continuum of sexed/intersexed bodies
Approximately 5.1 million (1.7% of all babies born in the US) are born intersexed
What is intersex?
“Intersex” is a general term used for a variety of conditions in which a person is born with a reproductive or sexual anatomy that doesn’t seem to fit the typical definitions of female or male. http://www.isna.org/faq/what_is_intersex
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Caster Semenya
South African runner, questioned as to her “true” sex
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The Social Construction of Gender
A few types of intersex conditions
Chromosomal (XXY, XYY, both XX and XY in same body)
Hormonal – testosterone insensitivity syndrome
Physical – “ambiguous” genitalia at birth (most common type)
Traditional medical treatment has been to assign a sex and do surgeries and/or hormonal treatments to align gender with chosen sex
How do doctors and parents decide what to do?
Intersex activists call for a hands-off approach (if not medically necessary) – to let the person decide when they are old enough.
Pros and cons of infant sex reassignment surgery?
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Sexuality
Terms
Sexual orientation categories of people to whom we are sexually attracted (also called sexual preference)
Heterosexual those who are sexually attracted to members of the opposite sex/gender
Homosexual those who are attracted to members of the same sex/gender
Bisexual those who are attracted to both men and women (gender doesn’t matter)
Asexual those who do not wish to engage in sex, although they sometimes enjoy romance
Polyamorous those who engage in romantic relationships with multiple partners
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Note: Percent is in response to the question “Do you think of yourself as a heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, or something else?”
Source: Chandra et al., 2013.
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Sexuality
Sexual preference and gender preference
Homophobia, hate crimes
Issues facing lesbians and gays
Discrimination in employment, housing, marriage, sports, religion, adoption
Risk of violence, harassment, outing, ostracism
Assumption of correspondence between sex, gender expression, and sexual preference
Assumption of heterosexuality
Heteronormativity cultural presupposition that heterosexuality is the appropriate (and only) standard for sexual identity and practice and that alternative sexualities are deviant, abnormal, or wrong
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Gender and Inequality
Sexism and Discrimination
Sexism Ideology that one sex is superior to the other
Generally refers to male prejudice and discrimination against women
Institutional Discrimination Pattern of treatment that systematically denies a group access to resources and opportunities as part of society’s normal operations
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Gender Systems
Patriarchy refers to the gender system in societies where men are dominant.
Nearly all societies are patriarchal, though the degree varies greatly.
Gender inequality refers to the difference in power, status, access, and choices between men and women.
© 2014 W.W. Norton & Co., Inc.
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The Social Construction of Gender
Problems with traditional gender roles in Western cultures
Unattainable beauty norms for women
Billions spent on appearance, cosmetics, surgery, diets, fashion
Harmful surgeries and diet products
Eating disorders
Focus away from achieving full human potential
“beauty myth” (Naomi Wolf)
Sexual objectification of women
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uy8yLaoWybk
Jean Kilbourne
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Gender and Inequality
Problems…
Occupational sex segregation
Devaluing of women’s work
Gender wage gap (.79/1.00)
Feminization of poverty
Glass ceiling (women)
Glass escalator (men)
Second Shift: double burden of work outside the home followed by child care and housework
In households where both work full time, wives do average of 28 hours of housework while husbands do 16
“upstairs, downstairs”
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Note: Women constitute 47 percent of the entire labor force. These data are for 2013. The elementary school teacher category includes middle school teachers.
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The Social Construction of Gender
Problems…
Restrictive gender roles for men
Pressure to be breadwinner
Hatred and violence toward gay, nonconformist, and/or effeminate men
Rigid gender expectations of masculinity
High rates of male suicide, especially teens
Pressure to be aggressive, tough, and sexually dominant
High short term risks of injury and death
Long term health risks (stress-related diseases, body wears out, less likely to seek medical help)
Higher risk of social and emotional isolation
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Gender and Inequality
Problems…
Traditional masculinity (hypermasculinity) encourages violence
High rates of violence against women and other men
Violence against women
Domestic violence
Rape and sexual assault
Men approximately 91% of perpetrators
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3exzMPT4nGI
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Gender and Inequality
Gendered Violence
Broad definition of rape and sexual assault: any act that is sexual in nature perpetrated on another without her or his explicit consent (including by physical force, coercion, or inability to give consent)
Stranger rape is statistically unlikely
Most likely perpetrator: someone you know
Among college women who were victims of a forced sexual assault, only 13% reported it to police or campus security
Men and boys also victims of rape and sexual assault – underreported
What can be done to prevent rape and sexual assault?
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Working for Change: Women’s Movements
Feminism Belief in social, economic, and political equality for women
The First Wave
Feminist movement in United States born in upstate New York, in the town of Seneca Falls, in 1848
1872: Susan B. Anthony arrested for attempting to vote
1920: 19th Amendment granted women right to vote in national elections
Iron Jawed Angels trailer
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Working for Change: Women’s Movements
The Second Wave
Emerged in the 1960s and came into full force in the 1970s
Friedan: The Feminine Mystique (1963)
de Beauvoir: The Second Sex (1952)
Millett: Sexual Politics (1970)
Groups sought to elevate awareness that women shared “problem that has no name”
Reproductive rights
Also equal wages for equal work
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bUjya--Vbi8
The Makers – overview – PBS series
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Working for Change: Women’s Movements
The Third Wave
1990s: feminism ventured into cultural sphere to embrace a multiplicity of voices, expressions, and experiences
Shift to a celebration of difference
Embracing multiplicity of identities led to a commitment to social justice and a global perspective
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cCQI-ougLsg
Naomi Wolf: Third Wave Feminism
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Working for Change: Women’s Movements
The Third Wave
Recognition that defining ourselves by any one position may diminish importance of other positions we occupy
Standpoint Theory Maintains that a complete understanding of social relations must incorporate the perspectives of marginalized voices
Intersectionality Holds that gender, race, ethnicity, and class must not be studied in isolation, because they have intermingled effects on our identity, knowledge, and outcomes
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The Social Construction of Gender
Feminist argument
Traditional sex roles (gender roles) support patriarchy. Patriarchy…
Enables men to maintain superior social, economic, political, and cultural power
Devalues women, femininity and “women’s work”
Devalues alternative ways of being masculine
Provides free or low-cost care of male workers and their children
Raises the next generation of girls to voluntarily provide such free or low-cost labor
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The Social Construction of Gender
Reimagining Sex and Gender
Solutions…
Let go of binary, socially constructed, excessive sex distinctions that lead to multiple social problems
Recognize limitations of binary, restrictive model of sex and gender, which opens opportunities for everyone to fulfill our individual and collective human potential
Recognize individuals as ‘persons’ and not as just ‘men’ or ‘women’
Understand relationship between sex, gender, and sexual preference as complex and fluid
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