Assignment 6

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W hen you are first attempting to write assessment reports, the tech- nical aspects of writing can be challenging. Even experienced re- port writers often find themselves mired in grammatical consider-

ations, such as maintaining consistent verb tense and checking the accuracy of subject- verb agreement. Managing the subtle nuances of English grammar and style requires careful attention to detail. Errors in grammar, punctuation, and spelling detract from the quality of a report, and an assessment report riddled with errors loses credibility. If these technical aspects of your writing are not perfect, people reading your report will not only doubt your writing abilities but will also question your clinical and diagnostic skills.

In this chapter, we review the most common stylistic and grammatical prob- lems found in assessment reports. We discuss the basic principles of writing that are most relevant for preparing grammatically correct, error- free reports. Some of the rules that we present are followed by examples to illustrate how to apply these writing principles and how to detect and correct common mistakes.

As you read through the following suggestions for report writing, you may note that sometimes the writing in this book violates the rules that we recom- mend. For example, we tell you not to use contractions when writing reports so that the writing will be more formal in tone. We don’t, however, adhere to this rule, because the style of writing in this book is more casual and conversational in tone.

REPORT FRAMEWORK

Although the styles of reports will vary according to the person, the setting, the severity of the problem, and the types of decisions to be made, some elements are common across all reports. As we noted in Chapter 1 in Rapid Reference 1.1, reports follow an outline that includes standard sections. Although some sections of a report may be longer or shorter depending on the nature of the referral ques-

Two

TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF WRITING

Lichtenberger, Elizabeth O., et al. <i>Essentials of Assessment Report Writing</i>, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2004. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/waldenu/detail.action?docID=361899. Created from waldenu on 2019-11-13 19:11:39.

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tion, the complexity of the evaluation, and the writing style of the evaluator, the general sections provide the structure for organization.

COMPONENTS OF WRITING STYLE

All written reports should communicate assessment results clearly and effectively. When writing is clear and organized, the ideas are presented in a logical sequence, smooth transitions exist between topics, and paragraphs and sentences are easy to understand.

Logical Organization

Organize a report logically on all levels: globally (so that the report forms a cohe- sive whole), within sections, and within paragraphs. To maintain the global orga- nization of a report, keep the content relevant to a particular section within that section. As we suggested in Chapter 1, do not describe test behaviors in the sec- tion on background information, and do not put instructional recommendations in the section on test interpretation. Within each section of a report, organize the information by topic. For example, organize the background information into discrete paragraphs on developmental history, medical history, educational history, socioeconomic environment, and/or current family situation. Similarly, organize the behavioral observations into discrete paragraphs on topics such as level of rapport, level of attention, attitude, and tolerance for frustration. Some sections may require only one paragraph, whereas others may contain enough information for several. In the subsequent chapters of this book, we will provide specific suggestions on how to organize topics within the various sections.

Smooth Transitions

One factor that contributes to good writing is ensuring that the text has unity. Good writers often accomplish unity through the use of cohesive ties (the words that help connect ideas and clarify the relationships among ideas). Cohesive ties help achieve continuity in writing by linking ideas across time, by cause and ef- fect, by addition, or by contrast (Bates, 2000). The Don’t Forget box provides a list of words that are commonly used to signal transitions. Samples of poor and good transitions are illustrated in Rapid Reference 2.1.

A common error we see in reports is that the writer assumes that the indenta- tion of a paragraph signals a transition. Regardless of indentation, an abrupt shift in topic makes writing seem disjointed.

12 ESSENTIALS OF ASSESSMENT REPORT WRITING

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Concise Wording

Some writers believe that lengthy, complex sentences and the use of sophisticated vocabulary will help clarify meaning. In general, simple words and concise sen- tences are more effective for communicating the key findings. To keep writing concise, consider the principles outlined in the following sections.

TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF WRITING 13

Examples of How to Improve Transitions

Poor Transition Better Transition

Michael was quite anxious. He had ex- Michael was quite anxious, which was cessive motor activity and rapid speech. evident from his excessive motor activ- He maintained his focus and concentra- ity and rapid speech. However, despite tion. this anxiety, he maintained his focus and concentration. Lauren had well- developed language Lauren had well- developed language skills. Her motor skills were above the skills. Similarly, her motor skills were level of most children her age. above the level of most children her age. Jonathan had an unremarkable medical Jonathan had an unremarkable medical history. He had no major injuries or ill- history. He had no major injuries or ill- nesses requiring hospitalization. He was nesses requiring hospitalization. How- treated for depression via psycho ever, he was treated for depression via therapy at age 16. He was then treated psychotherapy once at age 16 and again at age 21. again at age 21.

Rapid Reference 2.1

DON’T FORGET

Transition Words

Time Links Cause- Effect Links Addition Links Contrast Links

• then • therefore • in addition • however • next • consequently • moreover • but • after • as a result • furthermore • conversely • while • similarly • nevertheless • since • although • whereas

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Avoid Redundancies and Circumlocutions Reports can become cumbersome and lengthy when wording is repetitive or when sentences contain unnecessary information. Redundancy occurs when a writer tries to make a strong point by stating and restating it. As a rule, a simply stated fact makes a stronger point. Some evaluators also try to talk around points that are uncomfortable for them to discuss. For example: “He has excess weight around his midriff area given what is typical for a child his age.” Better: “He is currently overweight.” Rapid Reference 2.2 provides examples of redundancies and circumlocutions.

Sentence Length Although it is often helpful to combine related points into a single sentence, lengthy sentences can be difficult to follow. Likewise, an overabundance of short, choppy sentences disrupts the flow of the writing. A balance of short and long sentences helps to maintain the reader’s interest. Similarly, making sure that sentences don’t frequently repeat the same word will help keep readers focused upon the content.

One way to reduce the number of short, choppy sentences is to combine sen-

14 ESSENTIALS OF ASSESSMENT REPORT WRITING

Repairing Redundancies and Circumlocutions

Example Problem Example Solution

She had a generally poor mood and She was depressed. was feeling unsettled. The client complained of anxiety and The client complained of anxiety. nervousness. The student indicated that he is doing The student indicated that he is doing poorly. poorly in his math class. He appeared motivated and was willing He was motivated and willing to try all to try his best on each and every one tasks. of the tasks that were placed before him. She was melancholy and had an aura of She was despondent. sadness about her. Although he denied drinking and smok- He smelled of peppermint schnapps ing, he appeared to have a somewhat and cigarettes in the examination room, unusual aroma about him, as the scent which made his alcohol and nicotine of peppermint schnapps and cigarettes use apparent. gently lingered in the air of the room for what seemed like hours after he left.

Rapid Reference 2.2

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tences that are parallel in content. For example: “She takes Prozac for depres- sion. Zantac is taken for ulcers. Her doctor prescribes Valium on occasion for anxiety.” Better: “She takes Prozac for depression, Zantac for ulcers, and, on occasion, Valium for anxiety.”

Another way to reduce unnecessary words is to restructure a series of sen- tences to eliminate the repetition of the same word phrase or idea. For example: “Mrs. Smith reported that her daughter has difficulty falling asleep. She also said that her daughter has difficulty remaining asleep.” Better: “Mrs. Smith said her daughter has difficulty falling asleep and remaining asleep.” Too many phrases, however, can make a sentence unwieldy: “She indicated that she ate too much that night before bed, which resulted in her feeling guilty due to the fact that she was not adhering to her low- fat diet.” A more succinct sentence would be “She indicated that she ate too much that night and felt guilty because she did not ad- here to her low- fat diet.” The Don’t Forget box provides further examples of vari- ous types of short, choppy sentences and unnecessarily long sentences. Examples illustrate how to remedy the problem. The Caution lists some commonly used phrases that contain unnecessary words and suggests ways to eliminate them.

TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF WRITING 15

DON’T FORGET

Improving Sentence Length

Goal Example Problem Example Solution

Combine sentences Her first hospitalization that She was hospitalized on that are parallel in year was for depression. The three occasions one year: content second time she was admit- for depression, anorexia, ted to the hospital was for and attempted suicide. anorexia. Finally, she was hos- pitalized for a suicide attempt. Avoid repeating the Her psychologist tried cogni- Her psychologist tried same word, subject, tive- behavioral therapy to cognitive- behavioral therapy, or phrase improve the problem. He felt but it was not successful in the therapy was not success- resolving the problem be- ful. His report indicated that cause she did not complete she did not participate in the homework assignments. homework assignments. Avoid numerous Since she had low self- Because of her low self- prepositional confidence, her personal be- confidence, she believed phrases in one lief was that she was the that she was the cause of sentence root cause of all of her own her problems. problems.

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C A U T I O N

Make Every Word Count

Phrase with Needless Words Simple Substitute

the question as to whether whether whether or not whether he is a man who he call your attention to the fact that remind you due to the fact that because in order to to for the purposes of to or so or for in the event that if in an effort to to by means of with in connection with with for the length of time that while with the result that so is supportive of supports of great benefit beneficial in such a state that so or such that pertains to the problem of concerns at this point in time now am in agreement with agree insofar as so with reference to regarding many in number many round in shape round audible to the ear audible second time in my life second time quickly with haste quickly there were several members of the several family members said family who said they were both alike they were alike four different teachers said four teachers said absolutely essential essential one and the same the same

16 ESSENTIALS OF ASSESSMENT REPORT WRITING

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Paragraph Length Also pay attention to the length of your paragraphs. Long paragraphs are often difficult to understand because the reader loses sight of the main point. As a sim- ple rule, if a paragraph is longer than one double- spaced manuscript page, then it is probably too long (American Psychological Association [APA], 2001). Sattler (2001) states that a paragraph that is longer than a quarter of a page “strains the reader’s attention span and impairs the reader’s ability to recognize the unifying themes and ideas” (p. 711).

Paragraph Organization

Generally, a well- written paragraph has a concisely written topic sentence that ex- plains what will follow in the next few sentences. Subsequent sentences refer to and explain that point. The last sentence of the paragraph may summarize the main point or provide a transition into the next paragraph. When a paragraph contains too many different ideas, reorganize the information into more than one paragraph.

Clear and Accurate Writing

All statements in a report need to be clear and accurate. Try to avoid ambiguous, ab- stract, vague, and technical terms. In addition to the discussion that follows, the next Don’t Forget (p. 21) provides a summary of obstacles to clear and accurate writing.

Clarify Statements Carefully select words so that every word conveys exactly what you intended. Try to avoid unnecessary words, such as very. For example, instead of writing, “She is a very good student,” write “She maintained a grade point average of 3.5.” Using a word incorrectly can also impede the clarity of a sentence. The English language has many pairs of words that are easily confused. Consider the misuse of the verb

TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF WRITING 17

in close proximity in proximity or close period of time time the reason is because summarize briefly summarize Although it cannot be definitely estab- The patient appears to have some de- lished, it is quite probable that the pa- gree of aphasia. tient, in all likelihood, is suffering some degree of aphasia. Source: Adapted from Bates (2000) and Sattler (2001).

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affect in this sentence: “The new medication had a favorable affect on Susan.” The correct wording would be “The new medication had a favorable effect on Susan” or “The new medication seemed to affect Susan favorably.”

Another technique to improve clarity in writing is to express statements in a positive manner. For example, “Karen did not pay attention to the directions on four of the six tasks presented” is more clearly stated as “Karen paid atten- tion to the directions on two of the six tasks presented.” Another factor that can affect clarity is overstating. For example, “Jennifer is absolutely brilliant!” Better: “Jennifer obtained a score in the Very Superior category on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale–Third Edition (WAIS- III).”

Clarify or Remove Ambiguous Terms The fields of psychology and education have a host of terms to describe a person’s performance and behavior. Depending upon the orientation, different terms can be used to describe the same problem. For example, a school psychologist may describe a reading problem as a “learning disability”; a clinical psychologist may describe the reading problem as a “Specific Reading Disorder”; a neuropsycholo- gist may label the condition “dyslexia”; and a speech/language pathologist may refer to the problem as a “learning disability” or, more precisely, a “reading dis- ability.” When a more technical term is commonly used in a pro fession, clarify the exact meaning of the term.

In addition to differences in terminology across disciplines, descriptive words can have different interpretations. Choose the most accurate words to describe the individual. For example, a person may be described as quiet or withdrawn. These words can result in different images. Although both words refer to some- one who does not say much, a quiet person is notably different from a person who is withdrawn. Similarly, a child may be described as working carefully or working slowly. Although either style may result in low scores on timed tests, the reason for the low scores differs.

As with selecting words to describe behaviors, select words describing perfor- mance carefully. For example, do not use “cognitive ability” when “nonverbal ability” is what is really meant. If a person is weak in a particular ability, do not state that the person “lacks” the ability.

Make sure that what you write communicates what you want to say. When you are uncertain if what you have written will be clear, a good rule is to simplify the language and clarify any terminology that may not be readily understood. In some instances, ambiguous terms may be clarified by describing behaviors. For example, the statement “Monica appears inattentive and distractible” is vague. Words such as “appears” and “seems” convey your hesitancy, and thus the state- ment loses power. This statement can be clarified by a direct statement (“Monica

18 ESSENTIALS OF ASSESSMENT REPORT WRITING

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was inattentive and distractible”) followed by specific examples: “In the class- room Monica was able to attend to specific tasks for 2 or 3 minutes. She switched rapidly from one activity to the next and was easily distracted by noises both inside and outside the classroom.” Other techniques for writing clear, accurate descriptions on behavior are explained in more detail in Chapter 4.

Minimize the Use of Technical Terms Simple language is always better than complex, technical jargon (Kamphaus, 1993). It is better to say that the child has extreme difficulty forming letters when writing than to say that the child is suffering from severe dysgraphia. Reports that use an overabundance of technical terms or esoteric words have been described as instances of “exhibitionism” (Tallent, 1993). To write without the use of techni- cal terms requires clear thinking (Tallent, 1993). Furthermore, parents and oth- ers (e.g., classroom teachers) who are not trained in the subject matter will not only not understand the jargon but also may be intimidated or too embarrassed to ask for an explanation. At one team meeting, a speech language therapist de- scribed Errol as “dysfluent,” whereupon the parent responded that he also had a problem with stuttering (i.e., dysfluency). Misunderstandings such as this one can be avoided by not using complex, technical words. It is sometimes difficult to determine whether a word is too complex (i.e., unclear to the average reader). In general, avoid an elaborate word when a simple one will suffice (Tallent, 1993). An assessment report is not the place to display an extensive, effusive, copious vocabulary (Kamphaus, 1993).

Avoid Colloquialisms Many words that are part of our everyday informal speech have inexact or mul- tiple meanings. These terms are referred to as colloquialisms. Examples of such terms include write- up for report; feel for think or believe; lots, a great deal, or quite a few for a specific number; and made a fuss about for became angry. Because these terms can be easily misunderstood, avoid using them in your reports.

The exception to this rule is when you are directly quoting what a person has said. In these cases, indicate that what you have written is a direct quotation. As with colloquialisms, avoid foreign language phrases that many readers may not know or fully understand (e.g., c’est la vie, meaning that’s life in French, or la dolce vita, meaning the sweet life in Italian).

Define Acronyms and Avoid Abbreviations Writers use acronyms to save space or simplify their writing. Even if an acronym is widely known in an educational or clinical setting (e.g., ADHD for Attention- Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder) write it out the first time it occurs in the report.

Acronyms are widely used for test names. The first time a test name is used,

TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF WRITING 19

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write out the complete name, followed by the acronym. For example, write “The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Fourth Edition (WISC- IV) and the Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement–Second Edition (K- TEA- II) Com- prehensive Form were administered.” When you refer to the tests later in the report, use of the acronym is acceptable because it has already been defined.

Sometimes report writers who are not highly familiar with an instrument in- vent their own acronyms for a test rather than using the one specified by the test developers. For example, the acronym used in the manual for the Woodcock- Johnson III Tests of Achievement is WJ III ACH. Do not create your own acro- nym (e.g., WJ 3- A).

Also make sure to indicate what edition of the test was used and to note how that edition is abbreviated (i.e., with Arabic or Roman numerals—ITPA- 3 or ITPA- III). Do not say the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) was administered when the test administered was the WISC- IV, not the original ver- sion. As a general guideline, always use the same acronym that is used in the test manual or on the test protocol.

As with test names, write out all acronyms for special programs. Do not write “Roberta is currently enrolled in the school’s GATE program.” Instead, write “Roberta is currently enrolled in the school’s Gifted and Talented Education pro- gram.” If you plan to use the acronym later within your report, include it in the sentence—for example, “Gifted and Talented Education (GATE) program.” Also, avoid all abbreviations (e.g., bldg., misc., psych., %ile) when writing reports.

Avoid Passive Voice Whenever possible, write in the active, not passive, voice. In the active voice, the subject of the sentence performs the action (subject- verb- object order); in the passive voice, the subject receives the action and appears earlier in the sentence than the person or thing that causes the action. “The psychiatrist recommended hospitalization” is active, whereas “Hospitalization was recommended by the psychiatrist” is passive. Excessive use of the passive voice makes writing clumsy, dull, and unclear to the reader (Gardner, 1983). The passive voice may even “alienate the experienced reader, or at very least make it hard for him to concen- trate . . . and undercut the writer’s authority” (Gardner, 1983, p. 99). The active voice is more direct and vivid. Making the “actor” the subject of the sentence helps bring the sentence to life.

To change a sentence from passive to active voice take what was formerly the direct object, or complement of the transitive verb, and transform that word into the subject of the sentence (e.g., “Mary was hit by Bill” becomes “Bill hit Mary”). Rapid Reference 2.3 provides several examples of how to change sentences from passive to active voice.

20 ESSENTIALS OF ASSESSMENT REPORT WRITING

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GRAMMAR

Although a review of the grammatical rules of the English language is beyond the scope of this book, certain types of grammatical errors are problematic in many assessment reports. For a more extensive discussion of grammar and usage, con- sult comprehensive references on the topics (e.g., Bates, 2000; Lovinger, 2000; Sabin, 2001). The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA, 2001) also provides examples of problems of grammar and usage that oc- cur frequently in manuscripts submitted to APA journals. Many of the examples cited in the APA Publication Manual apply to written reports as well. Rapid Ref- erence 2.3 lists examples of typical grammatical problems in reports and provides suggestions of how to correct them.

PUNCTUATION

Punctuation involves the correct use of commas, periods, quotation marks, co- lons, and semicolons. Punctuation cues the reader to when one idea has ended and a new one has begun. It also helps clarify pauses and inflections. As with errors in grammar, errors in punctuation can confuse and distract the reader.

One commonly recurring error in reports is the positioning of punctuation marks with respect to quotation marks. Students and practicing clinicians alike have trouble recalling whether to put punctuation before or after the closing quo-

TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF WRITING 25

DON’T FORGET

Rules of Thumb Regarding Punctuation and Quotation Marks

Rule Example

• A period or comma is always placed • Susan said that she was “tired of his before the closing quotation mark, antics.” even when the quotation marks en- • He had trouble pronouncing words close only a single word. beginning with the /l/ phoneme, such as “little,” “long,” and “left.” • A colon or semicolon is placed after • Saki’s pediatrician stated that “she the closing quotation mark. would likely benefit from medica- tion”; he prescribed a trial medica- tion regimen. • A question mark is placed after the • Tatiana’s father wondered, “Why closing quotation mark, unless it is doesn’t she work harder?” part of the quoted material. • Do you feel “out- of- it”?

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tation mark. Some even place punctuation inside the quotation marks half the time and outside the other half. Unlike in British English, the quotation marks in American English are placed after the punctuation mark when it is a period or comma. The Don’t Forget box lists some rules regarding the use of punctuation and quotation marks.

Another common error involves use of the hyphen. Rules for hyphenation are complex; the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA, 2001) devotes several pages to these rules. In assessment reports, one of the most commonly hyphenated words is a person’s age. When an age is a noun (the 10- year- old) or a compound adjective (a 10- year- old girl), it is hyphenated. An- other commonly hyphenated type of word is ethnicity. The rule is to hyphenate an adjective- and- noun compound when it precedes the term it modifies. Thus, “a middle- class woman” is hyphenated, but “She is middle class” is not. Similarly, a “fourth- grade student” is hyphenated, but “She is currently in fourth grade” is not.

The correct use of hyphens is also confusing when two or more compound modifiers have a common base and the base is omitted in all but the last modifier (e.g., long- and short- term memory; 5- , 15- , and 30- minute delays).

Although using contractions is technically not an error, in formal writing (such as report writing), it is better to write out the words. It is preferable to write “She would profit from speech- language therapy” rather than “She’d profit. . . .”

Another common error involves use of the word its and the contraction it’s. Remember that it’s stands for it is and does not modify a noun (e.g., its contents).

CAPITALIZATION

Certain conventions also apply to capitalization. Capitalize the title of a subtest but not the skill it is measuring (capitalize WISC- IV Arithmetic subtest, but not “her arithmetic abilities”). Routinely capitalize classifications that describe a person’s test scores (e.g., Below Average, Superior, etc.), but do not capital- ize classifications that describe performance or behavior (e.g., Antonio’s teacher described his math performance as below average). The next Don’t Forget box provides examples of rules of capitalization.

OTHER DETAILS OF WRITING

Other factors that influence the impact of your report include verb tense, page numbering, line spacing, and signature.

26 ESSENTIALS OF ASSESSMENT REPORT WRITING

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Verb Tense

Deciding what verb tense to use can also cause difficulty in report writing. Most reports are written in past and present tense. These general rules can help with consistency of verb tense (also consult Rapid Reference 2.4):

• Use past tense to describe a person’s history. • Use past tense to describe test behaviors. • Use present tense to describe enduring traits such as ethnicity, gender,

and physical characteristics. • Use present tense to discuss a person’s test performance and current

circumstances, such as grade level or occupation.

Page Numbering

No matter who receives a report (e.g., a supervisor, professor, agency, teacher, colleague, or parent), number the pages on either the bottom center or the top right corner of the page. Numbering ensures that if a page is missing or if pages are out of order, the problem can be identified and resolved quickly and easily.

TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF WRITING 27

DON’T FORGET

When to Capitalize

Rule Example

• The first word in a complete • The patient was lethargic all day. sentence • The first word after a colon that be- • Two recommendations for decreas- gins a complete sentence ing lethargy follow: Eat more fruits and vegetables and exercise daily. • Major words in titles and headings • Summary and Diagnostic Impres- sions • Proper nouns and trade names • Prozac, Kleenex, Xerox • Titles of tests • Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children–Second Edition • Titles of subtests • Vocabulary, Symbol Search, Arith- metic, Letter- Word Identification • Names of descriptive categories • Average, Superior, Well Below Average

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Spacing

Line spacing in a report varies according to circumstance. If you are in training and giving a report to a supervisor or professor, then double- space the report to allow for corrections and comments. If you are in practice, single- spacing is preferable.

Signature and Credentials

After the body of the report, but before a summary of scores, most evaluators include their signatures. The signature provides proof of the report’s authenticity. Include the credentials of the author of the report under the name (e.g., Licensed Psychologist, Speech- Language Pathologist). If you are a student in an intern- ship or practicum, write your name and title (e.g., Practicum Student, Intern, Trainee, Doctoral Candidate) and the name and credentials of your supervisor.

BEFORE AND AFTER WRITING

The following sections provide suggestions to follow before and after you write your report.

28 ESSENTIALS OF ASSESSMENT REPORT WRITING

Past and Present Tense

Incorrect Correct

Incorrect Use of Present Tense Correct Use of Past Tense

• His mother reports that he is “short- • His mother reported that he is tempered.” “short- tempered.” • Sam is nervous, as he is biting his fin- • Sam was nervous; he bit his finger- gernails and rapidly swinging his foot nails and rapidly swung his foot un- under the table. der the table.

Incorrect Use of Past Tense Correct Use of Present Tense

• Joe was a 25- year- old student of av- • Joe is a 25- year- old student of aver- erage height and weight. age height and weight. • Amber was functioning in the Above • Amber is currently functioning in the Average range of cognitive ability. Above Average range of cognitive ability.

Rapid Reference 2.4

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Use an Outline Before Writing

Using an outline to write a case report is different from using an outline to write something with less structured form, such as a short story. Chances are that your supervisor, place of employment, or instructor will provide guidance in the global form of your report. Thus, each report you prepare is likely to follow a similar template of headings (e.g., Reason for Referral, Background Informa- tion, Behavioral Observations, Test Results and Interpretation, Summary, and Recommendations).

To create an outline, review your referral questions and your observations, and determine the main interpretative points. Once you have decided exactly what information you want to address, you are ready to make an outline. For example, in the test interpretation section of the report, you may have two main points to communicate: strong visual- spatial abilities but a low level of vocabu- lary and acquired knowledge. These two points may then have ancillary points below them. Creating an outline of main points under each heading helps ensure that you will include all pertinent data.

Read Your Rough Draft and Edit and Revise It After Writing

Whether you read over your report the same day it is finished or within the next few days, pay careful attention to the content, as well as mechanical errors. Some people also find it useful to wait a day or a week before editing, to permit view- ing their work more objectively. Sometimes when you read what you wrote im- mediately after writing it, you only see what you intended to communicate, not what is actually down in type. Rereading what you have written will help you see where revisions are necessary to communicate more clearly. You can also identify places where your writing needs to be more streamlined and concise, or, in some instances, more detailed. As you are editing and revising your report, evaluate whether it can be easily understood. As a guideline, the language in your report should not be more complex than that used in a daily newspaper.

Careful proofreading will help you eliminate spelling errors, grammatical er- rors, omitted words, and typos. Spelling and grammar checks on computers can help you locate errors and awkward sentence constructions, but be sure to check that the computer’s advice is what you intended. If English is not your first lan- guage, you may want to have other colleagues review your rough drafts to help you increase your English proficiency. For whatever reasons, if you have difficulty editing your own reports and noticing and correcting errors, you may want to find a colleague who would be willing to proofread your report for you. If someone

TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF WRITING 29

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else will be reading your report, remember to remove all identifying information to preserve confidentiality. With experience you will find what works best for you in terms of revising and editing your reports.

30 ESSENTIALS OF ASSESSMENT REPORT WRITING

TEST YOURSELF

1. Which sentence is written in passive voice?

(a) The teacher told Jason to return to his chair immediately. (b) The psychologist noted that the client was waiting patiently. (c) Andrea’s reaction stunned her parent. (d) The child was observed by the psychologist.

2. One of the best ways to transition to a new topic when writing is simply to indent and start a new paragraph. True or False?

3. Which is true about writing?

(a) When in doubt, always write more rather than fewer words to make your point.

(b) Stating and restating is the best way to clearly articulate a point. (c) Complicated, lengthy sentences maintain readers’ interest the best. (d) If a paragraph cannot be summarized in a topic sentence because it

has too many different ideas, then you should reorganize it into more than one paragraph.

4. Which is correct?

(a) a 10- year- old girl (b) a 10- year old girl (c) a 10 year old girl (d) a 10- year- old- girl

5. Which of these sentences did not use proper verb tense?

(a) Adrien was an African American male with a slender build and short, curly black hair.

(b) Emily twisted her hair when taking tests of verbal ability. (c) Because Rodney excelled in his job, he advanced to the level of senior

manager. (d) Jasmine’s level of intelligence is in the Above Average range.

6. Which of these sentences has incorrect subject- verb agreement?

(a) The vase of flowers was on the teacher’s desk. (b) The members of the multidisciplinary team were all present. (c) The consulting psychologist and Esther’s family were happy with the

improvement in emotional functioning. (d) The box of pencils were well within his reach.

Answers: 1. d; 2. False; 3. d; 4. a; 5. a; 6. d

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