Paper 4

2 .W I~IAlJIN(, ( It I I I( All Y

ING IN COLLEGE AND BEYOND

hlll~ I~ 11101'l'important to your success in school and in the Ih.1II lc.uninp, to write well. You've heard it so often you've

hH 111111'11I1I11b10 the advice. Let's ask the big question, how- 11\ i \\111111.~well so important? The simple answer is that no t \,1111''' "0111 .ibility to think better than writing does. Writ-

\ 1111III lin clop your thoughts and to "see" and reflect criti- II \\1111 \1111rhink: In that sense, writing also involves its twin t I"III~ Wlllll1g well often means organizing your thoughts into

11It\'" 1'.11111(' 111 and engaging readers by using concise, specific \IIl,tll \I IIIHkr, then, that academic programs and employers

hl III '11II\l.ll1lly looking for people who can read and write IllIph Pili, Ihi' ability to read and write well is a strong indication 'u" 11111111 III ~I I~ ,I pr.u t ic.il training ground for learning to write and think

WI" til I I I \,1 III writ c in college, you are writing as a member of a 1111\III ',I 1t.,I.II'S,teachers, and students. By questioning, research-

n t 1,,'11111'.III IllInpally with other members of the college commu- Itt 11111" hi II II 10 understand college matelial and to demonstrate

kill 1\1 It 111'.1III II. 111wllege, with the help of instructors, you will II • ,111,1"',I", ICl'm papcrs, reports, reviews of research, critiques,

111111111"" \VIt,lI you learn now will be fundamental, not only to your 1'111,tI~1 I III your latcr sliccess, no matter what career you intend

V OPINGAN EFFECTIVEWRITING PROCESS

Willi I , 1,11111111 I'd)' on inspiration alone to produce effective writ- lllltHI II 1I111~(olll)\v ,l writing /w()ccss: They analyze their assign-

~IIIH I IIk,llI, 1I1':11't, revisc, cdil, and proofread. It is worth _'III~IIIIIIIIIIIl'-. ItIllWVl'l" lhlll Ihe writing, process i~ rarely as simple and

IItllIl \1,11 d ,I.. it Illif!,1l1,'PPl'~\I 10 hl', Ol't<-'" Ihe process is recursive, III I'll ~ ,1111111111" ,11111'111', liil krl'lll '1,lgl'~, MOI'f.:()vcr, wriring is

21

On a second level, reading provides VOII \lllh 1111111111.1111111,1tIl-,1\, .uul perspectives tor developing your Own paper I" Ill" \1,1\, \1111 Inpond to what you read, using material from what you've rc.ul III ,III (.'\\,\), For exam ~Ie, afte~' reading Richard Lederer's essay on regiollall,lIlgll.1ge differences In America, you might want to elaborate on what he has wriucn, drawing on ~our own experiences and either agreeing with his examples or gcn eranng better ones for the area of the country in which you were raised. Y?U could also qllali.fYhis a:~)ent for the preservation of these language differences or take Issue With It. The three mini-debates in Chapter 13, "Curr~nt Language Controversies," offer you the opportunity to read exteJ:slv~ly a.bout focused topics-"How Docs Technology Impact Com- ~nLlnlcatJon III Relationsbips?," "How Does Language Work in Advertis- ing>, and '.'Why Do We Lie?"-and to use the information and opinions expressed ul.these essays as resources for your own thesis-driven paper.

On a third level, active reading can increase your awareness of how others' ~v:iting ~ffects you, thus making you more sensitive to how your ?wn wntmg WIU affect your readers. For example, if you have been lIl:prcssc~ by an all~hor who uses convincing evidence to support each (~(her ~1a1ll1S, you rnighr be more likely to back LIpyour own claims care- lull)" II you have been impressed by an apt turn of phrase or absorbed by ,I \\ ri'l'l" IH'W i{~l"l,YOli may be less inclined to feed your readers dull, ~\Clill lilli, .nul ~rlll' phl"ISCS.More to the point, however, the active read- III~, Ih,1I vou II til he cnuHII'.1ged to do in Lwnguage Awareness will help YOII III 11'1n~IlIIl' ,lIld ,111,llyz,ethe essential clements of the essay. When rOil ,"'(.', lot' cx.nnplc, how a writer like Susanne K. Langer uses a strong 111l'~INsturcmcm , ubou I how language separates humans from the rest of the .~lniJll:1II~illgdoll1, to control the parts of her essay, you can better ~lppreCI:lte the Importance of having a clear thesis statement in your writ- mg. Whe,~ y~u see the ,:ay Bharati Mukherjee llses transitions to link key phrases WIth Important ldeas so that readers can recognize clearly how the parts of her essay are meant to flow together, you have a better idea of how to achieve such c.oherence in your own writing. And when YOll see the. way DOlma -vyoolfo~ Cross uses a division and classification organi- zational plan to differen~ate ~learly the varioLlS categories of propaganda, you see a powerful way ill wluch you too can organize an essay using thjs method of development.

Finally, another important reason to master the skills of critical read- in~ is that you will be your own first reader and critic for everything YOLl w:'te. How well you are ~ble to scrutinize your own til'<1lis,viII powerfully affect how. well you reVIse them, and revising IVcll i~ rJ'lIl'i,1110 wriling well ..Readll1g others' writing with .1 critkal l')fl' is ,I lI~di,1 ,IIHI il11lHlI'tanl practlc~; th: more you read, the more 111',11111(.'ylill ","lh,1\'I ill NII.llP(.'lIil1g your skIlls. fbe more scnsiliv..: YOLIIWI'OIIlI 11111111111111111,llId Nlvk'lk'l'i siol1s l11:ldeby the writcrs ill 11I/~f]III~I'1 111'1111lilli, till 111"11 ••I"llnl'yoII will be :II ll1ak.ing )o.imilal'lin i,ioll\ III \ 11111 111\ II \\ 1111111'

2l WKIliNe..IN(.OIII{,I ANI) IIIYOND 1>1VII lll'lNl' AN II I I{ IIVIWI~I'INC,1'1\0(,' SS~~~=-

Direction Words

1,lk,' .lp.11"I.1I)dexamine closely

"" , pl.lll· jllw meaningful groups IlIlIk Ior differences, stress similarities 1111111.(ill" similarities, stress differences 1'111111(lilt positive and negative features

~" 1'111\Ilk the meaning for a term or concept

,1" t41\'l' dct.iilcd sensory perceptions for a person, a place, II~\\III IH"" IIhl~I' .iccording to some established standard

H " "" ,hll\\' Ihrough examples rrn ,\pl.1I1I the meaning of a document, an action, Hili. III .1 Ix-havior

d'llIllmll.IIC muh by logic, fact, or example

HIIIIII , 11111*toget her or make meaningful connections 1I111~ ,1,"11'111\

n I II hllll~.,III ,Is~ig,nmcnt several times, check with your instructor , 11111111'1111'.ibout what is being asked of you, He or she will be I "II lip ,IIIV pt)~sihlc confusion before you start writing. Be sure, as Ih II \ "II 1""ln \t.llld ,II)Yadditional requirements of the assignment,

1"11'.1II III ItUll1.l1.

personal-no two people go about it n.I, II\' 1111',lillI' \\,1, "illll, il " possible to describe basic guidelines lor dCH'loplllg .1 \\ 1IIIIIg IlImc,~, thereby allowing you to devise your own reliable 11I1'1hod 'm undcn ak ing a writing task,

I. Understand YourAssignment

Much of your college writing will be done in response to specific assignments from your instructors or research questions that you develop in consultation with your teachers, Your environmental studies professor, for example, may ask you to write a report on significant new research on carbon dioxide emissions and global warming; your American history pro fessor may ask you to write an analysis of the long-term effects of japanese Americans' internment during World War n. From the outset you need to understand precisely what your instructor is asking you to do. The keys to understanding assignments such as these are subject words (words that focus on content) and direction words (words that indicate your purpose for and method of development in writing), For example, consider what you are being asked to do in each of the following assignments:

Tell "hOIiI .m experience you have had that dramatically revealed to you 11ll' import.mcc of hcing .iccur.uc and precise in your use of language, M,lIIy 1.1l1j.\lInlJ,l·s urc lost over rime because speakers of those lan- j!.1I.1).\l'\ II", Wlll'lI ,I 1,11l!!,1I.lgc is lost, the particular culture embodied III I Ill' 1,llIglI'Igc ISalso lost. Using nn extinct language and culture as an example, explain how the language embodies a culture and exactly what is 1(l~1when a language becomes extinct, Advocates of the English-only movement want to see English adopted as our country's official language, Argue for or against the philosophy behind this movement,

In the first example above, the subject words are experience and impor- tance of being accurate and precise in your use of lwnguage. The direction word is tell, which means that you must share the details of the experience so that your readers can appreciate them as if they were there, sharing the experience. The content words in the second example are languages) cul- ture) and extinct language and culture, The direction word is explain. In the third example, the content words are English-only mOl1ement and 01"'" country)s official language. The direction word is ar.gztc. In each case the subject words limit and focus the content, and the direction words dictate how you will approach this content in wriling.

The words tell, explain, and m;IJ/lt' .m· (111)' .1 Inv 01 Ihe direction words that are commonly found ill ,11.Hk11l1lWrilllll~ '1~l>i.."llIlll·IlIS,'J'hl.' following list of add ilion. II dil'l'l'lillll \\old .. ,llId 11,,'11IIH',III"lg' will help YOll better understand YOIII \\1111111\,1~MI'.IIlIIIIlI~,lIld \\11111i,~"'pnlnl of yo".

ubJcct and Topic

It IIIIII,..h ,'11111II1Strueter will sometimes give you specific writing assign- \1111 \\ III "It"" he asked to choose your own subject and topic. In a III \\ 1111" you :IIl' "sing f.ang11,agcA1llarenes~;you would in tlus case I I' 1-111,1.1'ollhjt'll within the area oflanguage studies that you think , \ 1111"\ \\ 1I111Ip,,Ibolll, such as professional jargon, dialects, politi- 1111', ,1.1"'1",illg, 1.)II!:1>l1:lgC,01' propaganda. A language issue ~at

, I 1'1111111111'" fll~1It,lnti (discrimination, for exanlple) or somethmg Il Itl III,I\,IIIj,,~~011\(:1's1Ibjects to mind, In the student essay tllat con- 11"1t, ",11'111,1tl'lwk,Ih S.lIldlin I'e"i~its her own .racial prejudices a~ an 1111' '" IIIfill ..""kilt ,HId wll.1l~Ill' h,ls k,ll'lH:d lrom Ihcm, You I11lgbt III ht. I ,I 1.1I1..,II.ll~~'Id,llnl I"'\I~' lit,II 11l\'oh~', YOIII l.lll·\,·1',\lllbiti()I1~,

WI\IIINC, IN c 0111 Cd ANI) HI YOND

su~h ~s ~le areas of business (avoiding exaggerated ,111\1'111\1111\ d.IIIlI'), 1,1w (e.ltmH1a~ng obscure legal language), nursing (commllllll.llllll-\ cllcctlvcly Wlt1.1 p~tlents~, or journalism (reporting tile news objectively). Another option IS to list some subjects you enjoy discussi.ng with friends and that ~ou can approacl~ fro~n a language perspective: music (gender bias in rap lyr- ICS), work (decodiug Insurance policies and medical benefits), and college life (speech codes on campus).

N~xt, try to narrow your general subject until you arrive at a topic that you think will be both interesting to your readers and appropriate for the length of your paper (and tile time you have to write it). The following chart shows how the general areas of jargon, journalism, and television commercials. might b~ narrowed to a specific essay topic. (If you're having tI:ouble corning up with general subjects or specific topics, try some of the discovery techniques discussed in Step 3 (pp. 27-30).

General Subject Area Jarqon

Narrowed Topic

Medicaljarqon Specific Essay Topic

Medicaljarqon used between doctors and terminally ill patients

Slanted lanquaqe in newspapers' coversqe of tntemsuons! events

5l,mu'n I.Jnqu.I(j() 10 IIC I'I'JWI 11 Ill!]

I I II I. 'II( '1111/11/ III, I 1/,Itlr'/1 IlIr''lf ',I(Jt" II/ I dlvltolon cOIl/merelllls

I fidden messaqes in television commercials on children's Saturday mornlnqproqrams

USE THE WRITING SUGGESTIONS IN LANGUAGE AWARENESS. As far as writing about the subjects and topics discussed in Language Awareness is ~onccrned, there is no sho~·tage of ideas and approaches at your disposal. There are at least two Wntmg Suggestions at the end of every selection in the book. If you have tile freedom to choose your own subject and topic, and the. approach you take, you may want to use one of the suggestions as ~ spnngbo~~d for your own creativity. If, on the otller hand, you are assIgned a WrIting Suggestion, be sure you understand what is being asked of you. If YOll are unclear about the assignment or YOLI want to widen or narrow its focus or change its intent in any way, be sure to do so in consul- tation with your ins?~uctor. You can and should be creative in Llsing even an assigned suggestl0n_, maybe even using it as a starting point" f'or your own. research and theSIS, but again get your instrllctor\ :1 I1I1I'OV;) I hcl()J'e startmg your paper so no misLUlderstandings result.

DETERMINEYOUR PURPOSE. All Cf'll:l'j il'l' \1111111/\ "1'11111\" 1111111,1 I. k'.ll' purpose. Most good writ ing seck~ /illl'\ iii, ,Ii II It I .11 I ""lltll II 111\ 11111 til IhI' tollo\\ling three pllrposeio:

III VlI t il'lNt j AN IIII ( IIVI WI{IIINC. I'ROClSS ~==~==~

25

• I'll npn:ss thoughts .md kl.'illlp-s ,1boULlife experiences • III IIl1! 11'11) readers b)' explaining something about the world around

t hl'II1 • III persuade readers to adopt some belief or take some action

III rxprcssi PC writing, or writing from experience, you putyour thoughts uul In'hllgs before all other concerns. When Malcolm X shows his frus- 11.1111111 .11 not having appropriate language to express himself (Chapter 4) Illd when Amy Tan describes how her mother's use of English shaped her 0\\ II .rpproach to writing (Chapter 6), each one is writing from experience. III 1·.llII 1'11SC, the writer has clarified an important life experience and has 11l11\1('}'l'd what he or she learned from it.

lufin'llt1ative writingfoCllses on telling the reader something about tile 11I11'llk world. In informative writing, you report, explain, analyze, define, 11.I"dy, compare, describe a process, or examine causes and effects. When 1'.IId Roberts explains the formation of speech communities (Chapter 6), III ,,\I ruing to inform.

Il'lrltmcntativc writing seeks to influence readers' thinking and atti- Illd(', 1O\V,1rda subject and, in some cases, to move them to a particular 111111W Ill' action. Such persuasive writing uses logical reasoning, authori- 1.1111 (' evidence, and testimony, and it sometimes includes emotionally 111.11 J.\nl language and examples. In writing their arguments, Greg Lukianoff (( 1I''1l1er 10) uses logical reasoning, evidence, and examples to make Ihr I.l~l' that hate speech serves a constructive purpose and Kiera Butler (( I "'1 ncr 13) uses current examples from actual menus to show how res- LIIII,lIlls manipulate customers' impressions.

KNOWYOURAUDIENCE, The best writers always keep their audience III IIlIlId. Once they have decided on a topic and a pmpose, writers present IIII'll material in a way that empathizes with their readers, addresses their till Iu ultics and concerns, and appeals to their rational and emotional facul- Ill.. 1\,l~ed on knowledge of tI1eir audience, writers make conscious deci- '.ltlll\ Oil content, sentence structure, and word choice.

Writing (or on Academic Audience Academic writing most often employs lilt· IlIl1ventions of formal standard English, or tbe language of educated 1"llk~ ...i()nals. Ratller than being heavy or stuffY, good academic writing is Il\t h' .ll1d engaging and holds the reader's attention by presenting interest- IIII~Ilk.)iosupported with relevant facts, statistics, and detailed information. Iliit )1"111.,1wril ing, lISlI<lliyfi'eer and simpler in form, is typically used in notes, 1111111lid enl rk's, e-mail, lext messages, instant ll1eSsagll1g, and the like.

III Ill'der Ilot 10 Icsscn Ihe importa ncc of yom ideas and your credibil- 11\, hi' "tire Ih,ll inf()l'm~ll wriling docs nol' carryover into your academic 1\ IIIIII~~.I\IW,ll''' kl'('pillg YOIlI',1Iidil'!H'I' ,lIli! pllrpose in mind will hclp YOLI .111111\I .111 ,Ippropli,lIt' ,lviI'

WRIIINt, IN t 01 II C.I ANI) I" YOND

When you write, your audience might be an iudivnlu.il ()'IHII1I1~II'IIUor), a group (the students in your class), a specialized group (an lusiory nujors), or a general readership (readers of your student newspaper). To help identify your audience, ask yourself the questions posed on page 27.

Using DiScipline-Specific Language The point of discipline-specific lan- guage, sometimes referred to as professional language or even jargon, is not to make a speaker or writer sound like a scientist, or a humanities scholar, or a geologist. Rather, discipline-specific language provides a kind of "shorthand" means of expressing complex concepts. Its proper use will grow from your knowledge of the discipline, from the reading you have done in the field, and from the hours you have spent in the company of YOlU' teachers and peers.

While the meaning of some disciplinary language will become clear to you from context as you read and discuss course material, some of it, left undefined, will present a stumbling block to your understanding of the material. Glossaries of disciplinary terms exist for most disciplines: Make use of them. Also, never be shy about asking your instructor or more experienced classmates for help when you're unsure of the meaning of a term.

Considering Opposing Arguments You will likely not have trouble con- vincing those who agree with your argument from the outset, but what about those who are skeptical or think differently from you? You need to discover who these people are by talking with them or by reading what they have written. Do your research, be reasonable, and find common ground where possible, but take issue where you must. To refute an opposing argument, you can present evidence showing that the opposition's data or evidence is incomplete or distorted, that its reasoning is faulty, or that its conclusions do not fit the evidence.

Formal versus InformalWriting

Formal Writing

Uses standard English, the language of public discourse typical of newspapers, magazines, books, and speeches

Informal Writing

Uses nonstandard English, slang, colloquial expressions (an),"'a)'s, dudc,.frcnturl (1111). and shorthand (OM(,', IMlfO, GR8)

Uses mostly third person lh", III'" .llld~" 0111.1I'll 1111 1l1l)~1 11111 II

1.1VII I II'IN(, AN II f Il ,IVI WRI' INl.I'ROU S!>_E

A\,III1I, most abbreviations ( 1'I'II/i·.IIIIP. lmuhers, miles PCI' 1",lItllI. Internet, digital video 11'111I'dl'I')

ll,,·\ .111 impersonal tone ( 1,,,. '/It'nilcl'' took questions from thr IIIIIIII·ItCe at the end of her It '-/11 rr.) llw\ longer, more complex ,,'IIIl'IlCCS

Adheres 10 the rules and ,. >IIVCIll ions of proper grammar

Uses abbreviations and acronyms (Prof, bros., mpg, Net, DVR)

Uses an informal tone (It was great the way she answered questions at the end of her talk.)

Uses shorter, simpler sentences

Takes a casual approach to the rules and conventions of proper grammar

Questions about Audience

• Who are my readers? Are they a specialized or a general gr~up? • What do I know about my audience's age, gender, education,

religious affiliation, economic status, and political views? • What does my audience know about my subject? Are they

experts or novices? . . • What does my audience need to know about my topic ill order

t () IInderstand my discussion of it? . • Will my audience be interested, open-minded, resistant, or

host ile to what I have to say? • Do I need to explain any specialized language so that my

.iudicncc can understan.d my subject? Is there any language Ih~\I 1 should avoid?

• Wbru do I want my audience to do as a result of reading my l'~S.ly?

1.Gather Ideas "k.tl., ,IIH,Ilnformarion (facts and details) lie at the heart of good prose.

III•. I~ f'jlClW out 01' information; information supports ideas. _Before ~011 III p,111 III IIl.tlt, 1,I.\lhcl'''~ many ideas :\s l.)()~sibleand ~s much Info~~~aoo~l I~ \.,11 1.111 .thou! YOIII' topic in Ol'dcr'lO inform ,Ind stimulate youi readers 11111 III 11Ii.ltly.

WI~I , INt, IN t 0111 (" AND ,~,YUNI,

Most writers usc one or 1110rc discovcr y Il,llllhl"l\ III hl'll' them ~ather infor~~tion, zero-in on a specific topic, 01 lilld 11111111'1Itlllll> ,1I11ong Ideas. In addition to your reacting and discussing Wl'Jl1ll~ lik,l~ with your classmates and friends, you may want to experiment with S011le of the dis- covery techniques explained below.

KEEPING A JOURNAL. Many writers use a journal to record thoughts and observations that might be mined for future writing projects. They have learned not to rely on their memories to retain ideas, facts and stati~tics they. have .heard or read about. Writers also use journals to' keep all kinds of lists: lists of questions they would like answers to' lists of issues that concern them; lists of topics they would like to write about someday. . To aid your journal writing as you use this text, each reading selection 10 Language Awareness begins with a journal prompt called "Writing to Discover." The pmpose of each prompt is to get you thinking and writ- ing about your own experiences with the language issues discussed in the selection before you start reading. You thus have the opportunity to dis- cover what you already know about a particular topic and to explore your observations, feelings, and opinions abolLt it. The writing you do at this point is something you can always return to after reading each piece.

FREEWRITING. Journals are also useful if you want to freewrite. Free- lvritingis simply writing for a brief uninterrupted period of time-say, ten or fifteen minutes-on anything that comes to your mind. It is a way to get your mind working and to ease into a writing task. Start with a blank sheet of paper or computer screen and write about the general subject you are considering. Write as quickly as you can, don't stop for any reason, and don't worry about punctuation, grammar, or spelling. Write as though. you ,:ere talking to your best friend, and let your writing take you in any direc- non. If you run out of ideas, don't stop; just repeat the last few things you wrote over and over again, and you'll be surprised-more ideas will begin t~ emerge. J list as regular exercise gets you in shape, regular freewriting will help you feel more natural and comfortable when writing.

OPEN-ENDED WRITING. A useful extension of freewritiug is a discov- ery strategy called open-ended writing. Follow the same directions for freewriting but also stop every ten minutes or so to evaluate what YOLihave written. Ana.lyze yom freewriting and identify ideas, isslles, expressions, phrases, and terms that show relationships and themes, :)l1d 111.111ll,Iy ,11so engender questions about your material. Copy ol1ly IhO"t' 11'1.111II I'k Illt'IlIS onto a new sheet of paper and begin trccwrilill!\ ,lg,lill 11\ IIllI'.lIlllg Illl' process at least several times, followin~ ),0111' Iin \\III, ij II II It liLli, '1\ 1"11h time, you will inevitably deepen y01l1' Ihied hll' d"'"1 \ 11111 IIIi'll 111.1}\l'1 closer to being nblc to l\II'ilt' )'0111'1i.,1 III ill

291)1VII' 'I'INI, AN LI r It. ,IVI WRIIINc.. I'ROCI.SS------~~~- ---------

'''AINSTORMING. Another g.oml way to generate ideas and inform a- 111111 ,lllIllIl ,I topic is to brail1storm--to list everything you know about a hll'" , IH'd)' associating one idea with another. Don't worry ab~ut order or I \,1,.1 Illlport,)1)Ce. Try to capture everything that comes to ~d becans.e ou linn know what might prove valuable later 011. Write quickly, but If 1111.",'1sr.illcd, reread what you have written; doing so will helP_YOllmove In III w dirccrions. Keep your list handy so that you can add to It over the 11111w or several days. Here, for example, is a student's brainstorming list

Ull "h" Marlin Luther King Jr.'s speech, "I Have a Dream," has endured: Why "IHave a Dream" Is Memorable I IVIIrilJ11I,5demon5tratlon In Wa5hington, D.C., delivered on steps of Lincoln Mr'/lIorl,11 Ililf /11 Ion of "I havea dream" II II 'Y'/lces t:o the Bible, spiritual5 / .,hl1cc:k"metaphor (I1,,','IIJO/1lorablefigures of speech

.'no,000 people IT '11111/( Ib me of other great American documents and t '/ ,(,,'e.1 'Oli - Declaration of Independence and Gett;ysburg Address

,rl,'I" I0 various parts of the country , III/I'''C8S fill races and religions

,('f/llon format j /I, 'I II,IY!:J energy and passion

ASKING QUESTIONS. Asking questions about a particular topic or "lll'ricllce may help you generate information ~efore you start.to write. II \nll ,m: writing about a personal experience, tor example, asking ques- 1".11\ m,IY refresh your memory about the details and circumstances of the 1111Id~'lll or help you discover why the experience is still so memorable. I hI' 11l'\\'~lxlper reporter's five Ws and an H-Who? What? Where? When? \\,11,,1 and I low? -are excellent questions to start with. One student, f~r I ',IIIlPIc, developed the following questions to help her explore an expen-

I'" l' 01 verbal abuse: I WI10 w,I'"II"lVolvedin the abusive situation? , WI!, II "{Joclfic language was used? ~ I VI 1m' rHd ~lIe;)bU5emost often take place? I WIII'/ullfll,ho verbalabuse first occur? 'j ~VI IV lilt! 1/1(';lbuslve situation get started? Whydid It continue? , , 11,11~did I (cd, ,llOu~ Ihe libuse ,IS It was happening?How do / feel about it now?

" Ih~' ~\IId\'lll jOllnl down answers to lhcse questions, other Qlll'\lillll\ 1'-1IIll' III lllilld, ~IIlIl,I~, WI"II did f If" III dlll7_r~IT I/JI' "IT/1I1/17_/1I(.I'I)

occurred? Did 1 seek help fron« rmyrmc else? /J(lII' 11111 I /ltll' 11,/1", ",/I" m» being verbally abused? Before long, the student h.ld In .1111" I IIIIU}!,!! iulor mation for a rough draft about her experience.

CLUSTERING. Another strategy for generating ideas and gathering information is clustering. Put your topic, or a key word or phrase about your topic, in the center of a sheet of paper and draw a circle around it. (The student example below shows the topic "Hospital jargon at sum- mer job" in the center.) Draw three or more lines out from this circle, and jot down main ideas about your topic, drawing a circle around each one, Repeat the process by drawing lines from the main-idea circles and adding examples, details, or questions you have, You may wind up pursuing one Lineof thought through many add-on circles before beginning a new duster.

One advantage of clustering is that it allows you to sort your ideas and information into meaningful groups right from the start, As you carefully sort your ideas and information, you may begin to see an organizational plan for your writing. In the following example, the student's clustering is based on the experiences he had while working one summer in a hospital emergency room. Does the clustering provide any clues to how he might organize his essay?

Sometimes sounds

4. Formulate a Thesis I III' Ihl'sis of' an essay is its main idea, the major point the writer is

"\ till'> 1" make. A thesis should be • I Ill' I1lOSI important point you make about your topic • Mill!' j!,eneral than the ideas and facts used to support it • I.,lll\l·d enough to be covered in the space allotted for the essay

I Ill' thesis is often expressed in one or two sentences called a thesis lit, 1111'111. Here's an example of a thesis statement about television news

1'101'>' ,1111,\: IIII' \Il called serious news programs are becoming too like tabloid news \111 ,,,., in both their content and their presentation.

1111 .,1., \1.11emcnt should not be a question but rather an assertion. If you tllld vourvclf'writing a question for a thesis statement, answer the question Ihlll t lIi~answer will be your thesis statement,

All ctlccilvc strategy for developing a thesis statement is to begin by ""1111)1., "What I want to say is that ... "

11'/,," I wnnt to say is that unless language barriers between patients .uul ill'.,hh care providers are bridged, many patients' lives in our most 11111 1I1.llIydiverse cities will be endangered.

lit I Villi can delete the formulaic opening, and YOLlwill be left with a ,hl ~I.. ~1,lIl·ll1cnl.

III lil'lermine whether your thesis is too general or too specific, think h lid .Ihnlll how easy it will be to present data-that is, facts, statistics, 1111111 \, examples or illustrations, and opinions of authoritiea+-to support It It vou stray roo far in either direction, your task will become much 1111111 dlt'fiudt. A thesis statement that is too general will leave you over- \\ III 11I1I·d by the number of issues you must address. For example, the lilt 1111'111 "Political attack speeches damage the America.n political sys- " III" \\ uuld lead to the question "How?" To answer it, you would prob- ,,,,, II.I\'l· to include information about national politics, free speech, III" I, I h.irncicr assassination, abusive language, the fallacy of ad homi- III '" .l1l1ll1m·nls, and so on. To cover all of this in the time and space you II 1\, "II .1typical college paper would mean taking sh~rtcuts, a~d your 1'11" , would be ineffective. On the other hand, too specific a thesis state- 1111 lit ,\I iuhl leave you with too little information to present. "Governor \\, 'p,III" vpccch implies that Senator Smith's personal life is a disgrace" .111, ~ 11111 leave you with any opportunity to develop an argument. An 11'1" Ppll.lIl· I hcsis SI arement like "Political attack speeches have han~led I" 1111', I.III~' images and t limed off voters in Big City's mayoral elections ""1 til,· p.,,, decade" leaves room for argument but can still be proven 11\ "\llIllIllillp, poll responses, voter 'IlIrI101l1 records, and other evidence.

.H WI~IIINtj IN t (lilit ,I AND HIV(>t II J

The thesis statement is usually prcscnu-d 111.111111 III plllllillp. tIl ihc essay. One common practice in shorter college fl'lIl1l~ " It I 1111\1111111the thesis statement as the final sentence of tbe first par.lgl.lfl"

IsYourThesis Solid?

Once you have a possible thesis statement in mind, ask yourself the following questions:

• Does my thesis statement take a clear position on an issue? (Could I imagine someone agreeing or disagreeing with it? If not, it might be a statement of fact, instead of an arguable thesis.)

• Will I be able to find evidence that supports my position? Where? What kinds? (If you're unsure, it wouldn't hurt to take a look at a few secondary sources at this point.)

• Will I be able to make my claim and present sufficient evi- dence to support it in a paper of the assigned length, and by the due date? (Ifnot, you might need to scale back your claim to something more manageable.)

5. SupportYourThesis with Evidence

The types of evidence you use in your academic writing will be determined to some extent by the discipline in which you are working. For example, for a research project in psychology on the prejudice shown toward people with unusual names, you will almost certainly rely heav- ily on published studies from peer-reviewed journals. Depending on the assignment, however, you might also devise an experiment of your own or interview people with unusual names to gather firsthand accounts of their experiences. For an argument essay on the same topic in a composi- tion course, as in many courses in the humanities, languages, and litera- tures, you would cite a wide range of sources, perhaps including- but not limited to-peer-reviewed journals. Depending on the assignment, you might also include your own experience and informal observations.

To support her argument on book banning, one student derivcs Illost of her evidence from an array of experts, as in the foll()\Vill~ n.lmplc, "vhere she cites scholar Henry Reichman:

Henry Reichman writes that in 1990, Frank Mosrrl'S AI/ 111111'111 1111 IIII~ I (111111) ,IIIW Nancy Garden's Annie on My Mind (1982), 'Iwo Il(lll~" willi II IV11111111 WIllI' IIIIII"II'd to high schools in Contra Costa, C.dlfnllll,,:"I 111111 III 1111 I lilil" ,Iujill 1I1I,lllIuk'. were s(,'izcd by adlllinislrntcJI' . .111111111111 "III ,I (.,t)

111 VIII 11'INc. AN 1111( IIVI WI~IIIN{, l'l~ocl ss

I'RIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES. In general, researchers and"I"" work with two IYPl'S of evidence: primary sources and secondary 111111 c.:'

1'11111.Irysources in the humanities and languagesy'Iiteratures are works th It p,IU\I out of and are close to a time, place, or culture under study. These

111 1111 lude documents such as letters, speeches, interviews, manuscripts, ,II IIlr~, Irc.u ics, maps; creative written works such as novels, plays, poems, CIIIP.~, .ind autobiographies; and three-dimensional artifacts such as paint- IlItIt~. \,ulplurcs, pottery, weaving, buildings, tools, and furniture. Primary IIIIIII'~ III Ihe social, natural, and applied sciences are the factual reports and III 'I IIpi ions of discoveries, experiments, surveys, and clinical trials.

Sl'~oudary sources in the humanities and languages/literatures restate, m.IIY/l'. and interpret primary sources. Common secondary sources include 1I1.II\,w\. critiques, histories, and commentaries in the form of books, arti- dl~. 1'111yclopcdia entries, and documentaries. Secondary sources in the ,lrl1l"\ analyze and interpret discoveries and experiments and often com- "" til on the validity of the research models and methods and the value of III",,' drxcovcries and experiments.

\Vlit ing in a specific discipline requires iliat you use the most authorita- 11\1 .uul reliable source materials available for that discipline. Your instruc- It I)' 1.111help you in this regard by either providing you with a list of II '''"ncs commonly used in their fields or directing you to such a list in \ 11111library or on the Internet. Many academic libraries include helpful uhln t study guides on their home pages as well.

hII' .1 brief guide to finding, evaluating, and documenting sources in l'lltlt .md online, see pages 582-584.

PACTS, STATISTICS, EXAMPLES, AND EXPERT TESTIMONY. The eVI- ,,, 1111'you lise in your academic writing should place a high value on facts 11111 ,I.II iSIics, examples and illustrations, and ilie testimony of experts. You 11111,1he accurate in your use of facts and statistics, and you must check and dl "Iilk check that you have cited them correctly. Be sure that you carefully , t III\ukl the examples and illustrations you usc to support your thesis: Use lilt ",I' Ih.u work best with your subject and the audience you have in mind. 111I.IlIv.be selective in citing the works and comments of experts in your tll~\ IJlIIiW.If you choose wisely, the works of respected scholars and experts 1\ III 1'1' immediately recognizable to otllers familiar wiili the subject area, .IllelVIIIII.lI'gulllcnt will have a much better chance of succeeding.

I 'he (()llowing passage illustrates how student Jake Janueson llses IS IIIIJlks ill his paper on the Official English movement:

I d MOIulcs, the author of Living in Spanglish, reports that the mayor of Bogota, New ,"'I ',l'V, cfll.led for a boycott of McDonald's restaurants after the "company displayed ,I hillhtlMd advetlising a new iced coffee drink in Spanish," calling "the ad ... 'ollll,,\lw' ilild 'divi~lvc' becausr il sends a mcssllgc lhat Il'ispanic immigrants do not 11111,,1 In 1(,,1111 I 1111Ii',II" (lI,lI.? I).

.U

,U WI~II INC,IN ( 011 I l,l ANI) III YI INII

6. Determine Your Organization

~here are several organizational patterns YOIl III1HIIf lolluw ill drafting an essay. Most of you are already familiar with rhc 1111)101WIIIJllOll one-chronological order. In this pattern, which is often used to narrate a st?ry, explain a process, or relate a series of events, you stan with the earliest event or step and move forward ill time.

In ~ compat:ison-and-contrast essay, you might follow a blockpattern or a point-by-poin» organization. In a block pattern, a writer provides all ~e lllfo~mat:J.oll about one subject, followed by a block of comparable information about the other subject. In a point-by-point comparison, on the other hand, the writer starts by comparing both subjects in terms of a particular point, then compares both on a second point, and so on. In an essay comparing two dialects of American English, for example, you could follow the block pattern, covering all the characteristics of one dialect and. then all the characteristics of the other. Alternatively, you could orgaJ1Jz~ your material in terms of defining characteristics (for ex~mp!e, geogra~hlCal range; characteristics of speakers; linguistic traits), filling JI1 the details for each dialect in turn.

Otl~er patterns of organization include moving from the general to the specific, from smallest to lar;gest,from least important to most impor- tant, or ~rom the usual t~ the unusual. In an essay about medical jar- gou, for instance, you might cover its general characteristics first and then move to specifics, or you might begin with what is most usual (or commonly known) about doctors' language and then discuss what is unusual about it. Whatever order you choose, keep in mind that what you present first and last will probably stay in the reader's mind the longest. . After you choose an organizational pattern, jot down the main ideas in your essay. In other words, make a scratch outline. As you add more information and i~eas to y<:>urscratch outline, you may want to develop a formal, more detailed outline of your paper. In writing a formal outline, follow these rules:

1. Include the title of your essay, a statement of purpose, and the thesis statement.

2. Write in complete sentences unless your meaning is immediately clear from a phrase.

3. If you divide any category, make sure there are at least two subcat- egories. The reason for this is simple: You cannot divide something into fewer than two parts.

4. Observe the traditional conventions of formal outlining, N()II~t. how each new level of specificity is given a new !l'Il"1 I" IlIIIIIIII'1 designation.

III 'vII' )"INc. AN I f III IIVI Wf(1 IIN(. f'ROCI SS--~_~==--.o.

I itlv: Purpose: Ihl'''''': J.

A. 1\. I. 2.

a. b. c.

II,

7. Write Your First Draft

SOll1etimes we are so eager to get on with the writing of a first draft th.1I \w begin before we are ready, and the results are disappointing. Before h( !'.lllning 10 write, therefore, ask yourself, "Have I done enough prewrit- 111"'~I~there a point to what I want to say?" If you have done a thorough IlIh III 1-\.\1hering ideas and information, if you think you can accomplish thl purpose of your paper, and if you are comfortable with your organiza- tllIll.,1 plan, your answers will be "yes."

If, however, you feel uneasy, review the various prewriting steps to uv III resolve the problem. Do you need to gather more information? Shollpen your thesis? Rethink your purpose? Refine your organization? Nllw " the lime to think about these issues, to evaluate and clarify your \\111111", plan. Time spent at this juncture is time well spent because it will 11111 oilly improve your paper but will save you time and effort later on.

A, you write, don't be discouraged if you do not find tile most appro- 1'11.111' l.mguagc for your ideas or if your ideas do not flow easily. Push ,hi ,III with the writing, realizing that YOll will be able to revise the mate- 11,1 1.11l'r, .idding information and clarifications wherever necessary. Be 111'"' til keep your audience in mind as you write, so that your diction and 11111"1.11-\(.' Nl,ly at the appropriate leveL Remember also to bridge all the 11,.,,11,II and emotionalleaps for your audience. Rereading what you have ,It I,ll I)' written as you go along will help you to further develop your 1111.I~,IIHI ric them together. Once completed, a first draft will give you a I" n ..r 01 .iccomplishrnent. You will see that you have something to work '\II h, ~OIl1CIhing to build on and improve during the revision process.

8. Revise

AIII'I' you complete your first draft) you will need to revise it. Dur- 11111 Ih,' revision singe of the writing process, you will fOCLlSon the large

issues of thesis, purpose, evidence, orgauivauou , ,111.1I'll III II'It \llIh IlIll' to make sure that your writing says what YOIl wun: II It I .1\ 11I~1.11t11l1P.1t, it is crucial that you set your draft aside for a while. l lu-u \'1l1I 1,111comc back to it with a fresh eye and some objectivity. When YOII do, Il'~I~1Ihe temptation to plunge immediately into a second draft: Scattered changes will not necessarily improve the piece. Instead, try to look at your writing as a whole and to tackle your writing problems systematically: Use the fol- lowing guidelines:

• Make revisions on a hard copy of yom paper. (Triple-space your draft so that you can make changes more easily)

• Read your paper aloud, listening for parts that do not make sense. • Ask a fellow student to read your essay and critique it.

A Brief Guide to Peer Critiquing

When critiquing someone else's paper:

• Read the essay carefully. Read it to yourself first, and then, if possible, have the writer read it to you at the beginning of the session. Some flaws become obvious when read aloud.

• Ask the writer to state his or her purpose for writing and to identify the thesis statement within the paper itself.

• Be positive, but be honest. Never denigrate the paper's content or the writer's effort, but do your best to identify how the writer can improve the paper through revision.

• Try to address the most important issues first. Think about the thesis and the organization of the paper before moving on to more specific topics like word choice.

• Do not be dismissive, and do not dictate changes. Ask questions that encourage the writer to reconsider parts of the paper that you find confusing or ineffective.

When someone critiques your work:

• Give your reviewer a copy of your paper before your meeting.

• Listen carefully to your reviewer, and II)' 1101III dl"III~' or argue each issue. Record commCI1IS, .'IHln"hl,1I1 till 1111,111'1.

III VI' I JI'INt, AN 1111 r IIVI WI\1t INC, I'ROti SS~

• Do not get defensive or explain what you wanted to say if Ihe reviewer misunderstands what you meant. Try to understand the reviewer's point of view, and learn what VOII need to revise to clear up the misunderstanding.

• C:onsider every suggestion, but only use the ones that make sense to you in your revision.

• Be sure to thank your reviewer for his or her effort on your behalf

( )II\, W,ly to begin the revision process is to compare the ear~ier ~utline lit \11111 lirsl draft to an outline of how it actually carne alit. This w111 he.lp ~ 1111 \1'1', in abbreviated form, tile organization an~ flow of. tile essential 1IIIIIlt IIIClllSof your essay and perhaps detect flaws 111 reaso~ng.

AIlIt! her method you can use in revising is to start WIth large-scale I ~1I1'\, such as your overall structure, and then concentrate on finer and 111111 1l()lIII~.As you examine your essay, ask yourself about. what YOLl have ""111'11 .md address the large elements of your essay: thesis, purpose, or- 1111/.11inn, paragraphs, and evidence.

Revising the Large Elements of an Essay

• Is Illy topic specific enough? • I)ocs my thesis statement identify my topic and make an

,1!'I~crli()nabout it? • b my essay organized the best way, given my purpose? • Arc Ill)' paragraphs adequately developed, and does each

support my thesis? • 11,\\'c I accomplished my purpose? • l low effective is my beginning! My ending? • 1" 111)' title effective?

( )11l'('VOlIhave addressed the major problems in your essay by writing 1',1'1I Illd dl':ll'1, you should be ready to turn your attention to tile finer ele- III' 11I~ 1)1 sentence xt ruct urc, word choice, nnd usage.

Revising Sentence -Level Elcllll"nt

• Do my sentences convey my thoughts clearly, .llId do Ihey emphasize the most important parts of my thinking]

• Are my sentences stylistically varied] • Is my choice of words fresh and forceful, or is my writing

weighed down by cliches and unnecessary wordiness- • Have I made any errors of usages

Finally, if you find yourself dissatisfied with specific elements of your draft, look at several essays in Language Awareness to see how other writers have dealt with the particular situation you are confronting. For example, if you don't like the way the essay starts, find some beginnings you think are particularly effective; if your paragraphs don't seem to flow into one another, examine how various writers use transitions; if an example seems unconvincing, examine the way other writers include details, anecdotes, facts, and statistics to strengthen their illustrations. Remember that the readings in the text are there as a resource for you as you write.

9. Edit and Proofread

Now that you have revised in order to make your essay "right," it is time to think about making it "correct." During the editing stage of the writing process, check your writing for errors in grammar, punctua- tion, capitalization, spelling, and manuscript format. Both your dictionary and your college handbook will help you answer specific editing questions about your paper.

Addressing Common Editing Problems and Errors

• Do my verbs agree in number with their subjects! • Do my pronouns have clear antecedents-that is, do they

clearly refer to specific nouns earlier in my sentences! • Do I have any sentence fragments, comma splices, or run-on

sentences? • Have I made any unnecessary shifts in person, tense, or "limber? • Have I used the comma properly in all insmnccs] • Have I checked for misspellings, mistakes ill (.11111.1111.11 ion, .uul

typos]

• II.Iw 1 inadvertently confused words like their, they're, and 1/""'" or it's and its?

• II.Ivc I followed the prescribed guidelines for formatting my manuscript!

11.",illf!, revised and edited your essay,you are ready to print your final 'l'" Ik "II'C to proofread your work before submitting it to your instructor. &:11 though you may have used your computer's spell checker, you might

",'ll 'h,1I yc III have typed worm instead of word) or form instead of from. Also IUlle. II I~n'that your essayis properly line spaced and that the text is legible.

10.Sample Student Essay Using Writing Process

l'hc Iollowing essay was written by Rebekah Sandlin while she was IlItll'lIl .u Miami University in Oxford, Ohio. After Rebekah read the rv ill Ihe chapter on prejudice, stereotypes, and language, her instruc-

1111, I Illd.I Parks, asked her to write about a personal experience with biased 1""t1.II•IJ.l.l· .md how that language affected her. Rebekah vividly rernern- hfrl" .111experience she had in the third grade, when she used the phrase III~IIlk,' .1 nigger" to mock a classmate. Using that experience as the start-

Intl pc 11111 of her essay, she then traces a series of subsequent encounters I" h.ld wit h Ihe word ni&gcr and recounts her resulting personal growth. nV IIll' ('lid or her essay,Rebekah makes it clear to her readers why she felt IIl11pdkd to rell her story.

SandLin 1

" I,.~~II ....l1l1l1ln

Oclllll .. , II. zo 15

The "Negro RevoLt" in Me

',III' '"Ild "seven" when the answer was clearLy "ten." We were in Brief introductory anecdote captures readers' attention.

Ilip Ihillt 11',111<'and had been studying muLtipLication for a few weeks.

Ihn 1"~IIIIlI.MI~. Jones, reminded Monica that "we are multiplyinq now,

11111 .«111111111live times two wiLL aLways be ten" I laughed at Monica. How

IIItt ,I". 1101 kllOw the answer to five times two? We had been over it and 11141tit I'll II sn ,,"lI)y Ill1w~. My l,lUf)htCI cncoUl8grd th othcl kids in the

..111111111

class to join in with me. Within seconds the laughing had C!H,d,lllIfi 111111

pointing fingers and caLling her stupid. That's when "it" happened. 111.11\

when I said what I will always regret for the rest of my life. I said, "Just

Like a nigger."

Playing on her weaknesses in math, laughing at her, encouraging

the rest of the class to poi nt at her, a nd calling her the most degrading

word in history still eats at my insides. The class stopped laughing.

Monica cried. Mrs. Jones gasped and yanked me into the hallway where

she scolded me for a good half an hour. That is how I learned that

language could be used as a dangerous tool. That's when I learned about

prejudice and its effects on people. That's how it happened. This is how

it has affected my life.

Mrs. Jones sent me home with a note explaining my "behavior" in

class. I remember being terribly afraid to give that note to my mom. I

felt guilty, confused, and embarrassed, but I wasn't sure why I felt that

way. No one had taken the time to explain to me why the word had such

a negative connotation. No one told me that bLacks were once treated

terribly wrong or that they were used as sLaves. No one told me about the

interracial rapes that occurred on plantations or about the children being

taken and sold to rich white landowners. No one told me about them

being denied an education and proper shelter. No one told me. I was

just a small white girl living in a predominately white city and going to

a predominateLy white school. I knew nothing about diversity and equal

rights for everyone. I knew nothing.

My mom sat me down at the kitchen table and asked me how I

could have said such a terrible thing. "Where did you learn that word?"

she asked. She sounded furious and embarrassed. She kept asking 1111'

where I had heard the word and who taught it to me. B,,(oll' I hull ~

chance to respond she knew the answer. My dod Wlt\ 1111Ih .. 1'1111111hi

Writer introduces the main point (thesis) of the story (narrative) she's about to write.

Writer uses ch ronological organization.

Sandlin 3

liP I 11111111 1,llkln(j 10 his father, Ill' was laughing and he said, "just

• 11111'1"1" My 1110111 lowered her head and whispered, "go to your

III I '(1111'1IVgOl up and obeyed her command. I'm not sure what she

11111hlm, hili J could hear their mumbled fighting through the vents.

,II IllY1',11to the vent on the floor to try and make sense of my

Ih"l 1111".. II was no use. Two hours later they came upstairs to give

11111III 1111'11"you did something wrong" speeches. Except this speech

1111111111111lrom most. It began with an apology and an attempt to

Illy IIIVI,II"('I'~ words.

It ,1,,,II'd with a story. My dad grew up on a tobacco farm in

Illh~111('"lllqln. lIis family hired blacks to work out in the fields.

M til 11"",~IIf(ld, "lhey weren't slaves. We paid them." His family

11I"IIIIIII..d 'toward blacks. Their language and actions rubbed off

,II IIiV,t,1I1 Ihe only difference was that my dad learned that what

Kill ,Hid how he treated blacks was wrong. Through growing up

nlltvllill III 11I1('gl~ted working environments, he learned how "not to

, III IIII' 11I1",t'nce of a black person. However, when he talked to his

111'1 III' ',I ill acted and talked like he was prejudiced. He said that he

III I IlIlIh'I',1(1I1dwhy he did it other than he desperately wanted to be

1IIo'IIIIVhi~ own rather. He admitted that he was wrong and told me

I I W,lI. 1111ky because I was going to learn the "real way" to treat

'1,1, III' 11I1lInisedto never use the word again as long as I promised to

I" tlil "',11111'Ill1ng. 1 agreed.

I W,I~ III uie fiflh grade the next time I heard the word used.

It til" Illy, I w I', In a math class again. Except this time I didn't say 111111'"111'I'!w did. Unlike Monica, this girl didn't cry. Instead, she

I III "VII fll.m·. I was the one that stood up to say something in her

I II II.1' I Yl'lh'!I,11 Dall and told him that what he had said was rude and

I 111I1I1I1j"lIuw wOlild YOIIlike it if someone called you honky?"

Powerful use of dialogue, especially her father speaking on the phone-- show, don't tell.

Writer introduces her father's story within her own story.

"I was in the fifth grade" signals the passage of time and orients readers to new incident.

'.,1111111114

I screamed. He hauled off and hit me right in the .1I1l1! II,. (,,11,.,1 ,til' " "nigger-lover."

The teacher broke it up, and we were sent to the principal's office.

I was suspended for using vulgar language. I had used the word "honky."

Dan was given a warning and sent back to class. I had plenty of time to

think about what I had done wrong while Iwaited in the office for my

mom to come and pick me up. No matter how hard I tried, I couldn't see

what I had done wrong. That girl did not want to be called a nigger. I

was just trying to show him what it would feel like if someone had said

something like that to him. Mymom did not agree with me. I learned

an important lesson that day. Using bad words to stop other bad words

is like using violence to stop violence-it doesn't work. My mom was

supportive and said that she respected what Iwas trying to do but next

time I should use better sense. I didn't want there to be a next time.

THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT THE STUDENT ESSAY

Writer gives her narrative purpose by sharing what ,It" learned about language and prejudice fro,,, her experlcnces

1. What is Sandlin's thesis? Why do you think she stated ber thesis where ~11I did?

2. How does Sandlin use stories to structure her essay? How does she balnnu narrative with analysis and reflection of the events she experienced?

3. Do you agree with Sandlin's assessment of the times when she used dero~,1 tory language? If not, why not?

4. How would YOll have ended this essay, if you were the one writing it?